1.

Parts of Speech
A part of speech (also called a word class) is a category that describes the role a
word plays in a sentence. Understanding the different parts of speech can help
you analyze how words function in a sentence and improve your writing.
The parts of speech are classified differently in different grammars, but most
traditional grammars list eight parts of speech in
English: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions,
and interjections. Some modern grammars add others, such
as determiners and articles.
Many words can function as different parts of speech depending on how they are
used. For example, “laugh” can be a noun (e.g., “I like your laugh”) or a verb (e.g.,
“don’t laugh”).
Nouns
A noun is a word that refers to a person, concept, place, or thing. Nouns can act as the
subject of a sentence (i.e., the person or thing performing the action) or as the object
of a verb (i.e., the person or thing affected by the action).
There are numerous types of nouns, including common nouns (used to refer to
nonspecific people, concepts, places, or things), proper nouns (used to refer to
specific people, concepts, places, or things), and collective nouns (used to refer to a
group of people or things).
Examples: Nouns in a sentence
I’ve never read that book.
Ella lives in France.
The band played only new songs.
Other types of nouns include countable and uncountable nouns, concrete
nouns, abstract nouns, and gerunds.
Note: Proper nouns (e.g., “New York”) are always capitalized. Common
nouns (e.g., “city”) are only capitalized when they’re used at the start of a sentence.
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. Pronouns typically refer back to an
antecedent (a previously mentioned noun) and must demonstrate correct pronoun-
antecedent agreement. Like nouns, pronouns can refer to people, places, concepts, and
things.
There are numerous types of pronouns, including personal pronouns (used in place
of the proper name of a person), demonstrative pronouns (used to refer to specific
things and indicate their relative position), and interrogative pronouns (used to
introduce questions about things, people, and ownership).
Examples: Pronouns in a sentence
I don’t really know her.
That is a horrible painting!
Who owns the nice car?
Verbs
A verb is a word that describes an action (e.g., “jump”), occurrence (e.g., “become”),
or state of being (e.g., “exist”). Verbs indicate what the subject of a sentence is doing.
Every complete sentence must contain at least one verb.
Verbs can change form depending on subject (e.g., first
person singular), tense (e.g., past simple), mood (e.g., interrogative),
and voice (e.g., passive voice).
Regular verbs are verbs whose simple past and past participle are formed
by adding“-ed” to the end of the word (or “-d” if the word already ends in
“e”). Irregular verbs are verbs whose simple past and past participles are formed in
some other way.
Examples: Regular and irregular verbs
“Will you check if this book is in stock?”
“I’ve already checked twice.”
“I heard that you used to sing.”
“Yes! I sang in a choir for 10 years.”
Other types of verbs include auxiliary verbs, linking verbs, modal verbs, and phrasal
verbs.
Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes a noun or pronoun. Adjectives can
be attributive, appearing before a noun (e.g., “a red hat”), or predicative, appearing
after a noun with the use of a linking verb like “to be” (e.g., “the hat is red”).
Adjectives can also have a comparative function. Comparative adjectives compare
two or more things. Superlative adjectives describe something as having the most or
least of a specific characteristic.
Examples: Adjectives in a sentence
The dog is bigger than the cat.
He is the laziest person I know
Other types of adjectives include coordinate adjectives, participial adjectives,
and denominal adjectives.
Adverbs
An adverb is a word that can modify a verb, adjective, adverb, or sentence. Adverbs
are often formed by adding “-ly” to the end of an adjective (e.g., “slow” becomes
“slowly”), although not all adverbs have this ending, and not all words with this
ending are adverbs.
There are numerous types of adverbs, including adverbs of manner (used to describe
how something occurs), adverbs of degree (used to indicate extent or degree),
and adverbs of place (used to describe the location of an action or event).
Examples: Adverbs in a sentence
Ray acted rudely.
Talia writes quite quickly.
Let’s go outside!
Other types of adverbs include adverbs of frequency, adverbs of purpose, focusing
adverbs, and adverbial phrases.
Prepositions
A preposition is a word (e.g., “at”) or phrase (e.g., “on top of”) used to show the
relationship between the different parts of a sentence. Prepositions can be used to
indicate aspects such as time, place, and direction.
Examples: Prepositions in a sentence
Hasan is coming for dinner at 6 p.m.
I left the cup on the kitchen counter.
Carey walked to the shop.
Note: A single preposition can often describe many different relationships, depending
upon how it’s used. For example, “in” can indicate time (“in January”), location (“in
the garage”), purpose (“in reply”), and so on.
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word used to connect different parts of a sentence (e.g., words,
phrases, or clauses).
The main types of conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions (used to connect
items that are grammatically equal), subordinating conjunctions (used to introduce a
dependent clause), and correlative conjunctions (used in pairs to join grammatically
equal parts of a sentence).
Examples: Conjunctions in a sentence
Daria likes swimming and hiking.
You can choose what movie we watch because I chose the last time.
We can either go out for dinner or go to the theater.
Interjections
An interjection is a word or phrase used to express a feeling, give a command, or
greet someone. Interjections are a grammatically independent part of speech, so they
can often be excluded from a sentence without affecting the meaning.
Types of interjections include volitive interjections (used to make a demand or
request), emotive interjections (used to express a feeling or reaction), cognitive
interjections (used to indicate thoughts), and greetings and parting words (used at
the beginning and end of a conversation).
Examples:
Ouch! I hurt my arm.
I’m, um, not sure.
Hey! How are you doing?

