PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN

ANCIENT GREEK ART

MARK D. STANSBURY-O'DONNELL
University of St. Thomas

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First published 1999

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Libraryof CongressCataloging-in-Publication
Data
Stansbury-O'Donnell, Mark D., 1956-
Pictorial narrative in ancient Greek art/ Mark D.
Stansbury-O'Donnell.
p. cm. - (Cambridge studies in classical art and
iconography)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-521-64000-8
1. Art, Greek - Themes, motives. 2. Narrative art - Greece.
I. Title. II. Series.
N5633.S72 1999
709'.38-dc21 98-38137
CIP

ISBN o 521 64000 8 hardback

 CONTENTS

Il1ustrations xi
Acknowledgments xvii

CHAPTER ONE
AN APPROACH TO PICTORIAL NARRATIVE

1. 1 Introduction and Overview

1.2 An "Aristotelian" View 8
1.3 A Framework for Pictorial Narrative 13

CHAPTER TWO
THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 18

2. 1 Definition of Elements 18
2.2 Definition of Narrative and Origins in the Geometric Period 31
2.3 Generic Narrative 44

CHAPTER THREE
THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 54

3. 1 The Viewing Process 55

3.2 The Viewing Contex~ 70
3. 3 Composition 79
3 .4 Space and Time 83
3.5 Visual Language and Meaning 92
3.6 Style and Expression 103
3. 7 Mimesis and Discourse 111
3.8 Conclusion 114

CHAPTER FOUR
NARRATIVE EXTENSION 118

4.1 Narrative Extension from the Macro-Structure 118

4.2 Paradigmatic Extension 124
4. 3 Syntagmatic Extension 136
4.4 Conclusion 155

ix
x CONTENTS

CHAPTER FIVE
THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 158

5. 1 Mythos: Plot and Action 160

5.2 Simple and Complex Action 165
ILLUSTRATIONS
5.3 Ethos 175

CONCLUSION 191

Notes 195
Abbreviations 1. Protoattic amphora from Eleusis, ca. 670-650. Blinding of Polyphe-
221
mos; Perseus fleeing the Gorgons. 2
Bibliography 221
2. Protoargive krater fragment, mid-seventh century. Blinding of Poly-
Index 235 phemos. 3
3. Attic red-figure kylix by the Briseis Painter (name vase), ca. 480. A:
Briseis led away from the tent of Achilles. 4
4. Attic red-figure kylix by the Briseis Painter (name vase), ca. 480. B:
Briseis led to the tent of Agamemnon. 5
5. Attic red-figure lekythos by the Yale Lekythos Painter (name vase),
ca. 475-450. Woman holding a bundle of clothes. 19
6. Attic red-figure hydria by the Kleophrades Painter, ca. 490-480.
Iliupersis: Detail of Neoptolemos slaying Priam. 23
7. Middle Protocorinthian aryballos near the Huntsmen Painter, ca.
675. Battle. 24
8. Middle Protocorinthian aryballos near the Huntsmen Painter, ca.
675. Drawing of battle. 25
9. Metope from Selinus 1 mid-sixth century. Europa and the Bull. 28
10. Agate gem, ca. 480 (impression). Europa and the Bull. 29
11. Attic red-figure Nolan amphora from Nola, ca. 450. Europa and
the Bull. 30
12. Bronze mirror cover from Eretria, early fourth century. Europa and
the Bull. 31
13. Attic black-figure amphora by the Painter of Vatican 359, ca. 530.
Detail of shoulder: Combat scene. 33
14. Middle Geometric II beaker from the Kerameikos, ca. 800-775.
Horse tamers. 37
15. Middle Geometric II Attic skyphos from Eleusis, ca. 770. Ship
battle. 38
16. Late Geometric Ila oinochoe of the Burly Workshop from south
side of the Acropolis, ca. 735-720. Man being attacked by
lions. 39
17. Cypriot silver-gilt bowl, seventh century. Lion attacks. 41
18. Late Geometric Ia Attic krater by the Dipylon Workshop, ca. 760-
750. Battle and marching scenes. 47

xi
xii ILLUSTRATIONS ILLUSTRATIONS xiii

19. Middle Geometric II Attic skyphos from Eleusis, ca. 770. Land 42. Relief pithos from Tenos, ca. 675. Neck: Birth of Athena(?). 99
battle. 48 43. Red-figure kylix by Euphronios, ca. 520. Side A: Death and Sleep
20. East frieze of the Siphnian Treasury, Delphi, ca. 525. Achilles and carry Sarpedon. 104
Memnon fighting over the body of Antilochos. 49 44. Red-figure calyx krater by Euphronios, ca. 515-510. Side A: Death
21. Attic black-figure amphora by the Painter of Vatican 359, ca. 530. and Sleep lift Sarpedon. 105
Departure of warrior. 50 45. Red-figure krater by the Dokimasia Painter, ca. 470. B: Death of
22. Attic black-figure amphora by the Painter of Vatican 359, ca. 530. Aegisthus. 107
Departure of Poseidon and Amphitrite. 51 46. Red-figure krater by the Aegisthus Painter, ca. 470-460. A: Death
23. Attic Late Geometric lb krater by the Hirschfeld Painter, ca. 750- of Aegisthus. 109
735. 61 47. Frieze from the Temple of Apollo at Bassae, early fourth century.
24. Attic black-figure dinos by the Gorgon Painter, ca. 590. Perseus Detail of Centauromachy. 111
fleeing from the Gorgons. 63 48. Boeotian black-figure skyphos, late fifth century. Odysseus and
25. West Pediment of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, ca. 510-500. Circe. 115
Gigantomachy. 65 49. Metope from Temple of Apollo at Thermon, ca. 630. Aedon and
26. Chest of Kypselos, reconstruction drawing by A. von Masslow Chelidon (Prokne and Philomela). 121
( 1916). 66 50. Metope from Temple of Apollo at Thermon, ca. 630. Gorgoneion. 123
27. Ivory ajour reliefs from Delphi, early sixth century. Departure of 51. Attic black-figure hydria by the Antimenes Painter, late sixth cen-
Amphiaraos. 69 tury. Shoulder: Herakles and Kyknos; body: Departure for Olympos. 125
28. Metope from Temple of Apollo at Thermon, ca. 630. Perseus 52. Attic black-figure hydria by the Leagros Group, ca. 510. Body:
fleeing. 72 Achilles dragging the body of Hektor. 127
29. Late Protocorinthian pointed aryballos by the Chigi Painter, ca. 53. Attic black-figure hydria by the Leagros Group, ca. 510. Detail of
640. Battle; chariot procession; animal procession; dogs chasing shoulder: Herakles and Kyknos. 129
hare. 73 54. Attic black-figure dinos from the Circle of the Antimenes Painter,
30. Figure holding an aryballos. 74 ca. 520-515. Counterclockwise from the bottom: ( 1) Theseus and
31. Metope from the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, ca. 470-458. Her- Minotaur; (2) Herakles and Nessos; (3) warriors fighting over
akles, Athena, and Atlas with the Apples of the Hesperides. 75 fallen comrade; (4) warriors fighting; (5) Herakles and Nemean
32. Detail of Fig. 31: Herakles. 76 lion; (6) warriors fighting. 131
33. Harmodius and Aristogeiton (Tyrannicides), Roman copy of Greek 55. Shield band from Olympia, ca. 575-550. Top to bottom: Ransom
original of ca. 477 by Kritios and Nesiotes. 77 of Hektor; Herakles and lion; sphinxes; strife between Amphiaraos
34. Fragment of Attic red-figure oinochoe, ca. 400. Tyrannicides by and Lykourgos (plate); lions; Ajax and Kassandra; Theseus and
Kritios and Nesiotes. 79 Minotaur; suicide of Ajax; murder of Agamemnon. 132
35. Attic red-figure stamnos by the Copenhagen Painter, ca. 470. Har- 56. Shield band from Olympia, ca. 575-550. Top to bottom: Ransom
modios and Aristogeiton slaying Hipparchos. 81 of Hektor; Herakles and lion; sphinxes; strife between Amphiaraos
36. White-ground kylix by the Sotades Painter, ca. 470-460. I: Polyei- and Lykourgos (plate); lions; Ajax and Kassandra; Theseus and
dos and Glaukos in the tomb. 85 Minotaur; suicide of Ajax; murder of Agamemnon. 133
37. Attic red-figure calyx krater by the Persephone Painter, ca. 440 57. Attic black-figure volute krater, signed by Ergotimos (potter) and
Odysseus and Circe. 88 Kleitias (painter), ca. 570. Side B: Theseus and Ariadne; Lapiths
38. Attic black-figure kylix by the Painter of the Boston Polyphemos, and Centaurs; wedding of Peleus and Thetis (continued from side
ca. 550. Side A: Circe, Odysseus, and companions. 89 A); return of Hephaistos. 135
39. Attic black-figure amphora by the Nettos Painter, ca. 620-610. 58. Attic red-figure hydria by the Kleophrades Painter, ca. 490-480.
Neck: Herakles and Nettos (Nessos); body: Gorgons chasing Per- Counterclockwise from top: Aeneas escaping; Ajax raping Kassan-
seus. 94 dra; Neoptolemos slays Priam; Andromache attacking Greek sol-
40. Attic black-figure kylix, ca. 550. Herakles, Nessos, and Deianeira. 95 dier; rescue of Aithra. 138
41. Attic black-figure amphora, attributed to Group E, ca. 560-540. 59. Metopes from the Athenian Treasury at Delphi, ca. 490. East side:
Side A: Birth of Athena. 97 Amazonomachy. 139
xiv ILLUSTRATIONS ILLUSTRATIONS xv

60. Athenian Treasury at Delphi, ca. 490. View of eastern side of 81. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. Southeast
building as reconstructed. 140 corner: Priam's palace (7) and dead Trojans (Iliupersis). 183
61. Relief pithos from Mykonos, ca. 675-650. Neck: Trojan horse; 82. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. South wall:
body: scenes from the sack of Troy. 141 Departure of Antenor's household (Iliupersis). 183
62. Reconstruction of the Battleof Marathon by Mikon and Panainos. 143 83. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. North wall,
63. Metopes of the south side of the Athenian Treasury at Delphi left of center: Women and sailors of Odysseus (Nekyia). 184
(drawing), after 490. Deeds of Theseus: (leftto right): Sinis (no. 1), 84. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. Northwest
Skiron (no. 2), Kerkyon (no. 3), Prokrustes (no. 4), Theseus and corner: Sacrifice of Odysseus (Nekyia). 185
Athena (no. 5), Marathon bull (no. 6), Minotaur (no. 7), son of 85. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. West wall:
Pallas (7, missing), Amazon (no. 8). 146 Achilles among the dead (Nekyia). 185
64. Metope from the south side of the Athenian Treasury at Delphi, 86. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. Southwest
after 490. Delphi Museum. Theseus and Amazon (no. 8). 148 corner: Greek and Trojan heroes (Nekyia). 186
65. Athenian Treasury at Delphi, after 490. South side, originally with 87. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. South wall:
deeds of Theseus in the metopes. 149 Sinners (Nekyia). 187
66. Red-figure kylix signed by Douris, ca. 490-480. A: Theseus and 88. Boeotian black-figure skyphos, late fifth century. Odysseus running
sow; Theseus and Sinis. 152 over the sea. 193
67. Red-figure kylix signed by Douris, ca. 490-480. B: Theseus and
Skiron; Theseus and Kerkyon. 15 3
68. Red-figure kylix signed by Douris, ca. 490-480. I: Theseus and
Minotaur. 154
69. Direction of composition on Theseus Kylix by Douris. 155
70. Middle Protocorinthian aryballos by the Ajax Painter, ca. 675.
Suicide of Ajax. 163
71. Attic black-figure amphora by Lydos, mid-sixth century. Iliuperis. 167
72. Attic red-figure hydria by the Kleophrades Painter, ca. 490-480.
Iliupersis: detail of Priam and Neoptolemos, mourning women. 169
73. Attic red-figure hydria by the Kleophrades Painter, ca. 490-480.
Iliupersis: detail of Ajax and Kassandra; Aeneas fleeing with Anchi-
ses and Askanios. 171
74. Attic red-figure hydria by the Kleophrades Painter, ca. 490-480.
Iliupersis: detail of Andromache and Greek; rescue of Aithra. 173
75. Attic black-figure belly amphora by Exekias, toward 530. Suicide
of Ajax. 177
76. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. Plan of the
Lesche of the Knidians in Delphi with the arrangement of the
paintings of Polygnotos. 179
77. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. North wall,
center (view from doorway): Raft of Charon (Nekyia) and prepara-
tions for departure from Troy (Iliupersis). 180
78. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. North wall,
right of center: Helen and Aithra (Iliupersis). 181
79. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. Northeast
corner: Trojan women; Neoptolemos (Iliupersis). 181
80. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. East wall,
center: Oath of Ajax (Iliupersis). 182
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project owes a great debt to many people. Foremost, I would like to thank
Alan Shapiro for his long support and encouragement and for his willingness to
take seriously and to advise a new undertaking, without which I would not be
writing this now. Similarly, I owe much to Sarah Morris, whose insight, sugges-
tions, and constant encouragement have been invaluable to me since graduate
school. Her readiness to treat me as a colleague and her openness and vitality
as a scholar have encouraged me to take this step in approaching a theoretical
discussion. I would also like to thank Ann Steiner for her insightful comments
and suggestions on the final manuscript that led to considerable improvements,
as did those of earlier anonymous readers for Cambridge University Press. My
heartfelt thanks to them all.
I should also like to acknowledge the influential role that my teachers have
had on my work, including Jerome Pollitt, Susan Matheson, Diana Kleiner,
Emily Vermeule, Christine Kondoleon, and Miranda Marvin. Whereas my er-
rors are all my own, whatever insights and wonder I may have I owe to them.
I would also like to thank my colleagues and students at St. Thomas, who
have allowed me to explore with them the general issues of narrative. Most
particularly, I would like to thank a former student, Jennifer Jacobs, who spent
a summer reading an earlier version of the manuscript. She offered many
suggestions and questions that will, I hope, make the discussion accessible to
students.
Grants and leave support for this project came at important moments. A
Summer Stipend from the National Endowment for the Humanities and several
grants and a sabbatical from the University of St. Thomas made it possible to
advance and to complete this project.
For assistance with photographs and permissions for reproduction, I would
like to thank the following individuals and institutions: Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford; Ines Bialas and Ursula Kastner, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin - Preus-
sischer Kulturbesitz; Professor Sir John Boardman; Nancy Bookidis, American
School of Classical Studies - Corinth Excavations; Dr. Dietrich von Bothmer;
British Museum; Kalliopi Christofis, Ecole Frarn;;:aised'Athenes; Cleveland Mu-
seum of Art; Dr. Hans Rupprecht Goette, Deutsches Archaologisches lnstitut -
Athens; Hirmer Fotoarchiv; The J. Paul Getty Museum; Susan Matheson, Yale
University Art Gallery; D. Metaxas, Archaeological Receipts Fund; The Metro-
politan Museum of Art, New York; Jennifer Komar Olivarez, Minneapolis

xvii
xviii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Institute of Arts; Musee du Louvre, Paris; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; The
Chapter1
Newark Museum; Franc;;:oisePoiret, Chateau-Musee Boulogne-sur-Mer; Candace
Smith; Professor Andrew Stewart; Dr. T. W ehgartner, Martin von Wagner -
Museum der Universitat Wurzburg. AN APPROACH TO
My first and greatest debt is to my family: to Wendy, without whom I would
never have started or finished, and to Ben, without whom I would not have PICTORIAL NARRATIVE
learned so much about the joy of storytelling.

t. t INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

The scholarly study of pictorial narrative in Greek art goes back to the later
nineteenth century and the work of C. Robert. In his book Bild und Lied(1881),
Robert examined some of the fundamental questions of narration that have
occupied scholars ever since: types of narrative strategy, the relationship be-
tween literature and art in storytelling, the study of iconographic questions, and
the historical development of narration. 1 He saw that poet and artist both drew
upon the same collective consciousness that produced the Sage or myths of
ancient Greece, and that poet and artist altered the Sage to fit within the forms
of their art. In his book, Robert distinguishes three. types of narrative schemes
used by artists - complete (kompletiveVetfahren),situation (Situationsbilder), and
cyclical (Bildercyklenor Chroniken-Stil)- and linked their development to the
history of Greek art and literature. Robert's work was developed further by F.
Wickhoff, who substituted the term continuirende Darstellungsweise,
or "continuous
narration," for Chroniken-Stil,but otherwise continued Robert's tripartite scheme. 2
This same structure endures in K. Weitzmann's 1947 study of the origins of
book illustration. 3 These three studies may well be said to form the foundation
of discussions of narrative in ancient art.
Throughout these studies, there is a predominant concern for the nature of
time and space within a picture, and whether their link in the real world is
maintained in art. Weitzmann's particular interest with the dimension of time
led him to coin the term simultaneousfor Robert's kompletiveVetfahren,a type in
which multiple moments of the story are combined in the same picture; this
technique dominated the Archaic period .of Greek art. An example of this is the
picture on the neck of an amphora found in the cemetery at Eleusis that shows
the blinding of Polyphemos (Fig. 1, ''Eleusis Polyphemos"). 4 In it, we see Poly-
phemos on the right holding a skyphos in his right hand while his left hand
attempts to ward off the stake that Odysseus and two of his men are driving
into his eye. This composition, however, presents some narrative anomalies
from the detailed account of the episode found in Odyssey 9. There we learn
that Odysseus gets Polyphemos drunk. Polyphemos passes out and throws up,
at which point Odysseus heats up the stake and with his men drives it into the
eye of the Cyclops. Polyphemos awakes screaming and pulls the stake from his
eye while Odysseus and his men hide. Whereas the literary version presents a
2 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART AN APPROACH TO PICTORIAL NARRATIVE 3

2. Protoargive krater fragment, mid-seventh century. Blinding of Polyphemos. Argos, Ar-

chaeological Museum, C 149. (Photo courtesy of the Ecole Frarn;;aise d'Archeologie, © EFA)

different moments into the composition by including elements such as the cup
that do not belong with the main action, but this presupposes that the artist is
illustrating the literary account. Some of these contradictions do disappear if
one does not hold the Odyssey version as canonical. For example, the attack
may not be on the passed-out Polyphemos, but on a drunken and slow Poly-
phemos who sees it coming but is too slow in his reaction.
For Robert's Situationsbilder,Weitzmann uses the term monoscenic,emphasizing
the unity of time and place: one picture, one space, one moment. According to
W eitzmann, this method became prominent in the Classical period, but we can
find a good example of it on another seventh-century representation of the
11
Polyphemos story from Argos (Fig. 2, Argive Polyphemos"). 5 Here we see
1. Protoattic amphora from Eleusis, ca. 670-650. Blinding of Polyphemos; Perseus fleeing Polyphemos lying on a bed of rocks as if he had passed out. To the right, at
the Gorgons. Eleusis, Archaeological Museum. (Photo courtesy of the Deutsches Archaolo- least three men drive a giant branch whose point has gouged the eye of the
gisches lnstitut-Athens) Cyclops. Blood spatters from the eye and Polyphemos reaches toward the point
of affliction. Which of the figures may be Odysseus is uncertain, and he may
straightforward temporal succession of events, the painting does not. Polyphe- have appeared on the missing section of the krater at the end of the stake, a
mos cannot still be holding his cup in a drinking position if he has passed out; position from which he can turn the weapon like a drill as the Odyssey de-
if he is conscious, then he sees the attack coming. His eye is open so he should scribes. 6 All of the elements belong to a single moment of time, without the
see the attack coming, but if this is the case then he did not pass out. These potential temporal inconsistencies of the Eleusis Polyphemos when compared
narrative contradictions have led to the conclusion that the artist was conflating to the literary account.
 4 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART AN APPROACH TO PICTORIAL NARRATIVE 5

