Chapter -Three Compression Members

Chapter 3
Compression Members
3.1 Introduction
Compression members are structural members whose main function are the transfer of load by means of
compression action and are described by the terms `column', `stanchions', or strut. The vertical compression
members in a building are called columns or stanchions. The structural members carrying compression load in
a roof trusses and bridge trusses are called struts. Some types of compression members are shown in Fig. 3.1
Structural members carrying axial compression only (without bending) will be treated in this

Compression element in
truss, e.g. top chords
a) Roof Truss

industrialbuilding

Columns in compression
c) Multi storey building
Fig 3.1 Types of compression members

Typical cross –sections of compression members

Since the compressive stress for a compression members increase with decrease in l/r ratio, the section should
be proportioned to have the largest radius of gyration. A circular pipe has best cross-section in this regard as its
radius of gyration is highest for a given cross-sectional area and is equal in all directions. However, in actual
practice this section is not preferred due to difficulty in joining with other members.

Rolled, compound and built-up sections are used for columns. Universal columns are used in buildings were
axial loads predominates, and universal beams often used to resist heavy moments that occur in columns in
industrial buildings. Single angle, double angles, tees channels and structural hollow sections are the common
sections used for struts in trusses, lattice girders and bracing. Various types of compression member sections
are shown in Fig 3.2.

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Chapter -Three Compression Members

3.2 Classification of Cross-sections

When designing a structure and its components, the designer must decide on an appropriate structural model.
The choice of model effects:
 the analysis of the structure, which is aimed at the determination of the stress resultants (internal forces and
moments), and
 the calculation of the cross-section resistance.
Thus a model implies the use of a method of analysis combined with a method of cross-section resistance
calculation.
There are several possible combinations of methods of analysis and methods of cross-section calculation, for
the ultimate limit state, involving either an elastic or plastic design approach; the possible combinations are
listed in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Ultimate Limit State Design - Definition of Design Models.

Model Method of global analysis(Calculation of internal forces Calculation of member cross
and moments) section resistance

I Plastic Plastic
II Elastic Plastic
III Elastic Elastic
IV Elastic Elastic Plate Buckling
Model I is related to plastic design of structures. Full plasticity may be developed within cross sections, i.e.
the stress distribution corresponds to a fully rectangular block, so that plastic hinges can form. These have
suitable moment rotation characteristics giving sufficient rotation capacity for the formation of a plastic
mechanism, as the result of moment redistribution in the structure.

For a structure composed of sections which can achieve their plastic resistance, but have not sufficient
rotation capacity to allow for a plastic mechanism in the structure, the ultimate limit state must refer to the
onset of the first plastic hinge. Thus, in Model II, the internal forces are determined using an elastic analysis
and are compared to the plastic capacities of the corresponding cross-sections.
For statically determinate systems, the onset of the, first plastic hinge produces a plastic mechanism; both
methods I and II should thus4ive the same result: For statically indeterminate structures, Model II, in contrast
to Model I, does not allow moment redistribution.

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Chapter -Three Compression Members

When the cross-sections of a structure cannot achieve their plastic capacity, both analysis and verification of
cross-sections must be conducted elastically. The ultimate limit state, according to Model III, is achieved
when yielding occurs at the most stressed fiber. Sometimes yielding in the extreme fiber cannot even be
attained because of premature plate buckling of one component of the cross-section; in such cases, the above
ultimate limit state should apply only to effective cross-sections (Model IV).

It is obviously not possible to have a model where a plastic method of analysis is combined with an elastic
cross-section verification. Indeed, the moment redistribution which is required by the plastic analysis cannot
take place without some cross-sections being fully yielded.

In the above discussion, the models are defined in terms of structural design criteria; these are actually
governed by conditions related to stability problems. Plastic redistribution between local buckling occurs, as
this would cause a drop-off in load carrying capacity.

It must be guaranteed that no local instability can occur before either the elastic (Model III), or the plastic
(Model II), bending resistance of the cross-section, or the formation of a complete plastic mechanism (Model
I), is achieved.

EBCS 3-1995, classifies sections in to four categories. Plastic, compact, semi-compact, or thin walled.
Class 1 Plastic cross-sections: those which can develop a plastic hingeith-sufficieat rotation capacity to allow
redistribution of bending moments in the structure. Only class 1 section can be used for plastic design.

Class 2 Compact cross-sections: those which can develop the plastic moment resistance of the section but
where local buckling prevents rotation at constant moment in the structure.

