. .

. .

ГРАММАТИКА
АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

- 1 9 55
 .

, , .
. .
, ,
,
.
, . . ,
,

,
,

— ,
,
, : 1) ,

2) .
,

.
.

3
 :
I — , II — , III —
, IV — , V — ,
VI — , VII — , VIII — .
—
—
.

, .

, ,
,
,
—
.
.
, , ,
,
, ,
: 1) —
, 2)
, 3) .
,
,
, ,
, ,
.
, ,
,
,
,
,
.

.
, ,
,
.
,
,
,
.
.

4
 , ,
—
, , ,
, ,
, — ,
, ,
,
, ,
. ,
,
,

, .
,
, .

—
— Indefinite, Continuous, P e rfe c t P erfect Continuous —

, P resent, Past, . F u tu re
. F u tu re in the P a s t
, ,
.
,
, .
,

,
. ^
,
.
— — ,
, , ,
, . ,
,
,
„ 11. , 2-
: I —
, II — , III —
, IV — .

5
 , , , ,
,
.
,
: I.
. II. . III.
. IV. ,
. V.
(
).
. .
 : 1) - , (Old
English), — 1150 .; 2)
(Middle English) — 1150 1500 .
3) (Modern English) —
.

(
)
, .

.
— , ,
. : hand—
, fo t— — , w i f —■
— . .
,
,
.

, .
,
,
,
q (I love, thou lovest, w e loven —
; I lovede, thou lovedest, we loveden —
. .).

. (Subjunctive
Mood) ,

7
 , .

,
, .
Continuous („ "),
,
XVII ,
, , , Present Continuous Passive Voice —
The house is being built — .
do
, XVI
XVII

Present Past Indefinite,

.
XVII .

,
( , , -
),
.
: ,
;
; ;
.

:
,
,
(Continuous Perfect Tenses).

: ,
, ,
( , ,
. .),
,
( ,
).

:
1) ( .
§§ 6—8);
8
 2) (Possessive Case)
, ,
one some, any, every ( .
§§ 9 - 1 2 ; 32);
3)
(Nominative Case, Objective Case) ( . § 23);
4) this, that, one,
other ( . §§ 27, 32);
5) ,
who (who, whom, whose) ( . § 28);
6) : —
, , ; —
; —
Perfect Tenses; —
, Continuous;
7) 3-
.

,
— , ,
, . .
,
.
.

,
. , -

, . .
, . :
I light the candle. .

light
, — , . .
.
9
 Light is necessary for living matter. ‘
.
light
, , —
, . . .
lives in a light, warm room.
, .
light, warm,
room,
;
— , . .
light — . (
)
,
,
:
the light lamp
the lamp light
the export timber
the timber export
( . §§ 156— 158).

,
—
, , ( .
§ 125).

. —
— ,
. — —
,
.
 I

I
. THE NOUN

§ 1.
.
,
—■ —
:
man, house, face, book, joy

:
help — ; help —
jump — ; jump —
work — ; work —

:
'subject — , ; sub'ject —
['sAbdgikt] [sob'dgekt]
'object — ; ob'ject —
[ob'dgekt]
in'sult —■
Jm'sAlt]

, —
:
teach-er, white-ness, child-hood, friend-ship, dict-ation
11
 :
-ness: good-ness, dark-ness, ugli-ness
-ment: improve-ment, employ-ment, pay-ment
-ation: found-ation, examin-ation, deleg-ation
-er (or, ar): work-er, teach-er, direct-or, begg-ar
-ity : activ-ity, sincer-ity
-hood: child-hood
-dom: free-dom
-ship: friend-ship

§ 2. ,

.
— ,
— ,
, , :
ink-pot ['inkpot] —
a letter-box ['letaboks]—
a milkman ['milkmaen] —
a blackboard ['blrekbo:d] —
a hothouse ['hothaus] —

, :
a son-in-law —
editor-in-chief —
a man-of-war —

.
Syntactical Functions of Nouns
§ 3.
, , '
( ),
,
) — :
The delegates went to their places.
Tom is my pupil.
The actor played his part well. .
12
 ) — (
):
We have finished the exercise.
The boy looked at the picture.
) — (
):
is a writer.
She has become a singer.
Peter looked quite a happy boy.
My sister remained a secretary.
) —
:
Our w all newspaper is interesting.
( , ,
.)
My brother’s children will come soon.
( —■
the Possessive Case — . § 9.)
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
( — ,
— prepositional phrase.)
) — :
1 saw my friend in the morning.
( ,
— prepositional phrase.)
The birds sat in a tree.
( .)
The pupil wrote the exercise with pleasure.
( .)
.
:
On Sunday all was gay and happy in the park.
The driver wiped his mouth w ith the back o f his hand.
 § 3. A Noun in English can be used in a sentence as
Subject, Object, Predicative, A ttribute or part of an
Attribute, and also as part of an Adverbial Modifier.

.
Morphological Characteristics of Nouns
§ 4.
,
.
. Gender

§ 5.

, ,
, ;

.
:
a ^ /-frie n d — , boy- — „
a woman -worker —
a he-g oat — ; a Tom-cat — ; a Pussy -cat —
a bull -frog — - ; a sAe-wolf —
-ess
:
actor — actress; lion — lioness
host — hostess; tiger — tigress
,
, the
sun — ; the moon — —
. ,
:
The “Sarah-Jane” was a new ship. She was light and
swift.
. Number

§ 6.
:
14
 cat — cats, wall — walls, box — boxes
wife — wives, country — countries
foot — feet, ox — oxen

„ “ , . .
.
§ 7.
-s,
,
.
)
-s [s]:
week [wi:k] — weeks jwirks]
lip [lip] — lips [lips]
roof [ru:f] — roofs [ru:fs]
m onth [ ] — months [mAn6s]
)
-s [z]:
head [hed]— heads [hedz]
garden ]'ga:dn]— gardens [rga:dnz]
wall [wa:l] — walls [wo:lz]
comb [koum] — combs [koumz]
teacher ['ti:tfo] — teachers ['tiitfaz]
boy [boi] — boys [baiz]
) (
) ,
s (s ), , z ch, tch, sh,
-es [izji
class [kla:s] — classes ['klarsiz]
box [boks] — boxes ['boksiz]
fizz [fiz] — fizzes ['fiziz]
bush [buj] — bushes ['bujiz]
inch [intj] — inches [hntfiz]
m atch [meet/] — m atches ['mastfiz]
) [z] [dg],
se, ze (d)ge,
[iz]:
nose [nouz]— noses ['nouziz]
prize [praiz] — prizes ['praiziz]
15
 trid g e [bridg] — bridges ['bridgiz]
page [peidg] — pages ['peidgiz]
) ,
/ fe ,
[fj
[v];
-t'-es [vzj:
wolf [w ulfj— wolves [wulvz]
leaf li:f]— leaves [li:vz]
calf ka:f] — calves ka:vz]
half [ha:f]— halves [ha:vz]
knife [naif] — knives [naivz]
wife [waif] — w ives [waivz]
) ,
+ ,
/;
-ies [iz]:
arm y ['a:mi] — arm ies ['a:miz
country ['kAntri] — countries 'kAntriz]
duty ['dju.-ti] — duties ['dju:tiz

, + ,
,
, -s,
[z]:
day [dei] — days [deiz]
toy [toi] — toys [taizj
) ,
[ ],
-es, [z]:
hero ['hiarou] — heroes ['hiarouz]
potato [po'teitou]— potatoes [po'teitouz]
)

; —
,
:
16
 man [msen] — men [men]
woman [w um an]— women ['wimin]
tooth [tu:6j — teeth [ti:6]
foot [fut] — feet [fi:t]
goose [gu:s] — geese [gi:s]
mouse ['maus]— mice [mais]
louse [laus]— lice [lais]
) ox [oks]
- : — oxen
['aksanj.
• child
- ,
:
child [t/aild] — children ['tfildran]
) sheep deer
:
The deer was quick and strong.
The deer were ready to start.
He had only one sheep on his farm.
He had only two sheep on his farm.

§ 7. Nouns in English form their plural number by

adding the ending -s which is pronounced [s] after
voiceless consonants, and [z] after voiced consonants
and vowels. After sibilants the plural ending is spelt -es
and pronounced [iz]. Some nouns ending in / or f e
change / and f e in ves which is pronounced [vz]. Nouns
ending in a consonant + change into ies in the plural.
A few nouns form the plural by changing the root vowel.

§ 8. ,
XV ,
:

.
antenna [ ] — antennae [aeri'teni:]
formula [fo:mjul3] — formulae ['fo:mjuli:]
datum ['deitam] ( ) — data [rdelta]
2 17
 erratum [Yreitam] — errata [ ' ]
genius ['dgiinjos] , — genii ['d^imiai]
radius ['reidias] — radii [reidiai]
stim ulus ['stimjulas] — stimuli ['stimjulai]

.
crisis ['kraisjs] — crises ['kraisi:z]
ellipsis [I'lipsisj — ellipses [i'lipsi:z]
thesis ['6i:sis] , — theses ['6isi:z]
criterion [krai'tiarianj — criteria [krai'tioria]
phenomenon [fi'nominan] — phenomena
Ifi'nomina]

. Possessive Case

§ 9.
,
,
(Possessive Case).
(Common Case),
.
§ 10. Possessive Case
,
— :
Tom’s friends; sister\s copy-book; the dog’s tail,
,
, :
a month’s vacation; tw o weeks’ journey; an hour’s absence;
a year's leave; a mile’s distance; two kilometres’ walk; one
rouble’s worth of chocolate; f i v e dollars’ worth.
, ,
Possessive Case:
the sun’s rays; the moon’s light; the earth’s surface.
Possessive Case ,
, , , ,
, , , (
):
the morning’s noise; the night’s shadows; the summer’s
attractions; the river’s rush; the ocean’s roar; M oscow’s
18
squares; the Soviet Union’s participation; the Blue Brig’s
sail.

,
Possessive Case:

the needle’s eye; the p in ’s head; at an arm’s length; at

a stone’s throw; tor conscience’s sake . .

§ 11. Possessive Case

-s, [s]
, [z]
[iz] (
[s, z, J, 3, tj, ]),
s(s), , se, , ze, (d)ge ch,
tch , sh:
The peasant’s house [’pezants]
The cat’s tail [kaets]
A month’s leave [mAnfis]
The girl’s dress [ga:lz]
The worker’s wages ['wa:kaz]
Jam es’s wife ['d 3 eimsiz]
G eorge’s brother ['d3 3 :d3 iz]
The fish’s fins ['fijiz]

,
-(e)s, Possessive Case
:

The horses’ hoofs ['ha:siz]

The dogs’ collars [dogz]
The boys’ skates [boiz]

, ~(e)s
, Possessive Case
,
, ’s:

These m en’s room. The geese’s cry.

Children’s literature. The sheep’s wool.
19
 §§ 9— I I . The only inflected case in English is
the Possessive Case. In all other instances the noun
is said to be in the Common (uninflected) Case. The
Possessive Case is used with nouns denoting living
beings — persons and animals; with certain nouns denot
ing time, distance and value; with names of planets and
stars; with nouns denoting parts of the day, seasons, rivers,
seas, oceans, towns, countries, ships, and in set expres
sions of idiom atic character.
The Possessive Case of nouns in the Singular is form
ed by adding the ending - s which is pronounced [sj
after voiceless consonants, [z] after voiced consonants
and vowels, and [iz] after sibilants.
The Possessive Case of nouns in the Plural ending
in -(e)s is formed by adding only an apostrophe. Nouns
which have no ending -(e)s in the Plural form the Pos
sessive Case of the Plural in the same way as in the
Singular by adding - s.

§ 12. Possessive Case

-s
:

My brother-in-law ’s w riting-table
The editor-in-chief’s study
This workm an’s tools

.
Classification of Nouns

§ 13.
.

.
(Proper Nouns)
,
, ,
, ,
20
 ,
:
M ary Petrova, Moscow, England, Mont Blanc
(Common Nouns)
,
,

:
This is a room.
She entered the room where we were sitting.

(Countable Nouns), . .
,
,
:
a stick — five sticks
a desk — tw enty desks
a pupil — seven pupils

,
.
(Uncountable
Nouns) — ,
,
.
, :
silver, snow, air, iron, hair,
, :
beauty, love, life, light, darkness

,
.

:
This spoon is made of silver.
The silver of which the spoon is made is expensive.
21
 The boys were full of life.
The life they lead is very interesting.

- , ,
.
(Collective Nouns):
class, army, party, group, crew, family, flock, herd
,
,
—
,
:
My fa m ily is small.
There are five fam ilies in our apartment.
There was a good crew on that ship.
The group is not even.
The collective farm bought a flo c k of sheep.

,
, , :
When 1 entered the room, my fa m ily were all sitting
round the table ( , „
“).
The company were entering the theatre through different
doors.
At m idnight the crew were asleep.

(Nouns of M ultitude).

:
people, m ilitia, police, cattle, poultry

,
:
M any people are w aiting for you there.
The police were after him.
The cattle are grazing, their heads never raising.
22
 Classification of Nouns in English

. The Article
§ 14. ,
,
.
— , [ , ], the [ , di]
.

one — :
1) , ,

, :
an apple, an old tree
2) , ,

, :
a tree, a big apple
23
 one
,
:
W ait a minute. Two lessons a week. We covered h a lf a mile.

:
:
a flower, an orange ( flowers, oranges; silver, light)
)
, -
( )
- , ,
,
.
Bring one pencil,
, .
B ring any pencil,
, , . .
B ring a pencil, ,
, .
This is a flo w e r ,
. has become a teacher ,

, .
) ,

(a descriptive attribute):
This is a red flower ( ).
He has become a teacher o f English (
).

,
,
, ,
(zero article):
 These are flow ers.
They want to become teachers.
1 don’t want to drink milk.
The Negro slave did not like that plantation, all he felt
towards it was hatred.

,
,
some [sAmJ, ,
,
:
Please give me some paper.
She drank same milk.

some
any, any :

Is there any water in the jug?

Have you taken any butter?
I have not taken any butter.
There is no water in the jug.

that — the,
1) [ ] ,
,
, :

the boy [ ’boi], the big apple ]3 'big 'aepl]

2) [dr] ,
, ,
:
the evening [3i 'i:vnnj], the old house [3i 'ould 'haus]

.
) ,
25
 ,
,
:

Give me the pencil ( , ,

).
I shall speak to the teacher ( ,
,
).
Put the milk on the window-sill ( ,
; , ).
The freindship between the boys was very great (
, ,
).
We liked the red flow ers in her garden { ,
,
).

(the lim iting attribute),

{in her garden, between the boys),
, (
).
) ,
, ,
:

the sun, the moon, the earth, the world, the universe,
the sky, the sea, the ocean
When the moon goes down and the sun comes up in the
sky, the earth looks its best.

) ,

The lion is the king of beasts.

The camel is called the ship of the desert.
The steam engine was invented by I. I. Polzunov.
The cocoa-nut palm grows in nearly all tropical coun
tries.
26
 The Use of Articles

W e give a name to a We distinguish the

th in g and m ake it one thing from th e other
T y p e s of
of a ca tegory contrasted things of the same
Nouns
to a th in g of an other category
c a te g o ry

an, a th e
C ountable: This is a n a p p le . Give me th e a p p le
S ingular (which is on the
plate).
This is a g o o d red W here is th e red a p p le
a p p le . w hich I left here?

(0) — zero th e
P lural T h ese are (0) a p p le s. I shall not eat th e
a p p le s now (which
y ou brought).
T h ese are (0) g o o d red P lease, buy th e red
a p ples. a p p le s on th e counter.

(0) — zero th e
U ncountable: (0) L ife is ever chang We are not speaking
A bstract ing. of th e life there.
Material T h at house is built of The sto n e of which
(0) grey stone. our h ouse is m ade
is grey.

1) A worker came i n t o n e room. There were many chairs

round t h e table. T h e worker took one of them and sat down.
( - , ,
, ,
) (
). ( )
. (
) .
2) Suddenly he heard a long howl. Then he felt a cold
touch on his cheek. He took up a firebrand and threw it at
t h e wolves; t h e animals retreated a little, but did not leave
him. (J a c k London.)
27
 ( ,
).
( ) .
( ) (
); ( ) ,
.

§ 14. The indefinite article has developed from the

numeral one and can therefore be used only with count
able nouns in the singular.
The definite article has developed from the dem onstra
tive pronoun that and can therefore be used with count
able nouns as well as with uncountable nouns.
The indefinite article is used when we give a name
to a thing and make it one of a whole category of
things as contrasted to a member of another category.
The noun before which the indefinite article is used
may have a descriptive attribute or no attribute before
it. If the noun is a countable in the plural or an uncount
able and we want to give a name to it the zero article
is used.
The definite article is used: a) when we distinguish
the thing within the same category (in which case the
noun always has a lim iting attribute expressed or under
stood); b) when it is considered that only one thing with
this name exists; c) before a noun in the singular used
as a representative of a whole class.'

§ 15.

, ,
,
.
, . ,
, hair —
— a hair, hairs — ,
(
):
She had long golden hair.
There is a hair on your sleeve.
28
 iro n —
— an iro n — :
Our country needs much iron.
She always worked with hot irons.
wine —
:
There were different French wines on the table.
: paper — ; a paper — ,

coal — ; a coal —
snow — ; snows — , ,

water — ; waters — ,
beauty —
, —
a beauty — :
We all admire beauty.
Marian was the beauty of the village.
light —
a light — :
My room is full of light.
We saw a light in the distance.
life —
a life — :
L ife is not a bed of roses (an English proverb).
The old woman had a hard life.
: love — ; a love — , ,

pleasure — ; a pleasure — ,

,
,

( ,
). , a stone —
- — stone:
Tom threw a stone at Sid.
The wall was made of hard stone.
29
 An oak
- — oak:
Robin Hood m et them near an old oak.
This table is made of good oak.
A fis h — fis h —
:
My uncle caught a big fish .
1 don’t like fis h for breakfast.
: a brick — ; brick —

a rock — ; rock —

a fruit — , ; fruit —

.
:
work — advice —
weather — progress —
information — money —
news — , permission —
W hat fin e weather we are having today!
It was such interesting work.
We received very im portant information.
The news that the telegraph brought us was very good.
He gave me good advice (or a good piece o f advice).
She has made great progress in her study.
The engineer received much money for his scheme.
We received permission to go.
§ 16. — —
:
Moscow, Petrov, Paris, London, England, China, John,
Mary, Smith, Curson Street, Picadilly, Trafalgar Square,
Mont Blanc, Kazbek, Madagascar, Tahiti

,
.
:
30
 1) -
.
, :
the Crimea — , the Caucasus — , the Ukraine —

the Hague — , the Transvaal —

the Brazil — , the Argentine —
2)
,
( )
) ,
:
the USSR, the United States
) :
the Alps, the Rockies
) , :
the West Indies, the Hawaii
.
:
Elbrus, Mont Blanc, Madagascar, Tahiti
) , :
the Browns, the Petrovs
) , , , :
the Thames, the Neva, the Baltic Sea, the M editerranean,
the Atlantic, the Pacific, the North, the East
) , , (
):
the Krassin , the Golden Lion, the Times, the Man
chester Guardian
3)
:
is a real N ew ton ( . .
).
31
 James was a typical Forsyte ( . e.
).
§ 17. ,
,
,
.
, :
by land, by sea, by air, by hand, at sunset, at night, in
debt, on board, on deck, in mind, in tact, in trouble . .
: My parents do not like to travel by sea
or by air, they prefer the old way of travelling by land,
but I like to be on board a ship.
:
go to school, attend school, leave school
( —
—■ )
go to bed, be in bed — ,
( )
go to sea — ,
Peter and Mary attend school now.
Don’t make much noise, the children are already in bed.
My brother went to sea at the age of twenty.
school, bed,
sea
,
:
As we were leaving the school, two boys approached us.
A new school will be built in our street.
She was sitting on an old iron bed.
K itty went over to the bed and took the child.
Our boat sailed into the open sea.
Many people are swimming in the sea.

E xercises
I. Find in the word list a Collective Noun for a number of:
1) sheep, 2) cows or bulls, 3) dogs or wolves, 4) flies
or other insects, 5) flowers or keys, 6) footballers, 7) men
32
who work a boat or ship, 8) people chosen to direct some
work, 9) people at a concert or at a lecture, 10) teachers
at a school or officials.
{Answer: A Collective Noun for a number of sheep is a
flock.
A Collective Noun for a number of cows or
bulls is a ...).
W ord List: staff, team, flock, crew, committee, pack,
bunch, herd, audience, swarm.
II. State whether the italicized noun is used as a collective noun or
a noun of multitude and choose the right verb:
1. Our fa m ily (is, are) very large. It consists of nine
members.
2. When Peter came down to the cabin the crew (was,
were) all asleep.
3. Our football team (is, are) the strongest in the district.
4. The 6th army (was, were) moving in the direction of
the town of N.
5. The company (was, were) leaving the ball through
several exits.
III. Insert the definite or the indefinite .article wherever neces
sary:

1. “— sun had set. — s'ky was green and yellow. And

against this sky suddenly appeared — very strange little figure.
It was — short little man. He w o re—-cricket cap, — overcoat
and — long stockings.”
2. These lines are taken from one of H. G. Wells’ best
novels. — title of this novel is “ - ^ F ir s tM e n i n — M oon.”
Read — novel and you will rind it to be one o f —-most
interesting stories you ever read.
3. Was there — forest near — village you lived in last
year? Yes, there w a s—-very good forest there. There were —
oaks, — pines and — firs in — forest.
4. — Neva is — very beautiful river. It is in — North of
our country. — Mont Blanc, — highest mountain of — Alps,
is — highest mountain in — Europe. And which is — highest
mountain in — North America? — M editerranean Sea lies
to — South of — Europe and to — North of — Africa.— 'S ed o v ”
sailed on and on in — A tlantic.— “Tim es” is — bourgeois Eng
lish newspaper.
3 33
 5. I don’t like to drink — coffee in — evening. I always
drink — strong tea. Please, pass me — tea, or it will get
cold. No, — milk is not needed, — piece of — lemon will be
much better. — lemons you brought from — Batumi are very
good.
6. At — sunset Mary sat at — window looking at — sky
and at — sea in — distance. — picture she saw was really
beautiful: — light white clouds were getting darker, — sun was
growing smaller, — white sail was coming nearer and nearer,
shining in — darkening a ir ... Mary thought of her brother
who had gone to — sea and was now on — b o ard — “M aria”
sailing in — Pacific.
IV. Translate into English and explain the use of articles.
1. — .
2. .
3. .
4. , , .
5. , .
6. — .
7. , , .
8. !
9. .
10. ,
.
11. .
12. .
13. .
14. .

II
. ADJECTIVE

§ 18. (
)
.
,
:
red, short, good, large, black, little '
34
 — , :
beautiful, useless, wooden
unkind, im polite, untrue

.
-fu l,
:
use — useful
hope — hopeful
help — helpful
-less,
:
use — useless
hope — hopeless
help — helpless
-able,

:
change — changeable
comfort — com fortable
move — movable
- ,
:
heart — hearty
sun — sunny
luck — lucky
-ish,
,
( - ):
red — reddish
brown — brownish
sweet — sweetish
,
.
35
 - ( ):
wood — wooden
gold — golden
wool — woollen
-w a rd ( ):
east — eastward
west — w estward
home — homeward

-, in-,
:
true — untrue
productive — unproductive
wise — unwise
correct — incorrect
sincere — insincere

§ 19.
.
,

, ,
:
pitch — , ; dark —
pitch-dark — ,
iron — ; grey —
iron-grey —
sky — ; blue —
sky-blue —
over — , ; polite —
over-polite —
dark — ; blue —
dark-blue —
,
+
+ - :
dark-faced blue-eyed long-tailed

36
 ( fa ced , eyed, ta iled
, ,
, .)

.
Syntactical Functions of Adjectives
§ 20.
— :
It was old house with high walls.
The little village was situated on a steep hill.

— ,
- :
The sea was still, the sky was clear, the sun was hot.
The weather is getting cold.

, . . .
,
:
The rich and the poor live in different parts of London.
M artin thought of the p a st and dreamed of the future.
He saw only the blue of the sky and the green of the sea.

—
(Plural and
Possessive endings):
a relative pronoun European cities

is a relative of mine. a European

.
M y rela tive’s children. a European’s customs
.
She has five relatives in Moscow. Europeans
-
.
37
 ,
,
, :
native, savage, male, female, grown-up, proletarian,
Russian, American, Norwegian, Italian, Roman, Brazilian.

§ 20. An adjective in English can be used in a

sentence as Attribute or Predicative. If an adjec
tive is used in the function of a noun, it has the
syntactical functions of a noun.

.
Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives
§ 21.
, , .

.
- [ ],
( ) ,
:
h a rd —-harder
large —-larger
-est [ist],
,
:
hard — harder — hardest
larg e—-larger —-largest

,
,
:
fat — fatter — fattest
big — bigger — biggest
-
i
:
38
 di rty —■di rtier — dirtiest
lazy — lazier — la z ie st

— —
most — :
beautiful — more beautiful — most beautiful
interesting — more interesting — most interesting

:
good — b e tte r—-te st ( . : — —
)
b a d —-worse — worst ( . : — —
)
little — less — least ( . : —- —
)
ma n y ) — more — most ( . : — —
much J ' )

,
,
:
This is the largest classroom in our school.
1 shall give you the most interesting book you have
ever read.
She is the best singer in the town.

,
:
old — older — oldest ( , )
old — elder — eldest ( )
late — later — latest ( )
late — latter — last (
)
far — farther — farthest ( )
far — further — furthest ( )
39 '
 My brother is two years older than I am.
She is the oldest of our friends.
Where does your elder sister study?
My eldest sister is in Leningrad now.
I shall come at a later hour.
Have you heard the latest news?
Tom and Huck entered the room, the former wore a blue
shirt, the la tter wore a pink one.
We spoke about it at the last lesson.
He took a fa rth er road, in fact the fa rth e st of all.
We don’t need any fu rth e r explanations.

§ 21. The Suffix -er, when added to a m onosyl

labic (and sometimes to a disyllabic) adjective, forms
the Comparative Degree of the adjective. The Suffix
-est, when added to such an adjective, forms the Super
lative Degree.
Polysyllabic adjectives have the meaning of the
Comparative Degree when preceded by the word more.
When preceded by the word m ost, they have the mean
ing of the Superlative Degree.
The adjectives good, bad, little, many, much form
their degrees of comparison from different stems.

E xercises
I. Write degrees of comparison of the following adjectives:
ugly, fat, sad, dry, heavy, nice, bad, little, high, simple.
II. Open the brackets, using the comparative or the superlative de
gree wherever necessary:

1. It is autumn; every day the air becomes (cold), thfe

leaves (yellow).
■2. This is the (beautiful) view I have ever seen in my
life.
3. Your handwriting is now (good) than it was last year;
but still it is not so good as Oleg’s handwriting. He has the
(good) handwriting of all.
4. Are there (many) than two rooms in your new flat?
5. The weather got (bad) and (bad) every day.
40
 III. Trinslate into English, using the right form of the adjectives:
1. .
2. — ?
3. „
“?
4. ?
5. ;
.
6. .
7. .
8.
?
9. .