3. Attic red-figure kylix by the Briseis Painter (name vase), ca. 480. A: Briseis led away from 4. Attic red-figure kylix by the Briseis Painter (name vase), ca. 480. B: Briseis led to the tent
the tent of Achilles. London, British Museum, E 76. (Photo courtesy of the British Museum, of Agamemnon. London, British Museum, E 76. (Photo courtesy of the British Museum, ©
© The British Museum) The British Museum)

The limitations of the single picture for narrative began to fade when artists, might best be categorized as morphological and progressively evolutionary in
according to W eitzmann, developed the cyclic method of narration in the nature, and its simplicity, symmetry, and elegance are appealing.
Classical and Hellenistic periods: "By conceiving each changing situation of the Other scholars have complemented this approach to pictorial narrative by
text as a picture in itself, the artist creates now a series of consecutive compo- focusing on style or iconography. K. Schefold, for example, relies primarily on
sitions with separate and centered actions, repeating the actors in each and so style as a defining criterion and for drawing analogies between the characteris-
observing at the same time the rules of the unity of time and place." 7 An early tics of different forms of poetry and their artistic equivalents. 11 An epic style
fifth-century cup showing Briseis being led away from the tent of Achilles and arises at the same time as the Homeric poems, exploring the fundamental
into the camp of Agamemnon demonstrates this (Figs. 3 and 4). 8 In both, we situations of life, and is followed in succession by a lyric phase, an epic-cyclical
see the two heralds flanking Briseis, who is led by the hand. The repetition of phase, a dramatic phase, a new lyric phase prompted by a deeper understanding
the figures clearly indicates that there are two scenes here and hence two of Homer, and finally a tragic phase. To name the category of narration is to
successive moments of the story, although disagreement exists over whether situate a pictorial narrative stylistically and historically. N. Himmelmann-
the second arrival scene is the arrival at Agamemnon's camp or the later return Wildschiitz approached the interpretation of narrative characters as "hiero-
of Briseis to Achilles. 9 In either case, the pictures depict the story by showing glyphs," that is, a collection of specific forms that conveys a meaning and tells
multiple moments like a filmstrip. a story. 12 Whether it is the individual form or character, like the figure of
W eitzmann's terminology and definitions have become fairly standard in Polyphemos, that bears the burden of recognition and meaning in a narrative,
English-language studies, and Robert's and Wickhoff's are found in German- or it is the formula or combination of elements as I. Raab has argued, has been
language publications. Wickhoff's category of continuousnarration has also been the subject of some debate. In all of these studies, however, it has been the
used in a more limited sense to distinguish a type of cyclical narrative in which point of view of the artist that is paramount; the artist creates a narrative with
the scenes are shown as a frieze without break. 10 Throughout these studies, a specific meaning and intent that only needs to be defined.
there is a clear link between narrative type and the historical development of In the past decade or two, there have been challenges to the tripartite model,
style in Greek art, so that as Greek artists became more adept at the problems adding categories to the taxonomy while undermining its evolutionary hypoth-
of representing form and space, they became more naturalistic in their represen- esis. For example, A. M. Snodgrass uses the term synoptic as a synonym for the
tation of time in narrative. This essentially tripartite model of pictorial narrative earlier categories of complementary and simultaneous narrative, defining it as
i111
6 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART AN APPROACH TO PICTORIAL NARRATIVE 7

having "within a single picture two or more successive episodes in a story, but
without repeating any individual figure.' 113More fundamentally, Snodgrass has Table 1-1 Types of Pictorial Narration
recognized both synoptic and monoscenic categories in the earliest phases of No. of
Greek art and attributes their use to the needs of artists in depicting a particular Type Pictures Characters Time Space
story, and not to their stylistic development or sophistication. As the two
Monoscenic No repeats One moment One space
Polyphemos pictures demonstrated, the differences between two representations Synoptic/simultaneous No repeats Multiple One
is potentially one of degree, particularly when one provides an artist with a Progressive No repeats Multiple Multiple
degree of latitude in formulating a narrative independently of any specific Unified 2+ No repeats One Multiple
literary source. J. M. Hurwit proposes a new category, serialnarrative, which he Cyclical 2+ Repeats Multiple Multiple
Continuous 2+ Repeats Multiple One landscape
defines as a "method of telling a single myth on a series of contiguous yet self-
Episodic 2+ No repeats Multiple Multiple
contained panels, where the characters appear but once. 1114 This method appears Serial 2+ No repeats Multiple Multiple
on works of the seventh century, making the use of multiple images much
earlier than had been proposed (see Section 4.3 in Chapter Four). Hurwit sees
this period as one of great experimentation in narrative and finds in it the as blindness that is appropriate for the funerary function of the vessel. 21Stewart
occurrence of another category, progressive narrative. This is a term E. Harrison has also used literary criticism as a model to explore the multiple layers of time
had earlier defined for fifth-century art, in which there is a single work with no within the act of narration, a threefold present that includes the memory of the
repetition of characters but with temporal progression from one part of the past and expectations of the future, and the interaction that takes place between
work to another. 15 H. A. Shapiro has proposed unifiednarrative for the case in the memory of a story and its poetic reformulation. 22 This idea of reader or
which there are multiple scenes that belong to same moment of time, but each viewer response has drawn attention in studies of Roman art, especially in the
scene occupying a different space. 16J. B. Connelly has added episodicnarrative work of R. Brilliant and J. Elsner, and in the study of fifth-century Athenian art
11
to the list, using it to distinguish the depiction of several different episodes by D. Castriota. 23 Rhetoric and ekphrasis have been particularly helpful in
within a single larger story" that are not synchronic, but this might also be seen providing material for this kind of "reader" or 11viewer" analysis that is fundamen-
as a variation of Hurwit's progressive narrative. 17 The resulting taxonomy of tal to narrative. S. Goldhill and R. Osborne, who have edited some recent
narrative can best be summarized in Table 1.1. essays touching on narration, note that even simple acts of naming figures in a
What this admittedly dense review of recent work on narrative reveals is that picture "construct and imply a relation between an object and a viewer," and
the nature of pictorial narrative is more complicated than the tripartite model that even the process of identification involves some degree of interpretation. 24
allowed and that its progressive and evolutionary hypothesis is no longer neatly In their collection, this act of viewing and the role of the viewer is examined in
tenable. more detail from the perspective of Euripidean ekphrasis by F. Zeitlin. 25
This situation has led some scholars to turn to theories of literary narration Not only the viewer, but also the viewing context has begun to receive more
for new models and terminology, not just in studies of Greek art, but of ancient attention recently. F. Lissarrague notes, for example, that the image is part of a
art generally as the essays collected by P. J. Holliday in Narrative and Event in chain linking painter and spectator through viewing context and iconography. 26
Ancient Art attest. 18 Earlier, C. Berard described a semiotic approach for the A shift in viewing context, such as the export of a vase to Etruria, can change
analysis of images and their meaning, stressing the image as a collection of the nature and meaning of a narrative, even though the image has not changed.
minimal formal units that combine syntagmatically to create identity and mean- The importance of the cultural context and the interactive nature of the viewing
ing, while paradigmatically they link the image to others that are similar in process in creating meaning in a work has also been emphasized by C. Sourvi-
type. 19In separate articles on the early Archaic Frarn;ois vase and the sculptural nou-Inwood.27 H. Hoffmann explores the controversial issues of the function of
program of the fifth-century Nike temple on the Akropolis, A. Stewart borrows vases, whether they are meant for the symposion or are a symbolic representa-
terms and concepts from structural analysis and semiotics to distinguish between tion of the symposion for a funerary context. 28Osborne stresses the importance
paradigmaticnarrative, in which scenes from different stories are linked themati- of the viewing context in interpreting images of centaurs. These specific studies
cally or symbolically, and syntagmaticnarrative, in which these scenes follow demonstrate the importance of the viewing process and of the original viewing
each other in a sequence, such as the history of a family. 20 The concept of a context in understanding narrative imagery. As mentioned before, the funerary
form of pictorial narrative that can exist outside of the chronological exposition function of the Eleusis Polyphemos amphora (Fig. 1) provides a potentially
of a single story adds considerably to the complexity of the subject. For different experience of the narrative than the function of the Argos Polyphemos
example, the Eleusis Polyphemos also shows the story of Perseus on its body krater (Fig. 2). The latter, if used in the context of a symposion, whether real
(Fig. 1); R. Osborne has proposed that the two scenes share a theme of death or for the dead, is the place where wine is mixed with water and then served to
 -
8 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART AN APPROACH TO PICTORIAL NARRATIVE 9

the drinkers. The effects of too much wine on the drinker are amply demon- both oversimplify the process of viewing an image and overestimate the degree
strated by the picture, perhaps in both a heroic and humorous vein. The point of control over time and attention that a text exercises on a reader.
is that two narratives, even while of the same subject, can be as different in Whereas an image can be glimpsed as a whole in an instant, it cannot be
their impact as an epic and a lyric account of the same story. entirely comprehended in all of its details without closer examination. Even in
This admittedly brief review of scholarship on narrative does not do justice relatively simple pictures, the viewer's eyes must move around the picture,
to the intricacies and insights of the authors, nor does it claim that these gathering information about the identity of the figures, their actions or relation-
interpretations and models of narrative are wrong. Although some on the one ship, and the story that is being told. 33 J. M. Lotman distinguished this process
hand might criticize recent studies as oversophisticated and applying modern as "iconic" narration as opposed to "verbal," in which "narrative is constructed
conceptions to Archaic practices, and others on the other hand criticize older as the combination of an initial stable state with a subsequent movement,"
studies as simplistic or biased in their philosophical foundation, in actuality, rather than a sequence of experiences that build to a stable state. 34 J. Dewey
they all have legitimacy as narrative responses and are not necessarily mutually recognized the same process but reversed the order so that perception of details
exclusive. 29 Indeed, as S. Fish has discussed in terms of reader response, the fact builds up to a cumulative experience of the object. 35 Neither position is mutu-
that an interpretation can be sustained demonstrates its validity as a point of ally exclusive. H. Bonheim, for example, recognizes description as one of four
view. 30 As viewers change, whether ancient Greek or modern, so does the modes of narrative most closely associated with painting, but that any single
understanding of the story being depicted. What I propose in this book is a mode of narration can be incorporated with others in the narrative. 36 As Gold-
systematic approach to pictorial narrative that accommodates the differing hill and Osborne have recently summarized, "naming, describing, narrating are
viewpoints, a framework that defines the different levels at which narrative and overlapping and mutually implicative processes." 37
its constituent elements work and one that defines the role of each participant Viewers in confronting the work of art can potentially proceed through a
in the act of narration: artist, object, and viewer. To do this, it will be necessary series of stages in comprehending it, including an attempt to identify the subject
to utilize several methodologies rather than one, including structural analysis, quickly, the examination of details, an interpretation of these details, and
semiotics, formal analysis, reader response, poststructuralism, and iconographic revision of earlier states of interpretation. F. Saint-Martin has defined this in
analysis. Although ideologically these methods are often set against each other, terms of semiotic analysis, which "aims at bringing to light the interrelations
each contributes at some level and in some manner to the understanding of between [visual] elements - rather than their hypothetical essence - in the
narrative and the act of narration. totality that is the visual work." 38 He defines a first, presemiotic stage of
peripheral vision, "assessing the distance at which the work can be found, its
dimension, and its general aspect." The semiotic analysis follows, in which the
t. 2 AN "ARISTOTELIAN" VIEW viewer both explores the visual elements and then combines them syntactically
to form a functional ensemble. Indeed, this is the same basic process that U.
The use of literary perspectives raises two fundamental issues that should be Eco outlines for a reader's reaction to a text. 39 Although an image may not be
addressed before laying out a framework for pictorial narrative. First is the issue perceived in a linear and chronological fashion like a text, the constant effort
of whether narration can actually take place in a visual medium. Second is to perceive, comprehend, and adjust to a narrative are the same. Even with a
whether theories developed for the study of written literature can be applied to linear mode of presentation, a writer or performer cannot ensure that the reader
the pictorial arts. I would argue briefly that one can, provided that adaptations or listener will be equally attentive to every part of the narrative, so that the
be made for the nature of the different media. Furthermore, parallels between experience will not be complete. Further, if a literary narrative digresses into
art and poetry were apparent to ancient viewers that permit us to consider the future or past, it breaks the synchrony between the act of narration and the
ancient pictorial narrative by incorporating a literary perspective. actions of the story. Although a viewer may exercise more control and choice
The dichotomy of two basic modes of representation, description and nar- over her or his perceptions than a listener or reader, the process of understand-
ration, has been one of the basic objections to the existence of narrative in the ing the perceptions is similar. This is not to say that the qualities of literary and
visual arts. Over two centuries ago, Lessing claimed that as description poetry pictorial narration are the same; each has its strengths and weaknesses, but each
was inferior to painting, but it excelled at moving the emotions through narra- demands the interaction of writer/artist and reader/viewer through its respective
tive. 31 This dialectic has continued to resonate into the present. Since an image medium.
can be glanced all at once, whereas a literary work must be perceived over an Structurally and mechanically, it is possible for the visual arts to present
extended period of time, some literary theorists would argue that narration stories. Understanding how an ancient viewer might have participated and
cannot take place in art because time, the essential component of narration understood a pictorial narrative, however, is a difficult task. The process of
both in the story and in its telling, does not unfold. 32 However, these views pictorial narration is potentially much more rapid than literary narration and
10 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART AN APPROACH TO PICTORIAL NARRATIVE 11

rarely does a viewer take the time to make a detailed verbal analysis. Although these operate at a level beyond language. The same is true of other media.
we might imagine discussions among ancient viewers about narratives that they Color, line, and form in painting, tune and rhythm in music, rhythm in dance
had experienced, whether literary or visual, and ancient critics providing de- are analogous to diction and song in poetry and are the representational foun-
tailed assessments and judgments of the same, it is rare for these discussions dations for those media. 46
and analyses to be written down and preserved for us today. Still, some accounts Beyond the most basic level of the medium, Aristotle distinguishes three
of visual narratives exist as well as discussions about the narrative qualities of categories of representation in tragedy that we can think of as successive levels.
literature that can provide a model for reconstructing the process of visual The first of these we have already mentioned: the means of representation.
narration. Diction and song are the two basic parts belonging to this level, at which we
Parallels between art and poetry were apparent to the ancient world, as begin to distinguish the difference between different forms of literary narrative.
demonstrated by the ancient formula of ut pictura poesis, or as Simonides ex- Not only do epic, lyric, and tragedy each have their own preferred forms of
pressed it, that painting is mute poetry and poetry is a speaking picture. 40 Both diction and song, they also are different in other elements such as point of
are capable of description and narration, in short, of representation. One can view. Tragedy, for Aristotle, is a mimesis, or the direct representation of an
also appeal to Aristotle and to Plato for comparisons of literature to the visual action, whereas lyric and other genres utilize diegesis,meaning narrative but in
arts. Plato, for example, compares mimesis or the representation of an action or an indirect mode such as the third person. Epic, because it combines "quoted"
thing in both painting and poetry, to the advantage of neither. 41 Aristotle uses speeches with indirect accounts is a mixed genre. Following the means of
painting as an analogy for his discussion of tragic representation, especially of representation is a second category or level, the mannerof representation, which
ethosor character. The dependence of character on plot he likens to the relation consists solely of apsis, or spectacle, the visual organization of the tragedy on
of color to form or outline in painting, in that color of its own only takes on the stage. As Aristotle states, this is in some sense foreign to poetry as a
meaning when placed within the context of a form that may be articulated by medium, but is important for the "spectacular effects" that costume or scenery
line. 42 He also appeals to painting in justifying the view that one can have plot or staging can create on stage. As such, it is an important part of tragedy and
without character but not character without plot by comparing the paintings of conceivably of dance, but not of some other narrative media such as epic or
Polygnotos, noted for their depiction of character, and of Zeuxis, who describes lyric poetry. A third, final category of tragedy consists of the objectsof represen-
actions alone. 43 These writers are clearly availing themselves of references to tation: mythos (plot), ethos (character), and dianoia (thought). Of these, plot or
painting to demonstrate some broader point and are not concerned with the the organization of events is the most essential, for one can have a tragedy
workings of pictorial narrative for itself. Nonetheless, their use of art as analogy without character or thought, but not without plot. In essence, Aristotle's
for poetry demonstrates that applying some of the concepts of poetry and categories constitute a series of levels, beginning with the most basic compo-
literature to visual narrative would not be foreign to an ancient audience. nents of words that contribute to diction and ending with their product at the
For the creation of a multiple-level framework for the analysis of ancient level in which actors and audience interact. To approach pictorial narrative in
narrative, as I shall sketch out in the next section, one can turn specifically to a similar manner requires adaptation of definitions and categories to a different
Aristotle. In the Poetics,he articulates a theory of language in his definition of medium, but neither the use of a multiple-level framework nor the use of literary
"diction" that begins with the letter and progresses to the syllable, connective, analysis as an analogy for the visual arts is unprecedented.
noun, verb, inflection, and then the sentence. 44 Although a listener or reader This leads us to recognize one further dimension of narration and of repre-
does not consciously identify each word as a part of speech that has a specific sentation generally that is critical for Aristotle. In discussing the origins of
relationship to the other parts of a sentence, nonetheless every sentence is poetry and of the representational arts generally, he emphasizes the fundamen-
understood as a unit with subject, verb, object, and modifiers that conveys an tal role of both the artist and spectator: 47
action or idea. This, then, is the level at which literature begins to work,
whether rhetoric, lyric, epic, tragedy, or comedy. In defining tragedy, for Poetry in general can be seen to owe its existence to two causes, and these
are rooted in nature. First, there is man's natural propensity, from childhood
example, Aristotle states that it is "a representation of an action which is serious,
onwards, to engage in mimetic activity (and this distinguishes man from other
complete, and of a certain magnitude - in language which is garnished in
creatures, that he is thoroughly mimetic and through mimesis takes his first
various forms in its different parts. 1145 He goes on to qualify "garnished language"
steps in understanding). Second, there is the pleasure which all men take in
as language having particular rhythm and melody, that is, lexis (diction) and mimetic objects. An indication of the latter can be observed in practice: for
melodia (melody). In other words, language is the fundamental medium that we take pleasure in contemplating the most precise images of things whose
literary forms share; epic and tragedy alike use the metrical arrangement of sight in itself causes us pain - such as the appearance of the basest animals,
words as their means of representation. What distinguishes tragedy and epic is or of corpses. Here too the explanation lies in the fact that great pleasure is
the way in which the medium is used, as in the choice of meter or song, but derived from exercising the understanding, not just for philosophers but in
12 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART AN APPROACH TO PICTORIAL NARRATIVE 13

the same way for all men, though their capacity for it may be limited. It is parts are numerous and include elements such as composition, space and time,
for this reason that men enjoy looking at images, because what happens is visual language or symbols, and so on. Aristotle's third category, the objects of
that, as they contemplate them, they apply their understanding and reasoning representation or action (mythos) and character (ethos)have clear parallels to the
to each element (identifying this as an image of such-and-such a man, for visual arts. The role of the artist and viewer run through all of these levels but
instance). Since, if it happens that one has no previous familiarity with the in different ways, one creating and one reacting, mediated by the art object.
sight, then the object will not give pleasure qua mimetic object but because
of its craftsmanship, or colour, or from some other such reason.