Fill the blanks with correct pronouns.

1. Shyam is my brother. ___ study in the same class
 2. Between Ritu and me, __ am the younger one.
3. Do you see this book with my name on it? It is ___.
4. Miss Gwen is our new class teacher. ___ is very sweet.
5. While cutting vegetables, Mitu cut ___.
6. The jury got divided among ___.
7. I’m coming too. Please wait for __.
8. Nobody but ___ was present.
9. ___ book is better than the other.
10. Is the mug ___? It was on your table.
Answers
1. We 2. I 3. Mine 4. She 5. Herself6. Themselves 7. Me 8. He/She 9. This
10. Yours
Identify the Adverb
Go through the given sentences and identify the adverb.
1. We have seen this before.
2. The postman comes to her daily.
3. The man repeated the same thing thrice.
4. Your friend called again.
5. Please walk forward.
6. The horse ran away.
7. My brother writes clearly.
8. The army fought bravely.
9. The mangoes are almost ripe.
10. Are you keeping well?
Answers
1.Before2. Daily 3.Thrice4. Again 5. Forward6.Away 7.Clearly 8.Bravely 9.Al
most 10.Well
Identify the Part of Speech
Go through the following sentences and identify the part of speech of the underlined
words.
1. Namitha is not coming today.
2. My mom will be leaving to Bangalore tomorrow.
3. The teacher asked the students to stand.
4. He is my brother.
5. There is a cat under the table.
6. The clothes did not dry as it was raining all night.
 7. Sheena and her sister dance well.
8. I am wearing a green dress for the party.
9. Oh! That is really sad.
10. She is coming with me.
Answers
1. Noun 2.Verb,adverb 3.Noun 4.Pronoun5.Preposition 6.Conjunction 7.Conjun
ction, adverb8.Adjective 9.Interjection 10.Preposition

II. Types of Sentences

1.Declarative Sentence (Statement):

Declarative sentences are the most commonly used sentences and it is the most basic
sentence among all 4-types of sentences on the basis of function. We use them to
convey any message, facts, and ideas, in other words, they are used to declare
something and forward the information.

In our day-to-day life, we mostly use these sentences to communicate and answer any
question. To provide any information to someone, we use declarative sentences. All
declarative sentences end with a period or full stop.

Here are few examples of declarative sentences:

1. He enjoys reading these articles.

2. I am the boss of this company.
3. Cow milk is white in color.
4. Adam is good at cricket.
5. You are a very good boy.

So as you can see, the above sentences are used only for providing some information
and facts. These all sentences are ending with full stop also.

2.Interrogative Sentence (Questions):

Interrogative sentences are used to ask questions, interrogate, or to do some inquiry. It

ends or is punctuated with a question mark (?).

The 3-main types of questions that are covered under an interrogative sentence are:

• WH- word question

• Choice question
• Yes/No question
Now, look at these examples of how interrogative sentences are formed

1. Do you want to top over your pizza?

2. Where do you live?
3. What are you doing in the garden?
4. Are you going for some food?
5. Where do you prefer to visit, Chennai or Mumbai?

3.Exclamatory Sentence (Exclamation):

Exclamatory sentences express strong emotions such as happiness, anger, grief, sadness,
etc. An exclamatory sentence always ends with a sign of exclamations (!). These
sentences will be helpful in expressing inner feelings and excitement. For example,

1. It's a beautiful building!

2. We won the match yesterday!
3. She lost her brother in an accident!
4. My brother scared the hell out of me!
5. Wow, you have cracked the exam!