III
. PRONOUNS

§ 22.
:
1) (Personal Pronouns):
I, he, she, it, we, you, they (me, him, her, it, us, you,
them).
2) (Possessive Pronouns):
1- '—-my, his, her, its, our, your, their;
2- — mine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs.
3) (Reflexive Pronouns):
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, your
selves, themselves.
4) (Reciprocal Pronouns):
each other, one another.
5) (Demonstrative Pronouns):
this, that, these, those, such.
6) (Interrogative Pronouns):
who (whom, whose), which, what.
41
 7) (Relative Pronouns):
who (whom, whose), which, that.
8) (Conjunctive Pronouns):
who (whom, whose), which, what.
9) (Negative Pronouns):
no, none, neither, no one, nobody, nothing.
10) (Indefinite Pronouns):
some, any, something, somebody, someone, anything,
anybody, anyone, either, each, every, everything, everybody,
everyone, much, many, (a) little, (a) few, other, another, all,
whole, one, that.

,
,
.

. Personal Pronouns
§ 23. .
:
I, he, she, it, we, you, they.

(Nominative Case) (Objective

Case).

I he she it we you th e y
(N om inative Case)

me him her it us you them

(O bjective Case)

,
— :
I shall speak to him.
H e has not yet seen us.
42
 he ,
:
I have never seen the boy before: is he your friend?
she ,
:
Tell your sister to come: she may find work here.
it ,
,
,
child — ,
, :
Where is my umbrella? I left it in this corner.
You can easily find my fla t. It is on the second floor.
We all saw the dog. It came from the yard.
Don’t wake up the child. It is soundly asleep.
. 2-
thou, ,
.
,
.

E xercises
I. Put a personal pronoun in the needed case instead of the noun in
brackets.
Example. (Lucy) told (Alec) to help (Peter and Ann).
She told him to help them.
1. My wife came out. (M y w ife) seemed surprised to
find (Alec and I) there. (M y w ife) said that (my w ife)
thought (I and Alec) had started hours ago.
2. I took (Alec) into the kitchen, where, so far as it was
possible, (Alec) cleaned himself.
3. Stocker and Evans were tired. Though (Stocker and
Evans) were so near the aim, (Stocker and Evans) did not
feel the joy (Stocker and Evans) had expected. The heat
had told on. (Stocker and Evans). All their joy had gone.
4. Vera put (the child) on the sofa.
43
 II. Put the personal pron:un in brackets into the needed case:
1. My brother gave (I) a very interesting story to read.
2. You must go to see (she) and talk to (she).
3. My friends came to see (we) yesterday and I showed
(they) the pictures you had sent (I).
4. The box you wanted to give (he) is on my table,
bring (it) here.
5. There were several other people no less amused to see
(I) than 1 was to see (they).

. Possessive Pronouns

§ 24.
.
.

-
1- 2-

i my mine
He his his
She her hers :
It its its 1- (Conjoint form),
We our ours
You your y ours ,
T h ey their theirs 2- (A bsolute
form),
.

1-
—
:

Please give me fountain-pen.

H is story is too long.
Don’t take this chair, its leg is broken.
Our classroom is large and light.
I have not seen their w all newspapers.
44
 2-
,
:
My room is large, yours is larger, and hers is the
largest.
Whose is this penholder? This penholder is mine.
We haven’t seen your house; we have seen only theirs.
Whose school did he visit? He visited ours.
E xercises
i. Fill in the blanks with corresponding possessive pronouns:
1. She took off — coat and hat and sat down to wait,
for — friend.
2. He asked me w h a t— name was and wrote it down
in — notebook.
3. You can leave — bags in the cloakroom.
4. The travellers took — seats, and the car started on —
way.
5. We are all ready to defend — country.
II. Instead of the words in brackets put the corresponding possessive
pronouns in the absolute form:
1. 1 put on my coat and she put on (her coat).
2. No country is so great and powerful as (our country).
3. He promised to give me his book, so I shall not take
(your book).
4. They do not want to see your drawings, they want
to see (my drawings).
III. Translate into English:
1. , .
2. ,
.
3.
,
4. .
5. .

- .
Reflexive-Emphasizing Pronouns
§ 25.
-s e lf
45
 -selves
.
1- 2-
1- :
my'self, your'self, our'selves, yourselves
3-
:
him'self, her'self, it'self, them 'selves

R eflexive Pronouns

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

Singular m yself y ourself himself

herself
itself

Plural ourselves yourselves them selves

:
1)
(Reflexive Pronouns proper);

— :
In the morning I wash m yself with cold water.
1 took him to the kitchen where he cleaned himself.
Children like to hide them selves here.
She fell down and hurt herself.
2) ,
(Emphasizing
Pronouns);
, ,
,
.
.
, :
46
 Yura did his task himself.
I m yself saw the man.
She wants to go there herself.

E xercises
I. Underline all the reflexive pronouns and state whether they are
reflexive proper or emphasizing:
1. He dressed himself “all in his best”, and at last went
to the theatre.
2. My brother wanted to help us, but we decided to try
and do it ourselves without his help.
3. But while we were enjoying ourselves in eating and
drinking, the island all of a sudden trembled and shook us
terribly. ( “Sindbad the Sailor”.)
4. My little daughter gave me this handkerchief; she her- ;
self had bought it with her savings. 1
II. Translate into English:
1. ,
.
2. , !
3. ,
.
4. (amuse), .
5. .

. Reciprocal Pronouns
§ 26. :
each other —
one another — ,
.
each other , a one another
, .

:
Basil and Victor greeted each other.
The pupils spoke to one another.
We liked each other from our first meeting.
47
 E xercises
I. Translate into English:
1. .
2.
.
3. .
4. .
II. Put each other or one another in place of the blanks:
1. The father and the son met — at the station.
2. The two sisters resembled — very much.
3. During the interval the pupils ran in the garden,
sang and spoke to — .

. Demonstrative Pronouns
§ 27. this that
these
those.

,
:
This is a classroom. . They meant that.
That was pleasant. He likes this.
We saw that. These lines are straight.
They know this very well. Please give me this map.
These are our friends. We have not seen those boys
Which apples do you want? yet.
— I want those. That man was her uncle.
this these
- , ,
.
that those

, :
This is a pencil and that is a blackboard.
Take these copy-books on the table, don’t take those
on the shelf.
This w inter is rather cold.
48
 It was in 1810. In those days there were no railways in
our country.
That night on the 22nd of July 1941 was a hard night.
such

:
Where did you find such a pretty picture?
I don’t like such weather.
Such pupils are easy to teach.
such
,
:
Such was her answer.
Did you meet a tall boy? — We didn’t meet such.
Her words were such.

. Interrogative Pronouns
§ 28. who, which, what
:
Who lives in this house?
W hat did you see there?
Which month is the warm est?
who :
(Nominative Case) — who;
(Objective Case) — whom.; (Possessive
Case) — whose.

,
:
W hat is on the table?
Whom did you speak to?
I have two red pencils. Which do you want?
W hat has she become?

:
W hat colour is this wall?
Whose turn is it to speak?
4 49
 Which lesson did she miss?
who (whom, whose) ,
w hat — :
Who spoke at the meeting?
W hat has she in her hands?
what ,

:
W hat is this comrade? He is an engineer.
which -
:
Which ! you will go with me?
Which of the two stories do you prefer?
Which do you want, coffee, tea or milk?

E xercises
1. Fill in the blanks with the pronouns who (whom, whose), what or
■which:
1. — sleeps in this room ? — cap is it? — did you meet
there?
2. — is your sister? She is a doctor.
3. — is this game? — game do you prefer, tennis or
volley-ball?
4. — brother is Boris? — is he by profession?
5. On-— days do you take English lessons? — day is more
convenient for you, Tuesday or W ednesday?
II. Put questions referring to the italicized words:
1. They are talking about the new opera.
2. They are talking about their comrades.
3. 1 have bought it fo r you.
4. He looked fo r his bag.
III. Translate into English:
1. ?
2. ?
3. ?— .
4. ?
5. ?
6. ?
7. ?
50
 8. ?
9. ?
10. ?
11. ?
12. ?
13. : , ?

. Relative Pronouns
§ 29. who (whom, whose),
which, that

. -
,
( - Antecedent [,$nti'si:dont]).
— ,
,
who (whose, whom):
The boy who is speaking to me now was my pupil
before.
Spot, who was a clever dog, looked at us and seemed
to understand.
— ,
-
which.
Where is the article which you have translated?
The mice which ran there at night are quiet now.
That ,
,
, , —
:
My sister that lives in Leningrad has graduated from the
University.
Bring me the story that you spoke about.
All the passengers and all the goods that were on board
the ship were saved.
E xercises
I. Insert who (whose, whom), which or th a t wherever necessary and
underline its antecedent:
1. We esteem people — are brave.
5t
 2. This is the student — we have elected chairman.
3. I am reading a novel — is very interesting.
4. The boy — composition you find so good has not
come yet.
5. After Tom Sawyer’s work all the children rand all
the things — were in that room were covered with w hite
wash.
6. We saw the pilot about — everybody talks so much.

II. Translate into English:

1. ,
.
2. , ,
.
3. , , ,
.
4. ,
.
5. ,
.
6. , .
7. , .

. Conjunctive Pronouns

§ 30. ,
: who (whom, whose), which, what.
,
,
, , ,
:

W hat he said is quite true.

Who came fir s t was unknown.
Which way he took seemed clear.
The question is whom we must consult now.
The problem was which way we should follow.
She early became what she is now.
I don’t know who was here before.
He at once saw which was the right way.
We understand what you want us to do.
52
 E xercises
Insert who (whom, whose), which or w hat and state what subor
dinate clauses they introduce:
1. She didn’t say — she had seen there and — he had
told her.
2. They are not — you take them for.
3. ■— lesson she missed was very im portant.
4. The teacher asked us — we wanted to do and — we
wanted to become.
5. My sister wanted to know in — house we should have
our party.
6. — you said yesterday is quite correct.

. N egative P ronouns
§ 31.
: neither, , none, one, nothing,
nobody.

,
:
Nobody was here to help me.
No one could answer that question.
I saw nothing interesting there.
Don’t cry. This is really nothing.
N either
— ,
— .
:
1 invited Sasha and Misha but neither came.
Did you see my father, or my m other? — Unfortunately
I saw neither.
W q called on Marina and on Helen but neither girl was
at home.
No
:
I have English lessons today.
No sound reached that room.
There is no light in the corridor.
53
 None -
,
:
Have you a pencil to give me? No, I have none.
Is there any milk in the jug? No, there is none.

E xercises
Translate into English, using Negative Pronouns:
1. ?—
.
2. .
3. 9- .
4. ?— ,
, .

. Inde.mite Pronouns
§ 32.
,
.

some, any something, some

body, someone, anything, anybody, anyone.
Some
- , - , .

any.
some any —
—
— :
Some pupils received premiums.
Have you got any bread? Please, give me some.
Did you see any pictures by Surikov in that gallery?
— No, I did not see. any.
We did not meet any people in that lonely street.
some
,

:
54
 Why do some children make so much noise?
Where did he meet some of his school-mates?
any
:
You may come at any time.
Which story do you want? — A ny will do.
Any pupil can understand this.
something — - , somebody,
someone — - ,
— —
, some:
She told me something interesting.
There is something on the shelf but I don’t know what
it is.
Where did you see something interesting?
Somebody was here before us.
I met someone you know in the shop.
Why did somebody tell her about it?
anything anybody, anyone
— —
, any:
Did he leave anything for me?
Was anybody here?
Did anyone of our class speak at the m eeting?
I don’t know anything about her.
They did not speak to anybody.
She has not met anyone from school yet.
Anybody can do it.
You may ask anyone you like.
Take anything you want.
somebody, someone anybody, any
one (Possessive
Case):
Somebody’s hat remained there.
It is someone’s notebook.
“It is not anyone’s business,” she said rudely.
Is he anybody’s friend here?

much, many, (a) little, (a) fe w ,

55
 , ,
:
Much was said about it.
M any spoke at the meeting.
Say little and do much.
Few came to see her off.
I know many poems by heart.
We spent much time there.
That was too much.
Few pupils were absent.
Little work has been done by them as yet.
much little
; many
fe w
(. § 13):
much work, little time; many sisters, fe w visitors.
a little a fe w
:
You can eat a little meat now.
I am happy as I have a fe w friends here.
little fe w ,
:
She had little rest during Sunday and looked tired.
1 am unhappy because I have f e w friends as yet.
either, each, every, everything,
everybody, everyone
.
either
( ).
—
— —
:
Here are two stories. You can read either of them.
Which of the two pupils must come to see you? — Either
may come.
Either pupil is pleasant to see.
56
 each —
, either:
Each was given a present.
Each child was given a present.
every — , ,
each :
Each pupil was asked to name his favourite writer.
We shall ask each student separately.
every ,
all — , :
Every pupil must attend the meeting.
every
.
everybody, everyone, everything
—
:
Everybody must come at once.
I spoke to everyone there.
Is everything ready?
everybody everyone
:
Everybody’s hair was cut when the boys went to the
camp.
The teacher looked at everyone’s work.
other another —
,
— .
other
:
1) :
Some left the room, others remained.
2) :
Irene and Ann went with me. Irene walked behind. I held
the other’s hand.
another
other
,
57
 ( . § 13).
:
One lesson ended, another began.
The teacher asked another pupil.
English lessons ended, others began.
The teacher asked other pupils.
another :
1) „ - ":
This story is too easy, give us another.
2) , :
Will you have another cup of tea?
both — , a ll — ,

— :
I want to know all about her.
A ll students have to take examinations.
Did you see either of these films? I saw both.
Both girls came to see me.

:
1) all both —
;
2) all both —
.
1) All of them came there. He spoke to both of us.
2) They all came there. He spoke to us both.
Whole ,
—
:
We worked the whole day yesterday.
The whole world knows this famous writer.
One
.
—
—
:
58
 I don’t like this penknife; the one I saw yesterday was
much better.
Yura has taken a blue copy-book, you better take a pink
one.
One
— ,
:
Why don’t you take these ties? — I want some better
ones.
Swimming is very good for one’s health.
This book has a dirty cover, give me a clean one.
There are two newspapers on the shelf, the Ukrainian one
is on the top.
one —
:
the new one, this one, that one.
1) one
-
, -
:
One must try to do one’s best.
.
One never knows what to expect of this puppy.
,
.
.
you:
You never can tell. .

2) one ,
,

(
):
lives in a big house, and I live in a small one.
Of all the books she gave me I have chosen only these
ones.
59
 .
that,
( . § 13):
did his own work and that of his sick brother.
one -s e lf
,
:
It is better for one to do the work o n e s e l f than to have
it done by someone.
In winter one always tries to dress on eself as quickly
as possible.
E xercises
I. Insert any, some or someone, anyone, etc.:
1. Why are there so many m istakes in — of your exer
cises?
2. Are there — mistakes in my dictation? — Yes, there
are — .
3. Do you see — on the shelf? — No, I don’t see — .
4. W hat kind of fruit do you prefer? — I like — kind..
5. W ill.you have — fish? — No, thank you, I won’t have—.
6. It’s rather a good book, but I don’t like — of the
stories here.
7. Has — been here to see me? — Yes, — has left a note.
II. Give two full answers to each question, one in the affirmative,
the other in the negative:
1. Is there anybody in the next room?
2. Does anything lie on your table?
3. Did anybody know anything about it?
4. Does anyone live in this room?
III. Insert few , a few , little, a little:
1. The hall was almost empty. There were — people in it.
2. I can’t buy this expensive hat today. I have — money.
3. She left and returned in — minutes.
4. I think you can spare me — time now.
5. I am sorry I have seen — plays by this author.
IV. Insert every, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything:
1. Have you seen — of her two sisters?
2. — lesson they were shown different pictures.
60
 3. — must go to the Historical Museum this week.
4. Here are two houses. You may go to — of them.
5. — week we have English lessons.
6. She put — in her room in order.
V. Insert (the) other(s), another:

1. Sunday is a rest-day. — days are week-days.

2. She left school as her parents went to live in — town.
3. Here are two stories. One is about tigers, — is about
dogs.
4. I w ant to tell you — story.
VI. State where one is used in an impersonal sense and where it is
used to avoid the repetition of a noun:

1. He took me into a back room, looked through a pile

of rejected suits, and selected the cheapest one for me.
2. You are an intelligent and honest man, as one may
see by your face.
3. That dog Spot! If only he made one feel sorry for
him! If only one could love him!
4. Have you ever seen the polar bears in the Moscow
Zoo? The big bears swim splendidly, and the young ones
play like children.

VII. Translate into English^ using different Indefinite Pronouns:

1. .
2. . .
3. ,
, .
4. . .
5. , .
6. , .
7. .
8. , , .
9. . .
10. .
11. , .
12. .
13. - .
14. , ,
.
61
 .
CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS

§ 33.
:
1) ,
2) .

.
1) ,
,
:
) ,
) 2- (mine, yours
. .),
) ,
) ,
) — none, no one, nobody,
nothing,
) — one, somebody, some
one, something, anytody, anyone, anything, everybody, every
one, everything,
) — that, which.
2) ,
:
) ,
) ,
) — who,
) ,
) — neither,
) — some, any, much, ( )
little, many, (a) few, either, each, all, both, other, another.
3) ,
— :
) 1- (my, her
. .),
) — ,
) — every, whole.

.
1) :
) — this, that — these, those,
62
 ) —'one, other — ones,
others.
2) :
) (I — . .) —
,
) (each other — each other’s,
one another — one another’s) —
,
) — nobody, no one (no
body’s, no one’s) — ,
) — one, other, someone,
somebody, anyone, anybody, everyone (one’s, other’s
. .) — ,
) ,
— who (whose, whom) — ,
.
3) , :
) ,
) ,
) —
what, which,
) — which, that,
) — no, neither, nothing,
) — some, any, (a) little,
much, many, (a) few, every, either, each, whole,
both, all,
) — such, the same.

IV
. NUMERALS

§ 34. ,
,
(Cardinal Numerals):
one, two, three, four . .
,
, ,
(Ordinal Numerals):
first, second, third, fourth . .
63
 . Cardinal Numerals
§ 35.
.
:
1 — one, 2 — two, 3 — three, 4 — four, 5 — five, 6 — six,
7 — seven, 8 — eight, 9 — nine, 10 — ten, 11— eleven,
12 — twelve
13 19
-teen (
-
ten)
:
14— four teen, 16— sixteen, 17 — seventeen, 18 — eighteen,
19 — nineteen
13 — thirteen ['6a:'ti:n] 15— fifte e n ('fif'tim]

(thir-d, fif-th).

-teen ,
[fif'ti:n, nain'tim].
,
, ['fifti:n
'tjsaz].
, ,
-ty ( - ):
twenty, thirty, for ty
, -ty
[ti], : ['twenti, '6a:ti, reiti].
fo r ty fo u r
.
hundred — , thousand — mil
lio n —
,
one — :
a hundred, a thousand, a million

:
Two books. Three men. F ifte en houses. One pupil.
How many books have you? — I have fiv e .
64
and:
two hundred and tw enty — 220
seven hundred and forty-tw o — 742

:
1234 — a thousand two hundred and thirty-four
twelve hundred and thirty-four
6687 — five thousand six hundred and eighty-seven
fifty six hundred and eighty-seven

.
Syntactical Functions of Cardinal Numerals
§ 36.

1) :
P ut the newspapers in order. Two are lying on the table,
and fo u r under the table.
2) :
How many stories must I read? — Read fiv e .
3) :
They were six.
We were only two.
4) :
I have seen three scientific films.
F ive birds sat on the roof.
. 1.
, :
They had fifte e n long red pencils.
We saw tw o beautiful pine-trees.
2.
;
:
Read lesson one. .
5 . 65
 Open your book on page six!
!
Where is house number tw o? 2?

. Ordinal Numerals
§ 37.

-th [6]:
four th, si xth, ten th, n in eteen ^ , th ir tie s , s e v e n s
fi r s t — second —
.
th ird —
-d thir
three.
fifth —
-th fif,
(fifte e n , fi fiy , fi fth )
fiv e
.
, -ty,

- -ie:
twenty — twentieth
thirty — thirtieth
seventy — s e v e n tie s
tw elve
ve /:
twelve — tw elfth
,
,
the:
The seventh of November is a great w orkers’ holiday.
Which chapter did you read? — I read the fir s t.
The second house from the corner is newly-painted.

,
:
One student approached me, then a second, then a third, etc.
66
 We saw a boat in the distance, then a second, a third,
a fourth, and many, m any more.

.
Syntactical Functions of Ordinal Numerals
§ 38.
:
This is my second year in school.
Take the seventh lesson.
,
) :
She was the fi r s t to tell me the news.
) :
Two men were here. The f i r s t was my friend.
) :
Of the two chapters I read I liked the second better.

. Fractional Numerals
§ 39.
— (Numerator)
— (Denominator),
:
7 — one third, % — two fifths
12/i 3 — twelve thirteenths
23/g — two and three fifths
H/s — one and one eighth
:
0 .5 — zero point (decimal) five
1,25 — one point (decimal) twenty-five
2,386 — two point (decimal) three hundred and eighty-six
3,14 — three point (decimal) fourteen

E xercises
1. Spell the following numerals:
5, 100, 73, 14, 2, 31, 46, 88, 97, 123, 4, 678, 777, 1050,
384, 2134, 7 „ */» 17s. B3/ 8, 0,8, 1,35.
67
 II. G ive the corresponding cardinal and ordinal numerals:
Example: Seven — seventh— seventeen — seventeenth —.
seventy — seventieth.
One, nine, four, five, three, eight, two, six.
III. Write the following dates:
2/VIII 1940, 22/VI 1941, 1/1 1812, 3/V 1715, 28/XI 1926,
15/III 1511, 18/XI 1826.

V
. THE VERB

§ 40.
(be, come, like, take, fin ish ) ,

(blacken, m odify, generalize, unbind, distrust,

rebuild).

:
1) - ,
:
black — black-en wide — wid-en
w hite — w hit-en red — redd-en
2) -fy: specify, electrify
3) -ize: activize, utilize,, specialize
:
1) - ( )
dress — undress
cover — uncover
tie — untie
2) dis- ( )
like — dislike
approve — disapprove
 3) re- [ri:] ( )
w rite — rew rite
construct — reconstruct
organize — reorganize
,
ан гли й ски х ,
,
, , accept, declare . .

:
cut — ;
change — ;
jump — ;
dance — ;

§ 41.
, (broadcast, over
look, whitewash . .).
, +
( : on, out,
fo r, up, down . .), : go on, g ive up, break
out, care fo r, sit down.

. Classification of Verbs
§ 42. :
1) ;
2) .

.
Principal Forms of the Verb
§ 43.
(regular and ir
regular).
. Regular Verbs
2- (
) 3- (
) -
69
( [tj
, [d]— [id]—
[t] [d]) 4- ( )
-ing:

clean — cleaned — cleaned — cleaning

work — worked — w orked — working
pass — passed — passed — passing
ask — asked — asked — asking
w ant — w anted — w anted — w anting
answer — answered — answered — answering

. Irregular Verbs

.
:
write — wrote — w ritten— w riting
sing — sang — sung — singing
take — took — taken — taking
speak — spoke — spoken — speaking

d
t:
build — built — built — building
send — sent — sent — sending
spend — spent — spent — spending

put — put — put — putting

cast — cast — cast — casting
let — let — let — letting

-t:

burn — burnt — burnt — burning

spoil — spoilt — spoilt — spoiling
smell — smelt — smelt — smelling
70
 :
go — went — gone — going
be — was, were — b e e n — being

4-
3-
1- 2- ( (
( ,
( ,
) ,
)
)
)

w ork w orked w orked w orking

w rite w rote w ritten w riting
build built bu ilt building
cut cut cut cu ttin g
go w ent gone going

.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
§ 44.
(Intransitive
and Transitive). — ,

:
My friend lives in Leningrad.
Yesterday she came home late.
The pupils remained in the classroom.
The boy ran as quickly as he could.
My sister works at a large factory.
— ,
:
She has w ritten an interesting composition.
The children brought flowers.
They w ill build a new bridge near their village.
Peter took the red pencil and p u t it in the pencil-box.
71
 ,
:

1* The bell rang, the door 2. The boy rang the bell,
opened and the boy ran an old man opened the
into the room. door and one could see
many workers who were
running several machines.

§§ 43— 44. Verbs in English may be classified either

according to the form ation of their Past Tense and Past
Participle, or according to their relation to the object
in the sentence.
According to the form ation of the Past Tense and
the P ast Participle, verbs are divided into Regular and
Irregular. Regular verbs form their Past Tense and Past
Participle by adding the ending -ed to the stem
(work — w o rked — worked). Irregular verbs form their
Past Tense and Past Participle in some other way.
M ost of them form their Past Tense and P ast Participle
by changing the root-vowrel (sin g — sa n g — sung). Many
verbs change the final consonant ( build— built — built).
Some do not change their form (p u t— p u t — put).
Some add the consonant t (burn — burnt — burnt). Two
have different stems in their principal forms (go —
w ent — gone; be — was, were — been).
According to their relation to the object in the sen
tence verbs are divided into Intransitive and Transitive.
Intransitive verbs only characterize the Subject and do
not take their action over to an Object. Transitive verbs
express an action which goes over to an Object.

.
Finite and Non-Finite Forms of the Verb
§ 45. (
)
(F inite and N on-Finite Form s Finites and Verbals).
72
 , ,
:
Victor works. They worked. He has seen.
I go to school. We wrote. You will speak.
She went out. The dogs barked. Nina is w riting.
.

(be, have, shall, will)

(1- , 3- 4- ):
I shall write. is w riting. She has written.
They w ill write. We are w riting. You have written.
( . §§ 100— 114.)

.
Syntactical Functions of the Verb
§ 46.
:
I speak English. She speaks French. They are reading.
We shall go there. Tom has gone away.

.
Morphological Characteristics of the Verb
§ 47.
(tense), (voice)
(mood).

, . . .
(tense)
, .
,
, —
(Present Tense), (Past Tense)
" (Future Tense).

, ,
:
73
 1- —
(Indefinite Tenses);
2- —
(Continuous Tenses);
3- —
(Perfect Tenses);
4- —
(Perfect Continuous Tenses).

— Indefinite Tenses
The Pr esent I ndef i ni t e Tense
§ 48. (Present Inde
finite) ,
3- .
3-
-s :
I work we work
— you work
he, she, it works they work
P resent Indefinite :
1) ,
:
The earth is round.
Oranges and lemons ripen in warm countries.
The Volga runs into the Caspian Sea.
Water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.
2) ,
, :
M y friend teaches English.
I write many letters.
Every day pupils come to school.
We drink coffee in the morning.
3) ,
,
, ,
:
Every day I g e t up at 7, wash, dress and take a walk.
Then I have my breakfast and begin working.
74
 “General Suvorov goes over to an old soldier, looks at
him attentively and then says ...% ,
4) ,
(

):
Tomorrow we sta rt for Leningrad.
Our vacation begins in a week.
The school year fin ish es next month.
5)
:
When you come to see me tomorrow, I shall give you
some work to do.
I must know the whole story before I w rite to him this
evening.
We shall w ait until she comes.
As soon as she comes, we shall start working.
H o: I don’t know when she w ill come.
She is not sure, if her brother w ill go there.
( .)
6) ,
( ,
Continuous
Tenses):
Now I see you quite well.
He does not hear what you are saying.
I know what you mean.
My pupils understand every word of your speech.