As S. Halliwell has commented, "poetry is seen as deriving from, and satisfying, 1.3 A FRAMEWORK FOR PICTORIAL NARRATIVE
the impulse to understand the world of human action by making and enjoying
representations of it."48 In considering pictorial narrative, it is incumbent to To move from analogy to framework for this book, we must define each part of
analyze not just the intent of the artist, for which we have virtually no testi- pictorial narrative more carefully and articulate the methodologies that are most
mony other than the work of art itself, but also the reaction of the viewer to it. appropriate for its realization. Each of the following chapters examines one
For the latter, we do have recourse to several sources, including ancient descrip- level of narration, but I would like to sketch out here the basic framework as an
tions of works of art and ekphrasis.Although we may not be able to reconstruct introduction to those chapters.
a specific reaction to a specific work with certainty, an examination of the To begin, one should look at narrative at its more basic level as it exists in
viewing process and the general nature of the viewer's reaction to the work is the object. Just as a poem is made up of sounds, words, and parts of speech that
necessary for understanding the character of narrative and its effect in Greek are structured to create a coherent meaning, so too an image is made up of
art. lines, planes, colors, and surfaces that create a recognizable set of forms. For
The importance for pictorial narrative of Aristotle's discussion of poetry is language, one must recognize subject, verb, and modifiers in order to articulate
severalfold. First, it places painting, and by extension the other visual arts, into the basic pattern of action that a narrative describes, and so too the viewer
a group of media that represents the world around us, both as individual figures must decide what the forms of an image represent and their immediate relation-
and their interaction. This means that some of the ideas that he develops in ship to one another in the picture. We have already seen this approach in
more detail regarding tragedy might be adapted to the discussion of other Aristotle, and it constitutes the foundation for structural analysis and semiotics
media like the visual arts. Second, Aristotle proposes a multiple-level approach in literary theory. 50 As W. Steiner has explained, the utility of structuralism for
to the discussion of the storytelling. Narrative is more than just typology, and the discussion of visual narrative is that it promotes the idea of the relationship
although it is important to define specific forms of a category, it is as important between elements over their substance as the basis of similarity and connec-
to articulate where in the structure of mimetic art the category fits and how it tion. 51 Semiotics in particular deals with the relationship of the sign, or material
relates to other categories. Third, Aristotle also provides us with an ancient aspect represented in a work of art, to its referent or object. Structural analysis
perspective on narrative that is not always the same as modern theories. Al- deals more with the mechanics of narrative structure and the interaction with
though it is impossible for any student or scholar to escape the outlook of his or the audience and with the archetypes and patterns that a story creates. Both
her own time, it is helpful to have ancient testimony to balance modern theory. share, however, a common approach in identifying basic units and examining
For our purposes, one might draw an analogy of pictorial narrative to Aris- how they interact at different levels to create meaning or experience. 52
totle's discussion of tragedy by saying that visual art consists of basic elements R. Barthes has provided the articulation of structural analysis for the study of
such as line and color that create representational forms. At this level, an image narrative that can be adapted to our purpose. 53 The most basic units of narration
can be purely ornamental, a representation of a being or thing (portrait), or the he labels functions, of which there are four: cardinal functions or nuclei catalysts
I I

representation of an action (narrative). Certain forms, materials, and patterns, indices, and informants. At the next higher level of narrative, functions combine
such as the single free-standing statue or a column capital, will be favored in to describe an action; each action can be labeled as a specific type of praxis
one genre/medium or another. As Aristotle states, this .collection of line, color, (desire, communication, or struggle). A third, final level is narration itself,
and shapes is enriched by the technique or style of the artist into a particular consisting of the discourse between narrator and listener/reader.
image that can please the eye. 49 Style itself, then, belongs to the next level of Barthes's work provides a starting point for articulating the most basic roles
representation, analogous to diction and rhythm for poetry. Aristotle's second that visual forms play in a narrative. As will be described more fully in Chapter
level of narrative in tragedy, the manner of representation or apsis,belonged in 2, cardinal functions, or nuclei,are open-ended actions on which the narrative
a different category from the means since it was something added to tragedy hinges and are the most important components of narrative. Catalystsfill in the
and not to epic or lyric. For the visual arts, however, it belongs in the same gaps between the nuclei, elaborating but not altering the story. These functions
category as style because it is inherent rather than foreign to that medium. Its Barthes describes as distributional. They work horizontally or syntagmatically,
14 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART AN APPROACH TO PICTORIAL NARRATIVE 15

being combined with other distributional functions into a consecutive and image, there is little impetus for the viewer to reflect on it more broadly as a
consequential action, for example, in the series of small actions like sitting, story since there does not appear to be past, present, or other consequences to
ordering a drink, lighting a cigarette, and looking around the room that com- the action, or much possibility of variations in its conclusion. Such an icon may
prise an episode like a rendezvous in a bar. Integrative functions, in contrast, serve as a divine epiphany and even be based on an action, but need not tell a
work vertically, identifying or deciphering the unit in order to tie it paradig- story. Since a viewer can only really look at one picture at one moment, it is to
matically to time, space, and other actions, as in linking the rendezvous to a some degree irrelevant at this level whether that picture is part of a larger cycle
broader plot like a James Bond thriller or linking the protagonist to a larger or not.
category of spy or lover. The integrative functions consist first of indices,which The single picture also helps to frame the relationship between artist and
involve deciphering and include the use of symbolism. Informants serve "to viewer. All narrative images exist first as compositions on objects that the artist
identify, to locate in time and space." All elements of a narrative may be creates; this is the act of storytelling for the artist. An image, however, only
identified as one of these four functions, although an individual element may becomes a narrative and not a narrative intention through the viewer's interac-
serve more than one function simultaneously. tion with the object. This skews the focal point of the current study away from
These four functions constitute the most basic elements of a pictorial narra- the artist toward the viewer, counter to the tendency of most art historical
tive and make up what we shall call the micro-structureof pictorial narrative. As studies of Greek art. 56 The intention here is not, however, to minimize in any
in language, the viewer is not consciously aware of the function(s) that an way the role of the artist as a storyteller, f~r certain artists like Exekias or
individual from within the image may play, but still he or she recognizes the Polygnotos are quite remarkable for their narrative invention. Rather, this view-
story, its setting, and the identity of the figures by perceiving the functions point is to emphasize that there is little evidence beyond the object for the
within the image and their relationship to each other. The advantage of struc- narrative impulse of the artist, whereas there is surviving testimony to the
tural analysis for the study of pictorial narrative is that it allows us to see and reactions of viewers to works of art. Although the reaction of a viewer like
define the underlying elements of a narrative and from this, moving to a higher Pausanias may not be that fully intended by the artist, it at least gives us a sense
level of analysis, to differentiate the impact that other elements of narrative of how the pictorial narrative functioned in ancient culture.
have on the viewer or artist. One may also use this approach to discuss such In a sense, each act of narration is unique since the identity of the viewer,
fundamental questions as the existence of narrative within a specific image or the viewing circumstances, and/or the identity of the artist changes from one
period, the existence of narrative within a single image, and the definition of telling to the next, but these acts may form patterns that provide consistency
pictorial narrative, as shall be discussed in Section 2.2 in Chapter Two. to a pictorial narrative in a given period and culture. I propose naming this level
For structuralism, the next level of analysis defines the action. This proceeds of narration the macro-structureof narration since it deals with qualities of the
at two levels, one of syntax or the combination of functions to describe an entire picture and the artist's and viewer's interaction with it. In Chapter Three,
episode, and one of semantics, exploring the meaning of the action. 54 Here, we shall examine the different elements of this macro-structure: the viewing
however, one must modify the framework for the purposes of pictorial narra- process, the viewing context, the composition of the image, the use of space
tion. Literary narrative involves the sequential exposition of a series of actions, and time, the visual language, and the style of the work. 57 Each of these
combining the small actions constituting nuclei into a whole. Most pictorial elements focuses to different degrees on the three participants in narration: the
narrative in the ancient world, however, involves a single picture that describes artist, the object, and the viewer. Some of these are broadly comparable to
action as a state. A single picture does still define a number of actions within it, Aristotle's first level of tragedy: the means of representation. Diction is compa-
but how a viewer experiences and comprehends these as a whole involves a rable to style, and song or rhythm has elements in common with composition.
different process than literary narrative. In order to understand how action is Others of these elements belong to the nature of apsis generally, including the
defined, it is necessary to broaden the scope of relationships that structural viewing context and process, visual language, and composition, so that the
analysis considers at this level. 55 macro-structure combines and modifies two of Aristotle's levels for tragedy,
If a narrative discourse is to take place, the single composition must be able to means and manner, to the specific nature of pictorial narrative. There is also no
depict the actions or episodes in such a way that it logically refers back to single methodology that encompasses these elements, and we will rely on a
earlier episodes, to describe the particulars of the present, and to indicate a variety of approaches including formal analysis, semiotics, iconographic analy-
direction that the narrative might take in the future. In other words, if it is to sis, and reader response. The sum of these elements, however, constitutes the
function effectively within a group or just as a single panel, a narrative image immediate act of narration.
must be open-ended, leading forward, backward, or to other actions or stories, There is another dimension to narrative that can be defined as dealing with
whether these appear in another picture or in the viewer's memory. If the action elements external to the picture and the narrative participants. In some cases,
of a picture is completely closed and static, as in a heraldic or apotropaeic there are multiple narrative images within a single context. How one image
16 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART AN APPROACH TO PICTORIAL NARRATIVE 17

works in relationship with another is first defined by how the viewer reacts with developed for the study of Greek and Roman art has been challenged by recent
each image as an individual narrative, but there is a wide range of combinatory studies. Certainly, the character of narrative changes within Greek art, but it is
possibilities and strategies available to both artists and viewers. This is the area not due solely to a better philosophical understanding of time and place, for
that has attracted the most attention in narrative studies, especially the efforts these are elements that storytellers have understood, used, ignored, and dis-
to create a typology of narratives. We might call this level the extensionallevel, torted since the beginning. The character of narrative art is a much broader
since it accounts for the narratives around a single image and moves both artist result of the culture that produces it, of the means and medium available to an
and viewer to a more advanced stage of interpretation than the individual artist, of the contexts in which one finds narrative, of the relationship between
image. 58 This level will be the subject of Chapter Four. It must be emphasized, artist, object, and viewer, and of the purpose of narrative altogether. A history
however, that such an extensional level can exist even when there is only one of narrative art must be more than the definition of the stories and a retelling
narrative image, if it stimulates the viewer into a comparison of the work of art of the tale or a discussion of style. Indeed, it must be more than a framework
with another, whether visual or literary. For example, in describing the paintings for narrative, which is the subject of this book. A history of narrative art remains
of Polygnotos at Delphi, Pausanias often makes reference to literary accounts to be written, but I hope that it will be served by a broader understanding of
and notes contradictions between painting and poem regarding an action or the nature of pictorial narrative.
character. In order to achieve its purpose in creating a framework for the discussion of
The final level or end result of a narrative constitutes its meaning and rela- pictorial narrative, this book is not a comprehensive history and is limited in its
tionship to its participants and their culture. This is in many ways the most inter- range. It will cover only three periods of Greek art, the Geometric, Archaic,
esting, but it is also hard to define since each culture will use pictorial narratives and Classical, not because these are the most important or most interesting, but
for different motives, with different values, and in different contexts. Although because they allow one to articulate a narrative framework. With the Hellenistic
it is important to understand stories as types and to compare variations of those and Roman periods, narrative art moves into new media, such as manuscripts,
types from one culture to another, it is also necessary to consider the historical and develops a theatricism and emotional level not frequently found in earlier
and cultural context of a narrative if we are to imagine the interaction of the art. These are also periods in which literature itself changes, in which written
ancient artist and viewer through it. I would suggest, following Aristotle, that text takes on an authority it did not previously have and in which narrative
we call this level that of the narrativeobject.To define the possible objects of might well be read rather than seen or heard. I believe that these are important
narration for a specific culture is beyond the scope of the present work, since it issues to consider, but they belong to a different kind of study. This book is
must depend on the detailed analysis of the structural elements of a large also limited by the nature of the archaeological record for Greek art. Some
number of works and a consideration of their interrelationships. As a prelimi- media are highly represented, such as vase painting, whereas others such as
nary exploration of this level, however, I would propose an examination of metalwork and mural painting are scantily or not at all preserved. Although
Aristotle's three objects of narration: action (mythos), character (ethos), and many of the works to be discussed are vase paintings, this is not to claim a
thought (daianoia).To translate these into terms for pictorial narrative is difficult, specific value for these objects compared to others, but because they provide
not just because of the difference in narrative medium from tragedy to visual the necessary documentation for the issues. Whether the conclusions that this
art, but because here we are also discussing the results of narration, what it tells book will propose regarding Archaic or Classical Greek art are applicable to
us about a historical period or culture. One might state, loosely and with an other cultures and periods or not remains the subject of a historical and syn-
awareness of the abundant number of contradictions, that Archaic narrative is thetic level of study. It is hoped that this book will help to provide a foundation
about action, which Aristotle notes can exist alone as an object of narration, for such work.
whereas Classical narrative more frequently incorporates character. Narrative
becomes less about what happened and how, but about why something took
place or someone did it. This will be the subject of Chapter Five, but in a very
real sense it raises more questions than it answers. For example, does human
action constitute broadly the basic object of narration for Greek and other
ancient cultures? Is Greek culture unusual in having other qualities of narration
such as character? Is an aspect such as character an enduring object of narration
in succeeding periods? Are there other objects that can be defined?

These questions properly belong to a history of narrative art, both of Greece

and of the ancient world generally. The progressive and evolutionary model
 THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 19

Chapter2 putting her right hand on the side, it ap-

pears that she is using that hand to guide
the bundle downward. Thus, one can un-
THE NARRATIVE derstand from the frozen action that further
actions will likely occur, although one can-
MICRO-STRUCTURE not preclude the possibility that the bundle
may come undone with the shifting of
hands, that it may fall on the way down, or
that it will become rumpled in the process
of transfer and require further straightening
2.1 DEFINITION OF ELEMENTS before she closes the lid of the chest. It is
likely that the action will proceed
As mentioned in the introduction in Chapter One, R. Barthes defined the most smoothly, but the possibility of more than
basic units of narration as functions and identified four of these: nucleus, cata- one outcome does exist.
lyst, index, and informant. 1 In order to adapt these definitions to the require- In a literary narrative, a poet would
ments of pictorial narrative, we shall apply them first to a relatively simple string together a series of nuclei to describe
image. On the name vase of the Yale Lekythos Painter, one sees a woman the entire action: the woman picks up the
holding a bundle of clothing (Fig. 5, "Yale lekythos") .2 In front of her is a chest bundle, carries the bundle, shifts her hold,
with its lid open; to her left side is a chair. Floating seemingly in midair but lowers the bundle, leaves the bundle. An
understood as hanging from a peg on a wall are a mirror and a wreath. There artist working with only one image, as is
is, admittedly, some question as to whether this everyday image constitutes a usually the case, must be more economical. 4
narrative, but the lack of mythological subject here makes it easier to focus on Frequently, the artist will choose, as here, a
the nature and definition of the functions in an image. We will return to the moment near the end of the sequence from
question of whether this is indeed a narrative in the next section. which the result can be inferred, but
The most important of the functions is the nucleus,which Barthes defines as whether an earlier or later moment is cho-
an open-ended action on which the narrative hinges. Since a nucleus describes sen, the single nucleus must be perceived as
an action, it requires at least two elements: an agent - someone or something open-ended, as representative of prior and
to act, and consequently someone or something to be acted on. It must also be subsequent nuclei that constitute the basic
open-ended, that is, the action and its result must come from a plausible range action. Clearly, where the nucleus is ambig-
of alternatives. This does not mean that the audience is in genuine suspense or uous, there would be more potential prob-
that the result is in doubt, for anyone who has heard a story such as one of the lems for a viewer, but the nature of the
labors of Herakles will generally know how a narrative based on the story will function remains the same.
turn out, whether the narrative is poem, play, or painting. It is enough that More difficult to adapt to pictorial nar-
there is another possible outcome. Using this definition, we might identify the rative is the matter of catalysts.According to
nucleus of the scene on the Yale lekythos as the woman holding the bundle of Barthes, these fill in the gaps between the 5. Attic red-figure lekythos by the Yale Lekythos
Painter (name vase), ca. 475-450. Woman hold-
clothing. Although the action is not of momentous consequences, it still fulfills nuclei, elaborating but not altering the
ing a bundle of clothes. New Haven, Yale Univer-
the requirement of someone acting on something else. 3 Further, the action story. Like their literary counterparts, pic- sity Art Gallery, Gift of Rebecca Darlington Stod-
depicted is open-ended in that it plausibly leads from or to other actions. torial catalysts are not necessary to the nar- dard, 191'3.146. (Photo courtesy of the Yale
Implicit in the act is that the woman has picked up the bundle and will put it rative, which could consist only of the nu- University Art Gallery)
down; whether she has just done one or is about to do the other is less clear. cleus, but their inclusion provides an
Judging by the position of her hands, especially the placement of her right important dimension to the story, perhaps more so than literary catalysts. They
hand on the side of the bundle, it would seem more likely that she is about to may serve to magnify the scope of the action or provide a means for the artist
put the bundle into the chest since the more natural position for both hands to refer to earlier or later nuclei that are not depicted, increasing the density of
would be under the bundle if she had just lifted it out of the chest. So too, if the narrative. In the Yale lekythos, we can point to the chest as a catalyst by
she were merely carrying the bundle, both hands would be more under it. By subjecting it to a test by removing it from the picture. If we do so, we still