4.Imperative Sentence (Commands)

Imperative sentences are used to give some command, order, or instructions, or to make
any request or plea. These types of sentences generally end with a full stop. When there
is any strong emotion involved while making a request or giving any command then in
that case imperative sentence will end with a mark of exclamations (!)

Look and observe these examples on imperative sentences:

1. Shut the door, please!

2. Start opposing violence.
3. Don’t go outside in the afternoon.
4. Switch off the light, please!
5. Submit your assignment as soon as possible.

The table below is the summary of these 4-types of sentences

Types of Sentence on the basis of Function

Types of Sentence Objective of Sentence Punctuation Mark

 To make statement or to
Declarative Full Stop (.)
convey message

Interrogative To ask a question Question marks (?)

Exclamatory To express emotion Exclamation mark (!)

To give command, order

Imperative Full stop (.)
and to request

III. TENSES

Tenses denote the time of action. They show when the work is done. They are:

(1)Present Tense (2)Past Tense (3)Future Tense

They are further divided into:

(1) Simple Present- It is used to denote scientific facts, universal truths and work done
on daily basis.

Example – She writes a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + does not + v1 + s/es + object

Example – She does not write a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- Does + sub + v1 + s/es + object

Example – Does she write a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE ASSERTIVE --- Does + sub + not + v1 + s/es + object

=+ Example – Does she not write a letter?

(2) Present Continuous– It is used to express an action taking place at the time of
speaking.

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + v1 + ing + object

Example – she is writing a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + not + v1 + ing + object

Example – She is not writing a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she writing a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + not + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she not writing a letter?

(3) Present Perfect– It is used to show an action that started in the past and has

just finished.

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + v3 + object

Example- She has written a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not + v3 + object

Example – She has not written a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- has/have + sub + v3 + object

Example- Has she written a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + not + v3 + object

Example– Has she not written a letter?

(4) Present Perfect Continuous– This tense shows the action which started in

the past and is still continuing.

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + been + v1 + ing + object

Example – She has been writing a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not been + v1 + ing + object

Example– She has not been writing a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + been + v1 + ing + object

Example – Has she been writing a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- has/have + she + not + been + v1 + ing +

object

Example – Has she not been writing a letter?

5.Past Tense

Tense symbolizes the ever moving, non-stop wheel of time which is forever busy
gathering moments of future and throwing them into the dustbin of past

Past (before now) Simple Past

Simple Past - Past Continuous - Past Perfect - Past Perfect Continuous

Simple Past:

Used to indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with adverb of time.
Sometimes it is used without an adverb of time.

Used for past habits.

Eg. I played football when I was a child. Rule: Subject + V2

Eg She wrote a letter

1.Assertive Sentences – Subject + V2 + Object + (.)

She wrote a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + didn’t + V1 + Object + (.)

She didn’t write a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-

Did + Subject + V1 + Object + (?)

Did she write a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Did + Subject + not + V1 + Object + (?)

Did she not write a letter?

Past Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action going on at some time in the past.

I was driving a car.

Rule: was/were + ing

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + was/were +V1+ ing + Object + (.)

She was writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + was/were + not + ing + Object + (.)

She was not writing a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-
Was/were + Subject + ing+ Object + (?)

Was she writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Was/were + Subject + not + ing+ Object + (?)

Was she not writing a letter?

Past Perfect Tense

Used to describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past, usually a
long time ago. If two actions happened in the past, past perfect is used to show the
action that took place earlier.

Example: The patient had died before the doctor came.

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + had + V3 + Object + (.)

She had written a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + had + not + Object + (.)

She had not written a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-

Had + Subject + V3 + Object + (?)

Had she written a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Had + Subject + not + V3 + Object + (?)

Had she not written a letter?

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up
to sometime in past.

I had been learning English in this school for 20 days.

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + had been +V1 + ing + Object + (.)

She had been writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + had + not been + V1+ ing + Object + (.)

She had not been writing a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-

Had + Subject+ been+ V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she been writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Had + Subject +not + been + V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she not been writing a letter?

Simple future

Use the simple future for actions that have not happened yet but will later. To form

the simple future, just place the modal verb will before the root form of the main verb.

(Note that if the action will happen in the near future, you can use the present

continuous instead.)