Class 3 Semi-compact cross-sections: those in which the stress in the extreme fibers should be limited to yield
because local buckling would prevent development of the plastic moment resistance of the section.

Class 4 Slender (thin-walled) cross-sections: those in which yield in the extreme fibers cannot be attained
because of premature local buckling.

a. Components of cross-section

The classification of a specific cross-section depends on the width-to-thickness ratio, b/t, of each of its
compression elements. Compression elements include any component plate which is either totally or partially
in compression, due to axial force and/or bending moment resulting from the load combination considered; the
class to which a specified cross-section belongs, therefore, partly depends on the type of loading this section is
experiencing.
A cross-section is composed of different plate elements, such as web and flanges; most of these elements, if in
compression, can be separated into two categories:
• Internal elements: these elements are considered to be simply supported along two - edges parallel to the
direction of compressive stress.
• Outstand elements: these elements are considered to be attached along one edge and free on the other edge
parallel to the direction of compressive stress.
These cases correspond respectively to the webs of I-sections (or the webs and flanges of box sections) and to
flange outstands (Fig. 3.3).
b. Element Classification
Elements may be classified as plastic, compact or semi-compact if they meet the limits given in Table 3.2
ϵ

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Chapter -Three Compression Members

c) Effective Cross-section properties of Class 4

For members with Class 4 sections the effect of local plate buckling on the overall member behavior has to be
taken into account. The buckling is allowed for by using effective cross-sections which assume parts of the
gross cross-section are inactive.
The effective widths beff are calculated on the basis of the following formula:

beff  b

 is reduction factor dependent on the plate slenderness,   defined by linear plate bucking theory, as shown
in Fig. 3.4.

The reduction factor ρ may be obtained as follows:

a)' =1 if   0.673

   0.22
b)   , if   0.673
2


Where   =
fy b
= 
 cr  t


 / 28.4 k 

t is the relevant thickness.,cr is the critical plate buckling stress.

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 Chapter -Three Compression Members

k, is the critical buckling factor corresponding to the stress ratio  from table or 4.4 as appropriate.

b = the appropriate width (see Fig 4.7 EBCS 3) as follows:

b = d for webs
b = b for internal flange elements ( except RHS)
b = b - 3t for flanges of RHS
b = C for outstand flanges
b = (b + h) / 2 for equal angles
b = h or(b + b) / 2 for unequal leg angle

3.4 Column Design

3.4.1 Euler Critical Stress
The critical buckling load (Euler buckling load) for pin end column shown in figure is given by:

Euler Critical Stress

The critical or buckling stress is the average stress over the cross-sectional area of a column is given by:

P  2 EI
 cr  cr  ------------------3.2
A ALe 2
Where
Pcr = critical buckling load
A = cross - sectional area of column
L, = effective length

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Chapter -Three Compression Members

The moment of inertia of the column cross-section can be expressed in terms of the cross-sectional area and the
radius of gyration: I = Ar 2' where :r is the radius of gyration. Substituting this expression in the expression for
critical stress gives

 2E  2E
 cr   -------------------------------- (3.3)
2 2
L 2 
 e 
 r 
 
L
The ratio   e is referred to as the slenderness ratio of the column, and is the measure of the column's
r
tendency for buckling. Fig. 3.5 shows the variation of the critical column stress is plotted versus the
slenderness ratio.

Fig. 3.5 variation of critical stress with slenderness

Consider fy is the stress for slenderness ratio 1 substituting in to the above expression one can obtain the

 2E
following: fy  ----------------------------------------------------(3.4)
12

E E 235 235
1   = =93.9, Where   ------------------------------ (3.5)
fy 235 f y fy

Although the Euler theory provides some insight in to the behavior of slender column, it omits the
consideration of a number of important factors. These are often grouped under the general heading of
`imperfections' and include such factors as initial lack of straightness accidental 'section eccentricities of
loading, residual stresses and variation of the material properties over the cross section. Their
combined effect is produce the type of relationship between theory and experiment (i.e. behavior of
real columns as observed in the laboratory test) shown Fig. 3.6. Thus, while very slender columns fail

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 Chapter -Three Compression Members

at loads which are close to their elastic critical load, columns of intermediate slenderness collapse at a
load some way below either critical load or the squash load.