18
20 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 21

understand the action in the same way, but at the cost of making the action helping to situate the action in a larger context. In the Yale lekythos, for
more ambiguous and generic. Without the chest, for example, we might imag- example, the mirror and chest are not only informants, but serve simultaneously
ine that the clothes will be left on a shelf, that they will be placed in a basket as paradigmatic indexes linking the scene to the social context of women's life
to be carried somewhere else, or perhaps that they will be given to someone. in fifth-century Athen.s since these objects are most often associated with
The chest provides a clue as to the next action or nucleus; it also provides a women. The objects too can recall other possible actions performed by the
clue as to another action, that of raising the lid so that the clothes can be character, such as holding the mirror or opening the chest, since the viewer can
placed inside. Indeed, this helps to provide a second explanation for the side recall other scenes from art and from daily life in which a woman would have
position of the right hand as having drawn back from raising the lid to steady used these objects. 5 So, too, the bundle of clothes hints at other actions
the bundle before placing it in the chest. On the other hand, the lid might concerned with the making, use, and care of material in the household. The
have been left up from an earlier action unrelated to the present. In other nucleus itself, belonging to the quiet realm of daily domestic life, might be
words, the chest is not fundamental to the action, but is important in defining understood as an index referring to an ideal household and the social and moral
it. values that belong to it. To explore and understand the value of an index,
To summarize, the Yale lekythos has one nucleus of a woman holding and however, brings us to other levels of narrative such as the visual language and
about to lower a bundle of clothes (N) down into a chest (C) whose lid she has viewing context that are beyond our immediate focus. The important point
already raised (C). The chest also serves another function, that of informant(F). about indexes, however, is that they provide the links to elements beyond the
Informants serve "to identify, to locate in time and space." In this case, the chest nucleus and action.
tells us that the action is taking place inside a house since it is too large to be As we have noted, it is possible and indeed standard that a single form within
carried easily out of doors. The presence of the chair, mirror, and wreath a picture can serve multiple functions simultaneously. The nucleus on the Yale
confirm this placement, so that the four elements work collectively as inform- lekythos is also an index referring more broadly to a range of domestic scenes;
ants to identify the place of the action. The presence of the mirror on the wall the catalyst of the chest also serves as informant and index; the mirror serves as
would suggest that the room is in the women's quarters of the house. The way both informant and index. A simple scene may not combine individual functions
that the artist arranges them also creates in the mind of the viewer an under- or even utilize all of them, but at its core, it will work in the same way as one
standing of the space. The chair is to the side of the woman, farther back in more complicated. We may offer, then, the following definitions of each of the
the picture space, and the hanging mirror and wreath indicate a wall or back functions in a pictorial narrative's micro-structure:
boundary to the space. Space, however, is not the same as the informants and
more properly belongs to the viewer's understanding of the entire picture, as Nucleus: The essential action and its participants on which the narrative
we shall see in the next chapter. hinges; this action must be open-ended.
Since pictorial narrative cannot name a figure at the same time as describing Catalyst:Additional elements that elaborate on the nucleus, but are not essen-
its action, as verbal narrative does with noun and verb, informants in an image tial to the action of the nucleus. This elaboration can be an enrichment of
the action, by including reacting spectators, or can serve to connect the
also serve to identify the figures, either by type or more specifically by proper
nucleus to other undepicted nuclei, situating the nucleus more clearly
name. Labels are frequently found in pictures and serve as informants, but
within the episode.
common attributes such as the lion skin of Herakles, the kerykeion of Hermes,
Informant:Those elements that identify participants or locate the narrative in
or the armor and spear of Athena can serve in the same way. Because attributes time and place.
like the lion skin often derive from stories, these can serve simultaneously as Index: An element that refers to an event, idea, or person outside of the
indexes. In the case of the Yale lekythos, we have a general figure of a woman, immediate narrative.
but her hair style with the hair gathered behind the head in a net suggests that
she is unmarried, and the simple fillet that she wears on her head suggests that We can see that these functions work in the same manner in_a more compli-
she is not the head of a wealthy household. cated mythological scene. A hydria in Naples by the Kleophrades Painter has
The final function in the narrative micro-structure is· the index. An index, like in a frieze on its shoulder five scenes from the fall of Troy (Fig. 6, "Naples
an informant, serves to tie the nucleus to something outside of the action, for Iliupersis"). 6 The central scene shows the slaying of Priam and contains five
example, to other actions or episodes. Attributes, for example, both identify the main elements: Neoptolemos, Priam, the body of Astyanax, the altar, and a
figure but are frequently based on other actions performed by the character. In dead Trojan soldier. We can identify as a nucleus the young, fully armed warrior
pictorial narrative, an index can also link the nucleus to other actions, whether raising his sword in his right arm to deliver a blow to the old man in civilian
in the same or a different story, so that an action of Theseus may recall one of dress. In this case, the identity of the figures is a critical part of the nucleus and
Herakles. Indexes can also serve as symbols of broader concepts or ideas, thus their physical characteristics - youthful warrior killing an older man at an altar
22 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 23

- constitute a distinct set of informants that permits the viewer to identify the in a gesture associated with mourning, the
action as Neoptolemos about to slay Priam. Both figures are part of the nucleus; Kleophrades Painter creates another narra-
removing or changing one would alter the story completely, not just in chang- tive thread that at other levels can create an
ing the mythological story but also in changing the unequal relationship of the entirely different flavor to the story (see
two agents. Neoptolemos grabbing hold of Priam's chiton is best understood as Section 5.2 in Chapter Five).
a catalyst, since it is not essential for the impending blow, given Priam's attitude, Other details help to fill out the pictorial
but it does enhance and elaborate on the nucleus, making the action more narrative. The altar acts as an informant,
intimate and final. The body of Astyanax might also be regarded as a catalyst, locating the action at a shrine (of Zeus Her-
elaborating on the scope of the action but not fundamentally altering its course. keios) in Priam's palace. Both Astyanax and
Unlike the Yale lekythos, this scene actually has more than one nucleus. the dead soldier attest as informants to the
Priam's reaction constitutes a second nucleus, since covering his head with his earlier fights of that night, presumably vic-
arms in resigned submission to his fate is not necessary for the completion of tims of Neoptolemos given their proximity
the first nucleus, although his presence as victim is required. That it is a nucleus to him and Priam. In this regard, the two
in its own right can be seen by comparing the depiction to older versions of corpses help to pinpoint the narrative mo-
the scene in which Priam reaches out toward Neoptolemos in a gesture of ment as one well into the story of Troy's
pleading (see Fig. 71). The entirely different choice of gesture here, represent- sack. The wounds clearly indicate the nu-
ing resignation and mourning, transforms the nature of the other nucleus and merous blows and testify not only as in-
of the narrative, clearly making this a nucleus in its own right. The ability of formants to the late moment of the narra-
an artist to have simultaneously two nuclei within a visual field distinguishes tive, but as indexes combined with the
the potential for a virtually immediate perception of multiple actions with a sword in Neoptolemos's hand to earlier nu-
pictorial narrative from the sequential exposition of action in a literary narra- clei in the episode. On a broader level, the
tive. 7 For example, a poet might say of this episode that Neoptolemos struck identity of each figure is an index, conjuring
Priam (N), who was holding the body of his dead grandson (C), then struck in the viewer's mind their knowledge of the
him repeatedly (N), and then, holding onto Priam's garment (N), he reared story and its participants. Beyond our im- 6. Attic red-figure hydria by the Kleophrades
back his sword for a mighty final blow (N), brought it down upon his neck (N), mediate purpose, however, it is significant Painter, ca. 490-480. Naples, National Museum,
killing Priam finally on the altar (N). Priam, bleeding from earlier blows (C), to note that the nature of each participant 2422. Iliupersis: Detail of Neoptolemos slaying
simply held his head with his hands and offered no resistance (N). In such a is an index that links the central scene of Priam. (Photo courtesy of the Hirmer Fotoarchiv,
Mtinchen)
passage there are several nuclei (marked by the letter N) and two catalysts (C). 8 the hydria to those laterally. That is, we
The combination of the consecutive acts creates the substance of the episode, have a heavily armed warrior facing not only an unarmed opponent, but one
which is elaborated through the extra details of the catalysts. Priam's action that is in some way "weaker," either older, younger, or female. This is important
constitutes a narrative analepsis, going back in time from the moment of the to the construction of the extensional narrative on the vase and to the important
last nucleus. An artist, however, would be hard pressed to narrate as densely in reversals that the artist introduces as we shall see later (see Sections 4.3 and
terms of nuclei, since it would require more than one picture to depict all of 5.2).
these nuclei. Some of the nuclei, such as grabbing hold of Priam's garment, can In the pictures that we have examined, the compositions are sufficiently
be made into catalysts, and the choice for the main nucleus, with the sword compact that the viewer can readily see the nucleus or nuclei without obstruc-
pulled back for the final blow, clearly and quickly implies the succeeding tion. Further, the agents in the action are both readily identifiable so that there
actions. The bleeding wounds clearly refer to earlier blows. In representing is little doubt about who is acting on whom. Sometimes, however, identifying
Priam's action, however, the painter can give it the simultaneity that it had as a all of the forms that constitute the nucleus is more difficult. The participants
real event, whereas the poet must either interrupt the sequence of nuclei with may be visibly separated to a degree that their relationship is not readily
Neoptolemos or use an analepsis as before. The painter also gives a more equal apparent and a viewer may think that the elements belong to different nuclei,
weight to the two nuclei that is immediately apparent to the viewer. The particularly if there are multiple figures and nuclei present in an image. If
importance of understanding the nature of the Priam nucleus is seen in compar- multiple nuclei are present, the viewer must also determine their relationship to
ing it to other representations of the story. In these, Priam's action is more of a each other. In some cases, the viewing context may even prevent one from
direct reaction to the threat of Neoptolemos, while here Priam is conceivably seeing the entire picture without changing position. These circumstances are
uncaring of the presence of his slayer. By having Priam clutch his head and hair found in a battle scene on a Middle Protocorinthian aryballos of ca. 675 that
 24 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 25

has been placed in a group of works near the

Huntsmen Painter (Fig. 7, "Huntsmen arybal-
los'1).9 Since the battle fills a continuous frieze
around the center of the vase, it is impossible
to see all of the figures at once or to discern a
beginning or end to the composition. This in-
troduces an element of viewing time and ex- 8. Middle Protocorinthian aryballos near the Huntsmen Painter, ca. 675. Drawing of battle.
perience that can shape the narrative experi- Corinth, Museum, CP 2096. (After Eliot and Eliot [ 1968], pl. 102)
ence of the viewer, but this belongs properly
to the level of discourse in the macro-structure. any ambiguity about A1s action. This detail means that there are at least three
As far as the micro-structure is concerned, all nuclei present in the composition and considerable ambiguity regarding the
of the elements exist in a fixed relationship to warriors 1allegiance.
each other that is independent of where the F-G clearly form one nucleus: G is about to throw a spear at F, who is
viewer starts or stops. For this reason, we will turning to defend himself and brings sword, shield, and head around to confront
utilize the drawing of the frieze to analyze the G. Although G has the advantage of position, coming up from behind F, F is
micro-structure of the narrative (Fig. 8). Al- better armed for meeting the challenge, resulting in a rough equivalence. A-B
though this ignores the reality of the object, it also constitute a nucleus and a similar pattern of action with one figure (A)
does permit us to see more conveniently the coming up behind the other (B). In this case, however, there is a clear result of
7. Middle Protocorinthian aryballos near the
narrative micro-structure that is the beginning the action because a later moment is shown with A1s sword in B's back. C-D
Huntsmen Painter, ca. 675. Battle. Corinth,
Museum, CP 2096. (Photo courtesy of the of the visual experience. also form a nucleus that features a rough parity. Each warrior carries two spears;
American School of Classical Studies, Athens) The seven combatants, labeled A through G D readies a spear for a throw while C is apparently about to lunge with its
from left to right on the drawing, are distin- spear. E belongs with D, but it is a question as to whether it is part of the
guished by details of their armor. Three warriors (D, E, F) wear helmets and nucleus or is a catalyst, especially given its visual distance from C. The same
carry shields shown in profile; two of the shields have notches in the side (D, might be said of B who aims an arrow in the direction of D-E. In any case, we
F). Both shields and helmet crests are decorated with dots painted in white. have a more complicated nucleus centered around C-D than with A-B or F-G
Three other warriors (A, B, G) are without shields or body armor, although one and making use of catalysts to create a group fight.
(G) wears a helmet. A seventh warrior (C) wears greaves (?) and a short chiton This analysis means, however, that B belongs with two different actions,
decorated with a checkerboard pattern painted in white on the black silhouette. once as aggressor/catalyst and once as victim/nucleus. That a figure can belong
This figure also wears a crested helmet and carries a round shield whose interior to two different actions, serving as nucleus in one case and catalyst in another,
faces the viewer. Spears are the predominant weapon, but bow and arrow (B) is essentially no different from the double nuclei of Priam and Neoptolemos on
and swords (A, F) also appear. the Naples Iliupersis, except that now additional figures beyond the main action
Since the frieze is continuous around the vase, what is the primary nucleus are drawn into the narrative, weaving the separate nuclei together by the
of the narrative? We might begin by trying to place the individuals into groups. doubling of their role in the micro-structure. This doubling can also be seen in
The three shieldless warriors (G-A-B) are juxtaposed, as are the three warriors F and provides a key for understanding the micro-structure on the aryballos. Fs
with dotted shields (D-E-F). The seventh warrior with the checked chiton (C) armor and running pose link it with D and E and along with proximity suggest
does not fit typologically with either side, but is clearly opposed to figure D D-E-F as a group. However, G is also similar to D and E in pose, direction,
and presumably to his group as well. The end members of both groups face in helmet, and action, while lacking a shield and second spear. Although proximity
opposite directions, so that to the left of the handle, the swordsman (F) con- and shield link D-E-F, D-E-G make a slightly stronger combination because
fronts a spear-bearing warrior (G), and to the right of the handle the other two their correlation is based on action. If D-E-G form a group, then we would
shieldless warriors (A-B) face toward the other two shielded warriors (D-E), have B-C-F facing D-E-G as a large-scale action, with C-D as the nucleus and
each of whom carries a spear. At first glance, then, one can identify two nuclei, B, E, F, and G as catalysts. Figure A, who stands back-to-back with G, would
a pair-fight (F vs. G) and a group-fight (A-B-C vs. D-E). However, closer then be on the same side as D-E-G and could be added as a catalyst to that
examination reveals that figure A is actually grasping the hair of the archer B group.
from behind and plunges a sword into his torso. The use of incision within the As we have already seen, however, F-G and A-B constitute separate nuclei in
silhouette allows one to see the individual fingers grasping the hair and removes the frieze. How, then, are we to determine the relationship of the nuclei to
26 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 27

each other when individual elements can belong to different actions? We can purposes, the debate points to the need to consider whether the micro-structure
begin by deciding that there can be a priority among nuclei, that there is one is independent of the medium, as indeed it should be if it is the basis for
nucleus in a composition that is primary and others that stand in a secondary pictorial narrative. To do this I propose examining succinctly a series of render-
relationship to it. If the elements in one nucleus can be determined as function- ings of the same subject, Europa and the Bull, in several different media:
ing as catalysts in a second nucleus, then the latter must assume a priority. Also, architectural sculpture, gems, vase painting, and metalwork. Despite differences
a nucleus with numerous catalysts can also be regarded as being more compli- in scale, materials, techniques, periods, and styles, we can see that the narrative
cated and potentially of greater importance since it could absorb other elements image can be described in the same way and that the micro-structure provides
into its structure. In the Huntsmen aryballos, we have two nuclei, A-B and F-G, a means for articulating the differences and similarities between the images as
that are compact and that do not utilize catalysts to expand the basic action. narratives.
The third nucleus (C-O) clearly has a catalyst (E) that belongs exclusively to it, To begin we can look at one of the metopes assigned to 'Temple Y" in
making it more complicated and arguably of greater importance since elements Selinus (Fig. 9, "Selinus Europa"). 12 On a basically square field, we see a bull
from the other nuclei can be assigned to it (B clearly; F and Gin some manner) striding to the right, its left front leg raised and its right front leg planted
but not from it to the others. This is also the nucleus that is most widely spaced, behind to indicate motion. Below the bull above the ground frame are dolphins
pushing its edges back to the limits of the visual field when the viewer looks at or fish leaping. On the bull's back is a female figure riding sidesaddle. She faces
the vase (Fig. 7). toward the right in the direction that they are heading; she grasps one of the
Since in reality all of the nuclei could only be perceived as part of a narrative bull's horns with her left hand and plants her right hand and arm behind on the
discourse, we are in some sense being premature in trying to decipher the bull's back. In terms of its micro-structure, the scene is fairly simple compared
relationship of the nuclei to create a composite narrative, but it is worth to the Naples Iliupersis and the Huntsmen aryballos. The nucleus consists of a
proceeding to see the relationship of multiple nuclei involved in the same broad woman riding on the back of the bull. Given the unique character of the action
action. On the one hand, if we place D-E-F together, then we have a primary in Greek mythology, we can readily use the nucleus as an index to identify the
nucleus of the battle B-C vs. D-E-F. G in this case would belong to B-C and scene and characters as Europa and the bull, but this brings us to the level of
the secondary nucleus of F-G would represent an attack on the flank of D-E-F. the macro-structure and visual language. Still even without knowing the story,
A would belong to the group D-E-F, but it would represent an attack from we can understand that the bull is carrying her from one place to another. The
behind B-C, while the rest of the group (D-E-F) faces them head on. How A dolphins serve as informants; since they belong in the sea, we know that the
got into such a position is unclear and given his similar appearance to B and G, ride is over water, reinforcing the unusual nature of the action. That the woman
it would imply some level of treachery as a secondary nucleus. On the other sits upright and holds the horn and back can be seen as catalysts, elaborating
hand, if we place G with D-E, then we can see F as an ally of B-C attempting a on the nature of the action. Clearly, the bull is not moving at threatening and
flanking attack. G represents a counterattack, perhaps from a reserve or second- breakneck speed and the ride, although at first glance hazardous because of the
wave position. This suggests more of a temporal sequence of attack and coun- nature of the beast and watercourse, appears less urgent and almost stately.
terattack than the first reading. A in this reading becomes an ally of G, who The Selinus Europa metope is 84 cm in height, of a scale sufficient for the
attacks the main group of B-C. In this reading, we have two subgroups, B-C vs. image to be legible from the ground. Another depiction of Europa on a gem is
D-E as the main battle groups and G-A vs. F-B as the reserves. Which reading much smaller, 1.4 cm high, and can only be seen from up close, as indeed one
is correct could impact the viewer's understanding of the main nucleus. At first would see it when worn on a ring (Fig. 10, "Oxford Europa"). 13 The shape of
glance, it would seem that C is the hero of the piece, since C is the most the field is now oval rather than square, but in terms of the narrative micro-
elaborate of all the figures and has been identified by some scholars as Athena. 10 structure, there is very little change from the monumental Selinus Europa. The
However, either reading of this primary nucleus in conjunction with the cata- nucleus is once more a bull carrying a woman on its back. In the impression
lysts and secondary nuclei changes this impression, for in either reading one shown here, the bull again moves rightward with its front legs in basically the
must conclude that D is gaining the upper hand over C. In this case, it would same position. The back legs are bent and more forward; combined with the
be unlikely that C is Athena, but suggestions of Penthesileia or Memnon would more forward position of the bull's neck, there is an indication of somewhat
be appropriate, if indeed a mythological subject is intended. greater speed, but these elements are catalysts, modifiers rather than an inher-
Up to now we have looked solely at images from vase painting. The status ently different action. A fish, like the dolphins earlier, serves as an informant.
of vase painting in the ancient and modern world has been the subject of much Again the woman sits sidesaddle and holds one of the bull's horns with her
dispute in recent years, revolving around whether vase painting is a "fine art" forward hand (left in the case of the impression, right in the original gem). The
like mural painting and sculpture and whether it had an equal status to metal- back hand lies along the bull's back but grasps the tail. The woman still sits
work, to which it was closely related in shapes and techniques. 11 For our upright, so that the nucleus is still understood as not directly threatening.
28 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 29

ence in their micro-structures in a

sense confirms this, and that is the po-
sition of the bull's head. In the Oxford
Europa, the bull's head is in profile,
facing in the direction of the move-
ment. In the Selinus Europa, it is fron-
tal, looking out toward the viewer.
This change in the position of the
head does not alter the nucleus, but
like the upright position of Europa is
rather a catalyst that slows down the
action. It also acts as an index that
refers to other functions of temple im-
agery beyond narrative, to serve as an 10. Agate gem, ca. 480 (impression). Europa and the
apotropaeic device and as an epiphany Bull. Oxford, Ashmolean Museum 1966.596. (Photo
of the god Zeus. 14 While the position courtesy of the © Ashmolean Museum Oxford)
of the head changes the function of
the metope compared to the gem, it only begins to do this as an index when
the viewer understands the context and visual language. The index sets up the
possibility for understanding the image in other ways, but it does not change
the nucleus and the other elements of the micro-structure, but operates in the
domain of the macro-structure.
The same holds true in a red-figure vase painting on a Nolan amphora in
Berlin (Fig. 11, "Berlin Europa"). 15 Again we see a bull carrying a woman to the
right. The positions of legs and neck are similar to the slightly earlier version
in the Oxford Europa, as are the positions of the woman and her hands. One
slight difference is that she rests her right hand on the bull's back, as on the
Selinus Europa. There are no fish in the image, and no other informants that
place the action. Against the neutral background, one could see the action as
taking place on land or over the water, but the way that the bull's hooves do
not rest on the ground line provided by the lower border might suggest water
rather than land given the viewer's familiarity with the scene and story. Another
difference from the gem and metope is that Europa faces leftward or backward
rather than forward. This in itself is not a substantial change and so is not
integral to the nucleus. It belongs to the category of catalyst and perhaps as a
9. Metope from Selinus, mid-sixth century. Europa and the Bull. Palermo, Museo Archeolo-
time index, in that Europa looks back to the origin point of the story rather
gico. (Photo courtesy of the Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Mi.inchen)
than to its future.
We will look at one last version of the story before concluding. On a bronze
Despite the smaller scale, the folds of the woman's clothes are indicated in mirror-cover in Athens from the fourth century are once more the familiar
more detail and more transparently, as are details of her jewelry and hair and elements of a bull carrying a woman on its back (Fig. 12, "Athens Europa"). 16 A
of the bull's anatomy. These stylistic differences, however, do not change the dolphin serves again as informant, as do wave patterns. The outstretched posi-
basic character of the nucleus. tions of the bull's limbs, front and back, suggest greater speed than in the other
Whatever differences one experiences in these two narratives is due not so versions that we have seen. The woman's position confirms this impression of
much to the micro-structure of the narrative, but of elements of its macro- vigorous motion in that she leans forward along the bull's neck and wraps her
structure such as context, style, and visual language. The one significant differ- hand and arm around it, her legs stretch out diagonally behind her, and her
 30 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 31