The Past Indefinite Tense

§ 49. (P ast Indefin
ite) ( )
:
Regular Verbs: I worked we worked
— you worked
he, she, it worked they worked
Irregular Verbs: I spoke we spoke
— you spoke
he, she, it spoke they spoke
75
 P a st Indefinite :
1) ,
:
Ten years ago my friend studied at school, now she is
a teacher herself.
I met him in the street yesterday.
Last month we lived in the country.
2)
:
Tom came out of the house with a bucket and a brush,
he looked at the fence, sighed, and p u t the bucket on the
ground. Then he sa t down on a stump and thought of
a plan.
3) ,
:
Last year, when we lived in the country, my brother and
I often w ent hunting.
We had five lessons of Russian every week last month.
I always took a bus when we lived in Gorky Street.
. ,
Past Indefinite
used, to + would + :
When we lived in the country we used to go hunting.
Last winter I would sit for hours looking into the fire.

4) (
),
:
M any m illion years ago the earth was a fire ball.
Prim itive people lived in trees and in caves because they
were afraid of wild beasts.

The F u t u r e I n d e f i n i t e Tense
§ 50. (Future Indefinite)
shall ( 1-
) w ill (
)+ :
76
 I shall work we shall work
— you will work
he, she, it will work they will work
Future Indefinite :
1) :
1 shall go to the theatre tomorrow.
This boy w ill enter the University next year.
She w ill fin ish the letter in half an hour.
2)
:
Tomorrow we shall g e t up very early, we shall go to
the station, she w ill meet us there, and then we shall all go
to the country.
3) ,
:
Next month we shall have lessons of English twice
a week.
In the country my brother and I will often go hunting.
4) (
),
:
This river will dry up in five years.
§ 51. ,
Present, Past Future,
, Indefinite
:
1) ,
:
The earth is round.
M any million years ago the earth was a fire ball.
The nearest leap-years will be 1956, 1960.
( Present
Indefinite.)
2) ,
:
M y uncle always takes a walk in the afternoon.
They often went to concerts last winter.
77
 I shall atten d lectures on the history of music twice
a month.
3) :
The old man stops, looks around, sees a village in the
distance, and slowly moves towards it.
We first w ent to the General Post Office, bought some
stamps there, p o sted our letters, sent a telegram and then
v isited our old friends.
The doctor w ill examine your arm, then he w ill dress
your wound and w ill send you to the hospital.

§ 51. All the Indefinite Tenses — the Present, the

Past and the Future — are used: 1) to denote a fact
which is generally and universally true, 2) to express
habitual or recurrent actions, 3) to show the succession
of events.

E xercises
I. Put the verbs in the brackets in the Present, Past or Future
Indefinite:
1. The living conditions of proletarian children in tzar-
ist Russia (be) very bad. Ivan (be) seven years and ten
m onths old when he (begin) to work. He (go) to work every
day in the week at 6 a. m. and (leave o ff) about 9 p. m.
He (work) in a cotton mill, under very bad conditions. Our
Soviet children (not work) in factories when they (be) so
young. They (study) at school, and (have) a happy childhood.
After they (graduate) from the elem entary school, some of
them (go) to factory schools and (get) a special technical
education; others (go) to Institutes and Universities and (be
come) engineers, teachers, doctors and scientists. M any chil
dren (work) and (study) at Vocational Schools. In this way
they (help) their country in its industrial development. They
(help) it very much during the Great Patriotic War of
1941— 1945.
2. I don’t know when she (return) but when she (return)
I (tell) her about this new work.
3. Don’t be late, K itty; the train (start) at 8 a. m.
4. He (rewrite) this exercise even if he (not w ant) to
do it.
78
 5. If the sunset (be) red, it (be) a sign that we (have)
a w indy day tomorrow.
II. Copy the following, changing all the verbs from the Present
Indefinite into the Past Indefinite:
1. Tom gets out his worldly wealth and examines it. He
puts it back in his pocket, and gives up the idea of buying
the boys. At this dark and hopeless moment an inspiration
bursts upon him. He takes up his brush and goes back to
work.
2. Rats! They fight the dogs and kill the cats
And bite the babies in the cradles
And eat the cheeses... (Browning.)
III. Change the verbs from the Past Indefinite into the Present Inde«
finite:
Peter got up from his seat and quickly went up to the
window. He heard some strange sounds in the distance.
They came nearer and nearer. He saw two shining eyes.
Was it a wild cat? No, how could it be? The boy stood
ready to fight. Something fell heavily on the floor and
disappeared.
IV. Translate into English, using the Present, Past or Future Indefinitet
1. , .
2. , ;
, .
3. ,
,
.
4. ,
.

— Continuous Tenses

§ 52. Continuous Tenses

, -
,
. ,
, ,
.
, I am w ritin g — ,
79
 , ,
; , , .
She was reading a book when we entered the room —
, ,
; .
Tomorrow a t 6 . . he will be packing his things —
. ;

Past Indefinite Past Continuous Future

Indefinite Future Continuous.
.
Present Continuous
be 4-
:
I am w riting we are w riting
— you are writing
he, she, it is w riting they are writing
Past Continuous
be +
:
I was w riting we were writing
— you were w riting
he, she, it was w riting they were w riting
Future Continuous
be +
:
I shall be w riting we shall be writing
—- you will be writing
he, she, it will be w riting they will be writing

The Present Continuous Tense

§ 53. Present Continuous

, ,
,
:
I am sittin g at my table and writing.
80
 (
, ).
What are you doing h ere?— I am teaching English.
?— (
,
, ,
— , ).
Pre
sent Indefinite ,
:
Where does your brother w ork? — He works at an office.
Is he w orking now? — No, he is not, he is resting in
his room.
( ,
, .)
Present Continuous
( come, go, stay, start, leave)'.
I am g o in g there next year.
He is coming back tomorrow.
Are you staying here till July?

The Past Continuous Tense

§ 54. Past Continuous

, - ;

, - ,
Past Indefinite:
At five o’clock in the m orning she was still w riting the
composition.
It was evening; the boat was approaching the land.
When night came the travellers were w alking along
a narrow path.

The F u t u e ntinu us T e n s e

§ 55. Future Continuous

, - ;
,
6 81
 , Present Inde
finite:
Don’t come to see me tomorrow at three o’clock; I shall
be studying English.
When you enter the room my sister w ill be w ritin g a
letter.
§ 56. ,
, Continuous Tenses.
,
. ,

— I am, reading, I am explaining, ,

. ] : la m looking, I see;
I was listening, I heard; he w ill be running, he
w ill believe.
Continuous:
see, hear, believe, know, recognize, understand, fear,
love, like, hate, prefer, deserve, contain, seem, resemble,
belong, feel.

§ 52. All the Continuous Tenses — the Present, the

Past and the Future — are used to express an action
in its progress (as a process) going on at a given
moment or period of time in the present, past, or future.

E xercises
I. Put the verbs in the Present, Past and Future Continuous or in
the Present, Past and Future Indefinite:
1. Look at the sky; the clouds (move) slowly, the sun
(appear) from behind the clouds, it (get) warmer.
2. “What you (do) here?” she asked. “I (wait) for an
answer. I always (wait) here at this time of the day.”
3. He (be) not well yet, but his health (improve).
4. “Irene (play) the piano in the next room ?” — “No, it (be)
not Irene. I (know) that she never (play) the piano so early
in the m orning.”
5. When I (come) home from school, my little brother
(sit) on the floor with all his toys around him. He (play)
82
with them. I (tell) him to put all his toys in the box as he
(make) too much noise.
6. Imagine that tomorrow at this very hour we (sleep) in
the train on our way to the South. And when we awake the
next m orning, we (see) the sun and the blue sea.
7. Last year at the same hour of the day our family all
(sit) in our grandfather’s room. Father (read) an article about
our grandfather’s new invention.
II. Translate into English, using Indefinite or Continuous Tenses:
1. „ ?"— „ ".
„ ?" — „ .
, ".
2. , ;
, .
3. 2 ;
.
.
4. „ , .
, ", — .
5. ,
.

— P erfect Tenses

§ 57. — Perfect Tenses —

,
- ,
,
:
I have broken my pencil.
( , ,
, , .)
When we came to the station we saw that the train had
already le ft.
( , ,
, .)
She w ill have fin ish e d her composition by two o’clock.
(
.)
83
 The P r e s e n t P e r f e c t Te n s e
§ 58. Present Perfect
have + 3-
:
I have worked we have worked
— you have worked
he, she, it has worked they have worked
Present Perfect ,
,
.

— today, this week,

this month . . Present Perfect
never, ever, ju st, already, not yet:
He has built a fence around his house.
( ;
,
.)
Mary has torn the letter.
( ;
,
, .)
M other has zeashed the curtains today.
(
; ,
, .)
The new teacher of history has ju s t arrived.
(
; —
.)
M y friend has le ft our town.
(
; —
.)
The pupils of the 10th class have read many of Byron’s
poems.
(
— ;
84
 —
.)
Present Perfect ,
:
My friend has not le ft our town yet.
The pupils have not read Byron’s poems.
Present Perfect
.
-
,
-
, P resent Perfect ,
Past Indefinite:
built a fence around his house last year.
M other washed the curtains yesterday.
The new teacher of history arrived on Monday.
My friend le ft our town in December.
The pupils read Byron’s poems when they were in the
9th class.
Now it is already 6 o’clock in the evening, and I saw
her this morning.
Present Perfect ,

:
I have been ill since last June.
She has not seen her aunt for the last two months.
We have believed her all the time.
Present Perfect
,
, Continuous.

The Past Perfect Tense

§ 59. Past Perfect -

have - 3-
:
I had worked we had worked
— you had worked
he, she, it had worked they had worked
85
 Past Perfect ,
- .
,
( Past Indefinite):

I had w ritten the letter when you came.

( , ,
.)
We had fin ish ed our work by seven o’clock last night.
(
.)
The w ind had blown o f f the w hite snow from the trees
and they stood black in the fading light.
(
; .)

Present Perfect, Past P e r

fect -
, Past Perfect
:

got up, left the room, went into the street, walked
towards the park and then suddenly remembered that he had
le f t the key on the table.
( ,
Past Indefinite, — Past
Perfect; ,
,
.)

Past Perfect ,
-
.

,
:
They had not w alked two kilom etres when the thunder
storm broke out.
?1 ,

:
She had not m anaged to read the letter, and he was
back again.
86
 The Future Perfect Tense
§ 60. Future Perfect
have - 3-
:
I shall have worked we shall have worked
— you will have worked
he, she, it will have worked they will have worked
Future Perfect ,
-
:
We shall have pa in ted the fence by six o’clock in the
evening tomorrow.
(K 6 ,
.)
The workers w ill have fu lfille d the plan before the end'
of the month.
( .)
I shall have w ritten the letter before you come.
( .)

§§ 57— 60. The Perfect Tenses are used to express

an action completed by a certain moment in the
present, past or future, the result of which is evident
and is in some way or other connected with the situ
ation which follows as a consequence.

E xercises
I. P ut the verbs in the Past Indefinite or in the Present Perfect:
1. I (meet) several of my school-mates today. I(meet)
them in the street on my way to school.
2. Several weeks ago my uncle (build) a new house in
the country. We (visit) it recently and (enjoy) ourselves
greatly.
3. Andrew (forget) to close the window when he (leave)
the house.
4. Ellen (write) several letters within this week.
5. “Where Tom (go)? I don’t see him here.” — “He (go)
home five minutes ago.”
87
 II. P ut the verbs in the Past Indefinite or in the Past Perfect;
1. Poor Oliver (lie) unconscious on the spot where Sikes
(leave) him. «
2. He (open) his eyes, (look) around and (think) hard
for some time, trying to remember what (happen) to him.
3. After the boys (travel) in the Caucasus they (decide)
to make a sea voyage.
4. They (not + enter) the house yet when they (hear)
some strange noise.
5. All the passengers (see) at once that the old man
(travel) a great deal in his life.
III. Put the verbs in the Future Indefinite or in the Future Perfect;
1. By the end of this month I (finish) reading “Robin
son Crusoe,” then you (read) it, and I (begin) “David Cop-
perfield.”
2. If you do not make a note of it, you (forg et) it by
tomorrow.
3. By this time next year 1 (graduate) from school and
(be) in Leningrad.
4. I (get) through the greater part of the work when
you come.
IV. Put the verbs in brackets in the Present, Past or Future Indefinite,
Continuous or Perfect:

DIALOGUE

An n : I am so glad you (come) at last. Why you (be)

away so long?
K a t e : I (be) in the bookstore choosing new books in
English.
An n : It (rain) still? It (be) rather dark in the room.
K a t e : No, the rain (stop) but the wind (blow). On my
way home I (meet) Galia Petrova. You (know) her?
A n n : Of course, 1 do. I (know) her since my childhood.
When we (be) children we often (play) together. Where
you (meet) her? I (not + see) her for a long time. W hat she
(look) like?
K a t e : She (not + change) a bit. She (go) to the library
when I (meet) her.
A n n: W hat she (tell) you?
88
 K a t e : She (tell) me she (return) recently from a very
interesting trip and that she (travel) a lot and (see) many
interesting things. She (intend) to see all her friends soon.
A n n : Oh, then she (come) to see me too, I (hope). I
just (imagine) how we (sit) here on the sofa and how she
(tell) me everything about herself.
K a t e : Yes, that (be) a pleasant meeting, I (be) sure. But
what (be) the time? My watch (stop) and I (not + know) the
exact time.
An n : It (be) a quarter to five.
K a t e : I must hurry to the station as my train (leave) at
half past five. Good afternoon.
V. Translate into English, using the correct tense forms:
1. 8 ?—
8 8
.
2 .
2. - ,
.
3. ,
,
.
4. . ,
.
5. ?
.— ,
.
6. ? —
, ,
2—3 .
7. ,
, ,
.

— Perfect Continuous Tenses

§61. —-Perfect
Continuous Tenses —
,
,
,
:
89
 I have been studying English for five years.
( 5
.)
left for the station after he had been w aiting for
you for about forty five minutes.
( ,
45 .)
We have been reading “David Copperfield” since last
month.
( „ "
.)

The Present Perfect Continuous Tense

§ 62. —
Present Perfect Continuous — Present Perfect
b e y 4-
:
1 have been working we have been working
— you have been working
he, she, it has been working they .have been working
Present Perfect Continuous —
Perfect Continuous Tenses. Present Perfect Con
tinuous ,

,
:
We have been w aiting for you since ten o’clock.
( 10 .)
The child has been sleeping from eight o’clock up to
this very moment.
( 8
.)
Present Perfect Continuous
,
.
, ,
Present Perfect Continuous
:
We have been listening to you all the time, now we
also want to say something to you.
 ( ,
- .)

Present Continuous, Present Continuous

, .
Present Perfect Continuous:
I have been reading this book for two days already.
They have been ta lkin g over the telephone all the time,
for half an hour already.
, Continuous ( . § 56),
Present Perfect Continuous Present P er
fect:
I have not heard your voice since Sunday.

The Past Perfect Continuous Tense

§ 63. —
Past Perfect Continuous — P ast Perfect
be + 4- :
I had been working we had been working
— you had been working
he, she, it had been working they had been working
Past Perfect Continuous
,

,
:
Columbus and his sailors had been sailin g many days
before they saw land.
( ,
.)
I thought you had been working here for two months.
( , .)
By the 2nd October last year my pupil had been study
ing English for a year.
( 2-
.)
91
 The F ut ure P e r f e c t Co ntinuous Tense
§ 64. —
Future Perfect Continuous — Future Perfect
be + 4-
:
I shall have been working we shall have been working
— you will have been working
he, she, it will have been they will have been working
working
Future Perfect Continuous
,

:
It is two o’clock now, and I have been working already
for three hours; at five o’clock I shall have been working
for six hours.
By next June he w ill have been livin g here for ten
years.
Future Perfect Continuous
-
.

§§ 61—64. The Perfect Continuous Tenses are used

to denote an action which began before a certain mo
ment in the present, past or future and went on as a
process up to that moment either including or exclud
ing it.

E xercises
I. Put the verbs in one of the Perfect Continuous Tenses wherever
necessary:
1. The book is so interesting that I (read) it all the
morning.
2. She (work) at her English very hard ever since she
(begin) studying.
3. Among the familiar names, I discovered the name which
(fill) my mind for several days.
92
 4. When we (enter) the room Boris (sit) at the table;
he (work) at his report since early in the morning.
5. It (rain) now and it (rain) for five hours already.
II. Put the verbs in the necessary tense forms: l

THE FARMER AND HIS ECHO

An English farmer once (tell) his friends what a w onder
ful echo he (have) on his farm. They (not believe) him,
so the farmer (tell) them to come to his house on the fol
lowing day. The next day they all (come) and the farmer
(tell) his son to hide in the hollow of a tree and repeat his
words.
When they (arrive) at the spot, the farmer (shout) aloud,
“You (be) there, P a t? ” — “Yes, sure I (be) and I(w ait) for
you quite a long tim e,” (be) the startling reply.
III. Translate into English, using the right tense forms:
1. ?— , ( )
; .
2. ,
.
3. ,
.
4. ?—
15 , .
5. ?
6. ,
.
7. ,
.
8. ?

The Use of Tenses in English

Examples.
I. He always fo llo w s his father’s advice.
Age brings wisdom.
He fo llo w ed his dog, then he fo llo w ed a narrow path,
and finally he fo llo w ed his own sense of tim e and space.
II. Look at the dog. It is fo llo w in g us.
93
 The Use of Tenses In English
The A ctive Voice

Tenses
F o r m s '- \ ^ ^ Present Past Future

he fo llow s he follow ed h e w ill

fo ilo w
1. Indefinite
h e brings h e b ro u g h t h e w ill
bring

h e is h e w as h e w ill be
fo llo w ing follow in g fo llo w in g
II. Continuous
he is he was he w ill be
bringing b ringing bringing

he has h e had he will have

follow ed follow ed follow ed
III. Perfect
he has he had he will have
b ro u g h t b ro u g h t b ro u g h t

h e has been h e had been he w ill

fo llo w in g follow in g have been
IV. Perfect fo llo w in g
Continuous
he h as been h e had been h e will
bringing b rin ging h av e been
bringing

The girl was fo llo w in g her mother’s speech with great

attention when she was interrupted by a bell.
Tom orrow at two I shall be fo llo w in g my friends on a
march.
III. She has brought the new magazine. Read i t
He saw that they had follow ed him home.
I shall have brought your copy-book by two o’clock
tomorrow.
94
 IV. We have been fo llo w in g her progress in science
with great interest for the last five years.
After they had been fo llo w in g the boy for a long time,
the wolves finally fell behind.

General E xercises on Tenses

I. Put the verbs in the right tense:
1. When the boy (get) to the village, it (get) dark and
the wind (blow).
2. They (be) late for the beginning of the play if they
(not + hurry).
3. I want to know whether you (lie) to me all the time.
4. In the darkness she could not find the place where
she (put) her watch.
5. He (not + finish) his book yet, he (write) the last
chapter at present.
6. When the boys (meet) at last they (discover) that
they (lose) their former interest in the collection of stamps.
7. You (work) long enough, Kate; go and rest now.
8. When you quite (finish) your work you (send) it to
my cousin.
9. I (be) very happy as I (get) a ticket to the opera.
Tomorrow at 8 o’clock in the evening I (sit) in the theatre
and (listen) to the wonderful music.
10. Our teacher (leave) for the rest home next week.
11. Translate into English:
1. , ,
, ,
.
2. , , ?
10 .
3. . ,
, , .
4. : „
,
“.
5. ,
.
6. ,
- .
95
 7. ?— , ,
.
III. Put the verbs in the righ t tense and explain the use of
tenses.
THE RETREAT FROM MOSCOW
In 1812 Napoleon ( decide) to advance on Moscow. F or
m any years before that he (wage) war with different na
tions. He (win) and (lose) many im portant battles. He (lose)
his fleet at Trafalgar, but he (win) brilliant victories at
Austerlitz, Jena and other places, and he (dethrone) kings
and (place) his marshals and his relatives in their places.
Germany, Italy, Austria, Spain, all (fa ll) under his power,
but he (not attack) Russia as yet. He therefore (advance)
confidently through Russia where he (find) at first but
little opposition, and (make) his way towards Moscow.
When at last he (reach) the town, he (see) it in flames.
In a short tim e all (be destroyed) and his arm y (fin d ) no
means of subsistence. W inter (come) and he (have) no
other way out but to retreat. The Russian army (not + be
destroyed)-, it (be) even stronger as many Russian people
(help) it to destroy the enemy. Napoleon’s army (suffer)
terribly on the way. His men (die) in thousands in the
snow and (lie) where they (fall). Of all that splendid army
which he (lead) to Moscow, only a few (live) to reach
Paris.
MOSCOW
Moscow, the capita] of the Soviet Union, (be) the centre
of political life, of Socialist industry, science, arts and
culture.
The face of Moscow (change) day by day. For the first
tim e in the history of m ankind a great city (be remade)
according to a unified scientific plan and wholly in the
interests of the working population. The heart of Moscow
(be) the famous Red Square. In the shadow of the Krem
lin ’s walls (stand) the Lenin Mausoleum, built of polished
red granite and black labrador. It (be) here that during
national holidays, our leaders (stand) greeted by the end
less columns of working people that (pass) by through the
Red S q uare... .
The formerly narrow and w inding Moscow River (be
widened) and (be straightened) and the embankments (be
96
faced) in granite. The Moscow River (be linked) with the
greatest of Russian rivers, the Volga, by means of the
Moscow Canal.
The opening of this Canal (solve) m ost brilliantly the
problem of the city’s water supply, besides converting Moscow
into a port of five se as...
(From “Moscow — Old and N ew ” by I. Kholodny.)

. Sequence of Tenses
§ 65.
,
, . . ,
,
,
.

. -
:
„ . .
. . .
. ? .
, *.
-
.

(Past),
— Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect
Continuous,
—
— Future in the Past.
,
- :
“Yesterday I went hunting. I was walking quickly as I sud
denly saw a hare which was running my way. I took aim and
fired. The smoke rolled away. I looked around and did not
see the hare. Where was it? It had run away. I had known
before that it would run aw ay.”

.
, ,
7 97
 ,
.
- :
„ , ".
- :
“ thought that I was playing chess.”
, — (
).
1 knew that his father was a teacher.
, .
I thought that you would go to school.
-
, -
,
:
I know that she is a good pupil.
He w ilt say that he is your friend.
I know that she was a good pupil last year.
He w ill say that they lived in Kiev.
I know that she w ill be a good pupil next year.
-
, -

— Future in the Past:

He to ld me that his father was a teacher.
, .
to ld me that his father had been a teacher.
, ( ) .
Victor thought that I was sin g in g an Italian song.
, .
to ld me that he would go to the South in summer.
, .
-
(P ast Indefinite, Past Continuous),
Past Indefinite Past Continuous
,
:
 He was telling us that he had a good ear for music.
She sa id that she was m aking a new dress for her
daughter.
Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous
, :
I thought that you had seen her.
She said she had been reading that book for a long time.
Future in the Past ( )
, ,
:
1 thought you would come to see me.
She said that they would be sittin g in the 2nd row.
He told us that his brother would have w ritten a poem
by the end of the following week.

The Future in the Past Tense

§ 66. The Future in the Past Indefinite
, .
should woutd+ 1-
:
I should work we should work
— you would work
he, she, it would work they would work
He sa id that he would come at ten o ’clock.
The Future in the Past Continuous
,
, :
I told them that at two o’clock the following day I should
be h a vin g a music lesson.
should
would + Continuous ( ~ b e + 4-
):
1 should be working we should be working
— you would be working
he, she, it would be working they would be working
The Future in the Past Perfect
,
, :
99
 He sa id yesterday that by the tim e we were back he
would have fin ish e d the letter.
should
would + Perfect (— have + 3-
):
I should have worked we should have worked
— you would have worked
he, she, it would have worked they would have worked
Future in the P ast Perfect
. Future in the P ast Perfect Continuous
.
§ 67.
,
, .

:
You know English as well as he d id last year.
Before he came to Moscow he looked worse than he
does now.
N ext year you w ill be more interested in reading Eng
lish books than you were last year.
The man whom you see here was at the front with my
brother.
The key which I le ft in my room is quite necessary for
me now.
Last year my pupils did not read English so well as they
do now.
§ 68.
-
, ,
,
, . .
:
The teacher told us that the earth
moves round the
sun.
The pupils learnt at the geography lesson that there are
four cardinal points — the North, the South, the East and
the West.
He was trying to prove that this English word comes
from French.
100
 I always knew that people w ith no ear for music make
bad singers.
She told me that the distance between Moscow and
Leningrad is 600 kilometres.

§§ 65—66. The tense of the verb in the Principal

Clause influences the tense of the verb in the Object
Subordinate Clause.
If the verb in the Principal Clause is in the Present
or in the Future Tense, the verb in the Subordinate
Clause may be in any tense according to the sense,
but if the verb in the Principal Clause is in one of
the Past Tenses the verb in the Subordinate Object
Clause must be also in one of the Past Tenses or in
the Future in the Past (to express a future action).
The Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous in the
Subordinate Clause are used to expess a simultaneous
action, the Past Perfect or the P ast Perfect Continuous
in the Subordinate Object Clause are used to express
an action which took place before that of the verb in
the Principal Clause. This is called Sequence of Tenses.

Sequence of Tenses

Past Perfect -> he had been my pupil

Past I said that he was my pupil

ft
^ Future in the Past
he would be my pupil
next year
Present I say that
he is my pupil

Future I shall say tomorrow that

Ihe will bemy
pupil next year.
101
 E xe rc ises

I. Put the verbs in brackets into the right tense according to the
rules of Sequence of Tenses.

1. I thought he (come) in time.

2. Vadim wanted to know what (become) of the books
which he (leave) here a day before.
3. I finally said that I (not + wish) to hear any more about
the subject.
4. Mark remembered that he (leave) the cab at the hotel.
5. We have heard that he (be) very clever.
6. My wife told me that in an hour she (go) for a walk.
7. The boy did not know that water (boil) at 100°.
8. He told us how he (live) in the North. We were very
astonished when he said that in the far North the sun never
(rise) in winter and never (set) in summer.
9. Last year I skated much better than I (do) now.
10. The teacher told us that there (be) 26 letters in the
English alphabet.
II. The pupil who (answer) questions now did not know
any English last year.
12. One day the boy asked his father how long eleph
ants (live).
13. My wife (seem) surprised to find us there. She (say)
she (think) that we (start) hours ago. Then she (tell) me
she (go) probably for a sail.
14. Poor uncle (rush) to the nursery to see what his
young son (do) there as there (be) a terrible noise in the
house.
15. They (begin) to ask me questions about myself and
pretty soon they (have) my story. Finally they (tell) me
I (answer) their purpose. I (say) I (be) sincerely glad, and
(ask) what it (be). Then one of them (hand) me an enve
lope, and (say) I (fin d ) the explanation inside.

11. Translate into English, observing all rules of Sequence of Tenses.

1. , .
2. ,
- , ,
..
102
 3. ,
, .
4. , — .
5. , —
.
6. ,
.
7. ,
.
8. ,
.
9. ,
.
10. , .

.
Direct and Indirect Speech

§ 69.
(
) (
).
he said, I declared, she repeated . .,
,
:
“I was very ill last summer.”
“The m eeting is closed.”
“I work in a textile m ill.”
he said, I declared, she
repeated . . ,
,
, ;
(
that ),

( . §§ 65—68).

