1.
Introduction
Metals react with the environment, producing corrosion products similar to the original ore from which the metal was
obtained. Corrosion processes are electro-chemical reactions taking place at the surface of the metal.
Corrosion products (rust) may act as a barrier between the metal and its surroundings, slowing down the corrosion rate.
In some cases this barrier very effectively retards corrosion. This is called passivation. Passivation can increase the
corrosion resistance of metal remarkably.
Dry corrosion
At room temperature, most metals carry a thin oxide layer as a result of the reaction of metals with oxygen in the
atmosphere. Increase of temperature may cause formation of a heavier layer, or the layer may detach.
Zinc and zinc coatings carry a fairly protective zinc hydroxide or carbonate layer (zinc patina) which increases in
thickness very slowly. Aluminium carries a thin, highly protective oxide layer.
Some corrosion takes place even under completely dry conditions.
Wet corrosion
Wet corrosion takes place in environments where the relative humidity exceeds 60 %. The corrosion may be uniform
destruction of the metal surface or localised destruction (pitting, stress corrosion cracking). The corrosion can be
concentrated adjacent to a more noble metal or at points where the oxygen supply is limited.
Wet corrosion is an electro-chemical phenomenon. When two metals are in contact with water solution containing salts,
an electric potential is formed between two different metals or the surfaces of the same metal with different surface
conditions. This causes the dissolution of the less noble metal. The more noble metal remains protected but the less
noble metal corrodes.
Wet corrosion is most efficient in waters containing salts, such as NaCl (e.g. marine conditions), due to the high
conductivity of the solution. Chlorides also may increase the corrosion rate of metals.
2. Corrosion types
Corrosion can be divided into different groups according to their form of occurrence.
General corrosion / uniform corrosion
Metal corrodes uniformly all over the surface.
Local corrosion
Part of the structure corrodes at a considerably higher than average rate. The categories of local corrosion are:
Pitting corrosion
the corrosion effect is concentrated on localised areas and leads to pitting.
Crevise corrosion
proceeds at locations covered by a corrosion product and other deposits (dirt or trash).
Crevice corrosion typically occurs in small cavities, gaps, recession, etc.
Galvanic corrosion
galvanic corrosion requires two different metals, constituting a corrosion cell. A
structure should contain metals that are as close to each other as possible in the
galvanic electric series.
Intergranular corrosion
intergranular corrosion proceeds along the metal grain boundaries.
Selective corrosion
selective corrosion occurs, for example, when one element in an alloy dissolves faster
than the others.
Combined effect of mechanical factors and corrosion
Mechanical wearing as well as static or dynamic stresses often act in combination with corrosion. The main categories
for combined effect of mechanical factors and corrosion are:
Stress corrosion
stress corrosion occurs when a metal in a corrosive environment is exposed to static
stress that results in fracture.
Corrosion fatigue
corrosion fatigue is caused by the combined effect of corrosion and varying state of
stress.
Erosion corrosion
erosion corrosion is an acceleration in the rate of corrosion caused by high velocity of
a liquid, or solid impurities carried by a liquid.
Cavitation corrosion
cavitation corrosion is erosion caused by the combined effect of corrosion and the
pressure caused by the breaking of gas bubbles formed in liquid (cavitation). .
Fretting corrosion
fretting corrosion occurs between two metals rubbing against each other under
corrosive conditions.
3. Classification of corrosion environments
Environments causing corrosion can be classified in different categories according to their corrosivity. The
classification is based on standard ISO 9223:1992 Corrosion of metals and alloys -- Corrosivity of atmospheres -
Classification. It categorizes environments on the basis of wet time, as well as sulphur dioxide and chloride contents.
Standard ISO 9224 Corrosion of metals and alloys -- Corrosivity of atmospheres -- Guiding values for the corrosivity
categories gives the corrosion rates of steel, zinc, copper and aluminium in the first five years.