himation billows behind her. Un- on the knowledge of the viewer, and
doubtedly, this makes the character of the character or interpretation of the
the image different from the more scene is affected by indices such as
stately previous versions, but does it gestures, pose, and attributes. In some
constitute a change in the nucleus or ways, we might think of the micro-
the catalysts? Perhaps one way to structure of narration as being the
gauge this question is to ask whether bridge between two acts, the creation
the action is more threatening and in- of the work by the artist and the re-
dicates a different result from the oth- ception of the work by the viewer. By
ers? It is true that the bull moves faster analyzing a picture in terms of its
and that Europa is pulled along by him functions, one can place each element
rather than supported by being seated. of a picture into its role or roles within
Significantly, however, the grasp that the act of storytelling and provide a
she maintains on his neck also brings foundation for analyzing the interac-
her into closer and more intimate con- tion of the picture with its creator and
tact with him. If she were truly threat- audience. It also provides a means for
ened with falling into the sea, one placing into a proper context the ef- 12. Bronze mirror cover from Eretria, early fourth cen-
would think that her left hand would fects of changes in style, techniques tury. Europa and the Bull. Athens, National Museum,
also be grasping the bull rather than of spatial representation, and devel- 7422. (Photo courtesy of the Archaeological Receipts
trying to hold onto her himation. In- opments in subject matter and sym- Service [TAP Service])
deed this gesture is also an index; it is bolism. To draw a linguistic analogy,
the anakalypteria-, the unveiling of the it allows one to distinguish changes in the content or style of a sentence from
bride in which she "signals acceptance the grammatical principles with which it is formed, allowing one to distinguish
of her husband and her sexual submis- true changes in the structure of narration itself.
sion to him. 1117 Deciphering the index
again moves us into the macro-
structure and interpretation, but the 2.2DEFINITION OF NARRATIVE AND ORIGINS IN THE
11. Attic red-figure Nolan amphora from Nola, ca. 450.
Europa and the Bull. Berlin, Staatliche Museen zu Berlindiscrepancy between the gesture of GEOMETRIC PERIOD
- Preussischer Kulturbesitz Antikensammlung, F2347. the left hand and the action of the
(Photo by Karin Marz. ©Bildarchiv Preussischer Kultur- right hand indicate that the situation To return to the first image that we examined, the Yale lekythos with the
besitz, Berlin, 1997) is not genuinely threatening. It signals woman putting down a bundle of clothes (Fig. 5), we can address a fundamental
an acceptance of the situation that is analogous to the other three representa- question that runs through many studies of Greek pictorial narrative: Is it a
tions. We should understand, then, that as a nucleus the mirror-cover is basi- narrative? Many scholars would define narrative as being a specific mythological
cally the same: a bull carrying a woman. While more vigorous, it is also more or historical story, such as Europa and the bull, making a more daily and generic
intimate as an action, making the change one of emphasis and style but not of scene like the Yale lekythos nonnarrative. 18 Having defined the basic compo-
substance as far as the micro-structure is concerned. nents with which narrative works, can we perhaps offer a different approach to
So far, we have examined four different objects with the same story that the question and offer a more structural rather than exclusionary definition of
belong to different periods, media, techniques, scales, functions, and contexts. pictorial narrative? Further, can we use this definition to determine the starting
In each case, however, the nucleus remains the same. Differences in catalysts, point for pictorial narrative in Greek art and by so doing deduce the circum-
indexes, and informants make each version of the story here distinctive and stances that may have stimulated its appearance? Before offering a structural
liable to bearing changes in interpretation, but only at the level of the macro- definition to answer these questions, it is important to review other definitions
structure and the interaction of the viewer and object. The four functions of of pictorial narrative.
the micro-structure, then, describe the basic narrative components within a Scenes like that on the Yale lekythos are usually labeled Lebensbild,or pictures
picture, but they do not treat matters such as the behavior of time and space or from everyday life, as opposed to Sagenbild, pictures drawn from mythology. 19
the meaning of a scene. The meaning of the scene and its identification draw This categorization as Lebensbild is usually grounds for rejection as a narrative,
 -=

32 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 33

which must, by some definitions, constitute a unique and identifiable event. subject. If we add names to the picture, it becomes specific, but the nature of
Since genre scenes are by definition typical, narrative must therefore be myth- the nucleus still has not changed and the nature of the micro-structure has
ological or perhaps historical in subject. The labels Lebensbild and Sagenbild, changed only with the addition of some informants or indexes. 23The same can
however, overlook how common or identifiable an action really is. An act such be said for the woman putting away the clothes: if we add a name such as
as putting away clothes or even a ritual such as pouring a libation is certainly a Pandora to the vase, then the picture becomes mythological and narrative
part of life and is repeated frequently, but it may occur only at narrowly according to traditional criteria but has not changed in substance or structure.
prescribed times and with a proscribed, small number of participants or wit- In essence what is being done is to define pictorial narrative not on the basis of
nesses. Indeed, such an action may be no more frequent or less distinct as an its ability to convey a sequence of actions to the viewer, but on the basis of the
event than a battlefield death in the Iliad. kind of story and figures that it represents. 24 If specificity and discreteness are
Consider for a moment one of the large number of battle scenes in Greek the defining criteria for narrative, then virtually any honorific portrait should be
art (Fig. 13, "Minneapolis amphora"). 20 Like most, this scene is generic, identi- a narrative in that we know who the figure is and that he or she is standing,
fiable for its general action but not the discreteness or specificity of either the sitting, walking, and therefore performing an action.
action from other combats or the identity of its agents and circumstances; one To resolve this difficulty, it is important to consider a structural definition of
might question whether this scene is a narrative because of its lack of individu-
ality.21 However, the status of a duel on one of the Parthenon metopes is 13. Attic black-figure amphora by the Painter of Vatican 359, ca. 530. Detail of shoulder:
usually taken for granted as pictorial narrative because we can identify the Combat scene. Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Ethel Morrison Van Derlip Fund, 57. 1. (Photo
subject of the action as the Greeks fighting the Trojans or the Lapiths fighting courtesy of the MIA)

the Centaurs. However, none of the individuals on the Parthenon metopes is

named nor is there a label confirming the general subject matter, so that the
distinction between them and the Minneapolis amphora is one of viewer rec-
ognition of the subject and not of narrative structure. The fight of the Lapiths
and Centaurs is also found on the Frarn;;:ois vase (see Fig. 57); here both
individual Lapiths and Centaurs are named, giving us action, general subject,
and specific participants beyond doubt. Of these three examples, it is the
Frarn;;:oisvase that comes closest in degree to the battle scenes of the Iliad in
that we know who is fighting under what circumstances and what happens.
Using specificity and discreteness as criteria, the Franc;ois vase would qualify as
a pictorial narrative, whereas the Parthenon metopes would not. ,
Specificity and discreteness, however, are illusory as criteria for narrative
status. The names of many of the individual combatants in the Iliad are fre-
quently repeated or have no background in mythology and bear little meaning
other than to distinguish one victim from another. If specificity is our standard
for the existence of narrative, then some of the poetic combats do not qualify
unambiguously. Further, literary works such as parables would not count as
narratives since they are not mythological or historical, that is, individualized
in subject. 22 Ultimately, the distinction between parables and the Iliadand the
Parthenon metopes and Frarn;;:oisvase is one of degree, not of kind. In one case,
we have action, subject, and agents; in the other, we have action and subject
only. If we simply add names to the Parthenon metopes or to a parable, we
have made them more specific but have not changed the nucleus or catalysts
that are the core of the narrative micro-structure, nor do we change the impor-
tance of the narrative for the viewer which lies in the subject.
But is having even a specific subject necessary for narrative status, since many
parables are generic and identify the figures only by their occupation or status?
Turning back to our generic battle in Fig. 13, it shows action but has no specific
 --
34 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 35

narrative. In his study of narratology in literature, G. Prince defines narrative as variations exists. The Yale lekythos (Fig. 5) represents a much less dynamic
"any representation of non-contradictory events such that at least one occurs at scene, but one that meets the same criteria. The nucleus is open-ended with a
a time t and another at a time t 1 following time t.1125 Earlier in his book, Prince plausible range of alternative events that could precede and follow it, the events
offers the following examples as narrative statements: are not necessarily predetermined, and changing the nucleus would alter the
"Mary drank a glass of orange juice then she drank a glass of milk." sequence of events and story.
"At 2 A.M. yesterday, the U.S. declared war on England." Although neither of these scenes might be cited as an example of a spell-
It is not critical in the first case that the statement be significant. It is not binding narrative, structurally and functionally they qualify as narrative. What
critical in the second case that it only describes one event, since it clearly is at stake in comparing the Minneapolis amphora's battle with a mythological
implies events that led to the described event. In contrast, a statement like the scene on the Naples hydria (Fig. 6) is that there is a measure of specificity and
following is not a narrative: discreteness that contributes to the degree of the work's narrativity. The ele-
"Bill opened the door." ments of a narrative - specificity, discreteness, and wholeness (a more complete
Like the second statement it too presumes a sequence of events, such as "The representation of a story with clear beginning, middle, and end) - are important,
door was closed, then Bill opened the door, then, as a result, the door was but they determine the quality of the narrative, not its existence. Curiously, by
open." This statement, however, is not a narrative because its events are presup- representing a very specific story, the artist forecloses on the degree of variabil-
posed or entailed by one another and do not represent a change in circum- ity in the act of narration in that the viewer knows beforehand that Priam will
stances or condition. Prince concludes by stating that "narrative is the represen- die and that Troy will fall. Nonetheless, the nuclei on the Naples hydria
tation of at least two real or fictive events or situations in a time sequence, represent the result of earlier actions and indicate a specific path of events from
neither of which presupposes or entails the other." a plausible if hypothetical set of variations (the Trojans might have returned
Prince's definition and examples correspond to Barthes's definition of the Helen or burned down the horse). Certainty in this case creates a more effective
nucleus as an open-endedaction on which the narrative hinges.To serve as a hinge, narrative. As Prince states, "narrativity is a function of the discreteness and
the action must serve as a stage in the development of the story in which a specificity of the (sequences of) events presented, it is also a function of the
change in circumstance, condition, or direction takes place. As discussed earlier, extent to which their occurrence is given as a fact (in a certain world) rather
the test for the status of a pictorial element as a nucleus is to remove or alter it than a possibility or probability. The hallmark of narrative is assurance. 1127 So,
and by doing so changing the direction of the story. Open-ended indicates that too, the type of action can contribute to the degree of narrativity. Conflict, as
there is some measure of plausible variability to the antecedents and results of Prince points out, works better for narrativity, and domestic scenes do not.
a given action. Does the event set up a train of associations and thoughts in the Thus, the battle scene has a greater degree of narrativity than the domestic
viewer - subject, context, style, and so on - that unfolds a story? In other scene, but both remain narrative at their most basic level. The distinguishing
words, events and actions are not presupposed or entailed. elements of narrativity - type of action, discreteness, specificity, certainty,
Applying this definition to pictorial narrative requires some discussion, par- wholeness - belong to the next levels of narrative discourse.
ticularly with the importance of two events. One course is to require that a
pictorial narrative have two scenes or actions represented, usually with the We can use this analysis to examine one of the issues found in the study of
repetition of figures in it. 26 Repetition like the Briseis kylix (Figs. 3 and 4) is Greek narrative art: its existence in the Geometric period. Following the de-
found in ancient art, but in most examples, there is only one scene with no struction of the palatial culture of the Mycenaeans in the twelfth century B.C.E.
repetition of characters, as the examples discussed in this chapter demonstrate. there followed a long period in which the quantity and quality of pottery and
Prince's examples, however, tell us that all of the events do not have to be its decoration declined. The major arts most associated with storytelling, espe-
represented as long as there is a clear implication of at least two events or cially mural painting and metalwork, virtually disappeared. During the tenth
actions. To return to our examples, the battle scene (Fig. 13) fits the require- century, Greece began to revitalize, as can be seen in the development of new
ments of a narrative statement. The nucleus of the work suggests several results: Protogeometric pottery shapes and decoration. In the ninth century, the villages
either one of the warriors may die or they may reach a stalemate. The horses of Greece began to expand ties to the rest of the world and examples of small-
suggest that the warriors may have traveled to the site from a distance, but the scale Near Eastern objects provided examples of figural decoration that were
actions that precipitated their clash are unknown. The appearance of Hermes rare in indigenous art. 28 At this time, the Early Geometric period (ca. 900-850),
on the right may be an index suggesting that the warrior on that side will win figures of animals and humans make their first modest appearance on pots.
since he has the support of a god, but alternatively he may be about to die Looking ahead to the Middle Geometric II period (early eighth century), one
since Hermes also conducts the souls to Hades. The nucleus is clearly a hinge begins to find increasing numbers of figures in art, including horses, birds, deer,
and is open-ended, the events are not predetermined, and a plausible range of ships, and humans. 29 Originally isolated in metopes, these figures begin to
 36 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 37

multiply and be deployed in larger friezes. The breakdown of visual segregation on one side a ship taking part in a battle
creates the potential for interaction among the figures, but the generic quality and on the other a land battle (see Fig.
of the figures has created arguments against the appearance of narrative during 19). The variety and complexity of the
the Geometric period. N. Himmelmann-Wildschi.itz and]. Carter, for example, action and interrelationships of the fig-
believe that these early vases stress action, but not narrative. They maintain ures is much greater than on the earlier
that the objects in the picture are not connected in time or space and that the Kerameikos cup. On side A, there is a
figures are not differentiated but are shown with the same formula, regardless ship facing toward the right, set in the
of situation. 30 Another, related objection to the idea of Geometric narration is middle of the picture field and taking up
that scenes of the typical cannot be narratives, which must show "a unique and about two-thirds of its length. A helms-
identifiable event." 31 To address this issue, we can approach the images in the man guides the ship at the left, while an
same manner as we have those of later centuries. archer crosses the ship in the middle,
A cup found in the Kerameikos cemetery features a wide frieze running running and aiming his arrow rightward.
around the neck of the cup at the level of the handle. On it appears a horse Helm and archer constitute separate nu-
and two warriors with swords (Fig. 14, "Kerameikos cup"). 32 Although found in clei, but with the ship as catalyst, they
a disturbed context, the Kerameikos cup was probably placed in a grave along become coordinated actions within a sin-
with other offerings and dates from the first quarter of the eighth century. The gle episode. Here an advantage of pic-
picture is set opposite from the handle and between two swastikas. The horse torial narration over poetry again be-
faces to the viewer's right, and the two men both face in toward the center and comes apparent in that the two actions 14. Middle Geometric II beaker from the Kerameikos,
horse. The figure on the left holds a staff or rod over the rear of the horse, and are immediately connected in a picture, ca. 800-775. Horse tamers. Athens, Kerameikos Mu-
the other holds a tether or rein. but lose some of their simultaneity with seum, 2159. (Photo courtesy of the Deutsches Archaol-
Is this picture a narrative? One can identify two actions that constitute the the sequential description of a poem. 35 ogisches Institut-Athens)
potential nuclei of the picture: the use of rod and tether on the horse by the The ship acts not only as a catalyst,
two men. The nuclei are separate and distinct, but are united through the horse, binding the figures, but acts as an informant as well, placing the scene on or by
who serves not only as the recipient of action for both nuclei, but is also a the sea. This is also the function of the waterbird on the ship's prow. More
catalyst binding the two nuclei into a common and cooperative task. The figures obscure are the two shield-bearing figures to either side that face inward toward
are frozen in the middle of their action, with the final result not displayed. the ship. Both carry two spears diagonally, and a third horizontally and directed
There is little in the way of informants showing a specific setting or time, but at the ship. These figures belong more clearly to land than to the sea, and
the swords serve to identify the figures as warriors or aristocrats and the objects because of this, they may serve as informants indicating the shore. The asterisk
that they hold convey something about their role or status in the activity. The behind the right warrior may also work as an informant in signaling the pres-
horse itself is a sign of aristocratic character, and indeed most of the early ence of land; three asterisks appear on the other side of the skyphos in a land
figural depictions of the Attic Geometric period are apparently signs of status battle. 36 The warriors do not perform any action and must work as catalysts
used in burials. 33 Although a picture of a man holding a horse might not be rather than as nuclei in the picture. They may indicate that the actions of the
considered a narrative in that the action is not open-ended and connected to a ship are taking place near the shore, as in an attempted landing and raid, and
plausible train of events suggested by the nucleus, the picture here is more stand defensively against it. Alternatively, the ship might be defending itself
specific. The figures are clearly attempting to control the horse and when and attempting to flee after an unsuccessful raid. In either case, the shielded
finished successfully will be in a position to use the horse for some purpose. In warriors fill out the actions of the central figures by providing an opposition
its degree of narrativity, the actions perhaps fall somewhere in between the and apposition and serve to place the nuclei more firmly in the context of a
woman holding clothes on the Yale lekythos and the combat on the Minneap- raid or some other struggle. The product of these functional elements of the
olis amphora in terms of difficulty and the likelihood of alternative results. Eleusis skyphos is a more complicated narrative than the horsetaming scene.
Taming a horse is potentially more hazardous than putting away clothes, and Another narrative theme that emerges in late eighth-century vase painting is
the action is more open-ended in that a number of things could plausibly the lion attack. The theme has been found on gold bands found in burials just
happen to change the course of the story since there are more characters before the mid-eighth century, but it was not featured in vase painting until the
involved. third quarter of the eighth century. 37 Around 740, the theme appears on a series
From a grave in Eleusis comes another cup, a skyphos dating about 770 (Fig. of vases, some of them associated with the Burly Workshop, including two
15, "Eleusis skyphos"). 34 Between the handles of this small cup are two scenes, found in the same tomb on the south side of the Acropolis near the Erechtheion

ii
 ~ wwws

38 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 39

15. Middle Geometric II Attic skyphos from Eleusis, ca. 770. Ship battle. Eleusis, Archaeo-
logical Museum, 741. (Photo courtesy of the Archaeological Receipts Service [TAP Service])