She will be president one day.

I will not go to the wedding without a date!

Future perfect

[will] + [have] + [past participle]

The future perfect shows an action that will be completed in the future by a specified

time. Because it depends on another time, the future perfect is often used with words

like by, before, at, or when.

By the time you read this, I will have already left.

She will have eaten lunch before her sister even wakes up.
Future continuous

[will] + [be] + [present participle]

Use the future continuous tense for future actions happening over a period of time,

especially when a specific time is mentioned. The future continuous tense also shows

more certainty and likelihood than the simple future.

By this time tomorrow, I will be drinking margaritas on the beach.

We will be attending a meeting from noon until 3 p.m.

Future perfect continuous

[will] + [have] + [been] + [present participle]

The future perfect continuous depicts future ongoing actions that continue up until a

certain point. Like the future perfect and future continuous, it’s used with a specified

time.

In ten minutes, my parents will have been waiting in traffic for four hours.

I will have been eating healthy for a whole year by September.

IV. Subject-Verb Agreement

Subject-Verb Agreement means that subjects and verbs must always agree in number.
Not only does a verb change its form to tell time, but it also can change its form to
indicate how many subjects it has.

Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement

1. Two or more subjects joined by “and” are considered plural and require a verb form
without an “s.”

Example:

Jan, John, and Bob walk to the store. Bob and his brothers walk to the store.
2. If a subject is modified by the words “each” or “every” that subject is singular and
will take a verb form that ends in “s.”

Example:

Each boy and girl walks to the store.

3. If plural subjects are joined by “or,” “nor,” or “but,” the verb must only agree with
the subject that is closest to it.

Example:

Either Bob or his brother walks to the store. Neither Bob nor his brothers walk to the
store.

Not Bob but his brothers walk to the store

Not Bob but his brother walks to the store

4.Indefinite pronouns* are usually singular and take a verb form that ends in “s.” (You
will find a list of indefinite pronouns at the end of this handout.)

Example:

Everyone walks to the store.

b. Everything comes back eventually.

5. The subject of a verb is never in a prepositional* or verbal phrase. Therefore, you

must isolate the phrase and find the proper subject.

Example:

The mother duck (with all of her little ducklings) walks to the store. The mother duck
(including all her ducklings) walks to the store.

6. Some indefinite pronouns and nouns will be singular or plural depending on the
object of the prepositional phrase. These words are always about number or amount
such as: all, half, some, none, most, part, etc.

Example:

Some (of the students) are gone. Some (of the cake) is gone.

The mother duck and all (of her ducklings) walk to the store.

7. When a collective noun, such as family, group, committee, or class, is the subject,
the verb will end in “s.”
Example:

My family with all my crazy cousins always walks to the store.

8. A few nouns, such as economics, mumps, measles, or news end in “s” but are
considered singular. You can tell these “s” words are singular because if you take the
“s” away, you don’t have a noun. For example, economic and new are adjectives that
describe a noun. Mump and measle just don’t make any sense.

Example:

Economics is her favorite subject.

9. When the subject is a unit of measurement of time, distance, money, weight, etc. The
unit is considered singular, and the verb will end in “s.”

Example:

Ten pounds of chocolate is too much to eat at once.

Thirteen feet of kite string tangles very easily.

10. In a question or in a sentence that begins with there or here, the verb will often come
before the subject.

Example:

Where is my sweater? There are my sweaters.

11. The verb must agree only with the subject.

Example:

The biggest problem we face is all the squirrels that have rabies

around here.

12. Gerunds (“ing” words) can be subjects and follow all the same rules above. a.
Example: Running with ducks is my favorite sport.

Running to the store and flying through the air are my favorite sports.

13. When using who, that or which, you must look to the noun these relative pronouns
are referring to in order to determine whether the subject is singular and will have a
verb ending in “s” or is plural and have a verb without an “s.”

Example:

The girls who eat cake are happy. The girl who eats cake is happy.

V. Active and Passive Voice

What is Voice of a verb?

The voice of a verb expresses whether the subject in the sentence has performed or
received the action.

Example:

● Watchman opens door

● The door is opened by the watchman

Types of Voices of Verb

The verbs have two voices (i) Active Voice (ii) Passive Voice

Active Voice – When an action expressed by the verb is performed by the subject, it is
an active voice. Active voice is used when more straightforward relation and clarity is
required between the subject and the verb.