:
said, “/ was ill last summ er.”
He said (that) he had been ill last summer.
103
 She repeated, “/ work in a textile m ill.”
She repeated (that) she worked in a textile mill.
,
, ,
,
:
here there
this, these „ „ that, those
now then
today that day
yesterday the day before the
previous day
last evening (night) „ „ the evening (night) be
fore the previous
evening (night)
ago before
the day before yes two days before
terday
tomorrow next day the follow
ing day

1. said: “I w as at the 1. He said that he had

theatre last night.” been at the theatre the night
before.
2. She explained: “ We 2. She explained that they
shall go on an excursion w ould go on an excursion
tom orrow .” the following day.
3. Leo said: “You have 3. Leo said that, as I had
been in Leningrad, so you been in Leningrad, I could
can g iv e me Ann’s address.” g iv e him Ann’s address.
(yes )
. Yes agree,
answer in the a ffirm a tive , consent; no
reject, refu se, deny, answ er in the negative:
He said, “Yes, I shall give this book to you.”
He consented (agreed) to give that book to me.
104
 “No, I have no tim e,” she said.
She answ ered in the negative.
§ 70. ,
, ,
.
-
, (what, which, who,
when, where, why . .), whether, if,
.

1. asked me: “D o you 1. He asked me whether

read E nglish?” I read English or not.
2. She asked us: “ Where 2. She asked us where they
w ill they go tom orrow ?” would go the following
day.
3. I asked them: “D id you 3. I asked them i f they had
see him last evening?” seen him the previous eve
ning.
4. The boy said: “Which way 4. The boy asked which way
has my brother gone?" his brother had gone.
§ 71.

tell, ask, command,

order, beg, request . .

( , )
1. Mother shouted: “Come 1. M other ordered me to come
here at once.” to her at once.
2. She said: “Give me a 2. She asked me to g iv e her
spoon and a fork.” a spoon and a fork.
3. The officer commanded: 3. The officer commanded
“S ta y where you are.” his men to sta y where
they were.
4. The secretary safe?: “Please, 4. The secretary requested to
pass me the paper.” pass her the paper.
5. The teacher said to me: 5. The teacher to ld me to
“P ut the book on the table.” p u t the book on the table.
105
 E xercises
I. Change the following from Direct into Indirect Speech:
1. He said: “We’ve forgotten the balls!”
2. She said: “I shall be very glad to see you.”
3. Alec asked me: “Have you ever seen this picture?”
4. Nelly said: “Yesterday I went to see Paul, but he
was not at hom e.”
5. He said: “Who is this man? I don’t know him .”
6. I thought: “He is a very clever man; he can help
m e.”
7. M y brother said: “In two hours I shall have finished
my work and then I shall go to the cinem a.” Then he asked
me: “Will you go with m e?”
8. The teacher said: “Open your books and begin read
ing the new lesson.”
9. The girl asked: “What is the price of this dress?”
10. I asked Sophy: “Will you help me in my w ork?”
“Yes, I shall,” she said.
II. Change the Indirect Speech into Direct in the following:

1. I found a cigar shop and remembered about the

cigars. I told the seller I was going to Bayreuth, and wanted
enough cigars for the journey. The man asked me which
route I was going to take. I said I didn’t know. He said
he would recommend me to go by Zurich, and offered to
sell me second class tickets (M. Twain.)
2. A fox who had lost his tail called the other foxes
together and standing with his back against a tree told
, them that the tail was of no use and should be cut off,
and that if all agreed to do this no one could feel ashamed
of having lost it. The tail, he said, was the source of all
their dangers, for the fox was hunted for the sake of the
tail, and not for the sake of its flesh or fur. An old fox
thanked the speaker for his advice, but asked him to explain
why he kept his back so firmly fixed against the tree and
begged him to turn round and let them see what sort of a
tail he had.
III. Change into Indirect Speech:

1. “Were you afraid?” asked the captain softly of the

boy who lay on the deck. “What’s the m atter?” There was
10S
no answer. “Is there a doctor amongst you?” he asked the
rescued men.
“W hat’s the matter with the b o y ? ” he asked when the
doctor had examined the boy. “It’ll be all right. A fine lad .”
• 2. After a while M att came back and Scott called White
Fang into the house.
“I’m going away for ever, old boy,” said Weedon Scott.
“Give me a last good-bye grow l.”
White Fang did not growl, but he pushed his head be
tween his m aster’s arm and body.
“There is the steamer w histle,” said M att. “You must
hurry. Lock the front door behind you. I will go out at the
back.”
“Take good care of him, M att,” said Scott. “Write and
let me know how he is.”

. The Passive Voice

§ 72.
(the Active
Voice) (the Passive Voice).

,
:
I caught him.
Electricity moves machines.
(
, ),
:
was caught by me.
M achines are m oved by electricity.
§ 73. — the Passive Voice —
+
(3- )
:

Present Indefinite
I am asked we are asked
— you are asked
he, she, it is asked they are asked
107
 Past Indefinite
I was asked we were asked
— you were asked
he, she, it was asked they were asked
Future Indefinite
I shall be asked we shall be asked
— you will be asked
he, she, it will be asked they will be asked
Present Continuous
I am being asked we are being asked
— you are being asked
he, she, it is being asked they are being asked
Past Continuous
I was being asked we were being asked
— you were being asked
he, she, it was being asked they were being asked
Preset Perfect
I have been asked we have been asked
— you have been asked
he, she, it has been asked they have been asked
Past Perfect
I had been asked we had been asked
you had been asked
he, she, it had been asked they had been asked
Future Perfect
I shall have been asked we shall have been asked
— you will have been asked
he, she, it will have they will have been asked
been asked
Future in the Past Indefinite
I should be asked we should be asked
— you would be asked
he, she, it would be asked they would be asked
 F u t u re in the Past Perfect
I should have been asked we should have been asked
— you would have been asked
he, she, it would have they would have been asked
been asked
§ 74.
(from the Active Voice into the Passive
Voice) .

(in the Active and in the Passive form).

,

,
,
by :
Active Passive
The boy fe d the horse. The horse was fe d by the boy.
Lena is washing the towel. The towel is being washed
by Lena.
They have told Steve about it. Steve has been told about it.

We shall d ig the ground The ground will be dug with

with a spade. a spade (by us).
§ 75. by
, ,
; with , ,
,,
:
Stalin’s works are read by millions.
The road was illuminated by the moon.
The house is surrounded by a fence.
The snake was killed by the hunter w ith a stone.
The soup is eaten with a spoon.
§ 76. ,
:
1)
- :
109
 He was killed in the war.
( , ).
Smoking is not allow ed here.
(
, ).
2)
, :
This boy was run over by a motor-car.
(
, , ,
; -
— ).
The house w ill be built in a short time.
(
, , , ).

, .
,

,
,
.

,
( )

:
A c t i v e : They give him English magazines.
P a s s i v e : 1) English m agazines are given him by
them.
2) He is given English magazines by them.
A c t i v e : The teacher told us the news.
P a s s i v e : 1) The news was told us by the teacher.
2) We were told the news by the teacher.
A c t i v e : They sent for the doctor.
P a s s i v e : The doctor was sent fo r. ( fo r
,
.)
U0
 Active: She often refers to this book.
P a s s i v e : This book is often referred to by her. (
to ,
.)
§ 77.

.
Indefinite Tenses Passive Voice,
Active Voice, :
1) ,
:
The coast of the Crimea is washed by the Black Sea.
“David Copperfield” was w ritten by Ch. Dickens in 1847.
In fifteen years this mine w ill be exhausted.
2) ,
:
Every night my little sister is washed by her nurse.
We were always met by the same old man when we
came to that cottage.
Next month tickets to all theatres w ill be sold on M on
days and Fridays.
3) :
In the morning the lazy boy is drawn out of his bed,
then he is washed, dressed and sent to school.
The grand piano was brought into the room, was p u t on
a platform and was covered with a big piece of cloth.
The books w ill be received by our librarian, w ill be re
gistered and then w ill be given to the pupils.
Present Continuous Past Continuous Passive Voice,
Active Voice,
, -
:
She is being scolded by her aunt, that’s why she is
crying.
The bridge was only being constructed when the bomb
hit it.
Bee Perfect Tenses Passive Voice,
Active Voice, ,
- ,
 ,
:
The composition has been w ritten by her already.
When we rushed in we saw that the bird had been killed
by the cat.
By 7 o’clock tomorrow the book will have been translated.
§ 78.
Passive Voice
Active Voice.
1) Present, Past, Future Indefinite
Passive Voice ,
- Active Voice
Present, Past Future Perfect:
P a s s i v e : The book is w ritten by him.
Act i ve: He has w ritten the book.
P a s s i v e : When I came in, their conversation was
finished.
Active: When I came in, they had fin ish ed their con
versation.
P a s s i v e : By the time you return, your shirt will be
washed.
Active: By the time you come, I shall have washed
your shirt.
2) Future Continuous Passive Voice,
Future Indefinite:
When I come home, my shirt w ill be ironed.
( A c t i v e : My mother will be ironing my shirt.)
At 2 o’clock this afternoon I shall be interview ed by two
or three reporters.
3) Passive Voice Perfect Con
tinuous, , Passive
Voice , -
,
Perfect:
The story has been w ritten by him for three months.
( A c t i v e : He has been w riting the story for three months.)
When we met her she told us she had been follow ed by
a strange man since morning.
( A c t i v e : She said a strange man had been fo llo w in g
her since morning.)
112
 § 79. ,
, Passive Voice,
Active Voice, Future in the Past Indefinite
Perfect:
He said that the letter would be written.
He said that by the time you came the letter would have
been written.
. Passive Voice,
,
Present, Past, Future Indefinite
Present Past Perfect Present Past Continuous.,

§§ 72—79. The Passive Voice in English is the form

of the transitive verb which is used to show that the
subject names a thing or a person acted upon. The Pas
sive Voice is formed by means of the auxiliary verb
be + the Past Participle of the conjugated verb.
When the verb is changed from the Active Voice
into the Passive, the whole construction of the sentence
changes; the object of the active construction becomes
the subject of the passive, and the subject of the active
construction becomes a prepositional object intro
duced by the preposition by or often altogether om it
ted.
In English not only a direct object may become
the subject of the passive construction but also an
indirect object and a prepositional object. The use
of tenses in the Passive Voice corresponds in the main
to that in the active except that 1) the Indefinite
Tenses are often used instead of the Perfect Tenses
to express the result of a completed action, 2) the
Future Continuous is not used in the Passive Voice, and
3) there are no Perfect Continuous Tenses in the Passive
Voice.

E xercises
I. Change the following Active Constructions into the Passive:
1. We received this letter after his departure.
2. Have the dogs ever attacked you?
8 113
 3. Bees gather honey from the flowers.
4. The storm drove the ship against the rock.
5. Who discovered the circulation of the blood?
6. The man is selling ice-cream but he is not selling
chocolate ice-cream.
7. The little boy showed us the way. (2 cases)
8. They offered her some interesting work. (2 cases)
9. The doctor ordered her a long rest. (2 cases)
10. They often speak about him.
11. Everybody laughed at this funny animal.
12. We have been looking for you.
13. We shall insist upon strict discipline.
14. They teach pupils English and French at this school.

The Use of Tenses in the Passive Voice

Tenses
Present Past Future
Forms

he is follow ed he was fo l he w ill be

I. Indefinite low ed follow ed
he is brought he was brought he w ill be
brought

he is being he was being —

follow ed follow ed
II. Continuous
he is being he was being
brought brought

he has been he had been he will

follow ed follow ed have been
follow ed
III. Perfect
he has been he had been he w ill
brought brought have been
brought

IV. Perfect
Continuous

114
 II. Change the following from Passive into Active (introducing the
subject in the Active Construction wherever necessary):
1. Spartan children were taught by their parents to endure
all hardships.
2. Which article is translated by your brother?
3. They were being taught drawing at that lesson.
4. This name was seldom mentioned in his novels.
5. I am often told about it.
6. This man has been much spoken of.
III. Rewrite the following story, changing the voice of every tran
sitive verb:
Two forces were fighting a great battle. Every man was
firing his rifle, and the air was filled with shells from the
big artillery guns. The men had been stationed in their
places by their officers. Suddenly a sharp command was
given by the officer in charge. To the soldiers’ astonishment
they were told that they should stop firing. In a moment,
everything was still over the whole field. When the men
asked the commanding officer for the reason, they learned
that the arm istice had been signed by the enemy. The war
was over.
IV. Put the verbs in brackets into the right tenses in the Passive
Voice:
1. On the 24th of February, 1848, Louis Philippe (drive)
out of Paris, and the French Republic (proclaim).
2. The muscles (strengthen) by exercise and the body
then (keep) in good condition.
3. By the end of the year a large part of Africa (explore)
by the brave explorer.
4. Don’t worry about her. She (meet) by her friends as
soon as she arrives.
5. Whom these exercises (show) when they (copy) by the
pupils?
V. Translate into English, using Passive Constructions:
1.
.
2. ,
.
3. , .
4. .
115
 5. .
6. ,
.
7. ?
8. ,
?
9. .
10. .
11. ? ,
.
12.
.
13. ?— , .
14. . ,
.
15. ,
, .
16. , .

. Auxiliary Verbs
§ 80. ,
,
, . .
—
. — : be, have, do, shall, will.
The Verb be
§ 81. be ,
1- ,
, :

1- 3- 4-
2-
) , ,
6)
Perfe ct Continuous

be I am I was been being

he, she, it is he, she, it was

we, you, they are we, you, they were

116
 , be
Continuous Tenses Passive
Voice:
Continuous Tenses
I am working he is speaking ' they are playing
I was working he was speaking they were playing
I shall be working he will be speaking they will be playing
The Passive Voice
I am asked he is asked they are asked
1 was asked he was asked they were asked
I shall be asked he will be asked they will be asked
Perfect Continuous Tenses
be Perfect:
I have been writing.
She had been writing.
The Verb have
§ 82. have :
1-
2- 3- 4-
. . ., . , .,
Perfect Continuous

have had had having

, have
Perfect Tenses:
I have taken I had broken 1 shall have written
he has taken he had broken he will have w ritten
they have taken they had broken they will have written
The Verbs shall and w ill
§ 83. shall w ill

( )
( . §§ 88—93):

shall, will should, would

117
 shall
(Indefinite, Continuous,
Perfect, P erfect’ Continuous) 1-
, w ill 2- 3-
:
I shall go there. w ill go there. They w ill be asked.
We shall be speaking. You will be playing. It will be cut.
I shall have finished. She w ill have studied.
should
(Future in the Past)
1- ; would
Future in the Past 2-
3- :
I said I should do it. He said he would come.
We promised we should She promised she would
go. be w aitin g for us.
I said I should be playing. They declared they would
We declared we should have w ritten it by five.
have fin ish e d it by two. You wrote you would be
1 said I should be asked. met.

The Verb do
§ 84. do
:
1- - 4-
2- -
. , . ,
Perfect Continuous

do did done d o in g

, do :
1)
Present Past Indefinite:
Do you speak English?
He does not know this word.
D id she leave with the last train?
We did not go to the concert last night.
D id you see your friend at that party?
2)
:
D on’t smoke!
Do not go there now!
3) :
I do w ant to see him.
Do stop talking!
§ 85. have, be do
, .
H ave , :
My cousin has a nice white rabbit.
I have a small room.
She has a beautiful voice.
We had a large garden near our house.
Be :
1) :
There are many wild beasts in this forest.
To be or not to be — that is the question.
2) , :
The m eeting w ill be on the 6th of November.
There was a good concert there.
3) :
I shall be in my room.
The boy was in the country in summer.
Do :
What are you doing here?
1 have done all the exercises.
She usually does her lessons in the afternoon.
§ 86. have, be do, ,
,
, ,
:
1) have ,
, have a smoke, have a talk, have a bite:
119
 We had a long talk.
Father had a smoke after dinner.
2) be - :
Nick is a pioneer. My mother was a teacher.
3) do ,
:
Do you speak English? Yes, I do.
I like dancing. So does she.
§ 87. , have be
.
H ave
-
must,
:
had to go home at 8 o’clock.
If the weather is so bad, the children w ill have to stay
at home.
You have to cross the square here.
Be
,
- :
You are to meet me near the theatre.
They were to go by the morning train.

E xercises
I. State whether the verbs be, have and do are used as auxiliaries,
semi-auxiliaries, notional verbs, or in their modal meaning:
1. I have never been to the Caucasus.
2. We had to go to our friends at ten o’clock.
3. Do you like pears? — No, I don’t.
4. Ask Thomas to paint the poster for our performance;
last tim e he did it very well.
5. “You see,” said Pratt, “I am taking the baby to his mother
and I have forgotten one of his things — rem ind me what
it is.”
6. Eve was in her room and did not want to leave it; she
said she was to stay there all alone.
120
 7. Don’t go there now, she is very busy. You’ll have
to wait a bit.
8. Paul has a younger brother whom he is very fond of.
9. There are very interesting pictures in this Gallery.
II. Fill in the blanks with auxiliaries in the right form:
1. — you ever seen Rem brandt’s pictures?
2. This book — written by Jack London.
3. Tomorrow we — go to the exhibition.
4. Where — your brother live now?
5. “Who — th ere?” “It — my uncle.” “What — he doing?”
“He — sleeping; he — very tired."
6. “— Michael go to the Park of Culture and Rest yester
d ay?” “No, he — not.”
7. My grandfather — come from the country. He — very
old and now — always live with us.
8. “— you go to the skating-rink yesterday?” “Yes, I — .”
III. Translate into English, using have, be and do as notional
verbs:
1. .
2. ,
?
3. ? ,
.
4. .

. Modal (Defective) Verbs

§ 88.
,
. ,

( ,
),
:
can [ ] may [mei] must [mAst] ought [o:t]
-s
3- .
can, must, may to,
ought to:
121
 He can write well.
She may come in.
Boris m ust sta y here.
Olga x)ught to write more often to her mother.
,
,
- .

The Verb can

§ 89. :
1) :
I can we
— you
he, she, it can they can
2) :
I could we could
— you could
he, she, it couldthey could
-

; be able:
I shall be able to tell you about it only tomorrow.
.
She has not been able to come to school for a whole
week.
.
-
:
She san speak English quite well now.
Can she play the piano? — Yes, she can.
He is very strong, he can lift 70 kilograms.
I cannot say what she looks like.
Could she walk faster? — No, she couldn’t.
We could go there whenever we wanted.
They could not run very quickly.
The Verb may
§ 90. may :
1) :
122
 he, she, it may they may
2) :
I m ight we might
— you might
he, she, it might they might

may
be allowed:
You w ill be allow ed to smoke in that room.
.
I have not been allowed to talk for at least twenty
minutes.
( )
20 .
M ay

:
M ay I come in? — Yes, you may.
?— , ( ).
m ight go away after the lesson. But he didn’t want to.
( ) ( ),
.
It may rain today, though the sun is shining now.
,
.
The Verb must
§ 91. must —
:
I must we must
— you must
he, she, it must they must

have
( . § 87) :
I had to g e t up at seven. .
She w ill have to go with me.
20 .
 M ust
— :
You m ust speak English with your friends.
- .
I m ustn’t stay here long.
. ( ...)
M ust we write it down? — Yes, you must.
? ( ?)
— , .
The Verb ought
§ 92. ought ,
,
:
I ought we ought
— you ought
he, she, it ought they ought
ought
.
Perfect Infinitive ,
:
I ought to visit my sick friend more often.

.
She ought to have helped her mother.
(
).
The Verbs shall and w ill
§ 93. shall w ill ( . § 83)
, ( )
.
shall ( 1- ),
,
, , :
You shall go there at once!
! ( .)
shall be punished.
. ( .)
They shall have this picture.
. ( .)
124
 w ill 1- ,
, -
:
Iw ill help him.
. ( .)
We w ill go on foot.
. ( .)

. shall w ill
,
, ,
shall will, : “I w ill be drowned,
1 will be drowned, and nobody shall save me,” . e. „ , ,
, !" — „ , ,
!", - : “I shall be
drowned, I shall be drowned, and nobody will save me!”

The Verbs should and would

Should
- ought :
You should speak more distinctly.
.
We should have consulted the dictionary first.
.
would, will,
:
We asked her several times but she would keep silence.
, .
( .)
W ould you mind telling me the tim e?
He , ?
§ 94. may (might), should,
would
(modal auxiliaries)

(Subjunctive Mood, . § 97).

125
 §§ 88— 94. There are several modal or defective
verbs in English such as can, may, must, ought, which
are used to express ability, possibility, permission or
necessity of doing some action. They have only some
finite forms and have no infinitive, participles or gerund;
therefore they cannot be used in any compound tenses.
They have no ending -5 in the 3rd person singular
Present Indefinite. After the verbs can, may and must
the Infinitive is used without to, after ought with to.
The verbs shall, will, should, would are also used in
some cases as modal verbs.

E xercises
I. Fill in the right form of one of the modal verbs can, may,
m ust or ought:

1. I — skate very well.

2. She — sing quite well when she was young.
3. You — give this book to your friend, I don’t need it
at present.
4. He — prepare his lessons before he goes to bed.
5. Why were you so rude to this old man? You — to be
always polite.
6. — I speak to you now? — Yes, of course y o u — .
7. Tom — not beat his younger brother Sid.
8. It — snow towards evening.
II. Translate into English, using can, must, may, ought:

1. .
2. ,
.
3.
, , .
4. , ,
, .
5. „
“.
6. .
7. - ?
126
 . The Mood
§ 95.
: ,
, .
(Indica
tive Mood) .
— Imperative Mood —
,
:
Close the door!
Please, g ive me your watch.
— Subjunctive Mood —
, , ,
, :
ordered that the man come there at once.
We went there early that we might see everybody.
I wish I were a sculptor!
If I had seen her yesterday, I should have spoken to
her; but I did not see her.
— Conditional Mood —
, :
If I were you, I should go in for all sports.
. The Imperative Mood.
§ 96.
1- ,
:
Go to the blackboard! Try not to make mistakes!
Give me some bread, please!
1- 3-
let - 1-
:
Let us go to the theatre! Let her try this work!
Let him fe tch the book!
.
The Subjunctive Mood and the Conditional Mood
§ 97. — the Subjunctive
Mood — , , ,
127
 ( . . ,
, ).
,
,
, be.
be .
were :
Pr e s e n t
I be we be
— you be
he, she, it be they be
Pas t
I were we were
— you were
he, she, it were they were

-5 3- :
I have we have I ask we ask
— you have —- you ask
he, she, it have they have he, she, it ask they ask

should, would, may, might + :

He ordered that he should come.
I wish you would know it well.
They went there that they m ight see the film.
Speak to her so that she may keep quieter.
§ 98.

(Shifting of Tenses), . .
(Past Perfect)
:
I wish I had that book.
( ).
If he had come earlier, he would have spoken to her.
,
( ).
128
 § 99.
:
1)
it is necessary, it is required, it is demanded . .,
Present Subjunctive,
should+ :
( It is necessary that he read it.
( It is necessary that he should read it.
f It is required that pupils come in time.
\ It is required that pupils should come in time.
/ It is demanded that Lydia go there now.
\ It is demanded that Lydia should go there now.
2) order,
command, suggest, insist . .:
/ ordered that George run to the nearest village.
\ He ordered that George should run to the nearest village.
/ I suggest that you read it yourselves.
t I suggest that you should read it yourselves.
/ We insist that she study better.
\ We insist that she should study better.
3) wish:
) , -
would - :
I wish she would come soon.
He wishes I would go with him.
We wished they would tell us everything.
) ,
(Shifting of Tenses):
/ I wish I were young again.
\ I wish you had gone there with me.
4) ,
(so) that may
(might) + , lest,
,— should + :
Go there now that you may catch the 5 o’clock train.
W rite down all these words lest you should fo rg e t them
( ).
We spoke quietly so that he m ight work in peace.
9 129
 5) .
, ,
(Shifting of Tenses).
, Past Subjunctive Present;
,
Past Past Perfect:
If I had spoken to her yesterday, I should have learned
everything.
If yo u were more attentive, you would study better.
If he were here now, he would tell us many interesting
things.
We should have left last week if I had fin ish e d my
work.

(Conditional Mood),
should, w ould + Infinitive should,
would + Perfect Infinitive :
If I had time, I should often come to see you.
They would be happy if they had this picture.
If we had taken our copy-books with us, we should have
w ritten down the words.
He would have le ft if he had not left his pocket-book.

§§ 97— 99. The Subjunctive Mood is the form of

the verb which expresses wishes, suggestions, supposi
tions or som ething contrary to fact. As there are very
few synthetic forms of the Subjunctive in Modern Eng
lish, analytic forms are mostly used which consist of
the modal auxiliary verbs should, would, may, might + the
Infinitive. To express unreality Shifting of Tenses is
used — the Past for the Present, and the Past Perfect
for the Past.
The Subjunctive Mood is most often used in subor
dinate clauses after the constructions it is necessary, it
is required, etc.; in object clauses after the verbs order,
command, suggest, insist, and after the verb w ist, in
adverbial clauses of purpose and in adverbial clauses of
unreal condition.

130
 E xercises
I, Put the verbs in brackets in the right form of the Subjunctive
Mood:

1. It is necessary that Sasha (read) this story»

2. I suggest that she (join) our circle.
3. We all wish that Nelly (be) with us now; but she
is not.
4. The teacher insisted that we (make) short grammar
reports.
5. It is im portant that you (stay) after the lessons.
6. I wish you (go) skiing with me yesterday. I had such
a good time.
7. Come closer that 1 (examine) your arm.
8. Robinson Crusoe left his father’s house early in life
so that he (begin) sea life.
9. If Oleg (be) here, he would help me. But he has gone
away.
10. They wouldn’t have missed the train if they (leave)
their house earlier.
11. She wished we (come) to see her in the evening.
12. Put the cup back on the shelf lest you (break) it.
13. My brother insists that I (play) the violin.
14. P ut the penknife into the desk lest you (break) it.
15. I should read many books if my eyes (not hurt) me.

II. Make sentences of unreal condition out of the following

sentences:

Example. He is not attentive; he makes many mistakes.

If he were attentive, he would not make many
mistakes.

1. He is busy; he does not come to see us.

2. The girl did not study well last year; she received bad
marks.
3. He broke his bicycle; he did not go to the country.
4. I am tired; I run around too much.
5. We speak English badly; we have no practice.
6. You did not see your aunt; you did not go to her
place.
131
 III. Translate into English, using the right forms of the Subjunc
tive Mood:
1. , .
2. , .
3. , .
4. ,
.
5. , .
6. ,
.
' 7. ,
1- .
8. ,
.
9. ,
.
10. ,
.
11. , .
. , , .

. Verbals
. The Infinitive
§ 100. — ,
,
.

, , .

, .