(Fig. 16, "Burly oinochoe"). 38 The main picture on the oinochoe is located on
the neck, opposite the handle, and dominates the vase's decoration. It shows
two lions placed on either side and facing toward the center of the picture;
between them is a man placed diagonally. The lions are treated in the same
abstract manner as other figures and objects in Geometric painting. Unlike the
lions on the gold bands, great emphasis is given in the vase painting to jaws,
teeth, and tongue, so that these are their most important and menacing feature.
No mane is indicated, but the large area painted for the chest emphasizes the
shoulders in a similar way.
Compositionally and structurally, the picture is organized much like the
earlier Kerameikos cup (Fig. 14), but the action is far more vigorous and
menacing. The lions constitute twin agents that are unified by the middle
figure's role as both object of the action and as catalyst, but in this picture, the 16. Late Geometric Ila oinochoe of the Burly Workshop from south side of the Acropolis,
catalyst also acts in its own right. With his left hand, the warrior plunges his ca. 735-720. Man being attacked by lions. Athens, First Ephoreia of Prehistoric and Classical
sword into the neck of the lion on our right; with his right hand, he grabs the Antiquities, 1955 ERK 643. (Photo courtesy of the Archaeological Receipts Service [TAP
snout of the other lion, whose lower jaw pokes him in the buttocks. 39 The Service])

warrior's right foot also seems to push back against the leg of this second lion.
I' Thus, we have a complicated action with multiple nuclei of two lions who articulates actions that are open-ended on which the story hinges. Elements of
attack a warrior, who stabs one while attempting to hold the other from striking the pictures serve additionally as catalysts, informants, and indexes, just as they
decisively at his exposed backside. The result of this struggle is in doubt, do in much later images. That is not to say that the Geometric pictures are
particularly whether the man will survive the attack. 40 His diagonal position equivalent to later mythological scenes, but that the distinctions between them
would suggest, indeed, that he is about to die. The figural interaction is more belong not to the micro-structure of the picture but to the interaction of the
developed here than on the Eleusis skyphos and action and counteraction are viewer and the image. This being said, there are two questions about Geometric
welded into a more unified narrative. pictorial narrative to consider further. First, given the relatively sudden appear-
To summarize, works like the Eleusis skyphos and Burly oinochoe demon- ance of figural and narrative imagery in the eighth century, what is the source
strate that from a structural point of view, pictorial narrative can be said to exist for this imagery? Second, would a contemporary viewer have understood such
in eighth-century Greek art. Although the abstract style makes the figures and images as narratives, that is, stories being told?
action even more generic than the combat on the Minneapolis amphora, it still There are several proposed explanations for the development of narrative
 pa

40 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 41

imagery at this time: that it is based on experience, that it is inspired by epic

similes, or that it is derived from other pictures of this theme. The last theory
J. Hurwit has labeled the artisticprecursor,in which artists learn to make narrative
images from imitating and observing other works of art. 41 In the case of Geo-
metric art, these sources have been seen in Near Eastern art such as gems,
metalwork, and reliefs or in works of Bronze Age Greece found in tombs or
abandoned palaces. 42 By using the Burly oinochoe as a test of this theory, there
are several possible sources. For example, the lion theme appears earlier in the
second quarter of the eighth century on gold bands found in tombs in Attica;
there is a short gap in the record before the motif reappears in vase painting,
which may have served as a substitute for the earlier metal grave goods. 43 This,
however, leads us to compare the Burly oinochoe with Near Eastern metalwork
that might have served as a source of inspiration for the gold bands. In compar-
ing, then, the lion fight on the Burly oinochoe with that on a Cypriot bowl
(Fig. 17), there are two important differences. 44 First, the scheme is different. In
Near Eastern imagery the lion is usually raised up on its back legs and is
subdued by its human opponent, who strides forward with the death blow. 45 In
four of the five examples of lion attacks in Attic vase painting, however, the
lion dominates, marking a distinct change in the nucleus and the resulting
narrative. 46 Second, the Geometric lion is rendered schematically in such a way
that it could also resemble a boar; what is important is its power and threat and
not its zoological correctness. 47 The lion attack is also a theme that was familiar
to Bronze Age Greece, and examples like the inlaid dagger from the Shaft
Graves at Mycenae could also have been known in the Geometric period.
Stylistically, these are no closer to the Burly lions than Near Eastern images,
but the more equal footing of the opponents is closer to some of the character-
istics of the Burly oinochoe nucleus. Still, to represent a warrior defeated by 17. Cypriot silver-gilt bowl, seventh century. Lion attacks. New York, The Metropolitan
the beast marks the Burly oinochoe as a different story from these other Museum of Art, The Cesnola Collection; purchased by subscription, 187 4-1876
(74.51.4554). (Photo courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum)
examples. To summarize, if the Geometric artist were imitating other examples
of pictorial narrative, one would expect a closer correspondence in the nucleus
than actually exists, regardless of difference in style and media. Although such spite of the threat of human intervention. The nucleus on the Burly oinochoe,
images may have been inspiring, artists developed the story in their own right. however, shows lions dominating the human figure in direct confrontations.
A variation on the artistic precursor theory is to find an inspiration for The implication is that the human is weaker than the lion, rather than that
Geometric pictorial narrative in literary sources, specifically in epics like the there is a parallel in their triumphs.
Iliad.48 The inspiration of the vivid epic imagery of the simile has been discussed In the tabula rasa view of the origin of narrative, artists start from a blank
at length by G. Markoe. Certainly, the comparisons of heroes to lions is slate and develop imagery in response to the stimulus of their environment. 49
common in both the Iliad and Odyssey, and the function of lion imagery in the With the lion attack, the artist was depicting the contemporary world in which
Near East, as guardian and symbol of royal power, differs from that in Greek the threat of predators to an agricultural society was quite real. 50 The presence
poetry. According to Markoe, "pictorial imagery was directly inspired by the of lions in Greece at this time has been a subject of debate, but predators of
poetic language embodied in the Homeric epics ... an artistic response to a any kind were a threat to herds, whose protection was of great concern.
heroic literary mode or tradition." The heroic quality of leonine aggression Whether there were lions in the eighth century, the lions of the Burly oinochoe
works well for scenes of lions attacking animals or appearing singly or with are not based closely on the study of natural models; they are reduced to a
other lions in art, and such a scene appears on the shield of Achilles, as we shall scheme that reproduces the threat and ferocity that the lion or another scourge
see in what follows. The essential quality of the action in these similes or represents. It is likely that trying to contain predators a number of men were
parables is that the lion dominates the herd, killing and devouring its victim in killed or maimed by their quarry, but if this were the story being presented,
 ...
42 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 43

11
then some kind of informant or catalyst like a domesticated animal would be meikos beaker and identify it as men tame a horse" with the same attitude as
required to distinguish the nucleus. Geometric artists did employ such devices, "John opened the door." However, there are a few scenes where the poet goes
as the water-fowl on the Eleusis ship battle demonstrates (Fig. 15), so that their into more elaborate description of the action, even though the imagined picture
absence in the Burly oinochoe may indicate that some more general story about may not have had a greater degree of activity within it. In the passages describ-
lions and men is intended. 51 ing lions mauling an ox, the siege and ambush scene of the city at war, and the
In summary, no single source explains the structural characteristics of narra- law court dispute of the city at peace, the poet articulates a more complicated
tive imagery on the Burly oinochoe or in Geometric narrative images. The sense of narrative time and sequence of incidents. 55
quality of the lion as expressed in simile and the splendor of Near Eastern In the simplest of these scenes the poet describes two lions who have
renderings of the animal may have contributed to its popularity, but as a attacked the herd of cattle in the third band of the shield (II. 18.579-84): 56
narrative nucleus, the lion attack is quite different from these examples and is
more likely the result of a range of circumstances. But among the foremost of the cattle two formidable lions
On the subject of the Geometric narrative nucleus, there remains one further had caught hold of a bellowing bull, and he with loud lowings
was [being] dragged away, as the dogs and the young men went in pursuit of
question, and that is, would a contemporary viewer have understood an image
him.
like that on the Burly oinochoe as a narrative? This question moves us into
But the two lions, breaking open the hide of the great ox,
questions of the macro-structure of narrative that we will discuss in the next
gulp down the black blood and the inward guts, as meanwhile the herdsmen
chapter, but it is opportune to look at one source here, the shield of Achilles were in the act of setting and urging the quick dogs on them.
described in the Iliad 18.478-607. 52 This ekphrasis describes a magnificent
shield that Hephaistos made for Achilles after his own had been taken when There are five nuclei in this brief passage: the attack on the bull, the lions
Hektor killed Patroklos. This object could only have existed in the poetic dragging it away, the lions ripping its hide, the lions devouring it, and the
imagination, although there have been both ancient and modern attempts to beginning of the herders' counterattack. This is a compact but full narrative,
reconstruct it or give at least a part of it visible form. As a description of a with action and reaction.
visual image, and particularly of a scene of action, it provides a model for how From the passage, it is evident that the poet did not imagine multiple
an eighth-century viewer might have approached either a lion theme on the depictions, but rather a single scene on the shield, set next to the immediately
Phoenician bowl (Fig. 17) or on the Burly oinochoe (Fig. 16). 53 preceding picture of the peaceful herd of cattle. The core of the scene is the
According to the poet, the shield of Achilles was round and divided into five bull being dragged by the lions since this action is described, like the other
concentric bands. The first, innermost zone was a picture of the cosmos with scenes on the shield, in the imperfect tense. 57 One might imagine this as close
earth, sky, and water. In the next zone were two cities, one of peace and one in form to the Burly oinochoe (Fig. 16), with the addition of a herd of cattle to
of war, each with several scenes. In the third zone were agricultural scenes: one side and hunters and dogs elsewhere. As the passage reveals, however, the
plowing, reaping, a vineyard, herding, lions attacking an ox, and finally a viewer/narrator develops a more complex sequence of actions in recounting the
meadow with sheep. The fourth contained a dancing floor with young men and picture. The description begins with the initial attack on the bull, which is
women with two acrobats and a crowd of onlookers. Around the rim was the described using the pluperfect as something that took place before the scene
Ocean. Throughout the description, the poet uses mostly the imperfect tense imagined on the shield. 58 Certainly, the logic of the situation demands that if
to describe the actions of the figures and their world. In the case of the dancing two lions are dragging a bull, they must have earlier attacked it, but other
men and women of the fourth zone, the wedding procession of the city of pictorial elements may have served as catalysts to prompt this analepsis. Perhaps
peace, and the agricultural scenes, these rarely stray from the imperfect tense. the close proximity of the peaceful herd (the bull was foremost of them) and
There is movement and rich description in these scenes, and one gains a clear the contrast between their grazing and the fierce lions dragging the bull away
sense of a moment frozen in time of these processions and ritual activities. may have stimulated the analepsis, making the nearby cattle serve as catalysts
Although more animated and elaborate than the picture on the Kerameikos for the pictorial nucleus and as analeptic indexes for earlier moments of the
beaker (Fig. 14), these passages and the imaginary pictures that they describe story. The ripping of the bull's hide is introduced by a future active participle,
share some of the same qualities of many scenes found in Geometric art. They and the devouring follows as a present indicative. 59 These nuclei must therefore
are composed of rhythmic and repeated figures, arranged either as continuous take place in the immediate future, a narrative prolepsis when the lions try to
friezes or more self-contained panels. eat their capture before the hunters and dogs are on them. As a catalyst for this
From a literary point of view, these passages are regarded more as description prolepsis, one might point to the presence of the hunters and dogs in the
than narration since they describe a single moment and not a series of events. 54 picture, or perhaps to the actions of the lions themselves, whose mouths would
Indeed, they would suggest that a Geometric viewer might look at the Kera- have been attached to the bull as they dragged it. To summarize, it would
 F

44 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 45

appear that the poet is able to take a simple scene like two lions dragging away "Oipylon shield" for its frequent appearance in works found in the Oipylon
a bull with other cattle to one side and hunters and dogs elsewhere in the cemetery and a curious creature with a single torso but doubled arms, legs, and
picture but not yet attacking the lions and to reconstruct from this image head. Although the debates over both are too long and intricate to explore
several events constituting a story. fully here, they do for our purposes point out the importance of generic
Although much less splendid and animated than the work of Hephaistos, it descriptions of action within the micro-structure of pictorial narrative and of
would not be too much of a stretch for the imagination to fit an ekphrastic the importance of generic narrative in Greek art generally.
passage like the lion attack of the Iliad to such a scene as that on the Burly On the fragmentary monumental krater from the Oipylon cemetery now in
oinochoe. A contemporary viewer might have speculated that the man went to the Louvre one can find both of these proposed indexes for mythological
hunt the lions, possibly because they had ravaged his herd or because he was narrative (Fig. 18).62 Only one side of the upper part of the krater survives; this
on a heroic quest of some kind. He drew his sword to attack, but perhaps was may be the reverse and on the obverse was a prothesis and procession. In the
surprised by the appearance of a second lion. He stabs one lion while both upper register on the left are two corpses beneath crossed circles similar to
lunge at him. How the scene ends in the viewer's imagination depends on one's chariot wheels. Immediately to the right are four more corpses stacked vertically
sympathies or the cultural context of the scene and the function of the object in a bird's-eye view. The rest of the frieze consists of a triad, a diad, and another
as a grave good. triad of fighting warriors, with the warrior farthest to the right falling out of a
Indeed, this points out an important fact, that the appearance of narrative chariot. The lower register is taller and features a procession of marching
imagery in the Geometric period is extremely limited. It appears almost exclu- warriors bearing Oipylon shields moving from left to right. At the extreme left,
sively in Attica and in a funerary context, either as vases buried as offerings another warrior facing leftward confronts the fragment of a Siamese twin, a
with the deceased, often personal cups buried with the owner, or as markers in figure with a single torso and four legs.
the form of monumental kraters and amphorae. 60 The actions are too formulaic There are several questions that have been raised about the Oipylon s_hield
or generic in nature to be regarded as illustrating actual episodes from the life that appears in many other prothesis, processional, and battle scenes in Attic
of the individual in the grave, any more than they can be regarded as illustra- Geometric art (see Fig. 15). Is it a special, heroic shield that traces its form
tions of specific mythological tales. They are, however, typical of the kind of back to the figure-8 shield of the Mycenaean period or is it a convention based
heroic aspirations of the contemporary society. Narrative becomes a kind of on more contemporary notched shields like the Boeotian shield? Is it a mythic
eulogy on the character of the deceased; the inclusion of narrative on a cup or real object? There is no exact archaeological parallel for the shield. Given
placed in the grave is a belief, in the words of H. Hoffmann, that "the heroized the schematic nature of Geometric art, deciding what it represents compared to
dead will imbibe with the immortals. 1161 Indeed, just as the visual narrative on shields of other shapes is problematic. T. B. L. Webster first proposed a heroic
the shield of Achilles recalls the heroic world, the appearance of pictorial explanation for the Di pylon shield. For Webster, the shield functions as an
narratives in funerary contexts may suggest that some kind of commemoration index, "an indication that the painter is depicting the heroes of the past. 1163
or heroization may have been an impetus for the development of pictorial Combined with parallels between Geometric combat scenes and funerals and
narrative in the eighth century. Homeric descriptions of the same, the Dipylon shield shows the influence of
Homeric poetry and the desire to show scenes from the heroic past. Webster's
hypothesis has since caused a great deal of controversy, usually with critics
2.3 GENERIC NARRATIVE outnumbering supporters. 64 Critics of the theory claim that the Oipylon shield
is either fictional or derived from the Boeotian shield and does not have a
As we have seen, Geometric scenes emphasize action and the type of agent special status; further, they argue that a Geometric painter like the Oipylon
that carries it out. In some cases, there is virtually no visual differentiation Master probably did not know the Iliad and that epic poetry did not provide
among the figures, even as to their gender, except by their actions. Although the stimulus for creating what are really scenes drawn from everyday life. 65
some pictorial elements, such as weapons or waterbirds, may serve as indexes As Snodgrass has pointed out, both sides assume that epic poetry is the
or informants, these do so in the broadest manner, linking the action to types standard by which pictorial narrative is to be judged and that a painting is
of agents or to a type of place. One of the arguments that has been mustered either Lebensbildor Sagenbild,but not both or some other alternative. 66 Snodgrass
to support the existence of pictorial narrative in the Geometric period has has proposed a category of "generalized heroic" for works in which a specific
depended on identifying some pictorial elements as more specific objects or story cannot be identified but where a narrative of heroic theme and stature
figures. Their value as indexes transforms the generic nature of the action into does exist. 67 The Oipylon shield becomes, then, a sign of this heroic but still
a mythological story. In particular, two elements have received the most atten- generic situation, applicable on one level to the present and on another to the
tion: first, the round shield with large, curved notches in its sides called the heroes of the past. 68 As the debate demonstrates, the Oipylon shield is too
46 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART
T THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 47

ambiguous in its meaning to serve as a specific informant or index; even if it legs as a convention for showing two figures close together, as is done in
were to signify as an index the heroic/mythological status of its bearer, without depicting a two- or four-horse chariot team. 75 Such a convention, however, is
further refinement or other attributes it cannot help a viewer to identify a a far rarer treatment of the human form than of the horse form, and goes
specific hero like an Achilles or Hektor and transform the generic action of the against the far more standard treatment of isolating the individual figure
nucleus into a specific mythological narrative. As an informant, it is at best against the ground of the vase. As a formula for doubling, the Siamese twins
effective in distinguishing one group from another within a nucleus, but since would seem to work counter to the effort by Geometric artists to portray
the group with the Oipylon shield is usually on the losing side (see the fallen individual actions. Battles, for example, are represented as dual or triple com-
Di pylon warrior on the right side of Fig. 18), one would guess that it was not a bats, not as the clash of large, unified forces, so that each figure's action and
consistent symbol for triumphant Greek heroes. therefore each nucleus is very clearly described. In a pure silhouette style like
The second issue concerning Geometric mythological narrative is the fre- the Geometric, overlapping would obscure the legibility of the figures. 76 Fur-
quent portrayal of the curious cr~ature with a single torso, but two sets of legs, ther, in several of the depictions of the twins, the chest is the same size as a
arms, and head on the lower left of the Louvre krater and at least eighteen normal individual, whereas in the doubling of horses, the breast is always
other examples of early Greek art. 69 As with the Oipylon shield, there are both lengthened like the hips to accommodate the extra limbs and a portion of the
mythological and practical explanations for its appearance. A number of schol- second, back torso appears between the necks. 77 S. Brunnsaker and C. King
ars identify these creatures as the twin sons of Aktor known as the Aktorione suggest more symbolic meanings for the motif, either "a general formula for
or Molione (after their mother). 70 These twins, according to Hesiod, shared the inseparability" or a representation of "a team: perhaps ordinary twins, perhaps
same body like Siamese twins.7 1 Other literary references to them include two legendary twins." Such a suggestion implies a coordination of action for a
passages from the Iliadin which Nestor fought and raced against them and from common goal and an interdependence that the more simple suggestion of
Ap,ollodoros and some fragments of lbykos in which they fight Herakles. The overlapping overlooks. 78 ··

u·nique form of the Aktorione in the literary sources has led proponents to To summarize, the efforts to find a more specific mythological subject in
regard the doubled nature of 'the figures as an attribute specific only to the Geometric art are inconclusive, although that is not to say that they are without
•
Aktorione. Their appearcince in scenes then makes these mythological episodes, some referential value. As we saw in the last section, the criterion for the
such as the funeral games of king Amarynkeus or their combat with Nestor. 72 existence of pictorial narrative is not whether the action is performed by a
Support for this argument is found in the claims of a prominent Athenian clan, specific, mythological figure or comes from a given tale, but that the type of
the Neleids, to be descended from Nestor, and so the narrative scenes become action itself be open and a matter of decision, a hinge. It is the potential for
a kind of crest for the family. causal connection between events that moves the depiction from simple action
Skeptics have countered that Nestor is bested in this battle, and hence it like ritual to narration. This points out a more enduring feature of Greek
would be unsuitable as a family emblem. 73 Indeed, it is puzzling why they
would be used as an index/informant for Nestor when their most climactic
18. Late Geometric Ia Attic krater by the Oipylon Workshop, ca. 760-750. Battle and
struggle was with Herakles, and in some of the later metalwork examples from marching scenes. Paris, Louvre, A519. (Photo: M. and P. Chuzeville, courtesy of the Louvre
around 700 the hero that the Siamese twins face is more certainly identifiable Museum)
as Herakles.7 4 Further, as a sign for Nestor or the Neleid clan, the Siamese
twins work counter to the way most informants or indexes function as a positive
identification for another figure. For example, Herakles is often identifiable from
the nature of his opponent, such as the Nemean lion or the hydra, or Perseus
by the Gorgon. Almost always, however, the figure serving as a sign in this
manner is defeated so that it also functions as a confirmation of the heroic
status of the figure. Narrative is, in this sense, written by the victors. Nestor is
never so clearly a victor over the twins, whereas Herakles is, making him the
more likely candidate for signification. In summary, it seems unlikely that we
can be so specific in identifying mythological content in works with the Siamese
twins, but we should not dismiss them as lacking any kind of referential signifi-
cance. Like the Oipylon shield, there is neither consistency in conception nor
use to allow one certainty for its value as a specific informant or index.
Others see this motif of a shared body or shield with extra head, arms, and
48 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 49