Active Voice example:

Hens lay Eggs

Birds build nests

Passive Voice – When the action expressed by the verb is received by the subject, it is
passive voice. Passive voice is used when the doer of the action is not known and the
focus of the sentence is on the action and not the subject.

Passive Voice Examples:

Eggs are laid by Hens

Nests are built by Birds

Active to Passive Voice Rules For Conversion of Sentence

Below are the rules to follow for changing an active sentence into a passive voice.
Before heading to the rules let’s check the examples of active and passive voice
sentences.

Conversion of Active and passive voice examples

Rita wrote a letter (Subject+Verb+Object)

A letter was written by Rita (Object) + (auxiliary verb) + (past

participle) + (by subject).

Conversion of Active Voice into Passive Voice Rule

Rule 1. Identify the (S+V+O) Subject, Verb and object in the active

sentence to convert to passive voice

Example:

He drives car (Subject – He, verb – Drives, object – Car)

Rule 2. Interchange the object and subject with each other i.e. object of the active
sentence become the subject of the passive sentence.

Example :

Active voice : She knits sweater (Subject – She, Verb – Knits, Object – Sweater)

Passive Voice : The sweater is knitted by her (Object sweater is interchanged with the
subject She).

Rule 3. In passive voice sometimes the subject is not used. i.e. the subject in passive
voice can be omitted if the sentence without it gives enough meaning.

Example :

Milk is sold in litres

Rule 4. Change the base verb in active sentence into the past participle ie. third form
verb in passive sentence i.e. preceded by (By, With, to, etc). Base verbs are never used
in passive voice sentences.

Example:

Active voice: She prepares dinner

Passive voice: The dinner is preparedbyher

Active Voice: She know him

Passive voice: He is knowntoher

Active voice: Juice fills the Jar

PassiveVoice: The Jar is filledwithjuice

Rule 5. While conversion of Active voice sentence to Passive voice sentence the
pronoun used in the sentence also changes in the following manner.

Active Voice Pronoun Passive Voice Pronoun

I. Me

We. Us

He. Him

She. Her
 They. Them

You. You

It. - It

Rule 6. Use the suitable helping or auxiliary verb (is/am/are/was, etc.). The rules for
using auxiliary verbs in passive voice sentences are different for each tense.

Example:

The letteriswritten by her

A book was not bought by her

Chocolatesare beingeaten by them.

Forms of Active and Passive Voice for All Tenses

1. Simple Present Tense

He writes an Essay

An essay is written by him

Sheena does the housework

The housework is done by Sheena

She cares the rabbit

The rabbit is been cared by her

Jacob always plays the guitar

The guitar is always played by Jacob

2. Present continuous tense

They are eating bananas

The bananas are being eaten by them

Bob is drawing a diagram

A diagram is being drawn by Bob

Samta is playing the piano

A piano is being played by Samta

She is waiting for Reema

Reema is being waited by her

3. Present Perfect Tense

Has he done the work?

Has the work been done by him?

Have they left the apartment?

Has the apartment been left by them?

He created this masterpiece

This masterpiece is created by him

He read the newspaper

The newspaper is being read by him

Note- [except certain exemptions, no passive Voice formation for the following tenses
can be formed, Present Perfect Continuous Tense, Past Perfect Continuous Tense,
Future Perfect Continuous Tense and Future Continuous Tense]

4.Simple Past Tense

Ria paid the bills

The bills were paid by Ria

The teacher called the student

The student was called by the teacher

She did not buy the fruits

The fruits were not bought by her

5. PastProgressive/ContinuousTense

They were waiting for him

He was being waited by them

Astha was learning French

The french was being learnt by Astha

She was playing kabaddi

The kabaddi was being played by her

6.Past Perfect Tense

She won the match

The match had been won by her

 I had finished her work

Her work had been finished by me

3.He had missed the last metro

The last metro had been missed by him

7. Simple FutureTense

He will write a letter

A letter will be written by him

He will repair her cycle

Her cycle will be repaired by him

He shall start the meeting

The meeting will be started by him

8. Future Perfect Tense

Meena will not have change the bedsheet

The bed sheet will not have been changed by Meena

The will have won the match

The match will have been won by them

Reena will have washed the skirt

The skirt will have been washed by Reena

VI. Direct and Indirect Speech

What is Direct & Indirect Speech?

Direct speech - reporting the message of the speaker in exact words as spoken by him.

Direct speech example: Rama said „he is busy now‟.