: to- — ,
,
to — ,
{work — to work).
.
1. :
sleep in the open air is more than pleasant, it is
healthy.
132
 To w alk uphill was rather difficult.
To w ait there was his only way out.
To speak much was not necessary.
2) :
likes to w rite with a fountain-pen.
My sister asked me to go there w ith her.
I told them not to w ait for me.
3)
( ):
Her duty is to answ er all letters.
To go there meant to break the promise.
To study well is to receive good sound knowledge.
Our task was to look after the smallest children.
§ 101.
.
1) :
1 like to read interesting stories.
To write this letter at once is absolutely necessary.
They wanted to buy flow ers for their classroom.
2) :
The old woman tried to walk quickly, but failed.
It is necessary to study systematically.
3)
( . § 148):
must work very hard.
You ought to write her a letter.
My friend could do this work quite well.
They began to speak English last year.
I would rather take this book.
4) :
Active Voice Passive Voice
Indefinite — write Indefinite — be w ritten
Continuous — be w riting
Perfect — have w ritten Perfect — have been written
Perfect Continuous — have
been w riting
133
 § 102.
,
1) ,
:
1 have brought you an interesting story to read ( = which
you can read).
Captain Petrov was the last to leave the ship ( = who left
the ship).
You will remember these words for many days to come
( = which will come).
2) ,
:
She brought the fountain-pen to have no difficulty in
w riting ( = lest she should have difficulty in writing).
They went there early to get good tickets ( = so that they
might get good tickets).
3) ,
:
The box was too heavy to be lifte d ( = s o heavy that it
couldn’t be lifted).
She was too young to study at school ( = s o young that
she could not study at school).
4) ,
. . + ,

:
They saw him fa ll. , .
I don’t want you to go there. ,
.
We have never heard the girl sing.
, .
My sister made me accompany her.
.
§ 103. to
. to
:
1)
can, must, may
should better, should rather:
134
He can p lay the violin. You should better consult the
She must be here at once. dictionary.
You may leave the room. He would rather sta y here.
2) , see, hear,
watch, fe e l, make, let:
I saw him play football.
Have you heard her recite the poem?
He w atched his little son build a sand castle.
The teacher made them copy the exercises.
Let me go, please!
§ 104. Indefinite Contin
uous ,
, :
We made him show us his drawings.
She likes to w rite long letters.
I don’t w ant to be sittin g in the room.
Perfect Perfect Continuous
, ,
:
I am glad to have w ritten the letter.
We know her to have been livin g here for two years.

§§ 100— 104. The Infinitive is a non-finite form of

the verb which has noun functions as well as verb
functions. As a noun it may be used as the subject,
object or predicative of a sentence. As a verb it takes
a direct object, is modified b y an adverb, is used as
part of a complex predicate, and has developed tense
and voice distinctions. It has the Indefinite, Continuous,
Perfect and Perfect Continuous forms in the Active
Voice and the Indefinite and Perfect forms in the
Passive Voice. The Infinitive may also be used
instead of an attributive clause, instead of an adverbial
clause of purpose or result and as part of a complex
object which corresponds to a Russian object clause.
The Infinitive without to is used after modal verbs
can, must, may in a complex predicate and after the
verbs see, hear, watch, fe el, make, let in a complex
object.

135
 E xercises

1. Point out w hat part of the sentence the Infinitive is and w hether
it has a noun or a verb function:

1. I have done all I could to help him.

2. He agreed to help us.
3. What makes you look like that?
4. To invite friends and to go w ith them for a walk was
his favourite entertainment.
5. The next evening 1 went to see his house.
6. The old woman’s favourite occupation is to watch the
children play.
7. 1 am too busy to go there more than once aweek.
8. This is a good place to rest.

II. Fill in the blanks with the particle to wherever necessary:

1. 1 want — sing the new song, but I cannot — do it, be

cause I have no ear for music.
2. Can’t you — make your boy — prepare his lessons well?
3. She wanted me — go there immediately.
4. You may — do it when you like; only remember that
this is — be done well.
5. We asked him — tell us the story in detail.
6. He watched the old man-— walk slowly uphill.
7. I never meant — offend you.
8. Let her — play as long as she wants.

III. Use Infinitive Constructions instead of the italicized subordinate

clauses:

1. The boys were the first who m et us.

2. We expect that she w ill come and help us.
3. Take another pencil that yo u may write better.
4. W rite down all their names lest you should fo rg e t
them.
5. He is so tall that he can’t go through this low door.
6. She saw that we drank the tea.
7. This is a good poem which yo u must learn by heart.
8. They invited their friends so that they might celebrate
together that w onderful event .
136
 . The Gerund

§ 105. — ,
, .

, . .
, .
:
1) :
Sm oking strong tobacco always makes him feel sick.
Talking with you is a real pleasure.
2)
:
We like p la yin g tennis.
She preferred staying at home.
He insisted on doing it quickly.
They spoke about visitin g their friend.
3)
( ):
Her task was looking after small children.
Talking without thinking means shooting w ithout aim.

:
On arriving there, we im m ediately went to the book
store.
Everything depends on your being here in time.
1 think o f m aking her a present.
, ,
,
Possessive Case:
I object to his playing football all day long.
M y brother’s going to the South upset all our plans.
§ 106.
:
1) :
After signing this document, the secretary went away.
You will find difficulty in solving this problem.
Reading good books is always useful.
137
 2) :
I don’t like walking slowly.
Speaking rudely was absolutely wrong.
He was sure of M ary’s coming early.
3)
( . § 148):
We couldn’t help laughing.
The boy sta rted running to the river.
Stop shouting and sit quietly.
, ,
:
Active Voice Passive Voice
Indefinite — reading Indefinite — being read
Perfect — having read Perfect — having been read

Indefinite ,
,
. Perfect ,
,
:
I like her reading it. , .
I like her being asked every day. ,
.
I like her having read it yesterday. ,
.
I like her having been asked already. ,
.
§ 107.

:
Your being absent last lesson does not free you from
handing in your composition = That you were absent last
lesson does not free you from handing in your composition.
Everything was done fo r your going there as soon as
possible— Everything was done that you might go there as
soon as possible.
1 was angry w ith her fo r being so lazy — \ was angry
with her because she was so lazy.
t38
 ,
,
:
Sm oking was strictly forbidden.
( ) .
I don’t like w alking slowly.
.
She insisted on my singing to them.
, .
On seeing us he smiled.
.
§ 108.
( ).
, :
avoid — go on )
delay — keep on} ^
fin ish — give up —
postpone \ „ . excuse —■
put off J mind —

Avoid using this word!

They delayed sta rtin g for the South.
1 don’t want to postpone w riting the composition.
It is tim e for me to finish helping you.
My uncle does not want to give up smoking.
We shall put off w riting the answer.
Please, excuse my interrupting you.
Why did she not go on speaking?
Do you mi nd my playing the piano?
The girl kept on bothering me.

, .
:

begin } " " " detest }

continue — prefer —
Jike } in te n d -
love )
139
 They started discussing (to discuss) this question.
We shall soon begin to study (studying) a new text.
Paul continued to make (making) his report.
I like singing (to sing) folk songs.
M other loved scolding (to scold) us in joke.
The children hated to walk (walking) tne long way to
the station.
She detests sittin g (to sit) idly.
We prefer to do (doing) it ourselves.
They intended speaking (to speak) to the director.

Stop, remember fo r g e t :

stopped smoking. .
stopped to smoke. , .
1 remember seeing you somewhere.
, - .
I rem ember to see you soon.
, .
forgot opening the window.
, .
forgot to open the window.
.

§ 109.

(Verbal Noun), -ing.

.
,
, ,
:

The building of the bridge is coming to the end.

He insists on building the bridge in that place.

, — :

Her quick understanding made it easy.

Her understanding it quickly was very pleasant.

140
 ;
:
All the sittin g s ! the comm ittee were over.
I don’t like their sitting there so late.
, ,
, ;

:
1 don’t believe in her understanding this poem.
The understanding o f this poem was not easy.

§§ 105— 109. The Gerund is a non-finite form of

the verb which, as well as the Infinitive, has both noun
and verb functions.
In its functions as a noun the Gerund may be used
in a sentence as Subject, Object or Predicative. It may
also be used with a preposition and can be modified
by a possessive pronoun or by a noun in the Possesive
Case.
In its function as a verb the Gerund takes a direct
object, is modified by an adverb, is used as part of
a complex predicate and has developed tense forms —
Indefinite and Perfect — and the forms of the Passive
Voice.
The Gerund may be used instead of subordinate
subject and adverbial clauses.

Different Functions of the Gerund and of the Verbal Noun

The Gerund The Verbal Noun
1. Has no articles; 1. Is used w ith articles;
Has no plural form. Has a plural form:
The sittings of the com
m ittee were over.
2. Is m odified by an adverb: 2. Is modified by an adjective:
W alking quickly is my Her slow w alking gets on
habit. my nerves.
3. Takes a direct object: 3. Cannot take a direct ob
He avoided mentioning ject:
her name. Even the m entioning o f
her name made him angry.
141
 E xercises
I. State the syntactical function of the Gerunds in the following:
1. I like skating better than any other sport.
2. His managing the sail-boat so skilfully saved him from
a shipwreck.
3. Portions of the brain may be cut off without producing
any pain.
4. Catching the dog was not an easy matter.
5. Your speaking so angrily makes me feel very sad.
6. I cannot go to his place without having prepared my
lessons first.
7. He didn’t like her for finding fault with everything he did.
8. On entering the hall he noticed something strange in the
corner.
II. Change the following clauses into the Gerund Constructions:
1. That he is clever is known to everybody.
2. The teacher is angry with them because they talk a t
the lessons.
3. When the boy saw that the perform ance was over he
went home.
4. His friends try to do their best that he may study
w ith them.
5. It has already been settled that you are going there.
III. Use the Gerund or the Infinitive or both after the verbs in the
following:
1. She always avoids (injure) the feelings of others.
2. I don’t like (sing), I prefer (dance).
3. Don’t w orry, I shall not forget (write) to you, and
you’ll know everything.
4. He w ent on (lecture) us for hours and hours.
5. I think I rem em ber (see) you at the Gallery.
6. He did not want to postpone (go) there.
7. The man stopped (drink) water and put the glass on
the table.
8. They stopped at the well (drink) some water.
IV. Translate into English, using the Gerund Constructions:
1. To, ,
.
142
2. , .
3. ,
.
4. - .
5. , ?
6. , .

. The Participle
§ 110. — ,
,
.
,
:
1) ( ):
A fa d in g flower lay on the table.
A new broadcasting station has begun to function.
Robinson Crusoe lived on a deserted island.
He has found a broken umbrella.
2) (
):
The news was exciting.
The charm of life was gone for Tom Sawyer.
The story is very amusing.
3)

.
We shall not be able to catch the train lea vin g at five.
The letter received yesterday was most welcome.
§ 111.
(
):
M ary came in singing loudly.
W histling, Tom left the house.

, , . .

:
143
 H avin g fin ish ed their supper, the boys started for the
door.
When the boys had fin ish ed their supper, they started
for the door.
B eing very tired, the travellers fell asleep immediately,
/Is the travellers were very tired, they fell asleep imme
diately.
,
:
— On seeing her I tho u gh t...
— Seeing her I thought..,

, , when
while-.
When looking through the book, I came across an inter
esting picture.
While crossing the street, the boy was stopped by a
stranger.

.
§ 112. , ,
.

Ф о р м ы п р и ч а сти я п е р е х о д н ы х гл а го л о в

tiv Passi v e
Present — w riting Present — being w ritten
Past — — Past — w ritten
Perfect — having written Perfect — having been w ritten

Ф о р м ы п р и ч а сти я н е п е р е х о д н ы х г л а го л о в

Active

Present — coming
Past — come
Perfect — having come
144
 P resent Participle Active Past Participle Passive
(
)— :
A running boy was seen through the window.
She gave me a w ritten exercise.
The story was well written.
Perfect P articiple Active Passive P resent Participle
passive
( ) :
H avin g w ritten the exercise, he left it to be checked.
B eing w ritten by the best composers, the songs were
very good.
H a vin g been w ritten by him before he began to study
seriously, the song was rather prim itive.

§ 113. ,
— Present Participle —
see, hear, fe e l
:
I saw her coming along the street.
M y friend heard, me speaking and came to greet me.
I f e l t the w ater rushing over me.
/ heard her sin g in the
n e x t room I heard her singing in the n e x t room
.
: ,
,
, : ,
.
— Past P articiple—
,
have + +
. ,
, ,
- :
I shall have photo taken.
( - ).
must have his hair cut.
( ).
10 143
 Have you had this article typed?
?
I saw the letters mailed.
, .
f e l t the chair broken.
, .

§ 114.
— Present Past Participles, Perfect P a r
ticip le— ,
(
),
.

— Absolute Nominative Participle Construction

( . § 181):
Kate h aving come from school, we sat down and began
to eat.
{ '. ),
.
W eather perm itting, we shall start at seven.
{ : ),
7.
The book being taken from me, I cannot work any more.
{ :
), .
The w o lf having been killed, they could now sleep in
peace.
. { :
), .

§§ 11 — 114. The Participle is a non-finite form of

a verb which has the functions of an adjective and
of an adverb and is used in a sentence as A ttri
bute, Predicative, and as an Adverbial Modifier. It
is often used instead of an attributive or an adverbial
subordinate clause.
The Participle has Present, Past and Perfect forms
and the forms of the Passive Voice.

146
 E xercises
I. State where you have the Participle, the Gerund and the Verbal
Noun:

1. There was a rustling that seemed like a bustling

Of m erry crowds justling and pitching and hustling;
Small feet were pattering, wooden shoes clattering,
Little hands clapping, and little tongues chattering,
And like fowls in a farm-yard where barley is scattering,
Out came the children running,
All the little boys and girls,
W ith rosy cheeks, and flaxen curls,
And sparkling eyes, and teeth like pearls,
T ripping and skipping ran m errily after
The wonderful music with shouting and laughter.
(R . Browning)

2. The balloon, shooting sw iftly into the clouds, was soon

lost to sight.
3. Next to being a great poet is the power of under
standing one.
4. P ete’s father watches with great interest the increasing
of the boy’s knowledge.
5. The city lies sleeping.

II. Change the Subordinate Clauses into Participle Constructions:

1. As my sister was very ill, I had to go alone.

2. When my mother had finished reading the book, she
put it aside.
3. No one ever saw the tall man who led the people on
that storm y day.
4. When breakfast was finished, we started for the
woods.
5. As they came inside the yard, they were shut in by
the gate.
6. The child smiled happily because it had received a
beautiful toy.
7. As my grandfather was told nothing about the trouble,
he felt comfortable and quiet.
8. When the bridge gave way, the fascist armoured train
fell into the river.
147
 III. Translate into English, using Participles and Participle Construc
tions:

1. , .
2. ,
.
3. ,
, , , ,
.
4. , .
5. , .
6. ,
.
7. ,
.
8. , .
9. , .

VI
. ADVERBS

§ 115.
.
:
well, bard, much, quite, enough, always, once, very, often.

~1
.
:
1)
, :
quick — quickly —
p a rt— partly —
day — daily —
slow — slowly —
easy — easily —
148
 2) ,
:
short — shortly —
hard — hardly —
near — nearly —
scarce — scarcely — - ,

,
§ 116.

Н аречия, с о в п а д а ю щ и е по ф орме с п р и л а га те л ь н ы м и

fast — ; wide — ;
long — , ; hard — ; ,

loud — ; early — ;
late — ;
They took a f a s t train. rode fa s t.
That was a long way. She w aited long.
We heard a loud noise. The teacher always reads loud
We went there by a late enough.
train. We came home late.
An early bird catches best You have come too early.
worms. She opened her eyes wide,
It was a w ide road. butsaw nothingin thedarkness.
It was a hard nut to crack. M artin worked hard at his
English.
.
, -1 , "
, :
lovely — , , friendly —
manly —
:
She did it in a lovely manner.
He speaks In a frien d ly way.
She held the rifle in a m anly fashion.
149
 ,
, -1 ,
:
bright — brightly; loud — loudly; slow — slowly
( )
hard — hardly; late — lately; near — nearly
( )
The sun shines bright (brightly).
She spoke loud (loudly).
The old man moved slow (slowly).
She works hard. .
She hardly works. ( ) .
They came late. .
The rabbits have lately become restless.
.
I live quite near. .
I have nearly forgotten about it.
.
Н аречия, с о в п а д а ю щ и е по ф орме с предлогам и и сою зам и:
after, before, since

Н аречия, с о в п а д а ю щ и е по форме с сою зам и:

when, where, but

1 shall speak to you a fte r When did you speak to'
dinner ( ). her? ( -,
I shall speak to you a fte r ).
you finish your dinner ( ). I asked her when she
I shall tell you about it would return ( -
a fte r (afterwards) ( ), ).
When she returns, I shall
He returned before sunset go to see her ( ),
( ).
He returned before I had Where is your friend?
time to go away ( ). ( ).
I have never seen him be- We don’t know where we
fo re ( ). shall meet (
).
They have not seen any- The boy liked to sit where
body since their arrival ( - old birches grew ( ),
).
150
 They have not seen anybo N obody saw him but I
dy since they arrived ( ). ( ).
They have not seen me The food was plain but
since ( ). wholesome ( ).
,

:
The boys slid o f f the steep hill, ( )
But I p u t it o f f and p u t it off. ( —
)
took it out of his pocket, ( )
I must fi n d out where she lives, ( —
)
She brought a new toy fo r her child, ( )
She was looking fo r her gloves, ( —
).
Please, put it on the table! ( )
Don’t p u t on this red dress! ( —
)

Syntactical Functions of Adverbs

§ 117.
, ,
, ,
. .
,
:
will come soon. The tea is very hot.
They did not come back. She speaks English rather
The sun is down-, therefore well,
it is dark.

, (Inter
rogative Adverb):
H ow can this be done?
Where is the source ofthis river?
When was that battle fought?
W hy is she angry with you?
151
 ,
(Relative Adverb):
It was in the year when the war broke out.
We could not find the house where he lived.
,
,
(Conjunctive Adverb):
When I shall do it is not clear yet.
The problem is where we shall find it.
I don’t see how you are going to do this work.

.
The Place of Adverbs in a Sentence
§ 118.

.
,
(Adverbs of Degree),
:
That is very good.
This room looks too dark.
She runs extremely fast.
enough,
,
:
It is not good enough.
She speaks English fluently enough.
,
(Adverbs of Definite Time),
:
We met him yesterd a y Yesterday we met him.
She is busy now N ow she is busy.
,
(Adverbs of Place),
:
We shall meet here.
We shall meet there soon.
152
 , ,
(Adverbs of Indefinite Time),

:
She always goes there on Sunday.
I have never seen such a beautiful picture.
We shall o fte n go to the club now.
He never drinks coffee in the evening.
, (Adverbs of
Manner), ,
, .
,
:
She sings beautifully.
I distinctly remember a hot afternoon at school.
He walked slowly.
They did their work very well.
only

,
:
Only I went there. .
I only went there. .
I went only there. .
I saw only him. .
. yes ( ), *
, ,
,
, .

.
Degrees of Comparison of Adverbs
§ 119.
.

, ,
,
(Adverbs of Manner),
153
 (Adverbs of
D efinite and Indefinite Time).

— most :

slowly — more slowly — most slowly

seldom — more seldom — m ost seldom

The horse waited pa tiently for his master. The dog

waited more patiently than the horse. We waited most
p a tiently for the train.
less
least ( ):
bravely — less bravely — least bravely
(
)
- — -est:
fast — fast er — fastest
soon — sooner — soonest

She sings quite loud but they want her to sing louder.
Of all the singers I have heard she sang loudest.

,
,
:

badly ( )— worse — worst

well ( )— better — best
little ( )— less — least
much ( )— more — most
far ( )-{

They played tennis worse than 1 had expected and among

them he played worst of all.
Now you speak better than you did last year.
1 like her best of all.
They went fa rth e r and farther.
He did not say anything further.
154
 §§ 115— 119. Adverbs in English are m ostly formed
from adjectives and nouns by adding the siffix ~ly.
M any adverbs have the same forms as adjectives,
conjunctions or prepositions.
There are adverbs denoting the time, place or m an
ner of an action or a degree of a quality or an action.
Adverbs are usually different kinds of adverbial
m odifiers in a sentence.
Adverbs which introduce interrogative sentences are
called Interrogative Adverbs.
Those introducing attributive clauses are called Rel
ative Adverbs. Adverbs which introduce subject, predicat
ive and object clauses are called Conjunctive Adverbs.
The place of an adverb in a sentence depends on
its character.
The only change in form adverbs have is when they
are compared. Adverbs of more than one syllable gener
ally form their comparative and superlative degrees by
prefixing more and most (or less and least). Adverbs
of one syllable form their comparative and superlative
degrees by adding the suffixes -er and -est. Some ad
verbs form their degrees of comparison from different
roots.

E xercises
I. Point out all the adverbs in the following and state their function;
1. He broke his bicycle yesterday.
2. The plane flew high in the sky.
3. The water rushed forth.
4. That class was especially interested in history.
5. An extravagantly high price was paid.
6. The man slowly, gravely and silently approached.
7. N obody ever stopped him in the street to ask, “My
dear Scrooge, how are you?”
8. The bell swung so softly at the outset that it scarcely
made a sound, but soon it rang out loudly, and so did every
bell in the house.
9. In came all the people, one after another; some shyly,
some boldly, some gracefully, some awkwardly, some push
ing, some pulling, in they all came, anyhow.
155
 10. It was still very foggy and extremely cold, there was
no noise of people running to and fro.
11. “S p irit,” said Scrooge submissively, “conduct me
where you w ill.”
12. When will they speak better?
13. She silently showed me the place where she had left
the child.
14. We often went there, therefore we knew when he would
be at home.
II. Put the adverbs in the following sentences in the Comparative
or the Superlative Degree:
1. The hare ran (fa st) than the tortoise but he was (far)
from the aim.
2. I can’t make out what you are saying; speak (slowly)
and (distinctly).
3. Of all the New Year’s Eves this one was celebrated
by us (joyfully).
4. That day Nick came home (late) than usual.
5. He always stays there (long) of all.
6. You must work (hard) than you do now.
7. I like her (well) of all my pupils.
8. They don’t want to w rite the dictation (bad) than we
did.
III. Put the adverbs in their right place in the sentence:
1. The weather was gloom y on that day. (extremely)
2. I have seen a talking parrot, (never)
3. We shall go to the country, (tomorrow)
4. My aunt Helen lives with her little daughter, (here)
5. The boys opened that magazine, (seldom)
6. I looked at the apple, I didn’t touch it. (only)
7. Poor Tom has realized how long it is from breakfast
to dinner, (never, before)
8. His father has been in the Far East two years.
(nearly)
9. I could thank my sister. (hardly , enough)
10. Everything was ready, (quite, soon)
IV. Translate into English:
1. .
2. .
3. .
156
 4. ,
.
5.
.

VII
. CONJUNCTIONS
§ 120. ,

, (coordinate)
(subordinate).

:
There were two chairs and a table in that room.
You may take either this pen or that one.
Her dress was old but very neat.
My friends all came to see me off,and I was very glad
to see them at the station.
I have lived all my life in Moscow, but I have never
been in this street.
She does not know this song, fo r she has not seen the
new film.

:
I cannot come because I am busy.
She will help you with your work i f she can find time.
Although it was rather warm in the sun, it was still cold
in the shade.
Our journey was easy when at last we had found the
right path.
Hit the ball as I do.
Unless something unexpected happens, 1 shall come w ith
out fail.
We parted where the river turned to the right.

, . . ,
.
157
 § 120. Conjunctions in English are used to connect
words and clauses. There are coordinate conjunctions
which connect the same parts of speech and also inde
pendent clauses, and subordinate conjunctions which
join subordinate clauses to the principal clause.

E xercises
I. Fill in the blanks with one of the following conjunctions:
because, as if, as, unless, so... as, as. .. as, both... and
1. I cannot go out — you return my umbrella.
2. We must leave at eight o’clock — the parade forms
at nine.
3. Our assistant is — capable — willing.
4. I knew you would come — you promised me you
would.
5. Lucy is not — clever-—her brother.
6. I will come — fast — I can.
7. I wish I could play tennis — my cousin Misha does.
8. The clock sounds — it needed winding.
9. The boys were — quick — strong.
10. This evening is n o t— cold — the last.
11. You will not go to the park — you finish all your
lessons.
12. She looks — she had never seen anything like it.
H. Use these conjunctions and connective words in the following
sentences:
therefore because for this reason
consequently thus as a result
for in this way
I. 1 had not studied my lessons for two weeks. — I could
not answer the questions in the text.
2. The train was half an hour late. — 1 missed the first
three numbers on the program.
3. 1 tried to help him — I felt sorry for him.
4. Mark turned to the right when he reached the corner.
— he m issed his father, who came up the street.
5. I could not give a report — I had not the book.
158
 6. M illy’s little sister is ill. — M illy has not been at school
this week.
7. I made my machine lighter than his. — it was easier
to manage.
8. The boy sent his letter to the wrong address. — it was
not delivered.
9. I telephoned the message to Philip. — no time was
lost in getting started.
10. You can carry soup or coffee in a thermos b o ttle .—
you can always have something hot for lunch.

VIII
. PREPOSITIONS
§ 121.
,

,
( , ,
, ):
She wants a book on chemistry.
I sent a letter to him.
We shall meet a t five.
Columbus went over to the natives.
They are fond o f swimming in the river.
The girl looked out o f the window.
Now he always writes with his fountain-pen.
§ 122.
( , ),
.
,
:
We came to a large, grey stone house.
The windows o f his room were opened wide.
I insist on going there now.
,
{where? w hat? whom?),
159
 ,
, :
Where ars you corning from ? I am coming from school.
What are you sitting on? I am sitting on a bench.
W hat are you looking at? I am looking a t the aeroplane.
Whom did you speak about? I spoke about that boy.
§ 123.
,
. — of, by,
zvith, to, for.
1) of ,
, ,
,
Possessive Case:
The roof o f the house looked old.
He opened the door o f his room.
2) by
,
, :
It was w ritten by a young writer.
They were surrounded by a group of boys.
3) with ,
,
, :
killed the snake with a stone.
The v/all was decorated with flowers.
4) to fo r
, :
Give this book to your teacher.
They prepared good meals fo r the children.
§ 124.

,
, .

,
160
 , , at, in, on
:
a t home, in the box, on the table,
:
a t six o’clock, in January, on Monday.
:

. Prepositions of place
on: The spoon is on the tray, ( )
in: The pen is in the box. \ (
at: She works a t an office. / )
under: The dog is sleeping under the table, (nod)
in front of: The blackboard is in fron t o f me. ( )
near: Our house is near the river, ( , )
across: The train went across the fields, ( )
between: A village between two hills, ( )
among: I saw a light among the trees, ( , )

. Prepositions of Direction
to: We went to the station, ( , , )
into: She put the pencil into the box. ( = )
towards: He was moving towards the door, (
)
from: I am coming from the cinema, ( , )
out of: She took a handkerchief out o f the drawer.
( — )

. Prepositions of Time
on: Come on Monday. 1^
in: Spring begins in March.
at: Our lesson will begin a t ten o’clock
before: Michael rose before dawn, ( , )
after: I shall speak to you a fte r the lesson, ( )
until: They will stay here until next week, (do)
till: We stayed there till June, (do)
during: 1 saw many interesting things during my vaca
tion. ( )
between: He was here between two and three o’clock.
( )
161
 .
in, at, by
:
at sunrise in the morning by day
at sunset in the daytime by night
at dawn in the evening
at noon late in the night
at night
( ,
. IV.)

§§ 121— 124. Prepositions in English show the

relations of the words in a sentence.
Prepositions stand before nouns or noun equival
ents; when nouns have attributes, prepositions stand
before the attributes.
The prepositions o f, by, with, to and fo r express
the relations of the Russian Cases — Possessive, Instru
mental and Dative.