batants fighting over the body of a fallen warrior. The interlocking arrangement
of the figures and the coordination of action and reaction make this a more
unified nucleus than on the Eleusis skyphos. The quadrigae to either side signify
the importance of the figures as heroes. The subject of the frieze was long
identified as the combat of Patroklos and Sarpedon resulting in the latter's
death, due in part to the weighing of the Sarpedon's soul described in Iliad
16.527-675, an action featured in the adjacent scene of the gods on the same
frieze. This identification of the combat scene is consistent with the literary
source, but the pictorial scene is so formulaic in nature that it could apply as
well to any number of other scenes from Greek poetry. Indeed, when V.
Brinkmann's study of the frieze revealed the traces of the original painted
inscriptions, it turned out that the warriors are Aeneas and Memnon (left) and
Achilles and Ajax (right, not named) fighting over the body of Antilochos,
whose father Nestor frames the entire frieze at the right. 84 Thus, we have an
19. Middle Geometric II Attic skyphos from Eleusis, ca. 770. Land battle. Eleusis, Archaeo- entirely different story but without any change in the core of the relief's micro-
logical Museum, 741. (Photo courtesy of the Archaeological Receipts Service [TAP Service]) structure. The informants have changed, but not the nuclei or catalysts.
This is not to underplay the value of inscriptions as informants in pictorial
pictorial narrative and its micro-structure, and this is the reliance on what we narrative. Indeed, they are quite common in Greek art of the Archaic and into
may call "generic narrative. 1179 Classical periods and are frequently critical for identifying a specific subject. As
As an example of generic narrative, we might look at one of the hundreds of F. Brommer points out of Herodotos's viewing of the statues of Kleobis and
combat scenes with unidentifiable warriors. On the other side of the Eleusis Biton, an inscription could be an invitation to recount a story. 85 However,
skyphos, we see two pairs of warriors confronting each other with two fallen inscriptions are smaller than figures and are not the first thing that a viewer
figures in the center (Fig. 19). In the center are two prone figures with over- would see, so that reading an inscription would follow perception of the work.
lapping or clasped hands, and to either side are pairs of archers and spearmen Indeed, the inscriptions on the Siphnian Treasury would not have been readily
battling over the bodies. 80 The picture recalls several scenes in the Iliadin which apparent and legible to a viewer first approaching along the Sacred Way, so
fights take place over corpses, the prize being their armor, and in which that the initial impression of the narrative would depend on recognizing ele-
spearmen protect archers with their shields. Since they are separated from each ments of its micro-structure. For the Greek viewer, it is the recognition of the
other by the corpses, we might identify each pair of archer and spearman as a
nucleus in this picture. The corpses serve as catalysts, providing the pretext for 20. East frieze of the Siphnian Treasury, Delphi, ca. 525. Achilles and Memnon fighting
this particular struggle. Two other elements play a role in the narrative. The over the body of Antilochos. Delphi Museum. (Photo courtesy of the Ecole Frarn;aise
d'Archeologie, © EFA)
spearman at the far right carries a huge, battering-ram-like object across his
middle, and a sword hangs down from his side. This serves to differentiate the
two sides, but to what purpose is uncertain. Perhaps this is some form of heroic
weapon, such as the tree trunklike spear of Achilles, that will help to sway
victory over to one side. 81 The leftward direction of the figure, however, is
contrary to that normally found in later Greek art for victors, who attack from
left to right while opponents face leftward. 82 The "spear" may therefore serve as
catalyst, pushing the narrative in one direction, and as informant, marking out
a singular heroic figure within the picture.
This picture is little different in its micro-structure from the combat found
earlier on the Minneapolis amphora (see Fig. 13), except that there the absence
of a corpse in the middle defines the nucleus as being earlier in the stages of
battle. The lack of allies may also signify the individual rather than group
nature of the combat. Closer to the Eleusis skyphos is the east frieze of the
Siphnian Treasury at Delphi (Fig. 20). 83 Here again we see two pairs of com-
50 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 51

21. Attic black-figure amphora by the Painter of Vatican 359, ca. 530. Departure of warrior. 22. Attic black-figure amphora by the Painter of Vatican 359, ca. 530. Departure of Poseidon
Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Ethel Morrison Van Derlip Fund, 57.1. (Photo courtesy of the and Amphitrite. Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Ethel Morrison Van Derlip Fund, 57.1. (Photo
MIA) courtesy of the MIA)

action, not the subject and agents of the story, that in many ways is the readily for metaphor at a higher level of narration and allows the nucleus to act
fundamental quality of the narrative. By representing the combat of Achilles as an index in its own right.
and Memnon in a nucleus that is structurally equivalent to that of the Eleusis We can see how this works by looking at the other images on the Minne-
skyphos and hundreds of other combat scenes, the Greeks could emphasize the apolis amphora (Figs. 21 and 22). On the body of side B, below the fight
broader importance of the specific action and make the resulting meaning of discussed before (Fig. 13), we see a warrior departing. There is no indication of
the image at the level of discourse resonate as broadly as possible. By using a time and place and no indexes or informants to identify the figures or story
formula as a nucleus, the artist can set up associations that would otherwise get beyond the everyday. The warrior strides rightward holding his shield and
subsumed in the specific details of a given story. In other words, focusing the behind him a mature man with beard and a woman raise up their left hand and
narrative image on its nucleus at the most basic level opens the door more hold out their right hand in a gesture of farewell. A youthful and beardless male
52 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE 53

on the right observes. We might well have a family scene here, with grandfather parallel to the departure of the gods, one that is strongly reinforced by the
and grandson flanking wife and husband as the latter departs for war. The scene repetition of essentially the same catalysts in the female figures. Style too, by
is repeated numerous times in Attic vase painting, sometimes within a mytho- showing female flesh in added white, draws the eye quickly to these figures as
logical story but more frequently not. On side A of the vase is a mythological focal points and emphasizes the similarities between genre and myth. What we
scene. A bearded man and woman stand in the car of a quadriga; he holds a end up with is a picture of the ordered world of the Greeks, the gods going
trident while she holds the reins of the horses. Behind the horses stands another about their business with the same kind of solemnity and dignity that ordinary
bearded male, who looks back at the couple but is ready to walk in the same mortals muster. The combat scenes on the shoulder are also identical on the
direction as the chariot. The female figure next to him makes the same gesture vase, with the exception of Hermes appearing on side B (see Fig. 13). Again,
of farewell as the wife on the other side of the vase. Informants like the trident repetition of the nucleus but variation in the other narrative functions empha-
and kerykeion identify the male figures as Poseidon and Hermes, and the sizes the typical and common to both scenes and serves to strengthen the
woman with Poseidon must be his wife Amphitrite, whose costume is virtually connection between the departure scenes. This equation of the actions of gods
identical to the wife on the other side. The other female figure cannot be and humans, of the synchronization of the two worlds, achieves a nexus with
identified. the combat on side B in which a god, Hermes, observes the combat between
The nuclei of the two scenes both show figures departing, although their two typical warriors. Hermes will probably conduct the soul of one in a new
grandeur differs considerably. 86 On side B, we see the simpler version with a departure to the underworld, as he conducts the chariot of Poseidon. The use
departure by foot; on side A, Hermes and the quadriga serve as catalysts to of such a vase in a funerary context, as many such were, creates another level
elaborate on the basic action of departure but without changing the substance of association with the theme of departure and the meaning of the actions of
of the nucleus: An important figure leaves home. Since we do not know the the deceased for family and culture.
story in either case, the nucleus is very open-ended and leaves much to the Such a string of potential associations begins in the micro-structure. Identi-
imagination of the viewer; there is no question that it is a narrative hinge as it fying the narrative function that each pictorial element plays in the image
initiates a train of events that would otherwise not happen. In the mythological allows us to sort out the ways in which the viewer perceives the action and to
version, the unidentified female figure serves as a catalyst, pointing to the place evaluate its role in constructing the narrative macro-structure.
being left, while Hermes leads toward the destination. So too on side B the
other figures are catalysts elaborating on the departure, but here all represent
to some degree the point of departure rather than the destination. The impor-
tant point about the two scenes is that they show basically the same action of
departure. The differences in them are attributable to the other narrative func-
tions of catalysts, indexes, and informants. These give different flavors to the
action and make different associations to stories or ideas of Greek culture, but
at the level of the micro-structure, the scenes show the same core nucleus of
departure with variations in the mode of transport. Rather than invent a new
nucleus for each scene, the artist has chosen instead to offer variations on a
theme. The artist could have shown Poseidon underway and used another figure
as an index to refer to the idea of departure or have shown Poseidon walking
to the waiting chariot. Both would have been nuclei in the same episode but
would have been different moments and actions. Indeed, this is the key to the
similarity of the nuclei on the vase in that they show the first step of departure,
whatever the means of transportation.
What would have been the advantage of structuring the nucleus in a similar
way for two scenes with different characters, places, and stories? Here one
might consider more broadly the advantage of generic narration and its ability
to create links or metaphors in the mind of the viewer. 87 Although the linkage
itself belongs to the level of the macro-structure, as we shall discuss in the next
chapter, the individual links are forged in the micro-structure. In the case of the
Minneapolis amphora, the generic scene of departure establishes an immediate
 THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 55

Chapter3 examining the effect of composition on the narrative (Section 3.3). After this,
we can examine the role that the integrative functions play in the narrative
discourse, examining the depiction of space and time within a narrative and the
THE NARRATIVE role of the informants (Section 3.4) and the visual language in which informants
and indexes play a crucial role (Section 3.5). Finally, we will look at the role of
MACRO-STRUCTURE style in shaping a narrative (Section 3.6) and examine the effect of the narrative
on the viewer in a discussion of mimesis (Section 3.7). Although this chapter
seeks to examine each of these variables in its own right, one must keep in
mind that these are not sequential or mutually exclusive elements. Frequently,
the viewer is not aware of them individually unless its impact on the narrative
As seen in the last chapter, the tendency to consider elements such as symbol- is particularly noticeable. It is the cumulative and simultaneous effect of these
ism, iconography, context, space, and time makes focusing on the micro- variables that constitutes the narrative discourse.
structure difficult. The narrative experience begins with these, and it is an
artificial distinction to segregate the elements of the narrative discourse from
the micro-structure. Just like a reader going through a text or a listener attend- 3. 1 THE VIEWING PROCESS
ing to a recitation, the viewer perceives the pictorial elements and comprehends
them as objects, agents, and actions. Simultaneously, however, the audience of We can begin to examine the viewing process by turning to a situation in which
a narrative begins the process of discourse and interpretation, placing the details a viewer tries to explain what she has just seen. In the opening of Aeschylus's
and perceptions into a larger pattern, what Eco has called macro-propositions Eumenides,the priestess has emerged from the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, in
that expand the narrative structure into a Jabulaor story. 1 As the reader/listener/ which she had just seen a disturbing scene:2
viewer continues to perceive the narrative and takes in new material, he or she
In front of this man slept a startling company
makes corrections to these macro-propositions and adjusts their mental forecasts
of women lying all upon the chairs. Or not
of the course of events. Although we define this discourse as a different level of
women, I think I call them rather gorgons, only
the narrative from the micro-structure, it is important to realize that the two not gorgons either, since their shape is not the same.
are intertwined and are not sequentially structured. I saw some creatures painted in a picture once,
This discourse is a process that will necessarily change along with the viewer who tore the food from Phineus, only these had no
and culture. Although structuralism and its foundation in linguistics are able to wings, that could be seen; they are black and utterly
articulate a grammar of narrative, it proposes that at higher levels, actions can repulsive, and they snore with breath that drives one back.
be grouped into clear and distinct types that take little account of the variables From their eyes drips the foul ooze, and their dress is such
of the narrative experience. Theories such as reader response and poststructur- as is not right to wear in the presence of the gods'
alism help us to understand some of the dimensions of the narrative discourse, statues, nor even into any human house.
but the variables that make up the discourse between the artist, the object, and I have never seen the tribe that owns this company
nor know what piece of earth can claim with pride it bore
the viewer are wide-ranging and bring us also to questions of style and iconog-
such brood, and without hurt and tears for labor given.
raphy. What I propose in this chapter is to discuss these variables and the ways
of approaching them. The audience cannot yet see the horrid creatures that it learns soon are the
i
For ancient Greece, we have virtually no testimony from the artists as to Furies, but it is the job of the priestess to make what she has seen manifest to
their intentions or procedures; only the work has survived. For the viewer, them. Although the account is more description than narration, it reveals well
however, testimony in the form of descriptions of ancient art and ekphrasis, the stages of the viewing process for narrative imagery. The priestess begins
literary descriptions of fictional works of art, does provide some evidence for with a general description of the scene: "in front of this man slept a startling
the viewing process. This will be the first part of the macro-structure that we company." This is enough to create a visual image for the viewer: a man on one
will consider (Section 3.1). The viewing context (Section 3.2) also has a direct side and a large group of figures before him slumped over in sleep. There is
impact on the experience of the narrative by the viewer, but it brings us also then a simple nucleus that can be identified, but to understand the story that
into the realm of the artist because of the limitations that context places on the the figures represent, that is, how they got there and what it portends for the
work. Thus, we will see how the object and placement shapes the discourse future, depends on more information. The next step is to identify the figures.
between artist and viewer. Following this we will focus more on the artist by From sleeping women, the priestess moves on to suggest Gorgons, but this is

54
56 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 57

not appropriate. She recalls a picture of the Harpies, but again notes a discrep- takes much longer than the act of viewing, which proceeds in a staccato rhythm
ancy. Finally, she settles on describing their awful appearance, abandoning the of movement and pause different from the pace of speech and words. Difficul-
effort to make a positive identification. Undoubtedly, if she had recognized ties in describing in words visual elements that can be comprehended in a swift
them, a simple label would have sufficed and she might have moved on to glance may force the writer to economize or pass over some parts of an image.
wonder about the relationship between them and the man, whom the audience The articulation of the passage of time creates another potential distortion in
learns is Orestes. In a sense, she begins to tell a story about what she has seen, the move from verbal to visual communication. Time in a recital or written
but without understanding who or what the figures are, she cannot easily passage can only be unfolded in a sequence since the verbal process is itself
explain their presence in the temple. If we imagine for a moment that she had sequential. Writers must decide where (when) to start, where to go, and where
seen an image rather than the real thing (given the already fictional nature of to end in both description and story simultaneously. The literary mode is also
tragedy), she begins her account by recognizing the nucleus of the work - the more self-conscious than the direct viewing experience, since the describer
women sleeping near the man - and then tries to identify the nucleus more becomes a narrator and injects personal reactions, such an expression of marvel
specifically by recourse to informants such as attributes and physiognomy. This or admiration of beauty. 5 The result may be that the description has an artificial
is necessary for transforming a generic situation into a specific one, but it is organization to it that potentially distorts the original viewing process. M.
here that the narrative discourse gets stuck, so to speak. Baxandall concludes that descriptions of works of art usually represent the
Before seeing how the same basic process unfolds in other literary accounts thoughts of the viewer after seeing the picture, a considered reflection, and are
of narrative images, we need first to discuss the kinds of sources that are not sufficiently specific, analytical, and abstract to allow for the reconstruction
available. One category consists of descriptions, by which I mean accounts of of the picture. 6
actual works of art, usually but not exclusively based on some form of direct I would agree that one needs to be careful in defining the goal in using
observation. For obvious reasons, these are the best evidence for the way in literary sources for the reconstruction of art or of the viewing process, but there
which a Greek viewer would have confronted and interpreted a pictorial narra- is a measure of specificity and corroboration in some cases that allow us to use
tive since they are the reactions of ancient viewers to ancient works. Unfortu- these sources as a guide. In terms of their usefulness for reconstructing ancient
nately, the available accounts raise several problems. Virtually all of the surviv- works of art, these sources are perhaps difficult to use, but there are cases where
ing sources are not contemporary with the works that they describe. How multiple sources or archaeological evidence can be used to verify at least in part
similar, then, are the accounts of Pausanias, a second-century C.E. traveler and the reliability of the account. 7 Our immediate purpose here is to use these
writer, to the reactions of viewers of the Archaic and Classical periods whose accounts to understand the process of narration, particularly the viewing. As
works he describes? Did viewing habits and pictorial language change to a Eco has argued, even in experiencing a literary narrative, the reader selects
degree that Pausanias is unusable? details that seem of importance, forms macro-propositions as to the course of
Although these questions are not directly answerable with descriptions, it is the story, adjusts them to later information, and so on. 8 Since each reader's
possible to address them indirectly by looking at a second category of viewing response is inherently different to some degree from others, it would be impos-
accounts, ekphrasis. This is a description of a work of art, usually imaginary, sible to reconstruct a short story on the basis of a reader's account like a book
found in literary works of poetry, drama, and rhetoric. 3 As a genre, ekphrasis report, but it would be possible to understand the effect of the narrative and its
does not receive a full discussion in ancient rhetorical handbooks until the interaction with the reader quite well. The viewing experience is a similarly
Roman period, but its use in poetry goes back to the Iliad. The purpose of selective process. If we look at the pattern of the viewers' responses in written
ekphrasis may vary from providing a summary of the poetic world of the hero, sources, we can gain an idea of the viewing process for narration. A comparison
as with the Shield of Achilles, to providing a guide for an audience's response of these accounts can reveal a common structure of the viewing process, despite
to the poem itself or to illustrate some point or argument. Given the imaginary variations in the type and period of the source.
nature of most ekphrastic works of art and the poetic or rhetorical motive for The second issue is the comparability of ekphrasis and direct description of
their creation, these literary accounts provide potential problems for the study works of art. Ekphrasis can be rather more polished and detailed than firsthand
of pictorial narration since they do not directly correlate with the world of real observation. Its subject is determined by and is an integral part of a literary
objects. Ekphrasis does, however, provide some crucial sources for the earliest work, often serving like the shield of Achilles as an overview or summary of the
periods of Greek art, and is therefore an important supplement to descriptions world and figures described in the narrative. With imaginary works the writer
for the interaction of pictorial narrative work and its original audience. 4 is not limited to the conventions of a specific style or technique as is the artist,
Generally, there are two issues that need to be addressed before using written or to the limitations of a real picture in showing time, space, or the thoughts
accounts as guides to the viewing process. The first is the nature of the medium and motivations of the characters. Most of the works described in poetry are
itself. Written or verbal description, whether in composition or in reception, marvelous daidala,creations of Hephaistos, and are hence divinely crafted and
58 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 59