Fig. 3.6 Typical column test data compared with Euler strut theory
 The treatment of column distinguished between
• Stocky columns
• Slender Columns
 The characteristic of stocky columns:
o Very low slenderness
o Unaffected by overall buckling
 Column of large slenderness:
o Largely unaffected by imperfections.
o Ultimate failure load Euler load
o Independent of yield stress
 Column of medium slenderness:
o Imperfection important
o Out-of-straightness and residual stresses are the most significant imperfections
o Failure load less than Euler load
Residual stresses
Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a member after it has been formed into a finished product. Such
stresses result from plastic deformations, which in structural steel may result from several sources:
 Uneven cooling which occurs after hot rolling of structural shapes
 Cold bending or cumbering during fabrication
 Punching of holes and cutting operations during fabrication and
 Welding
Typical residual stresses patterns for some shapes shown in Fig. 3.7. One should note that compressive
residual stresses typically occurring at flange tips are higher in welded than in rolled H -shaped sections.

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Chapter -Three Compression Members

Thus the column strength of such welded shapes will be lower than corresponding rolled shapes. On the
other hand, the welded -box shape having tensile residual stresses in the corners regions that contribute most
to the stiffness as a column, will stronger than a rolled shape having the same slenderness ratio .
3.4.2 Resistance of Compression members

a) Compression Resistance of Cross-section

A stocky column ( 1  0.2 ) can achieve the full plastic resistance of the cross-section.
 Design compressive resistance  c, Rd for class 1, 2, 3 cross-sections equals the plastic
resistance  pl, Rd .
Af y
  c, Rd  3.6
 o
 Design compressive resistance limited to local buckling resistance (class 4 section)
Aeff f y
 c, Rd   o, Rd  -------------------3.7
 1
Where Aeff : is the effective area of the cross-section
The partial safety factors are Mo=1.1, M I =1.1
b) Buckling resistance of Compression members
For 1  0.2 load resistance reduced because of buckling. The design compressive resistance
reduced by buckling factor,.The design buckling resistance of a compressive member can be
Obtained from:
  Af y
 b, Rd   ----------------------------------- (3.8)
 1
Where  A =1, for class 1,2 or 3 cross-section
 A =Aeff/A, for class 4 cross-sections
A:is gross area
Aeff :is effective cross-section
 is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode

The value of  for the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness 1 may be obtained from:

1
  1 ------------------------------------- (3.9)
0.5
    2   2 
 
  0.51     0.2   2  ------------------------------------- (3.10)
 
  is an imperfection factor depends on
The shape of the cross-section
 The direction of buckling (Y or Z axis)
 The fabrication process (hot-rolled , welded or cold-formed )
 Four curves apply to different cross-section types corresponds to different values of imperfection factor
. Imperfection factor given in Table 3.3.

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Chapter -Three Compression Members

Table 3.3 Imperfection factors

Buckling curve a b c d
Imperfection factor,  0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
Buckling curve plotted as  versus non slenderness ratio.

Fig. 3.8 Column design curves

The appropriate curve shall be determined from Table 3.4

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Chapter -Three Compression Members

Table 3.4 Selection of buckling curve for a cross-section.

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Chapter -Three Compression Members

 Non – dimensional slenderness

 
   A Af y /  cr 0.5 =    A 0.5 ---------------------------3.11
 1 
Ncr is the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode
 1 Defined as when cr equals fy
E 235
1   =93.9,  ,(fy in Mpa)----------------3.12
fy fy
 is the slenderness for the relevant buckling mode
=Le/i -------------------------- (3.13)
Le, is effective length of column and i is radius of gyration
3.5 Effective length
The actual column is replaced by an equivalent pin-ended column of the same strength that has an effective
length:
Le = k L---------------------- (3.14)
Where L= actual length and
K= effective length ratio factor is determined from end conditions
Fig. 3.9 is used when the support conditions of the compression members can be closely represented by those
shown in figure. On the other hand Fig 3.10 and 3.11 is used when members those are part of a framework.

Fig 3.9 K factor for standard conditions of restraint

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Chapter -Three Compression Members

kc
t 
kc  kb,ta  kb,bb  -----------------------------------(3.14)
kc
t 
kc  kb,ba  kb,bb  ------------------------------------(3.15)
 For continuous columns as the model shown in Fig. 3.11 the distribution factors obtained from
k c  kt
t 

k c  kt  kb,ta  kb,tb 
-------------------------- (3.16)

k c  kb
t 

k c  kb  kb,ba  kb,bb 
-------------------------------- (3.17)

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