О с н о в н ы е зн а ч е н и я н е к о т о р ы х п ред л огов

At 1. is at the station.
( , , , ) I am sitting at my table.

2. ( ; ) He came at noon.
Come at five o’clock.

On 1. The book is on the table.

( )
2. , ( ) This is a book on chemistry.
3. ( ; , What do you do on your day
) off?
Come on Monday.
I shall go there on the 2nd of
June.

162
 in 1. The letter is in my drawer.
( ) He is in the room.
2. ( ; It took place in 1925.
, ) Spring begins in March.

1. ( , They went to the concert.

) He came to Moscow last year.
2. Let us go to the Picture Gallery.
Give this book to the teacher.

Into Put the book into my drawer.

He fell into a pool.

From 1. ( , We are coming from the theatre.

) Take the book from the shelf.
2. (, ) I shall be busy from ten till one.

Before ( , ) It took place before sunrise.

It happened 200 years before
our era.

Till ( ) Till the end of this week I

shall be very busy.
From ten till one we shall have
lessons.

About 1. 0 , Please, tell me about this affair.

This is a story about a little
boy.
2. ( , He wandered about our house.
) Come about two o’clock.
3. ( ) It was about midnight when he
came home,

163
 For 1. ( ) I have lived here /o r two years.
He has been waiting for you
for three hours.
2. ( ) I went for a walk.
3. That can be useful for you.
Here is a present for Kate.
4. ( ) We left for Leningrad at 10
o’clock.
The train for the Caucasus is
due at five.

Of 1. Workers o f the world, unite!

The harvest o f this year is very
( ? rich.
?)
2. , You must never speak badly of
him.

With 1. We write with pencils.

This field can be mown with
a scythe.
( ?)
2. , I went there with him.
3. , ( , Her face was pale with fear.
) He was quite red with anger.

By 1. This was done by me.

This novel is written by a well-
known writer.
( ?)
2. They spent the evening by the
( , , ) fireplace.
He sat for hours by his
brother’s bedside.

164
 E xercises
I. State what part of speech the italicized words are (preposition,
conjunction, adverb):
1. He sat down on a stone beside the road.
2. Though he walked f a s t enough, he was soon left
behind.
3. W ait here until I come back.
4. Of all the books mentioned above this one is the
most interesting.
5. I shall tell you all about it when we meet again.
6. She turned round but saw nobody.
7. I shall stay here till the end of the week.
8. Don’t come in until 1 call you.
9. We waited outside the house until it was nearly
dark.
10. We shall meet where the oak-tree stands and then
we shall stay there till dark.
11. They came a fte r us.
12. He swam across.
13. The house stands across the road.
14. He stood before the road.
15. They have not spoken to me before.
16. He gave up the idea of going there. '
II. Fill in the blanks with the prepositions in, at, about, of, w ith,
to, on, by, between, fro m , till:
1. W hat are you talking — ?
2. When I am — home I work — the garden — the mor
ning, read and write — the afternoon, and visit my friends — the
evening. I rise — dawn and go — bed — ten o’clock.
3. — the d o o r— summer evenings
Sat the little Hiawatha;
Heard the whispering — the pine-trees,
Heard the lapping — the water.
(W . Longfellow)

4. She was sitting — the pavement and beating it — a

bit — branch decorated — three or four brown leaves.
5. Supplies — food, water, and ammunitions were rushed —
the fighting men.
6. The first word — every sentence should begin — a
capital letter.
165
 7. P eter was born — a little town — 1925, — the 2nd of
May.
8. Nelly returned — school — five o’clock — the afternoon.
9. He was suddenly stopped — the voice — a soldier on
guard.
10. The explorers were brought back — the Arctic re
gions — Murmansk.
11. There is a great difference — age — my brother
and me.
12. I took the knife — the baby.
13. Your hat is different in shape — mine.
14. — July I shall go — the country and shall stay there —
September.
 II

I
.
KINDS AND TYPES OF SENTENCES

. Kinds of Sentences
§ 125.
:
1) (Declarative).
2) (Interrogative).
3) (Exclamatory).
4) (Imperative).

Declarative Sentences
§ 126.
(affirmative) (negative):
The sky was clear, the sun shone bright, everything was
in peace. (A declarative affirmative sentence.)
The village was not far from that place.
(A declarative negative sentence.)

Word Order in the D eclarative (Affirmative) Sentence

Indirect Direct Prepositional

Subject Predicate
Object Object Object

1. He gave me a book.
2. The mother was singing — a song to her child.
3. This woman is a teacher. — — —
4. She teaches us English. —
5. The boy took the ball from the baby.

167
 - , -
.
:
— —
— — .
—
—
( . §§ 156— 158, 161).

- .
:
— —
— — .’
:
1) - :
does not take English lessons from her.
2)
:
None in time.
I saw nothing.
He will take it from nobody.
3) —
:
i have never seen her.
He could find her nowhere.

:
1) never sees anybody ( —
).
2) does not ever see anybody (
- ).
3) always sees nobody (
— ).
§ 127. Present Past Indefinite

do not + 1- :
163
 Present In d efin ite
I do not sing we do not sing
— you do not sing
be, she, it does not sing they do not sing
Past Indefinite
I did not sing we did not sing
— you did not sing
he, she, it did not sing they did not sing
— Continuous,
Perfect, Perfect Continuous Passive Voice, Future
Indefinite,
not
:
I shall not go there.
He will not speak with you.
The paper was not brought.
She is not reading now.
At 5 o’clock we shall not be leaving.
They have not arrived yet.
We had not gone five minutes when he caught up w ith
us.
I have not been reading English for two or three months.
have be ,

do, not
( ):
is not in Moscow now.
She had no time.
no
have
there is, there are, ,

:
: I have sister.
: I have not many sisters.
She has no fountain-pen.
Ho: She has not tw o fountain-pens.
169
 There is no cupboard in this room.
Ho: There are not many pictures in this magazine.
can, mast, ought, may
not
' :
We could not go there.
You must not work now.

:
don’t, doesn’t, isn’t, wasn’t, haven’t, can’t, won’t, shan’t.
do
,
:
does not do anything in the evening.

E xercises
I. Build correct declarative sentences out of the following words:
1. On, three, women, sitting, old, were, the, rocks.
2. Gets, up, in, very, he, summer, early.
3. Like, does, he, not, stories, short, to read.
4.’ Him, Mary, an, book, interesting, gave.
5. No, the, boys, skates, had, steel.
6. Looked, curiously, the, boy, her, at.
7. Was, a, woman, little, she, a, face, round, with.
8. Small, they, a, field, reached.
9. Never, as, so, have, today, happy, been, I.
10. Wants, English, to speak, she, well.
II. Change the following affirmative sentences into negative sentences:
1. He is w riting a letter.
2. She lives in Moscow now.
3. They have been studying all the time.
4. We wanted to get there late.
6. You will receive all the necessary information.
6. He had finished the lesson by 6 o’clock.
7. I have seen her recently.
8. She is a good pianist.
170
 9. Sophy had a dog.
10. She can speak loud.
11. They went to the station early.

Interrogative Sentences

§ 128. (Interrogative Sen

tences) .
:
1)
.

be, have, shall, will, should, would

must, may, can be
have .

-— ;
.
:
(
) ( ,
).
, :
H ave you been there?
Is he sleeping in that room?
Shall we see her?
W ill you stand over there?
Shall we stay for another hour?
Can she write without mistakes?
M ust I do it alone?
May we enter the room?
, !
be have ,
:
Is he in Moscow now?
Were you at home last night?
Has she a sister?
2) do
. -
Present Past Indefinite. do
171
 ,
— ;
:
Do you read newspapers regularly?
Does she know any foreign languages?
D id you see your friends yesterday?
D id they speak at the meeting?
3) -
—
(
).

:
what? — ?, ?
who? — ?
whom? — ?
whose? — ?
which? — ?, ?
:
when? — ?
where? — ?, ?
how? — ?
why? — ?
)
,
,
, do :
What is lying on the table?
Who came to see you yesterday?
What lesson begins at 2 o’clock?
Which month o f the yea r is the shortest?
)
, — ,
Present Past Indefinite do:
What have you put on the table?
Whom did you see yesterday?
What story does she know in English?
When will you come to see me?
Where is he sitting?
172
 . WORD ORDER IN THE SENTENCE

-
-00
-

- 1/0 01
-aHifouoff
.

-ffadu 9
, -(
-sifaffaduo )

{jraHaii-Birow
-IfOUOtf 0 8 0
oai34if3iKOi390

a uojEifj

(waHHairairaduo o)
OJOH8BI3

BJOIf

IfOJEL'J
- 81 1 1 01 90

{JOHhHIf a L'OJEIfJ
OJOW

-
<
HHawada 05

00

-
Tomorrow this man will give his book,

M
a 1
My sister is a teacher of
English here,

01 (1
,
1
Basil likes to go to school in winter.

1 80 1 80
£
C
can this man give you his book?

05 II
Is your sister a teacher of
English here?
Does Basil to go to school in winter?
n

01
like I

II I 1
Who buy the book for my sister tomorrow?

-tfadu 30H4i:3iH3odaog

173
 .
ORDER OF WORDS IN THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE
i. . The Inverted Order of Words

.
.
1
:

j
Are you a teacher?
— she speak English?
Did Nick see him?

Whom did you meet there?

Where shall we go now?
—
How has it happened?
Why is Vera reading so slowly?

II. . The D irect Order of Words

.
( ,
)

Who works here?

—
What is lying on the table ?
( Who has read the story?
) What books were brought yesterday?

§ 129.
:
1) (General
Questions).
:
Is he smoking a pipe? Yes, he is.
Does she know anybody here? No, she doesn’t.
174
 2) (Alternative
Questions).
, or.
.
.

,
:
Is he smoking a pipe, or is he smoking a cigarette?

Is he smoking a pipe or a cigarette?

He is smoking a pipe.
Does he live in Moscow, or does he live in Leningrad?

Does he live in Moscow or in Leningrad?

He lives in Moscow.
Will you stay for another hour, or must you leave now?
I shall stay for another hour.
Was Peter in the camp last summer, or was he in town?
He was in town.

3) (Special
Questions). -
, ,
, :
W hat is he smoking? — He is smoking a pipe.
Whom does she know here? — She does not know any
body.
Where are you going? — I am going to the concert.
Who was in the camp last year? — George was.
W hat comes after winter? — Spring does.

4) (Disjunc
tive Questions). -

.
,
— .
,
— . (
175
 , —
).
:
is smoking a pipe, isn’t he? — Yes, he is.
She does not know anybody here, does she? — Mo, she
does not.
You will stay with us for another hour, won’t you? — Yes,
I shall.
Oleg was not in the camp, was he? — Mo, he was not.
. ,
: ,
, .
doesn't smoke, does he7 : No, he doesn't
Yes, he does.

E xercises
I. Put questions referring to every word of the sentence:
Example. He gave me an interesting book.
Who gave me an interesting book?
What did he give me?
Whom did he give an interesting book?
What book did he give me?
1. A wonderful idea crossed his mind.
2. At two o’clock he got up and went to the small station.
3. On the doorstep lay her blue handkerchief.
4. Yesterday he bought a very pretty tie.
5. He entered the room quickly and noiselessly.
6. My sister bought two pots of flowers at the market.
II. Put general, alternative, special and disjunctive questions to each
sentence:
Example. My friend will arrive at five o’clock tomorrow.
General question: Will your friend arrive at five o’clock
tomorrow?
Alternative question: Will your friend arrive at five
o’clock tomorrow, or will he arrive
at seven?
Special questions: 1. Who will arrive at five o’clock
tomorrow?
2. When will your friend arrive?
176 . . . . . .
Disjunctive questions: • 1. Your friend will arrive at five
o’clock tomorrow, won’t he?
2. Your friend will not arrive at five
o’clock tomorrow, will he?
1. Her uncle lives in Moscow now.
2. The girl has returned very quickly.
3. They saw a beautiful picture.
4. We met the student in the street.
5. The cat is playing with a mouse.

Exclam atory Sentences

§ 130. (Exclamatory
Sentences) -
: , , , ,
.
:
1) .
,
,

.
, — ,

:
Have you ever heard of such a thing!
Could you imagine such behaviour!
2) how what,
; . ,
,
how what.
How amusing it is! «
W hat nasty weather we are having today!
W hat a beautiful child!
How sweetly she sings!
3) (
- ):
Nonsense! Lucky boy!
Poor girl! A most unfortunate day!
12 177
 Im perative Sentences

§ 131. (Imperative Sen

tences) .
-
( . § 96).
,
, .
, ,

please — . -
(
):
Go to the blackboard! Let us read this article!
Speak louder! Let them bring it here!
Please open the window! Speak louder, please!

§§ 125— 131. There are the following kinds of

sentences in English:
1) A Declarative Sentence which either states a fact
(declarative affirm ative) or denies something (declarative
negative).
2) An Interrogative Sentence which expresses a
question.
3) An Exclam atory Sentence which expresses strong
feelings: astonishment, surprise, delight, joy, anger,
indignation, etc.
4) An Imperative Sentence which expresses a com
mand or a request.
Each kind of sentence has its own word order and
a typical intonation.

. Types of Sentences
§ 132.
:
1) (Simple Unextended
Sentences);
2) (Simple Extended Sen
tences);
173
 3) :
) - (Complex Sentences).
) - (Compound Sentences).
4) (Contracted Sentences).

§ 133.
(A Simple Unextended Sentence)
, . . :
I am writing. Do you play?
The boy has fallen. Has he come?
Michael is a sportsman. Are you reading?
It is getting cold. You m ustn’t ask.
I can read. She is not an actress.
You may go. 1 see.
§ 134. (A Simple
Extended Sentence), —
, —
,
: , ,
(Object, Attribute, Adverbial Modifiers).
-'
-,
:
I am w riting a letter. Do you play chess?
The boy has fallen from the Has he come from school?
chair. Are you reading the news-
Michael is a good sportsman. paper?
It is getting cold in the room. You m ustn’t ask too many
I can read English books. questions.
You may go home now. She is a famous actress.
§ 135.
,
,
.
(Incomplete).
1)
:
Thank you! Don’t know anything about him.
179
 2) , :
Here was the little fountain. And here — the old stone
seat.

.
. ,
,

,
. Present Past Indefinite,
*
do\

H ave you been on a collective farm? Yes, I have.

W ill you go there tomorrow? Yes, I shall.
Did he speak at the meeting yesterday? Yes, he did.
D o you smoke? No, I don't.
M ust I speak? Yes, you must.
Could she come? No, she couldn't.

- ,
, ,
to'.

“You have hurt me!” — “I am sorry! I didn’t mean to ’ ( . e. I didn’t

mean to hurt you).
“Have you ever read Shakespeare?” — “No, but I am going to ’ ( . e.
am going to read Shakespeare).

3) , -
:

Very glad to see you. .

Sorry I’m late. , .
Kept in the library. .
Talking of literature? ?
Always ready! !
In at one ear and out at the ,
other. .
Never heard of such a thing!
!
No smoking! !
180
 E xercises

I. In the following extract point out simple unextended sentences

and simple extended sentences:

An hour passed. The pale light of the short, sunless day

was beginning to fade. A cry arose. The man in front
turned his head. He looked at the man behind. They nodded
to each other over the narrow box. A second cry arose. It
was a wolf.
Henry looked up. It was dark. He saw a pair of eyes,
then a second pair, and a third. The dogs were afraid. Bill
could not sleep. He saw the shining eyes quite near.
(After J. London.)

II. Change the following simple unextended sentences into simple

extended sentences by adding some secondary parts of the sentence:

1. She is reading. 6. Do you smoke?

2. Mark has arrived. 7. They can skate.
3. It was grow ing dark. 8. We did not talk.
4. I must leave. 9. Tom was restless.
5. Is he a poet? 10. She has become a singer.

§ 136.

, -
(the Complex Sentence);
,
-
(the Compound Sentence). ,
- -
, - a clause [kb:z].
a Principal Clause;
— a Subordinate Clause;
, -
— an Independent Clause.
181
 § 137. (a Contracted Sentence)

,
.
-
( ) -
:
M y fa th e r and mother went to the theatre.
Leo, N ick and N elly were playing in the room.
He w anted to speak to his father, but was a fr a id to
do so.

- :
M y fa th e r went to the theatre, and my mother went to
the theatre too.
Leo was playing in the room, N ick and N elly were
playing with him there.
He w anted to speak to his father, but he was a fra id to
do so.

§§ 132— 137. There are the following types of

sentences in English:
1) Simple Unextended Sentences which consist of
the principal parts only — the subject and the predicate;
2) Simple Extended Sentences which contain some
secondary parts (attributes, objects, adverbial modifiers)
besides the principal parts;
3) Complex Sentences which consist of a principal
clause and one or more dependent subordinate clauses;
4) Compound Sentences which consist of two or
more independent clauses joined together by means of
coordination;
5) Contracted Sentences that consist of two or more
subjects to the same predicate or two or more predi
cates to the same subject and which can be developed
into Compound Sentences.

E xercises
Point out what type of sentences there are in the following
(Simple Unextended, Simple Extended, Complex, Compound or
Contracted):
182
 The fascist airman was mad w ith rage. He made more
and more attacks on the train. At last he was sure of his
mark, the locomotive driver had made his first mistake, but
he had no more bombs left.
“The devil!” exclaimed the airman. He swooped down and
fired his machine-guns straight at that Russian worker whose
skill and courage made mock of him and who was driving
the train undamaged to its destination. The bullets rattled
on the train, they struck the wheels, the lines and the loco
motive itself, but still the train rolled on.
The fascist leaned back in his cockpit exhausted. The
sky was clear. It was a beautiful mild autumn morning.
He had no more ammunition left. The duel was over. The
Russian driver below him had won. He felt a cold shiver
run down his spine. Once more he dived and full of curiosity
and hate flew over the train. He could not see the keen
eyes of the driver watching him. The Russian realized that
the fascist airman could do him no further harm. “You’ve
lost your sting, you viper!" he shouted.
The long goods train, loaded with munitions for the
Soviet Army, continued on its way to the front.

. Inversion
§ 138.
(
, ,
)
. .
.
§ 139. , . .

,
,
- .
:
H ave you ever been there? ( .)
:
Little did the lazy boy care for his work.
,
(
183
 - ), ,
,
(
):
When d id you see her? ]
Is she a teacher? ' ( .)
Down came the boy. )
Last month they were in the country, j (
Two years ago she came to Moscow. 1
There he met his friend. j '?

§ 140. :
1) ,
,
:
How d id you get there?
Why is she not here?
M ust I speak louder?
Has she already done this work?
Is he playing or is she ?
( .)
H o: Who is on duty today?
Which o f you has done it?
W hat book is this?
( .)
2) there is, there are:
There are many streets in this town.
There is a good monument in that square.
( .)
3)
,
, . .:
“I have often been here.” — “So have / . ”
“She has not seen that film .” — “Neither have I.”
“1 did not see her.” — “Neither d id he.”
“They can speak English now.” — “So can w e.”
( .)
184
 4) , never,
hardly, scarcely, only then:
N ever have I seen such a strange person!
H ardly had he begun to play when a crowd gathered
around him.
Scarcely had I time to finish the letter when she came in.
Only then d id I understand what she meant.
( .)

. Present Past Indefinite

do.

) ,
, ,
;
, -— :

Down fe ll the watch and broke to pieces.

Up stood the man and began his fiery speech.
Out rushed the boy.
( .)

D ow n it fe ll and broke to pieces.

Up he stood and began his fiery speech.
Out he rushed.
( .)

§§ 138— 140. The usual English fixed word order

with the subject preceding the predicate is sometimes
changed so that the predicate precedes the subject.
Such word order is called inversion.
There may be grammatical inversion which is re
quired by the structure of a given sentence, and emphatic
inversion in which emphasis is laid on some part of
a sentence.
Inversion may be complete (full) when the subject
is preceded by a finite verb of the predicate, and partial
when one or more secondary parts of the predicate group
precede the subject.

185
 II
. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

.
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

. The Subject
§ 141.

:
1) :
The girl rose and began to speak.
The workers and peasants o f the U.S.S.R. are always
ready to defend their socialist country.
The Soviet Army is our guard of peace.
W inter is cold in northern countries.
2) ,
,
, ,
,
( . . ,
, . § 33):
is our best teacher.
W e like him very much.
This is very pleasant to hear.
Those were her words.
There are two knives on the table; mine is lying nearer to
you, hers is better than mine.
Who is here?
Nobody knows what lies there.
The chair which stands at the window is broken.
Somebody had come unexpectedly on business and every
body was excited.
Is anything wrong?
Each gave me an apple.
Either of these pictures is pleasant to look at.
One must be careful w ith this tool.
Some spoke, others were silent.
186
3) ,
:
Thousands are ready to join the trade-unioni _
How many apples shall I give him? — Two will be enough.
Of these two books the fir s t is the better.
4)
:
The rich lived in a different part of this Chinese city.
The wounded are nursed in hospitals.
) :
To know a rule means to use it correctly.
R eading newspapers is my everyday habit.
6) :
Two times three makes six.
7) :
W hat you said yesterday was perfectly right.

, ,

,
.

§ 142. 3-
it
:
1) It —
,
:
Haven’t you seen my pen? I t was here a minute ago.
We liked the cottage. I t was so tiny and neat.
2) It
:
It is raining. It is cold. It will be snowing in a minute.
It is twilight. It is getting dark. I t has grown quite cold.
187
 :
It is easy to remember these rules.
It was necessary to read the story twice before retell
ing it.
It is im portant that you should remember the words of
this poem well.
It is tim e that they should know the spelling rules.
3) It :
It is my brother. It was the happiest day of my life.
It was so interesting that the boys decided to continue
making the radio-sets themselves.

§§ 141— 142. The subject of a sentence may be

expressed by a noun, by a noun-substituting pronoun,
by a numeral both cardinal and ordinal, by a substan
tivized adjective or participle, by an infinitive or a
gerund, by a group of words, by a whole subject-
clause.
The personal pronoun it, 3rd person singular, neuter
gender, has three different functions as a subject. It may
be used instead of a noun, singular, neuter gender; it may
be the subject of an impersonal sentence; and it may be
used as a demonstrative pronoun.

E xercises
Underline all the subjects in the following sentences and state by
w hat parts of speech they are expressed:
1. “Oliver Twist has asked for m ore!” There was a gen
eral start.
“Do I understand that he asked for more after he had
eaten the supper?” said Mr. Limbkins.
“He did, S ir,” replied Bumble.
“That boy will be hung,” said the gentleman in the white
waistcoat.
Nobody controverted his opinion.
(After Ch. Dickens.)

188
 2. The killing of a bear is dangerous. But to kill a mother
bear with her cubs is much more dangerous.
3. 1 said: “W atching you do this is of real use to m e.”
4. We were fifteen boys. We divided into two groups.
Five went to the left to search the forest, and ten remained
at the fire to watch the river.
5. I had to give her my overcoat. Hers was wet all
through.
6. He said: “I think that will do,” and rose wiping his
brow. The bicycle also looked dishevelled and bleeding.
Which had received most punishm ent was difficult to say.
(After Jerome K. Jerome.)

7. It was necessary to argue with him on this point.

8. How to decide this question was beyond us.

. The Predicate

§ 143.

.
(simple), (compound), (complex)
(group-verb).
§ 144. (Simple Predicate)
.
, :
The train arrived at the station and we were met by our
friend.
What have you been doing here all the time?
While the pie is being baked, I am s ittin g and w riting
you this letter.
He ordered that the girl bring him that ring at once.
Go there now lest you should be late.
§ 145. (Compound Predicate)
- (Link-Verb) —
(Predicative). -
, ,
,
.
189
 ,
:
is a doctor. M y friend has become an
The weather is g ettin g cold. engineer.
The meal looked attractive. These girls w ill be our new
She remained quiet. pupils.
§ 146. -
be,
:
mean, feel; continue, remain, keep; become, grow, get,
turn; seem, appear, look.
continue, remain, keep ,
, ,
. become, grow, get, turn
, ,
, - ;
turn .
seem, appear, look
:
is neighbour. .
The girl is pale. .
The ground fe e ls cold. .
I fe e l cold ( ).
This French word means “an apple”.
„ 11.
continued silent. (
).
She remained pale. .
They kept melancholy. .
Luba has become an artist. .
She became silent. ( ).
It grew dark. ( ).
She grew thin. ( ).
It is g e ttin g cold. .
She turned red. .
Mother seemed tired. .
He appeared frightened. .
These children look happy.
.
190
 § 147. (Predica
tive), ,
,
,
. Predicative
:
1) :
This young girl is my sister.
He became quite an old man.
He remained a true friend.
2) :
It is very pleasant. The weather is getting cold.
The air grew cooler. She seemed well-dressed.
The noise was tiring. The garden looked large.
The table is round. She kept silent.
3) ,
, ,
,
:
That was he. I don’t know what she will
become.
Suppose it’s we that have A child that he was, he un
to go. derstood much.
This pencil is mine. This is the one I liked best.
1 never knew that this watch That was something new.
was his. That is all I can tell you.
W hat is he? That was nothing.
4) ,
:
They were fiv e . We were three.
He rem ained the fir s t. I was the second to come.
) :
His task was to guard the stores.
Going there now means spoiling everything.
6) :
is out. She was f a r away. The lesson is over.
191
 7)
(a prepositional phrase):
1 am a t a loss. The letter was fo r me.
8) :
But that was not what I had expected to see.
§ 148. (Complex Predicate)
( )+
,
(Complex Modal Predicate).
, ,
+
;
(Complex Aspective Predicate):

Complex Modal Predicates Complex Aspective Predicates

I cannot do anything more. She began to sin g a beauti
You may take it if you like. ful song.
He ought to do this work. We sta rted looking around.
They must copy this lesson. Stop crying so bitterly.
You should better speak to We haven't fin ish e d copying
him first. yet.
We couldn’t help laughing. They continued to smile at us.
They had to leave without We shall go on reading.
delay.
What am 1 to do?
§ 149. (Group-Verb Predicate)
,
,
:
She took care of the children. .
We soon lost sight of the ship.
.
She always took a w alk before sunset.
.
They had a talk and went to the cinema.
.
We soon made frie n d s with this boy.
.
192
 § 150. ,
, there
is, there are. there

, ,

.
,
, :
There are five mistakes in your dictation.
.
There were children and dogs, mud and stone, noise and
clatter in that narrow street of a Chinese town.

, , .

§§ 143— 150. The Predicate in English may be

Simple, Compound, Complex and Group-Verb.
A Simple Predicate is expressed by a finite verb
only which may be in any tense, voice, or mood.
A Compound Predicate consists of a link-verb and
a predicative. The link-verb links the subject and the
predicative and shows the tense, the voice and the
mood, and agrees with the subject in number and in
person. The predicative characterizes the subject.
A Complex Predicate consists either of a modal verb
(or a modal expression)-!-the infinitive or the gerund
(in which case it is called a Complex Modal Predicate),
or of a verb showing the beginning, the continuation,
or the end of the action + the infinitive or the gerund
(in which case it is called a Complex Aspective Pred
icate).
A Group-Verb Predicate consists of a finite verb
and a noun fused together into a single sense-unit.
There is also a predicate of a special kind, expressed
by the constructions there is, there are. There in
th ese' constructions is only a formal word filling the
usual place of the subject. This predicate is used when
the logical stress is laid on the subject and not on
the predicate.