In the two following standards, the corrosivity categories are determined by the loads imposed by the atmosphere and
through immersion:
EN ISO 12944-2
Paints and varnishes -- Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems -- Part 2: Classification of
environments
ISO 14713
Protection against corrosion of iron and steel in structures -- Zinc and aluminium coatings - Guidelines
Table 1 gives examples of the environments in each corrosion category and the rates of corrosion for steel and zinc in
the first year.
Table 1.Categories of environment
Corrosivity category Environment
(guiding examples)
C1 Indoor spaces with occasional condensation
very low Outdoor air: inland rural
C2 Dry indoor spaces
low
C3 Indoor spaces with high moisture content, not much impurities
medium Outdoor air: inland urban, mildly saline
C4 Indoor spaces: chemical industry, swimming pools, seaside docks.
high Outdoor air: inland industrial plants, seaside urban areas
C5-I Outdoor air: very humid industrial atmosphere
very high
C5-M Outdoor air: saline seaside atmosphere
very high
Corrosivity category Rate of corrosion in the first year
ISO 9223 and EN ISO 12944-2 EN ISO 14713
Carbon steel Zinc Zinc
µm/year µm/year µm/year
C1 <= 1,3 <= 0,1 <= 0,1
very low
C2 1,3 - 25 0,1 - 0,7 0,1 - 0,7
low
C3 25 - 50 0,7 - 2,1 0,7 - 2
medium
C4 50 - 80 2,1 - 4,2 2-4
high
C5-I 80 - 200 4,2 - 8,4 4-8
very high
C5-M 80 - 200 4,2 - 8,4 4-8
very high
Table 2. Categories of immersed and buried structures.
Category of environment Environment
(guiding examples)
lm1 Fresh water: river constructions, water power plants
lm2 Sea water in temperature zones: Structures in harbour areas
lm3 Soil: Buried tanks, steel piles, steel pipes
Category of environment Rate of corrosion in the first year
ISO 9223 and EN ISO 12944-2 EN ISO 14713
Carbon steel Zinc Zinc
µm/year µm/year µm/year
lm1
lm2 10 - 20
lm3
4. Corrosion protection
The most common surface protection methods for steel are:
anti corrosive paint coating
hot dip galvanizing
electroplating
spray galvanizing
chromium plating
aluminium spraying
rubberising
coil coating of sheet steel
The most common method of protecting steel construction products is hot dip galvanising. Very simply, the process
involves coating the surface of the steel with a corrosion-resistant metal, usually zinc or an aluminium/zinc alloy. Zinc
and zinc-based coatings protect steel in two ways. Like paint, they provide barrier protection. Secondly, they provide
galvanic protection, i.e., zinc will sacrifice itself to protect steel.
In addition to the metallic coating, many flat steel construction products such as cladding and roofing products have an
organic topcoat for increased durability and enhanced appearance. A range of different coatings is available depending
upon the product and the application. Coating thicknesses vary from 25 to 200 µm.
Anticorrosive painting
Paints are barrier coatings that, when applied and used properly, give sufficient corrosion protection to steel for many
common applications. They are, however, not impervious to moisture, and rust can occur under even a perfectly applied
paint if exposure time to moisture is long enough. Nevertheless, surface cleanliness and surface preparation are essential
for good protection by anticorrosive paints. Surface preparation and corrosion protection of steel by protective paint
systems are addressed in many standards.
Pretreatment:
The surface to be painted must be completely clean before painting. The standards for inspection of steel surface
cleanliness are: covered in ISO 8501-1 and ISO 8501-2
The cleanliness of the surface can be estimated according to standard:
ISO 8502 parts 1 ... 9 and parts 11 ... 12.
which covers the preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products and the tests for the
assessment of surface cleanliness.
The roughness of the steel surface influences the adhesion of the paint and the corrosion protection. Surface roughness
can be estimated according to:
ISO 8503-1 parts 1 ... 5.
which describes the preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products and the surface
roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned steel substrates.
The pre-treatment methods for steel surfaces are given in standard:
ISO 8504 parts 1 ... 3.
which covers the preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -- Surface preparation
methods.