Indirect speech: reporting the message of the speaker in our own words

Indirect speech example: Rama said that he was very busy then.

Rules for converting Direct into Indirect speech

To change a sentence of direct speech into indirect speech there are various factors
that are considered such as reporting verbs, modals, time, place, pronoun, tense, etc. we
will take up all the factors one by one.

Rule 1 - Direct to Indirect Speech Conversion - Reporting Verb

1.When The reporting verb of direct speech is in past tense then all the present tenses
are changed to corresponding past tense in indirect speech.

Example:

Direct: she said, „i am happy‟

Indirect: She said (that) she was happy

2. In indirect speech tenses do not change if the words used within the quotes („‟) talk
of a habitual action or universal truth.

Example:

Direct: He said, „we cannot live without air‟.

Indirect: He said that we cannot live without air.

3. The tenses of direct speech do not change if the reporting verb is in future tense or
present tense.

Example:

Direct: She says/will say, „she is going‟

Indirect: She says/will say she is going.

Rule 2 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech conversion - Present Tense

1.Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect

Example:

Direct: "I have been to Boston", She told me.

Indirect: She told me that she had been to Boston.

2. Present Continuous Changes to Past Continuous

Example: Direct: "I am playing the guitar", she explained.

Indirect: She explained that she was playing the guitar.

3. Present Perfect Changes to Past Perfect

Example:

Direct: He said, "she has finished her homework“.

Indirect: He said that she had finished her homework.

4. Simple Present Changes to Simple Past

Example:
Direct: "I am unwell", she said.

Indirect: She said that she was unwell.

Rule 3 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech conversion - Past Tense & Future Tense

1.Simple Past Changes to Past Perfect

example:

Direct: She said, “Irvin arrived on Sunday."

Indirect: She said that Irvin had arrived on Sunday.

2. Past Continuous Changes to Past Perfect Continuous D

example

Direct: "We were playing basketball", they told me.

Indirect: They told me that they had been playing basketball.

3. Future Changes to Present Conditional

example

Direct: She said, "I will be in Scotland tomorrow."

Indirect: She said that she would be in Scotland the next day.

4. Future Continuous Changes to Conditional Continuous

Example:

Direct: He said, "I'll be disposing the old computer next Tuesday.”

Indirect: He said that he would be disposing the old computer next Tuesday.

Rule 4 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion - Interrogative Sentences

1No conjunction is used, if a sentence in direct speech begins with a question

(what/where/when) as the "question-word" itself acts as a joining clause.

Example

Direct: “Where do you live?” asked the boy.

Indirect: The boy enquired where I lived.

2. If a direct speech sentence begins with auxiliary verb/helping verb, the joining clause
should be if or whether.

example

Direct: She said, „will you come for the party‟?

Indirect: She asked whether we would come for the party.

3. Reporting verbs such as „said/ said to‟ changes to enquired, asked, or demanded

Example

Direct: He said to me, „what are you wearing‟?

Indirect: He asked me what I was wearing.

Rule 5 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion - Changes in Modals While

changing direct speech to indirect speech the modals used in the sentences changes like:

1. Can becomes Could

2. May becomes Might

3. Must becomes had to /Would have to

Check the examples:

Direct : She said, „She can dance‟.

Indirect: She said that she could dance.

Direct: She said, „I may buy a dress‟.

Indirect: She said that she might buy a dress.

Direct: Rama said, „I must complete the assignment‟.

Indirect: Rama said that he had to complete the assignment.

4. There are Modals that do not change like (Could,Would,Should, Might,Ought to)

Direct: She said, „I should clean the house‟

Indirect: She said that she should clean the house.

Rule 6 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion - Pronoun

1.The first person in the direct speech changes as per the subject of the speech.

Examples:

Direct: He said, “I am in class Twelfth.”

Indirect: He says that he was in class Twelfth.

2. The second person of direct speech changes as per the object of reporting speech

Examples

Direct: She says to them, "You have done your work.”

Indirect: She tells them that they have done their work.

3. The third person of direct speech doesn't change.

Examples :

Direct: He says, "She dances well.”

Indirect: He says that she dances well.

Rule 7 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion - Request, Command, Wish,

Exclamation 1. Indirect Speech is supported by some verbs like requested, ordered,
suggested and advised. Forbid-forbade is used for the negative sentences. Therefore,
the imperative mood in direct speech changes into the Infinitive in indirect speech.

Direct: She said to her „Please complete it‟.

Indirect: She requested her to complete it.