13 113
 E xercises
Point out w hat kind of predicates there are in the following and state
how they are expressed.

1. We were fortunate that Boculy was our elephant guide.

I believe he knows more about elephants than anyone in
the world.
Boculy is a very im portant person in his own land. He
knows all the languages of the plains and the desert, and
in some curious way he can get aid from any of these people
when we need it. There is a m ystery on his wise old face,
and his knowledge of wild animals is indeed remarkable.
Elephants are his strong point. He can see things that are
invisible for the rest of us.
(“The Close Call” by M. Johnson.)

2. The village is a quarter "of a mile away, so it is not

difficult for us to go there every day. But it had got quite
dark that night when we at last got there.
3. At first we were only two, and it was very difficult
to work. But then some other boys began to help us, and
everything went on splendidly.
4. We soon lost sight of the brig which had disappeared
in the wideness of the sea. Everything grew quiet. We had
to go home and think of the friends who had left us that
night.
5. Lizzy took a bath, dried herself with a long towel
and could now read her favourite novel.
6. He had been speaking for an hour or so, and every
body seemed charmed by his fiery speech.
7. She couldn’t help laughing when she was reading the
magazine. In fact she stopped laughing only when she finished
the last story.
8. While she continued her work, I continued writing
the article.

.
The Agreement
§ 151.
-
.
194
 , ,
, .
1)
,
be Present Past Inde
finite, :
This teacher teaches us English.
M any teachers teach us at school.
The boy is reading his lesson.
The boys are reading their lessons.
A tree has fallen in our garden.
M any trees have fallen in our garden.
M y frie n d was here last night.
My frie n d s were here last night.
2) ,
— be,
:
I am sitting at a table.
She is my teacher.
You are right, of course.
3) ,

and,
:
M y frie n d and I read the same books.
The horse and its m aster were very tired.
A poet and a statesm an were present there.
,
and,
:
Bread and butter is a healthy food.
.
A poet and statesm an was present there.
( — .)
4)
with, -
:
195
 A man w ith his d og comes every day to our house.
A woman w ith f i v e children is com ing down the road,
5) as well
as, - :
as well as his brother is a good pupih

,
as well as, ,

:
M y frie n d s as well as I myself are ready to help you.
I as well as my frie n d s am ready to help you.

§ 151. The predicate-verb in English agrees in num

ber and person with the noun- or the pronoun-subject.
1) If the subject is expressed by a noun, and the
predicate by any verb in the Present Tense or by the
verb be in the Present or the Past Indefinite, the sub
ject and the predicate agree in number.
2) If the subject is expressed by a personal pro
noun and the predicate by the verb be, the subject and
the predicate agree in person.
3) If the subject consists of two words denoting
two different things or persons and connected by means
of the conjunction and, the predicate-verb is in the
plural.
4) If the two words are connected by means of
the preposition with, the predicate-verb is in the sin
gular.
5) If the two words are connected by means of the
conjunction as well as, the predicate-verb agrees in
number and person w ith the first word.
6) When two nouns or pronouns are connected by
means of the conjunctions either — or, neither — nor,
the predicate-verb agrees in number and in person with
the last noun or pronoun.
7) When the subject is expressed by a group of
words or by a whole subordinate clause, the predicate-
verb is in the singular.

196
 6)
either — or neither — nor, -
,
:
Either he or I am to go there.
Either your brother or you are to bring me my things.
N either the children nor the mother knows anything
about this event.
7)
, -
:
N ever to be late is a rule necessary for successful work'.
That you don’t w ant to do it is obvious to me.
W hat interests me more is the question of your depar
ture.

E xercises
I. Put the verbs in brackets in the right form according to the rules
of agreement:

1. In autumn the weather (become) worse and worse

each day.
2. “What (be) your brother doing now ?” — “He (be)
reading.” — “And what (be) you doing?” — “I (be) going to ‘
prepare my lessons.”
3. Either he or his parents (be) to go there.
4. Alec and his sister (be) sitting quietly waiting for'
their mother to come.
5. Yura with his sister (come) to see us every evening.
6. I as well as my brother (be) going to take English
lessons.
7. What he told me yesterday (be) interesting.
8. Neither we nor she (be) satisfied.
9. A secretary and a typist (be) coming with him.
10. A secretary and typist (be) needed at that office.
II. Translate into English:
1. .
2. .
3. , .
197
 ~~r
4. , ,
.
5. - .
6. .

.
SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
. Objects
. The D irect Object
§ 152. *
— .

, —
, , ,
:
I see a man.
is taking a box.
She likes dogs.
We have never read such interesting stories.
I like to read books by M axim Gorky.
He preferred w riting short letters.
He sat reading his newspaper and smoking his pipe.
Having received no information, he decided to come
again.
§ 153.

, .
1) :
She was beating the kitten with a branch.
The man who turned the handle was an Italian.
He watched the scene quite calmly.
2)
:
The poor Chinese boy hated the past.
She was helping the wounded.
3) ,
2- , ,
, , ,
198
 ,
:
did not see us.
Ask them to buy the book and give it to her.
Don’t take his pen, take mine, please!
I don’t need to take yours.
They greeted each other.
She washed herself carefully.
I haven’t yet read that.
W hat did he say? We didn’t hear w hat he said.
The book which he was reading was of great interest.
D on’t take the red pencil, take the blue one.
We saw nobody there.
4) ,
:
How many copy-books do you need? — I need three.
Which book do you want? — I want the f i r s t .
5) :
I want to read the newspaper now.
I like to sleep in the open air.
My brother always prefers speaking the truth.
We avoid mentioning her name now.
6) (
Object Clause):
I saw that it was late.
He said that he would w rite me a letter.

. The Indirect Object

§ 154. (Indirect
Object) ,
,
,
.

:
gave the newspaper.
She taught the pupils music.
I sent him a letter.
199
 Indirect Object
,
,
:
gave a glass of tea.
gave the girls bread and butter.
Direct Object ,
a Indirect Object — , .
, Indirect Object
to,
Indirect Object
:
Where are those books?
I gave them to the teacher.
Take them back, and give them to me.
Give it to him, please.
to
:
I gave him the book.
I gave the book to him.
He wrote me a letter.
He wrote a letter to me.

. The Prepositional Object

§ 155. (Prepositional Object)

(Prepositional Phrase). ,
( , ,
,
) :
Let me inquire into the matter.
It all depends on him.
He insisted on sending her an invitation.
I didn’t like the second act of the play, I thought only
o f the fir s t.
She was quite devoted to the wounded.
200
 Prepositional Phrase ,
, —
:
Let me inquire into this serious matter.
She dreamed o f w ritin g a poem.

,
:
Thank you fo r what you have done fo r me.
He still insists on what he sa id before.

. , , talk, refer, trust

to ( .
IV ).
( . § 178.)

§§ 152— 155. The Object in English always follows

the word it modifies; This word is usually the finite
verb of the predicate, or it may be one of the ver
b a ls — the infinitive, the gerund, or the participle, no
m atter what part of the sentence it is.
In English there are the following kinds of objects:
Direct Object, Indirect Object (which is placed be
tween Predicate and Direct Object and corresponds
to the Russian Object expressed by a noun in the
Dative Case), and Prepositional Object which is usual
ly expressed by a prepositional phrase.

E xercises
1. Point out what objects there are in the following and how they
are expressed:

1. Yesterday the teacher told us a short story. We

listened attentively to every word, and when we were sure
that we had understood everything, the teacher called on
some pupils, and they rose and reproduced the story in
their own words.
2. Uncle Alexander brought Oleg a box of chocolate,
but Mother put it away and said Oleg would have no choco
late before he ate his dinner.
201
 3. “Grey, I am leaving this ship and I want to say some
thing to you before I leave.”
4. On the battlefield the brave girl brought the wounded
the water they needed so much.

5. THE THOUGHTS OF AN ARITHMETIC TEXTBOOK

There! Henry has forgotten to take me home with him.

It’s rather hard on me to belong to a boy like Henry.
Every other textbook in this schoolroom gets a trip of some
sort now and then, but 1 am always left here in this stuffy
desk. It is very dull for me, of course, but the worst of it
is that I am so ashamed of H enry’s marks. He never does
his lessons properly and I as his own book feel responsible
for him. But what can I do? Henry does not care to study
better although the teacher insists on his studying well.
6. Travelling about the country has added much to their
education.
7. He sent his daughter several English books which she
can read and enjoy.
8. Aunt Ann gave us permission to play football in her
yard.
II. Form sentences out of the following:
1. Paid, on the 19th, visit, us, another, he.
2. My mother, for, gave, I, a letter, him,
3. Sasha, the book, her, sent.
4. To, please, it, me, give.
5. Has sent, Michael, you, new, books, some. To, show,
me, them, please!
6. The wmter, a wounded soldier, gave, she.
7. Interesting, has promised, Father, me, an, trip.
8. Bought, there, a rose, her, I.
III. Fill in the blanks with the required prepositions:
1. The commission consisted — four members.
2. He did not want to depend — his parents.
3 ..M y father insisted — my entering the university.
4. Please, listen — me!
5. Our discussion resulted — my rem aining at home,
6. I waited — him half an hour.
7. Only think — it!
8. The professor lectures — physics.
202
 9. W hy don’t you participate — our work?
10. He never spoke — that subject.
11. Mark always boasts — his horse.
12. You don’t work enough — your English.

. The Attribute
§ 156. (A ttribute)
,
,
.
:
1) :
The old women were talking in low voices.
Trevillian passed a thin hand down his thin, brown,
■hairy face.
2) :
He liked to walk in the crow ded streets.
The lightning flashed along the horizon, like a g litterin g
blade.
3) ,
:
You must copy the tenth lesson.
1 have three brothers and two sisters.
He spoke for tw o hours.
4) ,
,
, ,

:
We were met by our friend.
I always begin my story with his wise words.
Which paper is the most interesting?
I don’t know w hat story it is.
The girl whose story 1 shall tell you is here now.
Either story is good.
I go there every day.
Take another book!
I have no paper.
203
 5)
(Possesive Case):
She put on her mother’s dress.
He took tw o months’ leave.
M isha’s words sounded very clear.
6) :
visited the Moscow museums.
There was a long stone wall around the garden.
Our oil output has increased.
It was export oil.
7) :
She spoke to the then head of the committee.
He lived in the room above.
It happened the night before.
They went to the lake below.
8) ,
(Prepositional Phrase):
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
It was a secret o f ours.
They have a strange way o f speaking.
We met a girl w ith dark bine eyes.
9) ,
:
I have a good book to read.
We saw the last sunbeams g litterin g here and there.
10) :
I don’t remember the story which you told us la st time.
The man who is sta nding a t the door looks like my
brother.
She clearly remembered the day when her eldest boy
w as born.
§ 157. — —
,
, , — one, some
thing, somebody, anything, anybody, everything, everybody,
someone, anyone, everyone, nothing, nobody, no one:
I have a French book and he has an English one.
204
 There are no ancient pictures here but many m odem
ones.
1 shall tell you something interesting.
Anything w rong 'with you?
His father bought him everything necessary.
There is nothing beautiful in this collection.

§§ 156— 158. The A ttribute in English usually stands

before the word it modifies or, if this word has an
article, it stands between the word and the article.
The A ttribute may be expressed by an adjective or a
participle, by some pronouns, by a numeral, by a noun
in the Possessive Case, by a noun or by an adverb in
the function of an adjective, by a prepositional phrase,
by an infinitive or a participle construction, or by an
attributive clause.
In some cases the Attribute stands after the word
it modifies:
1) when it modifies one df the pronouns built up
from some, any, every, no;
2) when it is expressed by an adverb;
3) when it has some defining words of its own;
4) when it is expressed by a prepositional phrase;
5) when it is expressed by an infinitive or a parti
ciple construction;
6) when it is expressed by a subordinate clause.

§ 158.
,
:
1) ,
some, any, every, :
1 saw somebody very important.
We did not meet anyone tall enough fo r our purposes.
Everything bright was put on the sofa.
N othing serious, 1 hope, doctor?
2) ,
:
The night a fte r we started on our way.
The room above was empty.
205
 3) ,
:
I live in a house three stories high.
It was a room larger than mine.
4) ,
(Prepositional Phrase):
The leg o f the chair is broken.
The key on the table was from our room.
Look at the girl w ith black eyes!
5) ,
:
was the last to come.
The trees covered with snow stood w hite and quiet.
6) ,
.
The story that I am reading is very interesting.

E xercises
I. Point out all the attributes and state how they are expressed:
1. The voice of the passing young man was cheerful.
2. They wanted an office boy, with a good school
record.
3. The tree on top of the small hill was knocked off by
an aeroplane which tried to land on the valley below.
4. My cousin brought in a young fellow whom heintro
duced as a friend of his.
5. The young man with a bandaged arm who is standing
in the corner of the room is my best friend.
6 . K itty’s silk dress was bought as a birthday present
on the first day of this year.
7. There is something strange in her wide-open eyes.
8 . The article was printed on the front page.

II. Build up sentences from the following words:

1. Fellow, George, nice, was, young, a.
2. You, heard, interesting, there, anything, have?
3. Good, me, tell, something!
4. Full of flowers, live, a room, they, in.
5. He, a, nose, red, and, had, cheeks, large.
206
 6. Curls, brown, about, all, round, hung, face, her, little.
7. Brown, her, bare, were thrust, boots, a woman’s, legs,
into.
8 . Friend, little, brought, my, a, me, dog, with, a, tail, short.

. Adverbial Modifiers
§ 159. (Adverbial
M odifiers)
, , , ,
. . :
1) (Adverbial M odifiers of
Time):
i saw her yesterday.
She will come soon.
The lessons begin a t two.
2) (Adverbial M odifiers of Place):
They lived in a village.
We shall meet here.
3) (Adverbial M odifiers of Purpose):
I have come to help you.
4) (Adverbial M odifiers of
Reason or Cause):
We are angry with her fo r being so nervous.
She turned red w ith anger.
5) (Adverbial M odifiers
of Result):
She was too weak to l i f t the heavy box.
6) (Adverbial M odi
fiers of Manner):
Speak louder!
He spoke to them in a frie n d ly way.
7) (Adverbial M odifiers of
Condition):
But fo r you I should be quite happy.
8) (Adverbial M odifiers of
Degree):
The apples are ripe enough. They are very friendly.
It is too noisy here. He spoke quite distinctly.
207
 § 160. , -
— Adverbial M odifiers,
.
1) :
I live here.
She speaks English fluently.
2) :
• The teacher entered the room, smiling.
H a ving arrived early, they waited for some time.
3) :
He came to speak to you.
She is too clever to argue about such nonsense.
4) :
It is a long way o ff.
The river is a mile wide.
5) (Prepositional Phrase):
In the evening we reached the river.
She lives on the second floor.
6) :
When night fe ll we reached the river.
§ 161.
,
.
,
.
1) ,
,
:
That is very good.
This lesson is rather long.
These words were especially im portant for you.
H o: It is good enough.
2)
( ,
):
We have read it today. Today we have read it.
They have w ritten the composition this week.
208
 3) (alw ays ,
never, ever, often, seldom ),
:
rather likes listening to music.
I have always known her to be honest.
They seldom go to the club now.
We have never heard of such a thing.
4)

:
went there at seven. Step this way, please!
She looked at me smiling. He speaks well.
5) ,
, :
was sitting on a chair.
We went to the station.
The work will be ready a fte r two o’clock.

f§ 159— 161. There are different kinds of Adverhial

M odifiers in English: Adverbial M odifiers of time, place,
purpose, reason, result, degree, manner.
Adverbial M odifiers may be expressed by adverbs,
by participles, by an infinitive, by a noun in the
function of an adverb, by a prepositional phrase or by
a subordinate adverbial clause.
Adverbial Modifiers may stand in any place in the
sentence, except between the predicate and the direct
object.
Adverbial M odifiers of degree usually stand before
the words they modify.
Adverbial M odifiers of definite time usually stand
at the very end of the sentence.
Adverbial M odifiers of indefinite tim e usually stand
before the main verb of the predicate.
Adverbial M odifiers of place usually stand after the
predicate or after the object.
Adverbial M odifiers which- are expressed by pre
positional phrases usually stand after the words they
modify.

14 209
 E xercises
I. Point out what kind of adverbial modifiers you have in the
following and how they are expressed:
1. The boy examined his inkpot carefully and then looked
at the ceiling.
2. I got up early. He came half an hour late. I was •
w aiting for him in the garden.
3. Now the sledge was light and the dogs went on fast.
But after them ran the wolves. They were very hungry and
very thin and they came nearer and nearer. He did not
dare to travel after dark. (J. London.)
4. After two months the young flier became quite an
experienced navigator and could fly in any kind of weather.
5. Before the second act of the play was over, we could
scarcely keep our seats for excitement.
6 . The traveller wearily climbed up the steps and knocked
at the door very loudly in order to be heard above the
roar of the storm.
7. The dog howled so furiously that Father tied it to
the tree.
8 . She went to the Caucasus the next month and I have
not seen her since.
II. Put the adverbial modifiers in the right places in the sen
tences:
1. He returned home, (a fte r a short while)
2. I learned something I had known, (never, before, one
w inter day)
3. We must start, (at ten o’clock, from this place)
4. She stood and looked at the wall opposite her house.
(by the window, sorrowfully)
5. I lived, (fo r three days, there, last year)
6 . Don’t speak, (quickly, too)
7. You go. (to the club, seldom)
8 . I can understand what you say. (now, hardly)
9. We saw her. (yesterday, there, distinctly)
10. The boy came, (into the room, unexpectedly, quite)
III. Translate into English:
1. .
2. .
3. .
210
 .
Parenthetical Use of the Secondary Parts of the Sentence
§ 162.
( ),
( )
.
.

— .

.
§ 163. (Parenthetical A ttrib
utes) :
The third day he had watched outside the house, closed,
shuttered, abandoned.
, ,
, .
Her brown dog, very old, died.
, , .
The student, from his own point o f view highly trained
in mathematics, couldn’t solve the simplest problem.
,
,
.
(the Noun in Apposition),

, :
Our sail-boat, the Sea-gull, struck a hidden rock.
Alexander’s horse, Bucephallus, is one of the famous
horses in history.
New York, the largest town in America, is situated on
an island.
They sent for Andrew, my eldest brother.
§ 164. (Parenthetical Ad
verbial M odifiers)
, :
Crouching suddenly, he took hold of the letter in her
hand.
211
 , ,
.
Two nights he had sat there, waiting, sick w ith anxiety.
, ,
.
On seeing , he stopped.
.

The boys saw the lights o f the village in the distance.

: , ,
, .
:
:The boys (
, ).
: saw — (

).
:
the lights — (
, ).
o f the village —
( ,
).
in the distance — (
, ).
Analysis of a Simple Extended Sentence
The boys saw the lights o f the village in the distance.
S e n t e n c e : Simple, extended, declarative, affirmative.
The principal parts are:
T h e S u b j e c t (who?): The boys (a noun in plural,
Common Case).
T h e P r e d i c a t e (what did the subject do?): saw —
a simple predicate (verb, irregular, transitive, Past In
definite).
The secondary parts are:
the lights (what?): a direct object (a noun in plural,
Common Case).
212
 o f the village (what kind of...?): an attribute to the direct
object (a prepositional phrase — a preposition and a noun in
singular, Common Case).
in the distance (where?): an adverbial modifier of place
(a prepositional phrase — a preposition and a noun in singular,
Common Case).

E xercises
Analyse the following sentences:

1. I called her attention to little Nelly.

2. Boys have generally excellent appetites.
3. Many years had passed since that day.
4. I distinctly remember a hot afternoon at school.
5. He entered the big room w ith downcast head.
6 . She has been looking for her blotting-paper for five
minutes.
7. M y friend knows the English language quite well.
8 . The travellers stopped to rest near the river.

a III
.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES

§ 165.

( )
, .
,

— (Coordination),
- (Com
pound Sentence).

,
,
(Subordination),
- (Complex Sentence). >
213
 - (Compound Sentence):
I w rote a letter, and he took it to the post office.
- (Complex Sentence):
When the letter was written, he took it to the post office*

- .
The Compound Sentence
§ 166.
:
1) and, or, but, either... or, neither
... nor, y e t, still, fo r:
He turned, and Lena thought he was really going, but
he stopped and came back.
Take this, please, or 1 shall give it to som ebody else.
Either you write the letter or I have to do it — but the
letter must be written.
We were willing to wait, fo r George was not often late.
N either did they go to Leningrad, nor did she come to
them.
2) — (asyn-
detically):
He was very tired; his face was pale and worn.
The wind was fresh and strong; clouds were flying fast.

The sky was blue and clear, and the w inds were silent
: - ,
, ,
, and.
1- : The sky was blue and clear.
: , ,
, .
: the sky (
, ).
: w as blue and clear —
( - be
; ( )—■
, and).
214
 2- : The w inds were silent.
: , ,
, .
: the w inds (
, ).
: were silent — (
- be
, — ).
Analysis of a Compound Sentence
The sky was blue and clear, and the winds were silent.
S e n t e n c e : Compound, declarative, affirmative, consists
of two independent clauses joined by means of the coor
dinate conjunction and.
1 s t C l a u s e : The sky was blue and clear.
S e n t e n c e : Simple, unextended, declarative, affirmative.
T h e S u b j e c t (what?): the sky (a noun in singular;
Common Case).
T h e P r e d i c a t e (what was the subject?): was blue
and clear — a compound predicate (link-verb be, Past Inde-<
finite Singular; predicative — two adjectives joined by the?,
conjunction and).
2 n d C l a u s e : The winds were silent.
S e n t e n c e : Simple, unextended, declarative, affirmative.
T h e S u b j e c t (what?): the w inds (a noun in plural,
Common Case).
T h e P r e d i c a t e (what was the subject?): were sile n t —
a compound predicate (link-verb be, Past Indefinite, plural;
predicative — an adjective).

§ 166. A compound sentence is a sentence which

consists of two or more independent clauses joined
together by means of coordination.
Coordination m ay be effected
1 ) by means of conjunctions or adverbs and, or, but,
either . .. or, neither . . . nor, yet, still, fo r, etc.;
2 ) asyndetically (without conjunctions).

E xercises
I. Analyse the following compound sentences:
1. The swallow’s friends had gone away to Egypt, but
he had stayed behind,
215
 2. Sasha split the wood, and his sister piled it.
3. The boys played games, Mother sewed, and Father
read aloud.
4. The fence was already whitewashed, and Tom could
play with the boys.
II. Join the following sentences by means of coordinate conjunctions:
1. It was raining hard; the wind* was cold and piercing.
2. He didn’t know I could read French; he never asked
me to help him.
3. Please hurry; we shall be late.
4. We called on him; he was not at home.
III. Fill in the blanks with one of the conjunctions or adverbs fo r,
but, however, still, yet:
1. I could not make a report — 1 had not read the book.
2. We don’t like that boy; — we shall invite him to the
party if you want us to.
3. Dr. H arte was scarcely able to walk; — he answered
the call for help.
4. The keepers protested, — the chief of the group did
not want to listen to them.
5. They were sorry for the little kitten; — they thought
it ought to be punished.
IV. Make compound sentences by combining the following groups
of clauses:
1. Some girls talk a great deal. They say nothing.
2. You may take the magazine. Don’t forget to bring
it back.
3. Let us go at once. It is very late already.
4. It was a very hard time. The boy kept working all the
time.
5. We at last found the right path. After that our journey
was easy.
6 . Everyone said we could win the race. We were not
so sure of it.

- .
The Complex Sentence
§ 167. -
(Principal Clause)
(Subordinate Clause):
216
 He couldn’t come because he was ill.
The man whom we met yesterday is my teacher.
When she came home she was tired and hungry.
The boy pretended that he was very gay.

:
1) if, while, since, that,
till, because, as, so that, when . . (subordinate con
junctions);
2) , . .
who, what,
which, that, where, how . . (connective words — con
junctive or relative pronouns or adverbs);
3) (asyndetically).

.
TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

§ 168.

, ( . ,
. II):
1) (Subject Clauses);
2) (Predicative Clauses);
3) (Object Clauses);
4) (A ttributive Clauses);
5) (Adverbial Clauses).
§ 169. (Subject Clauses)
;
that, whether, i f —
who, what, which
when, where, how, why:
That / have never seen him before is quite certain.
Whether we met there or not does not mean anything
now.
Who spoke a t that m eeting has escaped my memory.
W hat she told me yesterday proved to be correct.
Which f the days is more convenient fo r our lessons —
Tuesday or Friday — has to be decided yet.
21 7
 When he will arrive is not mentioned in his letter,
although he writes that he will arrive soon.
Where she is hiding now is not known to anybody.
How you have managed to come here so early is very
strange.
Why the travellers had chosen that particular way was
known only to their guide.
§ 170. (Predicative Clauses)

( );
, Subject
Clauses:
This is what I told you about.
The truth is that I have never been there.
The problem was when he would go there.
§ 171. (Object Clauses)
—
;
, Subject Predicative Clauses:
said that it was cold.
I don’t know what I must do now.
The secretary told us how we must arrange our a ffairs.
She asked me i f I should stay there.
They spoke of what was to be done.
Open your eyes to what is going on about you.
Here has been some dispute about who wrote that play.
,
that, :
f Do you know that there w ill be a m eeting tomorrow?
\ Do you know there w ill be a m eeting tomorrow?
f I think that I shall be too busy to come.
\ I think I shall be too busy to come.
f He hopes that he will be able to return soon.
\ He hopes he w ill be able to return soon.
/ They said that they were very busy.
t They said they were very busy.
§ 172. (Attributive
Clauses) .
218
 —
who, which, that
when, where, how, why:
The girl who was here before is our pupil.
The room has a stove which fa c es the door.
It is the same teacher whom we saw la st time.
Here is the house that we spoke about yesterday.
The house where we once lived has been burned.
The time when I was you n g has long passed.
Do you know the reason why she was la te?

- — ,
, , —
,

. - Antecedent
[,3 entirsi:dant].
,
, :
It is the same teacher we saw last time.
Here is the house we spoke about yesterday.
§ 173. ,
— ,
.
1)

;
,
.
— who (
), which ( ) that ( ,
):
The man who came here yesterday has come again.
The woman that came here yesterday has come again.
Here is the parcel which I brought yesterday.
Here is the parcel that I brought yesterday.
1 have three sisters. M y sister who lives in Leningrad
will come here tomorrow.
219
 My sister that lives in Leningrad will come here to
morrow.
,
:
My sister, who lives in Leningrad, will come here
tomorrow.
2)

,
;
,

.
( — )
who which, (
that):
My mother, who returned from the country yesterday,
is in good health now.
( , ,
, .)
Professor Sidorov, who spent a month in Sochi, was
m et at the station by his assistants.
Jack London, who was one o f the fam ous American
writers, lived a very adventurous life.
.
, ,
.
: All the members of the Literary Circle, who are
also the members of the Dramatic Circle, are to assemble in the Library.
( .)
, (
) ,
.
,
, :
All the members of the Literary Circle who (that) are also the
members of the Dramatic Circle are to assemble in the Library. (
.)
,
,
.

220
 § 174.