Information of the blast-cleaning abrasives used in surface preparation is given in the standard:
ISO 11124 parts 1 ... 4.
covering the preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -- Specifications for
metallic blast-cleaning abrasives; and
ISO 11126 parts 1, 3 ... 10
which is for the preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -- Specifications for
non-metallic blast-cleaning abrasives.
Protective paint systems
The protective paint systems are addressed in:
ISO 12944-1.
Paints and varnishes which classifies protective paint systems by durability. The durability class does not imply any
guarantee period but the expected serviceable life before repainting for maintenance.
ISO 12944-2.
Paints and varnishes which specifies the corrosivity categories according to the type of atmosphere and stress caused by
immersion (tables 1 and 2)
ISO 12944-3.
Paints and varnishes -- Design considerations.
ISO 12944-4.
Paints and varnishes -- Types of surface and surface preparation.
ISO 12944-5.
Paints and varnishes -- Protective paint systems. It specifies the most common types of anti-corrosive paint and gives
instructions for the selection of these for different environmental classes.
ISO 12944-6.
Paints and varnishes -- Part 6: Laboratory performance test methods.
ISO 12944-7.
Paints and varnishes -- Part 7: Execution and supervision of paint work.
ISO 12944-8.
Paints and varnishes -- Part 8: Development of specifications for new work and maintenance.
Shop primers
Shop primer is applied immediately to the blast-cleaned steel surface for temporary protection against corrosion during
fabrication, transport, installation and storage. The shop primer is then painted over with the finishing paint system,
which usually includes a new primer coat. Usually shop primer is not part of the paint system. Therefore it may have to
be removed. Products supplied with a shop primer coat can be welded.
Guidance on shop primers is given in standards EN ISO 12944-5, appendix B and EN 10238 Automatically blast
cleaned and automatically primed structural steel products.
Zinc coatings
Zinc coating can be applied by:
hot-dip galvanising
electroplating
spray galvanizing
zinc-rich paint
The atmospheric corrosion resistance of a zinc coating is a linear function of its thickness. For example, a 20 ?m thick
coating will last twice a long a 10 ?m coating in a given environment. Hot-dip zinc coating (hot dip galvanizing) is the
most common method of zinc coating for steel structures. Table 3 gives typical properties of different zinc coatings.
Table 3. Comparison of zinc coatings.
Coating thickness
Hot dip zinc coating Normally 50 to 100 µm (up to 250 µm) thick. Continuously coated steel sheet 10 to 30 µm.
Electroplating Usually 5 to 15 µm. Thick coats cannot be produced economically.
Zinc spraying Coat thickness varies, typically 80 to 150 µm (seldom exceeds 250 µm)
Zinc-rich paint One coat about 10 to 60 µm.
Adhesion of zinc to steel
Hot dip zinc coating Metallurgical bonding
Electroplating Interatomic bonding/mechanical adhesion
Zinc spraying Mechanical adhesion. Good if shot blasting has been carried out correctly
Zinc-rich paint Depends on binder and carefulness of shot blasting
Structure of the coat
Hot dip zinc Piece galvanizing: Zinc-iron layers coat plus pure outerzinc layer. Continuous galvanizing: very thin
coating iron-alluminium-zinc layer, pure zinc layer (99 %)
Electroplating Entirely pure zinc
Zinc spraying The coating is built up from droplets of pure zinc. It is slightly oxidized and porous
Zinc-rich paint The best products have about 90 weight-% zinc in the paint
Evenness and continuity
Hot dip zinc Good. Some excessive zinc runnings from the batch process
coating
Electroplating Even, depending on the efficiency of bath
Zinc spraying Depends on operators skills. The coating is porous, but the pores are quickly filled with zinc salts
and after that the coating is compact.
Zinc-rich paint Good. Pores, if any, are filled with reaction products.
Pretreatment
Hot-dip zinc Piece galvanizing: degreasing and acid pickling.Continuous galvanizing: cleaning in annealing
coating furnace.