Direct: Hamid said to Ramid, „Sit down‟.

Indirect: Hamid ordered Ramid to sit down.

2. In Exclamatory sentences that express (grief, sorrow, happiness, applaud)

Interjections are removed and the sentence is changed to an assertive sentence.

Direct: She said, „Alas! I am undone‟.

Indirect: She exclaimed sadly that she was broke.

Rule 8 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion - Punctuations

1.In direct speech the words actually spoken should be in („‟) quotes and always begin
with a capital letter.

Example:

She said, “I am the Best.”

2. Full stop, Comma, exclamation or question mark, are placed inside the closing
inverted commas.

Example: They asked, “Can we sing with you?”

3. If direct speech comes after the information about who is speaking, comma is used
to introduce the speech, placed before the first inverted comma.

Direct speech example: He shouted, “Shut up!”

Direct speech example: “Thinking back,” he said, “she didn't expect to win.” (Comma
is used to separate the two direct speeches and no capital letter to begin the second
sentence).
 Rule 7 - Direct Speech to Indirect Speech Conversion - Change of Time

1.In direct speeches, the words that express nearness in time or place are changed to
words that express distance in indirect speech. Such as :

• Now becomes then

• Here becomes there

• Ago becomes before

• Thus becomes so

• Today becomes that day

• Tomorrow becomes the next day

• This becomes that

• Yesterday becomes the day before

• These becomes those

• Hither becomes thither

• Come becomes go

• Hence becomes thence

• Next week Or month becomes following week/month

Examples: Direct: He said, “His girlfriend came yesterday.”

Indirect: He said that his girlfriend had come the day before.

2. The time expression does not change if the reporting verb is in present tense or future
tense. Examples:

Direct: He says/will say, “My girlfriend came yesterday.‟

Indirect: He says/will say that his girlfriend had come yesterday

VII. Degrees of Comparison

There are three types of “Degrees of comparison. They are:

1. Positive Degree

2. Comparative Degree

3. Superlative Degree

Positive Degree:
Ramu is a clever boy

a. An adjective used without any comparison is said to be in the positive degree.

b. It is used when no comparison is made.

c. When we compare positive degree, we take

“As..............As”(or) “So...............As”

2. Comparative Degree:

Ramu is as clever as Bhima.

a. The comparison between two persons or two things is called “comparative degree”.

b. We make comparative degree by adding “-er” to the positive degrees of adjectives

using than

immediately after the comparative adjectives. Ex: Ramu is cleverer than somu.

c. We can identify the comparative degree in “-er” at most.

d. In long adjectives don’t add “-er” but use “more” before the adjectives.

e. The comparative degree of an adjectives denotes a higher degree of the quality than
positive degree

and is used when two things are compared.

Superlative Degree:

a. An adjective used to compare more than “two persons or things”.

b. It indicates the “highest degree of quality”

c. Superlative degree expresses the highest or the least degree of quality that exist in a
person or

thing.

d. The is used in superlative degree, we also add “-est” to the positive degree.

e. Superlative degree identified by “-est” at most.

f. For long adjectives don’t add “-est”, but use “most” before the adjectives.

g. In the situation of prepositions “of” or “among” will come aften.

Ex: Somu is the tallest of all boys in the class.

Model-I Structure: Positive Degree:

Comparative Degree:
i.Sub+Verb+as(so) adjective as+ ------ (or) Sub+Verb+at least as adjective as+ -------

ii. Sub+ Verb+ Comparative form + than + -------

In Model – I comparison takes place between two persons or two things only. Therefore,
there is no “superlative Degree” in it.

ii. If the positive degree does not have “not”, then, we use “not” in the comparative
degree.

iii. If the positive degree has “not” then we remove “not” in the comparative degree.

iv. In negative sentence, we use “not as .....as” or “not so .....as”.

v. When the comparative degree is negative, “at least as –adjectives as” used in positive
degree.