, that

:
The house in which I live is very old.
The house that I live in is very old.
The house / live in is very old.
The picture a t which I am looking was painted by my
friend.
The picture that I am looking a t was painted by my
friend.
The picture I am looking a t was painted by my friend.
The chair on which I am sittin g is going to break.
The chair that / am sittin g on is going to break,
The chair 7 am sittin g on is going to break.
The man to whom I w ent is our old friend.
The man that I w ent to is our old friend.
The man / w ent to is our old friend.
.
;
.
§ 175. (Adverbial
Clauses)
— , , , ,
, , . .
: when, where, while, a fter, before, until,
till, since, as, because, that, lest, as ... as, not so ... as, than,
if, unless . .:
Put the inkstand where it belongs.
We were greatly astonished when we saw him a t the
corner.
A fte r I met her, I understood that she was very ill.
The pupils wrote until the bell rang.
They couldn’t come as they were very busy.
We remained at home lest they should come in our
absence.
The boys climbed higher that they m ight g e t a better
view.
She is not so quiet now as she was in her childhood.
221
 Unless something unexpected happens, do not disturb
me in my room.
She will give you a letter to her brother i f you go
tomorrow.
§ 176.
, when, whenever,
while, till, until, a fter, before, since, as, as long as, as
soon as, by the time, once, if, in case, unless, provided,
providing, suppose, supposing, -
.
,
:
A fte r you go there, you may call on me.
,
.
Let me smoke a cigarette before I go.
, .
By the time you come, I shall be ready.
, , .
When ( a fte r ) / have fin ish e d work, I shall go
to the club.
, .
I f I go to the theatre, I shall not be able to see you
tonight.
,
.
Unless it is warmer tomorrow, I shall not wear the
summer coat.
,
.
1 shall read you an English fairy-tale, provided my
frien d brings the book.
,
.
-

I topk him into the kitchen, where, so f a r as it was

possible, he cleaned himself.
: - ,
,
, .
222
 : I took him into the
kitchen.
: , ,
, .
:
: / ( , 1- ,
, ).
: took — (
, ).

:
him — ( -
, 3- , , ,
).
into the kitchen — ,
(
).
: where
he cleaned h im self —
kitchen , .
: , ,
, .

:
: he ( , 3- ,
, , ).
: cleaned — (
, ).

:
h im self — (
, 3- , ,
).
: so f a r
as it was possible —
(
), so f a r as.
: , ,
, .
t 223
 : it ( , 3- ,
, , —
).
: was possible —
( - be , ,
— ).
Analysis of a Complex Sentence
I took him into the kitchen, where, so f a r as it was
possible, he cleaned himself.
S e n t e n c e : Complex, consisting of a principal clause and
two subordinate clauses; declarative, affirmative.
The Principal Clause: I took him into the kitchen.
S e n t e n c e : Simple, extended, declarative, affirmative.
The principal parts are:
The S u b j e c t (who?): I (personal pronoun, 1st person,
singular, Nominative Case).
The P r e d i c a t e (what did the subject do?): took —
a simple predicate (irregular transitive verb, Past Indefinite).
The secondary parts are:
him (whom?): a direct object to the predicate (personal
pronoun, 3rd person, singular, masculine gender, Objective
Case).
into the kitchen (where to?): an adverbial modifier of
place (prepositional phrase — a noun with a preposition).
T h e F i r s t S u b o r d i n a t e C l a u s e : where he cleaned
h im self — an attributive clause to the word kitchen intro
duced by the relative adverb where.
S e n t e n c e : Simple, extended, declarative, affirmative.
The principal parts are:
T h e S u b j e c t (who?): he (personal pronoun, 3rd person,
singular, masculine gender, Nominative Case).
T h e P r e d i c a t e (what did the subject do?): cleaned —
a simple predicate (regular transitive verb, Past Inde
finite).
The secondary parts are:
him self (whom?): a direct object to the predicate (reflex
ive pronoun, 3rd person, singular, masculine gender).
224
 T h e S e c o n d S u b o r d i n a t e C l a u s e : so f a r as it
was possible — an adverbial clause of manner to the 1st
subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction so f a r as.
Sentence: Simple, unextended, declarative, affir
mative.
S u b j e c t (what?): it (personal pronoun, 3rd person, sin
gular, neuter gender, Nominative Case — has the force of a
dem onstrative pronoun).
P r e d i c a t e (what was the subject?): was possible — a
compound predicate (link-verb be, Past Indefinite, singular;
predicative — an adjective).

§§ 167— 176. A Complex Sentence consists of a

principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
Subordinate clauses are joined to the principal
clause —
1 ) by means of subordinate conjunctions that, when,
if, till, because, etc.;
2 ) by means of connective words — conjunctive or
relative pronouns or adverbs;
3) asyndetically.
Subordinate clauses may express principal parts of
the principal clause as well as secondary parts; con
sequently there are Subject Clauses, Predicative Clauses,
Object Clauses, Attributive Clauses and Adverbial
Clauses.

E xercises

I. Analyse the following Complex Sentences:

1. He was slowly moving on when he met his friend

Oleg.
2. At nightfall, when hope was about gone, I was
picked up by a small brig which was bound for Odessa.
3. The flowers grow where the bridge crosses the stream.
4. Don’t you think that Julia looks pretty when she
wears a red dress?
5. I shall never forget the day when I met with an
accident.
15 225
 . She has asked me when I met with an accident.
6
7. When 1 met w ith an accident I was unconscious for
tw o hours.
8 . The boys followed the path which ran down the hill.

II. Use each of the following subordinate clauses in at least three

different ways:

1) as an Adverbial Clause; 2) as an A ttributive Clause;

3) as a Subject, Object or Predicative Clause.
Example. When our vacation began.
1) We met in the library when our vacation began.
2) On the day when our vacation began , we went to
the cinema together.
3) Everybody remembers very well when our vacation
began.
1. Where the aeroplane landed.
2. When peace was declared.
3. If she can go with us.
4. When the poet was torn,
5. Where the office is.
6 . When they left.

III. Combine short sentences into one Complex Sentence.

Example. I have lost abook. j I have lost a small
It was small. ! red book which
It was red. {my cousin gave
My cousin gave me to read. ] me to read.
1. They are going on the three o’clock train.
They are going to visit their uncle.
Their uncle lives in Leningrad
2. Bob has lost his dog.
His dog was a fox-terrier.
It was very clever.
Bob feels very sorry.
3. The man is on his way home.
The man missed the car.
He will be late for dinner.
4. She does not like chemistry.
If is very hard for her.
She will have to know it well.
226
 IV. Change the following Compound Sentences into Complex Sen
tences.

Example. He turned, and the dog started towards him.

As he turned, the dog started towards him.
1. He wanted to win and he tried to do his best.
2. There was a terrible storm, and Tommy lost his boat
the same night.
3. The soldiers came home, and there was a parade, and
we marched in it.
4. The train is usually in tim e, t u t it was an hour late
today.
5. A great silence fell upon the gathered people, and
a tall man stepped forward.
6 . The captain spoke to me, and I couldn’t remember
his name.
V. Supply beginnings for each of the following ends of sentences:
1. — we found him laughing gaily.
2. — where they told us to go.
3. — before the telephone bell rang.
4. — who was my sister’s teacher.
5. — if we had warmer weather.
6. — where we had put them the night before.
7. — after they had eaten their dinner.
8. — as a clever man does.

IV
.
SYNTACTICAL COMPLEXES

§ 177.
, . .
,
— .
—
(Complex Object), (Complex
Subject), (Absolute Nom in
ative Participle Construction)
fo r (/or-Complexes).
227
 — —
— , —
,
, —
.
§ 178.
(Complex Object).

+ ( . § 102):
I want you to learn this poem by heart.
, .
liked his sister to pla y the piano.
, .
We have never seen M ark ride.
, .
They heard the old man laugh heartily.
, .

+
( . , § 113):
We heard ker singing a beautiful song.
, .
She saw the boy running quickly along the road.
, .
They watched the letters posted.
, .
•
have (
+ ), ,
, -
,
, -
:
I had photo taken.
(
).
228
 He w ill have his hair cut.
( ).
She m ust have her shoes mended.
(
).

§ 179. (Com
plex Subject) -)
:
is said to be a good pupil.
, .
is said to have been a good pupil last year.
,
.
Five enemy aeroplanes were reported to have been
brought down.
, .
Two more towns were reported to have been taken by
our troops.
,
.

—’
— —j
(
, ,
, ).
§ 180. -!
,
fo r {for-.
Complexes):
For a yo u n g girl to stand all alone in the darkness was
very hard. ( .)

.
This is a good book fo r you to read. (
.)
, .
229
 They stopped at the stream fo r the horses to drink. (
.)
,
.
§ 181. ,

(Absolute Nom inative Participle

Construction).

,
, .

, ( .
, § 114):
A storm coming on, we fled to shelter ( = a s a storm
was coming on).
The rain set in, M isha having reached home ( = a fte r
Misha had reached home).
Weather perm itting, we shall start tom orrow ( = i f weather
permits).

§§ 177— 181. There are Syntactical Complexes in the

English language, that is complex parts of a sentence.
A Syntactical Complex consists of a nominal p a rt—■
Noun or Pronoun, and of a verbal part — Infinitive, Gerund
or Participle.
Among Syntactical Complexes the most im portant
are the Complex Object, the Complex Subject, Complexes
with fo r and the Absolute Nominative Participle Con
struction.
Every Syntactical Complex may be developed into
a subordinate clause, its nominal part then becoming the
subject and its verbal part — the predicate of the subor
dinate clause.

230
 E xercises
I. Change the following Object Clauses into constructions with
a Complex Object:

1. I heard that she was singing in the garden.

2. P eter’s father saw that the picture had fallen down.
3. The girl felt that somebody’s hand was touching her
cheek.
4. I wish that they would come to see us the day after
tomorrow.
5. Look! Do you see how the storm is coming near?
6 . They did not like that the children went in the yard
barefoot.
7. The boy found that the story was very interesting.
8 . We saw how the cars were loaded.
9. The travellers considered that the island was deserted.
II. Change the following Complex Sentences into constructions with
a Complex Subject:
1. It is said th at this mountain is the highest in Europe.
2. It is reported that tw enty new factories were built last
year in our Republic.
3. It is said that this man was very handsome in his
youth.
4. It was reported that five ships were m issing after the
battle.
III. Change the following Complex Sentences into constructions with
/or-Complexes:
1. That they should have acted in such a way is strange.
2. They went to look at the house in which they might
live in summer.
3. Give me a picture that my little brother could enjoy.
4. I am telling you all this that you may understand what
to do.
IV. Change the Adverbial Clauses into Absolute Nominative Parti
ciple Constructions:
1. As our work was finished, we went home.
2 . If the letter is posted today, the news will reach them
tomorrow.
3. If M other perm its us, we shall go to the theatre.
231
 4. When the working day was over, she went straight
home.
5. As a storm was arising, the ship entered the harbour.
V. Translate into English, using Syntactical Complexes (Complex
Object, Complex Subject, Complexes with fo r, Absolute Nominative Parti
ciple Construction):
1. .
2. , ,
.
3. , 15
.
4. ,
.
5. ,
.
6 . ,
.
7. , .
8. 18°,
.
9. , .
10. ,
.
I.

1. , +
, ,
:
1) II (Past Indefinite)
:
stop — stopped; fit— fitted; nod — nodded
2) IV (-mg'- ):
sit — sitting; hop — hopping; stop — stopping
3) :
fat — fatter — fattest
red — redder — reddest
2. , + ,
, ie:
1) :
baby — babies; story — stories; arm y—-armies
2) 3- Present Indefinite;
cry — cries; spy — spies; fly-— flies
3) II (Past Indefinite) :
cry — cried; modify — modified
4) :
heavy — heavier — heaviest
easy— easier — easiest
 -Ing
:
cry — cry ing\ modify — modifying fly — fly ing

3. , ,
, - (-ed, -er, -est):
1) II (Past Indefinite) :
move—-moved; live — lived; name — named
2) :
safe — safer — safest
late — later — latest
4. , s, ss, sh, ch, tch, x,
-es:
1) :
bush — bushes; bunch — bunches; latch — latches
mass — masses; box — boxes
2) 3- Present Indefinite:
push — pushes; pass — passes; fetch — fetches; fix — fixes
5. , ,
-es:
1) :
Negro — Negroes; potato — potatoes; tomato — tomatoes
2) 3- Present Indefinite,-
go — goes; do — does

, .

( — ; —
; —
; ,
,— ).
, ,
, .
234
 . The Comma

1.
:
The sky was blue, clear and high.
In the morning he got up at 7 o’clock, washed, dressed
drank a cup of milk and went away.
Can you pronounce partner, surprise and chocolate correctly?
2.
; :
) :
Having finished the lesson, the teacher went home.
On my way upstairs, at the hotel, I remembered that I was
out of cigarettes.
In front o f the dogs, on wide snow shoes, walked a man.
) :
The great black mustang, the famous three-years old, was
an image of horse perfection and beauty.
The other man, Gregory Smirnov, was only sixty-five.
) :
His two children, gay and noisy as usual, came home from
school.
For a moment he shivered, uncertain o f everything.
)
:
The day, which opened brightly, closed with a violent
storm.
These books, which are only a small part of my collection,
were bought last year in Leningrad.
) :
I was determined, however, that he should stop and finish.
Strictly speaking, he was not a writer.
It was, to be sure, a rainy night.
She knew, of course, that someone would come.
3. - ,
and, but, for . .,
:
235
 The sun was shining, and everything looked bright.
I asked him about it, but he could not tell me anything.
We were anxious to see him as soon as possible, so she
called at his house.
The distance was two hours and more, and there was one
change of cars.

4. -

,
. —
, — or
:

I f he comes here, tell him to wait for me.

( ,
.)
Tell him to wait for me if he comes here,
( , .)
Here is the parcel that (which) I brought yesterday.
( .)
My mother, who has just returned from the country, is in
good health now.
( .)
What you told me about him proved to be wrong.
( .)
The problem is how we shall get this medicine.
( .)
He said that he would never start smoking again.
( .)

.
that

that .
, ,
.
236
 . The Colon

.
.
1) 1:
Then he jumped up and cried out: “Henry, you can save
me!”
The man’s face seemed saying: “Feel a bit awkward, don’t
you? But don’t worry.”
,
,
:
“Never mind, Father,” shouted Gabriel. “The game is not
finished yet.”
“No,” said I, “I can well believe that.”
2) , -

:
had one final aim before him: to help his friend.
3) :
There were many people in the room: John, his mother, his
friend Peter, and his sister, and two or three persons quite
unknown to me.
I was impressed by several things at camp: the fun of an
early morning dip in the lake, the silence of the woods, and the
taste of food cooked over a camp fire.
. The Semicolon
:
1) ,
:
The weather was fine; the sky was blue and cloudless.
The man entered the compartment; the boy followed.
2) (
):
went away; came back; wanted to say something; but
suddenly turned and almost ran out of the room.
1 .
237-
 3) namely as,
- :
Eat some fruit at breakfast; as an orange, a dish of stewed
prunes.
Т очка. T h e F u ll Stop
(the Full Stop or Period), ,

.
В о п р о с и те л ьн ы й зн а к
(the Mark of Interrogation)
.
В о с к л и ц а те л ь н ы й зн а к
(the Mark of Exclamation)
, —
.

III.
:
„ ".
, , ,
.
1. :
fit-ting, bet-ter, ap-proach, ac-cuse, al-lot, con-nect
2 . , ,
:
mur-mur, pen-cil, con-sult
3. :
un-certain, re-write, for-get, pre-fer
4. :
flex-ible, like-ness, resist-ing
5.
:
be-fore, pro-perty
6 .
:
some-thing, any-body, tea-spoon, how-ever, eye-glasses
238
IV. ,

, ,
.
1.

2. Acquaint with a person 16. Borrow of (from) a

or a thing. person. -
. .
2. Accuse of a crime. 17. Breakfast on bread and
. butter.
3. Agree to a proposal. .
. 18. Buy something of a per
4. Agree with a person. son. -
- . - .
5. Answer to a person. 19. Buy something from a
- . shop. -
6 . Answer for one’s actions, .
. 20. Buy something for a six
7. Apologize to a person. pence. -
- .
. 21. Buy something at a mar
8 . Apologize for one’s words. ket-price. -
. .
9. Ask for a thing. 22. Care for something.
- . - .
10. Ask of (from) a person. 23. Communicate a thing to
- , a person. -
- . - .
11. Assure of something. 24. Communicate with a per
- . son on a subject.
12. Blame for an action. -
. - -
13. Blush a t one’s own faults. .
. 25. Compare a thing with
14. Blush for someone who thing.
is at fault. ( ).
- , . 26. Compare a thing to
15. Boast of something. thing.
- . ( ).
239,
27. Complain of something 42. Dine on porridge.
to a person. .
- - 43. Divide in half.
. .
28. Complain against a per 44. Divide into four parts.
son. - .
. 45. End in failure.
29. Compose of something. .
- . 46. Enter upon a competi
30. Consent to a proposal. tion.
.
. 47. Enter into one’s task.
31. Consist of some material. (
- ).
. 48. Excuse a person for some
32. Consist in something. thing. -
- . - .
33. Defend from a danger. 49. Force a person into an
. action. -
34. Delight in something. .
50. Free from (of) something.
- . -
35. Demand from a person. .
- 51. Frown at something
. (somebody).
36. Depend on (upon) some - (
thing. - - ).
, - 52. Gaze at an object.
. -
37. Die of a disease. .
. 53. Glance at an object.
38. Die from hunger, want. - .
, 54. Grasp at an object.
. - .
39. Die by violence. 55. Grumble at a person.
. - .
40. Differ with a person on 56. Hear of somebody (some
a subject. thing). -
- ( - ).
- . 57. Hear from a person.
41. Differ from something. - .
- 58. Inquire into a matter.
. .
240
59. Inquire of a person about 75. Play at cricket.
some matter. .
- - 76. Play on the guitar.
. .
60. Insist on something. 77. Point at something.
- . - .
61. Interfere with one’s af 78. Prevent from doing
fairs. - something.
. - .
62. Know of an event. 79. Recover from an illness.
. .
63. Learn something from a 80. Reduce to a minimum.
person. - (
- . ).
64. Lecture on chemistry. 81. Refer to a book.
;
. .
65. Listen to somebody. 82. Rejoice at the success of
- . another person.
66. Look at something. .
- . 83. Rejoice in one’s success.
67. Look after a child.
. .
68. Look out of a window. 84. Relieve from (of) some
. thing. -
69. Marry somebody; but be .
married to somebody. 85. Rely on (upon) somebody
- , (something).
- - ( -
; ).
- 86. Result from something.
- . -
70. Meet with something. .
- . 87. Result in something.
71. Mistake a person for -
another person. .
- . 88. Rob somebody of money
72. Part from somebody. (clothes).
- . ( ) - .
73. Participate in work. 89. Seek for something.
. - .
74. Pay for something. 90. Sell at a low price.
- . .
16 241
 91. Sell for a sixpence. 109. Thank for something.
. - .
92. Send for somebody. 110. Think of (about) somet
- . •hing. - .
93. Smile at something. 111. Think over something.
- . - .
94. Smell of something. - 1 12. Tire of something.
. - .
95. Speak of a subject. 113. Transform into some
( ) - thing.
. - .
96. Speak on a snbject. 114. Translate into a lan
( ) - guage.
. - .
97. Speak to a person. 115. Translate from a lan
- . guage.
98. Stare at a person. - .
- 116. Tremble at a sound.
. .
99. Strike at something. 117. Tremble with cold (fear).
- .
100. Subject to something. ( ).
- . 118. Trust in a person.
101. Succeed in an undertak - .
ing. . 119. Trust to a man’s honesty.
102. Suffer from (of) some
thing. - .
. 120. Turn verse into prose.
103. Supply a thing to a per
son. - .
- . 121. Turn to a friend for help.
104. Snpply a person with a
thing. - .
- . 122. Wait for a person or a
105. Suspect a person of an 2 . -
action. - - .
. 123. Wait on a person.
106. Talk of (about) an event. - .
. 124. Want something.
107. Talk over a matter. - .
. 125. Weep at something.
1 08.'Talk to (with) a person. - ,
- . - .
126. Wonder something.at 129. Write on something.
- . - (
127. Work at something. - ).
- . 130. Write to somebody.
128. Write of something. - .
- .

2. С у щ е с тв и те л ь н ы е с предлогам и

1. Antipathy to something. 13. Influence over (with)

- person. -
. .
2. Arrival at a place. 14. Influence on a man’s
. action.
3. Arrival to a country. .
. 15. Interest in a subject.
4. Disagreement with a per - .
son. - 16. Interest with a person.
. - .
5. Dislike to a person. 17. Jest at something.
- . - .
6. Doubt of (about) a thing. 18. Joy in a m an’s good luck.
- . -
7. Envy at another’s success. .
19. Likeness to a person or
. a thing. -
8. Exception to a rule. - .
. 20. Liking for a person or
9. Gratitude to a person. a thing. -
- - .
. 21. Pride in his children.
10. Gratitude for a thing. .
- 22. Search for something.
. - .
11. Hatred of (for) a person. 23. A victim to oppression.
. .
12. Hatred of a thing. 24. The victim of oppression.
- . .

3. П р и л агате л ь н ы е и п р и ч а сти я с предлогами

I. Absent from a lesson. - 2. Accompanied with his bag-

. gage.
.
243
 3. Accompanied by his dog. 21. Certain of something.
. - .
4. Accustomed to something. 22. Characteristic of some
- . thing.
5. Afraid of something. - .
- . 23. Charmed at something.
6. Amazed at something. - .
- . 24. Charmed with somebody.
7. Amused at something. - .
- . 25. Conscious of something.
8 . Angry at a thing. - .
- . 26. Content with something.
9. Angry with a person. -
- . .
10. Anxious for somebody. 27. Convenient for somebody.
- -
. .
11. Anxious about the result. 28. Cruel to a person.
-
. .
12. Ashamed of something. 29. Deaf to entreaties.
- . .
13. Astonished at something. 30. Delighted at (with) some
- . thing. -
14. Attentive to a person or .
a thing. 31. Different from something.
- - -
. .
15. Blind to his own faults. 32. Disappointed of a thing
not obtained.
.
16. Blind in one eye. - .
. 33. Disappointed in a thing
17. Busy in something. obtained.
- . .
18. Capable of something. 34. Disappointed with a per
- . son.
19. Careful of his money. - .
35. Distant from a place.
. .
20. Careful about his dress. 36. Empty of something. Ono-
- .
. 37. False to somebody. He-
244
 55. Mad on (about) something.
- . - .
38. Famous for something. 56. Moved to tears.
- . .
39. Familiar with a subject. 57. Moved with pity.
. .
40. Fam iliar to a person. 58. Moved at a sight.
- . .
41. Far from a place. 59. Moved by entreaties.
. .
42. Favourable to something. 60. Parallel to (with) some
- thing. -
. , - .
43. Fond of a person or a thing. 61. Pale with something.
- - .
- . 62. Preferable to something
44. Fortunate in something. else.
- - .
. 63. Proud of something.
45. Free from (of) something. - .
- 64. Red with something.
. - .
46. Friendly to somebody. 65. Rich in something.
- .
- . 66. Safe from something.
47. Glad of his assistance. -
. .
48. Glad at a result. 67. Satisfied with something.
. -
49. Happy at something. .
- . 68. Shy of something.
50. Ignorant of something. - .
- . 69. Sick of waiting.
51. Ill with fever. .
. 70. Sick with fever.
52. Independent of (from) .
something. 71. Struck with something.
- . - .
53. Known for something. 72. Suited to the occasion.
- . .
54. Loyal to something. 73. Suited for a post.
,
- . .
245
74. Sure of something. -
- . .
75. Surprised at something. 79. Used to something.
- . - .
76. Tired of doing nothing. 80. Vexed with a person.
- .
. 81. Vexed at a thing.
77. Tired with work. - .
. 82. Worthy of something.
78. Troubled at something. - .
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 ....................................................................................................... 3
............................................................................................................. 7
I

I. ............................................................. 31
§1 .......................... —
§ 2 ................................................... 12
§ 3 ........................ —
§ 4 . . . 14
§ 5 ............................................................................................. —
§§ 6—8 ................................................................................. —
§§ 9—1 2 ............................................. 18
§ 1 3 ....................................... 20
§§ 14— 1 7 .............................................................................. 23
............................................................ —
............................................................... 25
11. .................................................................... 34
§18............................ —
§ 19...................................................... 36
§ 2 0 ............................. 37
§ 21. . . . ........................ 38
III. ........................................................................ 41
§ 22 ................................................... —
§ 2 3 ............................................................... 42
§ 2 4 ............................................. 44
§ 2 5 ......................................................... 45
§ 2 6 ............................................................ 47
§ 2 7 ................................................... 48
§ 2 8 ................................................ 49
§ 2 9 ................................................ 51
§ 3 0 ................................................ 52
§ 31 ................................. 53
§ 3 2 ............................................. 54
§ 33........................................ 62

253
 IV. ........................................................................ 63
§ 3 4 ................................................ —
§ 3 5 ............................................. 64
§ 3 6 ........................................................................................... 65
§ 3 7 ...................................................... 66
§ 38. . . 67
§ 3 9 .............................................................................................. —
V. .....................................................: ............................... 68
§ 4 0 .......................................... —
§ 41 .................................................................. 69
§ 4 2 ......................................................... —
§ 4 3 ...................................................... —
§ 4 4 ................................. 71
§ 4 5 .................................... 72
§ 46 ....................................... 73
§ 4 7 .......................... —
..................................................................... 74
— Indefinite §§ 48—5 1 ..................... —
— Continuous §§52—56 .................... 79
— Perfect §§ 57—6 0 ........................... 83
— Perfect Continuous §§ 61—64 89
§§ 65—68 .......................................... 97
§§ 69—7 1 ............................................. 103
§§ 72—79 ..........................................................107
§§ 80—8 7 ............................................. 116
§§ 88—9 4 .............................................................121
§ 9 5 .................................................................................... 127
§ 96 ............................................. —
§§ 97—99 .................................................................................... —
§§ 100—114 ................................. 132
§§ 100—104 ......................................................... —
§§ 105—109 ................................................................137
§§ 110—1 1 4 .............................................................143
VI. ........................................................................................148
§ 115....................................... —
, , § 116. . . . 149
§ 117....................................... 151
§ 1 1 8 ..............................................152
§ 119 ................................................ 153
VII. . § 120.................. 157
VIII. . §§ 121—124......................................................... 159

11

I. ................................................. 167
§§ 125—131...................................................... _
§§ 132—137 ....................................................... 178
254
 §§ 133—135 .......................................... 179
§ 136..........................................................181
§ 1 3 7 ..........................................................182
§§ 138—140 ........................................................................ 183
11. ............................................................. 186
§§ 141— 151........................ —
§§ 141 — 1 4 2 .................................................................. —
§§ 143—150........................................................................ 189
§ 151............................ 194
§§ 152— 161 . . . 198
§§ 152—155 .................................................................. —
§§ 152— 153 ............................................... . —
§ 154 . . ......................199
§ 155 ...................................................... 200
§§ 156—158 .................................................................. 203
§§ 159—161 ............................................................ 207
§§ 162— 164 211
III. ......................................................... 213
§ 165................................ .. . —
- § 166.......................................... 214
- § 167....................................... 216
§§ 168—176 ............... 217
IV. §§ 177—181.................* . 227
.................... 233
I. —
II. ............................. 234
III. . . . ................................. 238
IV. ,
......................................................................................................239
V. . . 247
 . . .
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