Electroplating Degreasing and acid pickling
Zinc spraying Shotblasting (minimum Sa3)
Zinc-rich paint Shotblasting (Sa2 to Sa3)
Corrosion resistance
Hot dip zinc coating Good
Electroplating Limited (depending on coating thickness)
Zinc spraying Good
Zinc-rich paint Limited.
Standards
Hot dip zinc coating EN ISO 1461, EN ISO 14713, ISO 3575 (coated sheet)
Electroplating ISO 2081
Zinc spraying
Zinc-rich paint
Notes
Hot dip zinc The maximum size of the object to be dipped depends on the zinc bath. Reversing dipping can be
coating used to handle long objects. The objects should be appropriately designed to allow successful hot dip
zinc coating.
Electroplating Zinc pot dimensions set the limits. Usually for small components of simple shape. Suitable for sheet
and wire. No heat is developed in the process.
Zinc spraying Size and form unlimited. Economical for objects that weigh a lot in proportion to surface area.
Uneconomical for network structures. Less accessible spots limit its use. Best method for producing
thick coatings.
Zinc-rich paint Suitable for the same applications as painting in general. Narrow places present problems.
The atmospheric corrosion rate of zinc is approximately ten times slower than that of steel. The corrosion rate of zinc is:
rural atmosphere: < 1 µm/year
urban atmosphere: ≈ 2 µm/year
industrial atmosphere: 2 ... 10 µm/year
marine atmosphere: ≈ 2 µm/year
The life expectancies for zinc coatings under different conditions are presented in figure 1.
Figure 1. Life expectancies for zinc coatings.
Stainless steels
Stainless steelsare the most corrosion resistant steels used in construction. Stainless steel contains a minimum of 11%
chromium that produces a thin protective oxide film on the surface that protects the material from corrosion. If
damaged, this protective layer simply re-forms. Stainless steel is rarely used for structural steel but is used in some
specific structural products such as lintels and masonry support systems. The most common use of stainless steel is for
building roofing and cladding and internal applications such as escalators, doors, railings, etc.
5. Corrosion allowance
A steel structure that will not be protected against corrosion by painting or zinc coating can be made to run its planned
service life by adding a corrosion allowance to its material thicknesses, determined according to the service conditions.
Corrosion in air:
Humidity, temperature, rain, wind, impurities and metal wet times have an effect on the corrosion rate. Corrosion occurs
when the relative humidity of the air is 70 to 80 %. Corrosion reaction is possible generally when the temperature is
above 0 °C and the relative humidity is over 80 % (the surface is wet). Air impurities that dissolve in condensed water
or rain water may accelerate corrosion. Settling of dust and dirt on the metal surface accelerates atmospheric corrosion.
Information about steel corrosion rates in different atmospheres is given in table 4. It should be noted that localised
corrosion can occur, which can greatly exceed the corrosion rates given in the table.
Table 4. The corrosion rate of steel in different atmospheres (uniform corrosion).
Atmosphere Corrosion rate
(µm/year)
Rural 4 - 60
Urban 30 - 70
Industrial 40 - 160
Marine 60 - 170
Corrosion rates of steel in water and soil are given in different information sources.
Weathering steels
Weathering steels are high strength, low alloy, weldable structural steels that possess good weather resistance in many
atmospheric conditions without the need for protective coatings. They contain up to 2.5% alloying elements, e.g.
chromium, copper and nickel. On exposure to air, a protective rust patina forms that adheres to the surface of the steel.
This layer causes the rate of corrosion to slow so that after 2-5 years, corrosion almost ceases. Requirement for the
formation of the protective corrosion product layer is regular wetting and curing of the surface. Long wet periods may
prevent the formation of the protective layer.
Wet environments, immersed or buried conditions are unsuitable for weathering steels.
Consideration for use of weathering steels:
the actual loss varies with the environment. For long-life corrosion allowance must be
considered
crevices and water/dirt traps should be avoided
rust stains may run to adjacent surfaces and cause staining
fasteners should be made of weathering steel
specific low alloy welding rods should be used
for an even weathering result, surface blasting may be necessary
weathering steels are unsuitable for use in marine and aggressive industrial
environments.