Examples:

1.Ashok is not as tall as Ashwin(P.D)

Ashwin is taller than Ashok.(C.D)

2. Siva is not as short as Praneeth. (P.D)

Praneeth is shorter than Siva. (C.D)

3. Ashok is not as bold as Pradeep. (P.D)

Pradeep is bolder than Ashok. (C.D)

4. Silver is not as precious as Gold. (P.D

Gold is more precious than Silver. (C.D)

5.Sita is not as rich as Gita. (P.D)

Gita is richer than Sita. (C.D)

6.Pradeep is as bold as Ashok. (P.D). Or

Pradeep is at least as bold as Ashok. (P.D)

Ashok is not bolder than Pradeep. (C.D)

Model – II Structure:

Superlative Comparative Positive

-est than any other No other…as adjective as

Examples:

1.Ramana is the cleverest boy in the class.(S.D)

Ramana is cleverer than any other boy in the class.(C.D)

No other boy in the class is as clever as Ramana.(P.D)

2.Gandhi is the most famous leader. (S.D)

Gandhi is more famous than any other leader. (C.D)

No other leader is as famous as Gandhi. (P.D)

3.Ashok is the boldest boy. (S.D)

Ashok is bolder than any other boy. (C.D)

No other boy is as bold as Ashok. (P.D)

4.The rose is the prettiest flower. (S.D)

The rose is prettier than any other flower. (C.D)

No other flower is as pretty as the rose. (P.D

5.Bilgates is the richest person in the world. (S.D)

Bilgates is richer than any other person in the world. (C.D)

No other person in the world is as rich as Bilgates. (P.D)

Model – III Structure:

Superlative - One of the (est)

Comparative - than many other or than most other

Positive - very few(or) few other

Examples

1. Mumbai is one of the biggest cities in India.(S.D)

Mumbai is bigger than many other cities in India.(C.D)

Very few cities in India are as big as Mumbai. (P.D)

2.Ashoka was one the most powerful emperor in India. (S.D)

Ashoka was more powerful than many other emperors in India. (C.D)

Very few emperors in India were as powerful as Ashoka. (P.D)

3.India is one of the hottest countries in the world. (S.D)

India is hotter than many other countries in the world. (C.D)

Very few countries in the world are as hot as India. (P.D)

4.Rani is one of the most beautiful girls in the class. (S.D)

Rani is more beautiful than most other girls in the class. (C.D)

Very few girls in the class are as beautiful as Rani. (P.D)

5.Ashok is one of the boldest boys. (S.D)

Ashok is bolder than many other boys. (C.D)

Very few boys are as bold as Ashok. (P.D)

VIII. Transformation of Sentences

1.Simple Sentences A simple sentence has the most basic elements that make it a
sentence: a subject, a verb, and a completed thought.

Examples of simple sentences include the following:

1.Joe waited for the train.

"Joe" = subject, "waited" = verb

2.The train was late.

"The train" = subject, "was" = verb

3.Mary and Samantha took the bus.

"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "took" = verb

4.I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station.

"I" = subject, "looked" = verb

Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station early but waited until noon for the bus.

"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "arrived" and "waited" = compound verb

A simple sentence can also be referred to as an independent clause. It is referred to as

"independent" because, while it might be part of a compound or complex sentence, it
can also stand by itself as a complete sentence.

2.Compound Sentences A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two

independent clauses (or complete sentences) connected to one another with a
coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think
of the words

"FAN BOYS":
For
And
Nor
 But
Or
Yet
So

Examples of compound sentences include the following:

1.Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.

2.I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they arrived at the station
before noon and left on the bus before I arrived.

3.Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on the bus
before I arrived.

Complex Sentences A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one

or more dependent clauses connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to an
independent clause, or complete sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that would
make it a complete sentence. Examples of dependent clauses include the following

1.because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon

2.while he waited at the train station

3. after they left on the bus

Dependent clauses such as those above cannot stand alone as a sentence, but they can
be added to an independent clause to form a complex sentence.

Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of the most
common subordinating conjunctions:

after  although  as  because  before  even though  if  since  though 

unless  until  when  whenever  whereas  wherever  while

A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses.
The dependent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the independent clause,
as in the following:

Tip: When the dependent clause comes first, a comma should be used to separate the
two clauses.

1. Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not see
them at the station.

2. While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late.

3. After they left on the bus, Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the
train station.
Exercises:

1. We were playing in the garden when the guests arrived. (Complex sentence)

2. She put on her coat and went out. (Compound sentence)

3. I can’t figure out what he wants. (Complex sentence

)4. You don’t look happy to see me. (Simple sentence)

5. The cat saw the puppies playing in the garden. (Simple sentence)

6. She leaned out of the window. (Simple sentence)

7. You shouldn’t have done this to me. (Simple sentence)

8. They tried very hard but they couldn’t win the match. (Compound sentence)

9. Who let the cat in? (Simple sentence)

10. Although it was raining, we went for a walk. (Complex sentence