lacking the limitations of mortal works. I would argue, however, that these are Iron Age manufacture. 17 Although the divine and intricate craftsmanship of
differences of degree rather than of substance. Hephaistos with these materials far surpasses mortal capability, it is not hard to
Justification for this view can be found in some of the rhetorical handbooks imagine a real object, a relic of the past, a work of Near Eastern manufacture,
of the first to fifth centuries C.E. 9 Aelius Theon, for example, defines ekphrasis or even a contemporary work that might have served as the starting point for
as "descriptive language bringing the thing being made manifest vividly before the poet's imagination. 18 This continues to be true beyond the Classical period.
the sight.'' 10 In other words, the primary quality of the ekphrasis is its descriptive For example, the wooden cup described in Theokritos's Thyrsis or Moschos's
potential, for which two qualities are paramount: clarity and vividness. The basket of Europa have parallels in the techniques and subjects of Hellenistic
style of writing should be straightforward and not call attention to itself, and art. 19 The even later paintings described by Philostratus or Lucian might well
there should be an avoidance of explicit interpretation. Ekphrasis can include have come from the walls of a house like those found in Pompeii or Ostia. In
the judgments and emotions of the viewer, the most appropriate of which is other words, the poets do not describe a subject, medium, style, or technique
thauma:wonder, marvel, and so on. 11 Thus, personal reaction is permitted, but that is beyond the realm of the real world; it is only in the proficiency of their
should not include too much in the way of explanation beyond what is neces- creators and the animation of their subjects that they exceed mere human
sary to allow the audience to "see" the picture for itself. works.
These theoretical features of ekphrasis translate more concretely in practice Turning back now to the excerpt from Pausanias and looking ahead to
into a concentration on the physical appearance of a work: its color, texture, several other examples, one can see that description and ekphrasis concentrate
materials, the arrangement of its components, and the subject of its depictions. 12 on a relatively small series of elements. The first stage in the viewing process is
All of these are elements that would capture the attention of someone like the identification of the general subject of the narrative. For example, Pausanias
Pausanias in describing an actual work of art. A second feature of ekphrastic begins with "from the labors of Herakles" and then mentions the specific labor
passages is the description of the referents, that is, the subjects shown on the with a short label such as "Prometheus." This is certainly a way of orienting the
work of art, as if they were real. As with any work of art, the ekphrastic object reader or listener to what will follow, but the consistency of this approach also
consists of a surface covered with shapes, colors, and textures. To describe a suggests it as the first step that a viewer would take when initially confronted
physical feature on a work of art as if it were, say, Perseus, is to create the with an image. The priestess at Delphi in the opening of the Eumenidesdid the
illusion that both writer and audience are looking at a true human figure. In the same thing, but resorted to general descriptive terms since her effort to make a
words of A. S. Becker, the writer creates the illusion of "seeing pictures which more specific identification failed. In terms of the narrative process, the viewer
faithfully and unproblematically capture their subject." 13 A description does the identifies the action or story as a foundation or starting point for the narrative
same thing. For example, in his description of the throne of the Olympian Zeus discourse. The second stage generally continues this narrative discourse through
by Pheidias, Pausanias describes one of the paintings by Panainos on the a more detailed description of the agents and their actions. Several keys help
surrounding barriers as follows: 14 the viewer to identify the figures: attributes and costumes, attitude or situation,
expression, and inscriptions. The basic action is usually identified in a broad
from the labors of Herakles there is ... Prometheus, who is still bound in
way - marching, climbing, striking, mourning, and so on. The seemingly instant
chains, although Herakles has climbed up to him. For this story is told about
recognition of some subjects, without further elaboration or description, sug-
Herakles, namely, that he killed the eagle which was causing Prometheus
gests that in addition to single universally recognized figures, there can be an
agony in the Caucasus and that he freed Prometheus from his bonds.
indexical value, like a hieroglyph, to an entire composition that is shared by
For all intents and purposes, Pausanias names Herakles and Prometheus as if describer and audience, as we shall discuss in Section 3.5. 20
they were real; he does not say "an image of Herakles has climbed." Viewer and In addition to figures and actions, descriptions sometimes focus on specific
reader alike buy into the reality of a fictional narrative world. 15 objects that may have a symbolic or referential value (index), such as the chains
If one compares to real works the media of ekphrastic works, their subjects, of Prometheus that Pausanias mentions twice. In this case, the object within the
their treatment of the figure, and their style, one finds sufficient similarity to painting seems to function as a symbol for both the punishment of Prometheus
justify the view that ekphrasis has its roots in the art of its own time. A reading and a reminder of his liberation by Herakles, a future event that is not actually
of the ekphrasis contained in the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Shield of Herakles,and shown within the picture. Sometimes space and setting are given special prom-
Euripides's Ion shows that the poets describe their works of art consistently in inence, depending on the period of the artwork or their importance in the
terms borrowed from the world around them, even if exaggerated in splendor, story, such as the rock for Prometheus. Finally, the composition or arrangement
technique, or scale. 16 For the shield of Achilles and the cup of Nestor in the of the parts is sometimes mentioned in descriptions. In the case of Prometheus,
Iliad and the brooch of Odysseus in the Odyssey, the poet describes inlay and Herakles is placed below and away, which is important in setting the moment
forging techniques that are consistent with objects of both Mycenaean and later at which the narrative takes place, before the killing of the eagle and the freeing
60 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 61

of its victim. Not all of these elements appear in every description, but they do
occur repeatedly as we shall see and seem to be the more important aspects of
an image for the ancient viewer. Thus, story, action, figure, symbol/objects,
space, and composition should figure into the framework of any model of
pictorial narration, since these seem to be key elements in the discourse be-
tween viewer and work of art. Although most descriptions and ekphraseis do
not go into this depth, the process allows the describer to make the unseen
visible in the mind's eye.
The earliest descriptions of works of Greek art, real or imaginary, belong to
the Iliadand the Odysseyand are contemporary with some of the oldest narrative
images of the Geometric period (see Section 2.2 in Chapter Two). 21 In the
ekphrasis describing the shield of Achilles in book 18 of the Iliad, the poet
recounts in abundant detail the decoration of this shield made by Hephaistos.
The poetic shield is a work of the imagination and of divine creation, so that 23. Attic Late Geometric lb krater by the Hirschfeld Painter, ca. 750-735. New York, The
its description far surpasses in richness, technique, style, and other formal Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1914 (14.130.14). (Photo courtesy of The
qualities any contemporary work of eighth-century art. Nonetheless, the same Metropolitan Museum)
points of general subject, figural description and attitude, actions, objects, and
composition are the poet's focus. For example, in the section describing the law a simple informant such as a herald's staff or a seat. Despite the elaborate detail
court scene, we hear:2 2 of the description, such as the benches of polished stone, nowhere does the
poet describe a detail that is beyond the realm of Geometric art. Internal
But the people were crowded together in the agora. And there a quarrel had anatomical details such as eyes and ears or details of costume such as belts or
arisen, for two men were arguing on account of the penalty of slaying a man. patterns are utterly lacking. Almost never is a specific figure named or a specific
The first had been swearing to have made full atonement [by] making decla- story evoked in the Shield of Achilles; rather the themes are drawn from the
ration to the people; the other had declined to accept. But both then had activities of everyday life like the scenes on Geometric vases. 24
sent forth the issue to an arbitrator to decide.
It is clear, however, that the ekphrasis
describes a story that has past, present,
But the people were shouting for both sides [and] helping on both sides.
and future actions. The dispute arises over the killing of a man; apparently, the
The heralds then kept back the people. But the elders were sitting in the
offer of compensation to the victim's family was refused, leading to the appeal
sacred circle upon [the bench] of polished stone, and were holding in their
hands the staves of the heralds who lift up their voices. With them thereupon before the city. The arguments are over and judgment is beginning: The
they leapt to their feet, in turn they were passing judgment. Then in the spectators clamor for a popular verdict while the elders in turn pronounce their
middle were sitting two talents of gold, to be given to him among them who individual verdict. The gold will apparently be paid according to whomever
should speak most justly. makes the most just decision, although this aspect of the proceedings is vague.
Visual elements such as the talents of gold could have served as indexes for
Although no such scene has been found in Geometric vase painting, it is not future events, just as the grave offerings in the prothesis scene, while the nature
difficult to imagine a composition consistent with that time such as the proth- of the action, particularly the two disputants, stimulated an explanation of the
esis from a krater in New York (Fig. 23, "New York prothesis"). 23 As is typical past actions. The viewer here, then, begins with the general situation and
of the period, there could be a tripartite composition with the spectators in the action, moves on to a description of the figures and the objects and elaborates
two side parts and a herald before each group separating it from the center, like on the story as he or she takes in more details of the mental image. Fundamen-
the chorus of mourners and their leaders in the prothesis scene. In the center, tally, the viewing process described in the Iliad is little different from that in
where we see the body, grave offerings, and chief mourners in the krater, we Pausanias centuries later. It is also important to note that the details of the
can imagine the gold on the ground, two standing figures for the disputants, ekphrasis are not inconsistent with the art of its time.
and some seated elders. This last point becomes clear in the consideration of a later ekphrastic shield
In the law court scene, the poet begins with a general account of the story, found in the poem entitled the Shieldof Herakles. 25
The poem, attributed to
the people gathered in the agora, and then proceeds to identify and describe Hesiod but certainly not by him, was composed probably in the first quarter of
the actions of the principal figural types: the two disputing men, the people, the sixth century. This shield is also made by Hephaistos and includes many of
the heralds, and the elders. It is important to note, however, that the poet does the same scenes as the shield of Achilles such as the cities at war and peace,
not attempt to identify the figures other than generically by their action or by processions, and pastoral activities. There are also some significant differences
62 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO- STRUCTURE 63

from the earlier ekphrasis, like a large number of named gods and personifica-
tions and specific stories like the battle between the Lapiths and Centaurs and
Perseus fleeing the Gorgons (Sc. 216-36): 26

There, too, was the son of rich-haired Danae, the horseman Perseus: his feet
did not touch the shield and yet were not far from it - very marvelous to
remark, since he was not supported anywhere; for so did the famous Lame
One fashion him of gold with his hands. On his feet he had winged sandals,
and his black-sheathed sword was slung across his shoulders by a cross-belt
of bronze. He was flying swift as thought. The head of a dreadful monster,
the Gorgon, covered the broad of his back, and a bag of silver - a marvel to
see - contained it: and from the bag bright tassels of gold hung down. Upon
the head of the hero lay the dread cap of Hades which had the awful gloom
of night. Perseus himself, the son of Danae, was at full stretch, like one who
hurries and shudders with horror. And after him rushed the Gorgons, unap-
proachable and unspeakable, longing to seize him: as they trod upon the pale
adamant, the shield rang sharp and clear with a loud clanging. Two serpents
hung down at their girdles with heads curved forward; their tongues were
flickering, and their teeth gnashing with fury, and their eyes glaring fiercely.
And upon the awful heads of the Gorgons great Fear was quaking.

Unlike the Shield of Achilles, we have here a mythological scene that is 24. Attic black-figure dinos by the Gorgon Painter, ca. 590. Perseus fleeing from the Gor-
similar to depictions of the story in contemporary art, such as the dinos by the gons. Paris, Louvre E 874. (Photo: P. Lebaube, courtesy of the Louvre Museum)
Gorgon Painter (Fig. 24). 27 This appearance of mythological stories in the
poetic work of art corresponds to the widespread development of mythological enable Perseus to approach unseen, to cut off the head, and to get away quickly,
scenes in Greek art beginning in the seventh century. Not only is the descrip- all of which would serve as nuclei in narrating verbally the entire episode.
tion keeping pace with changes in subject matter, but the amount of detail that Following the details concerning Perseus the poem describes the complemen-
the poet gives about the figure also reflects the more intricate style of Archaic tary part of the nucleus - Gorgons chasing. From the details of their appearance
art. Perseus has his winged sandals, a sheathed sword hung across his shoulders it is quite clear why Perseus is retreating. 28 Such details of anatomy, however,
on a bronze belt, a silver and gold purse on his back containing the head of only begin to appear in art in the seventh century, so that the poem is in a real
Medusa, and the cap of Hades giving him invisibility. These are details of sense keeping pace with the changes in images. Despite the wealth of details,
clothing that are not mentioned for figures in the shield of Achilles, nor do the basic elements of the viewing process have not changed: general identifica-
they appear in Geometric art due to the limitations of its silhouette technique. tion of subject, description of action and figures, and references to objects
Most of these do appear in the illustration here of Perseus, and the bag with indicative of other moments of the story.
the head of Medusa is also found on the metope from Thermon discussed later This viewing process is not limited to period or to medium, as we can see in
on (see Fig. 28). The same can be said of the Gorgons, whose details confirm another ekphrasis that moves us closer to the realm of real art. In Euripides' Ion,
their unspeakable appearance. the chorus describes some of the images that it sees when it visits the entrance
Despite this change to a mythological subject, the poem follows the same to the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Although the details of this late fifth-
basic viewing process in the earlier shield of Achilles. It begins with a broad century ekphrasis do not correspond directly to the remains of the late sixth-
identification of the subject as Perseus. Given that the episode of the slaying of century pediment figures found in the excavations at Delphi, Euripides is gen-
Medusa is by far the most common theme for showing Perseus, this shorthand erally true to the narrative qualities of the sculpture:2 9
identification was probably sufficient for a contemporary to deduce that the
Here too on this temple
story was Perseus and the Gorgons. The poet then moves on to describe the of Leto's son shows
action or nucleus of the composition - Perseus running or, rather, flying - and The bright-eyed beauty of twin facades ...
then moves on to details of Perseus. Most of these would probably serve as [Several other scenes are mentioned before they turn to the pediment itself.]
indexes for earlier moments of the story when Athena helped him get the See! The battle of the giants
necessary equipment for the adventure. It is noteworthy that these articles On the marble walls.
64 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 65

Yes we are looking.

Can you see her, brandishing
Her Gorgon shield against Enceladus - ?
I can see my goddess Pallas Athene.
Oh! The terrible thunderbolt
With fire at each end which Zeus holds
Ready to throw.
Yes I see. Raging Mimas
Is burnt up in the flames.
And Bacchus, the boisterous god, 25. West Pediment of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, ca. 510-500. Gigantomachy. Recon-
With unwarlike wand of ivy is killing struction drawing by Candace H. Smith, after Stewart ( 1990), fig. 200. © Candace H. Smith.
(Photo courtesy of Andrew Stewart)
Another of Earth's giant sons.

This description generally corresponds to the limestone west pediment of the It is important to note, however, that both descriptions of pediments begin in
Temple of Apollo (Fig. 25). 30 The chorus begins by stating the general subject, the same way with a statement of the general subject. Pausanias's "title" is
the battle of the gods and giants, a common subject in both Archaic and longer, but this is perhaps due to the rarity of the subject in Greek art compared
Classical art. Once they name the subject, however, they do not then proceed to the Gigantomachy. Once the general subject is established, the viewer/
to describe each figure. Rather, they pick out figures from the crowded combat, reader/listener has a first macro-proposition that forms the foundation for fur-
examining and remarking on them, and then move on to describe another ther exploration of the narrative. Both passages then move on to specific figures
figure. Given the physical constraints of looking up at a high pediment without and details about their appearance and actions. The fact that each passage
clear divisions or framing elements to process and order the images internally, begins at a different point and follows a different pattern of moving through
such a selective strategy is understandable. Looking at the actual pediment from the pediment does not reflect a different narrative process, but rather illustrates
Delphi as a reference point, one sees the three named figures occupied different the flexibility that a viewer has in selecting and arranging details. A viewer can
sections: Athena to the left, Zeus in the central chariot, and Dionysos (Bacchus) be meticulous in identifying each figure, or can be more selective; the difference
to the right. The chorus ignores Apollo and Artemis (left) and Poseidon (right), is one of degree rather than of substance. The chorus in Ion, coming from
but does name two of the giants, including Mimas who burns up in flames from Athens, picks out figures important to their home -Athena, Zeus, and Dionysos
Zeus's thunderbolt. -- and it is possible, perhaps likely, that a viewer from another part of Greece
Like other ekphrasis, the passage in Ionmaintains two levels, one describing the would have picked out a different set and in a different order if given the
subject as if real, the other reminding the listener of the viewer's presence. In- chance.
deed, as F. Zeitlin has elucidated in her discussion of the passage, the viewing act Another illustration of the viewing process can be found in instances where
is an important theme throughout the play: "... the act of viewing, especially the viewer does not know readily the subject of a narrative. This happens
when the object represented depicts an event of the past, elicits the narrative several times in Pausanias's description of scenes on the sixth-century Chest of
impulse to tell the story." 31 The reference to stories heard while weaving also Kypselos, on which some of the scenes are not identified readily by inscription
point out the importance of the oral tradition in guiding the viewer's response. or composition: 33
In moving into an examination of the figures and their actions, the chorus
names first not the figure in the center (Zeus), but one to the side (Athena). In The uppermost area - for they [registers] are five in number - offers no
contrast, Pausanias when viewing the Early Classical pediments of the Temple inscription, and one is left to guess at the meaning of the reliefs. To proceed
of Zeus at Olympia (5.10.6-8) begins in the center and moves outward in either then, there is a cave, and in it a woman is sleeping with a man upon a couch.
direction: 32 I guessed that they were Odysseus and Circe, basing my guess on the number
of servant women who are placed before the cave and on the things they are
Turning to the pediments, the one in front [east] represents the struggle of doing. For there are four women, and they are engaged in the tasks which
Pelops and Oinomaos in chariot-racing, just about to get under way, with Homer mentions in his epic.
both sides still involved in the preparation for the actual race. An image of
Zeus is placed in the center of the pediment, and to the right of Zeus is The subject (see top right in Fig. 26), if correctly identified, is unique among
Oinomaos who has a helmet on his head, and by him is his wife Sterope .... representations of Odysseus and Circe, and it is understandable that Pausanias
On the very end is Kladeos reclining .... To the left of Zeus are Pelops and would not readily recognize it without a widely known visual model. Without
Hippodameia, the charioteer of Pelops, the horses, and two men .... a clear idea of the specific subject, Pausanias's first step is to describe the general
66 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 67

26. Chest of Kypselos, reconstruction drawing by A. von Masslow (1916).

scene and to focus particularly on the types of agents and action. The indication The disadvantage of accounts of the viewing process is that they usually
of a cave is unusual and attracts Pausanias's attention as an informant. Appar- describe fictional works or real works, like the Chest of Kypselos, that no
ently in this scene, there were six figures, four servants and a couple, and longer exist. Using them to understand specific, surviving works involves an
Pausanias clearly identifies the interacting figures as the nucleus of the compo- extrapolation, particularly in that we can only guess the details that would
sition. Their lovemaking alone, however, is not sufficient to identify the figures, attract the attention of an ancient viewer. Nonetheless, they do tell us that the
and their nudity for that activity would preclude attributes. 34 Nor is placing the nucleus of an image was the key factor in describing the story being told and
lovemakers in a cave sufficient for identifying the scene. The other figures are could also serve as an index for quick recognition of the subject matter. An
clearly secondary and serve as catalysts, establishing the action as taking place unknown subject would initiate a process of examination to identify the work,
within a household and not in a wilderness spot. The catalysts also serve as a seeking to name and tell the story simultaneously. Unusual features would also
collective index, for the domesticity of the scene provides a clue for identifying attract attention, although these might not have a strong impact on the viewer's
the context of the lovemaking. For Pausanias, this is confirmed by the corre- understanding of the narrative.
spondence between picture and epic in the actual tasks that are performed: These accounts also help us to identify a shift in the pattern of viewing when
laying aside the bed covers, setting up the table and chairs, mixing the wine, confronted with Archaic and Classical works. Archaic ekphrasis like the shield
and bringing in the water for the bath (Od. 10.345-59). What we see here is of Achilles and the shield of Herakles limits itself to a description of action and
an illustration of the process of viewer engagement in narration, that as viewers identification of the agents. So too in other testimony of the Archaic period or
absorb more details of the image they correct or reformulate the macro- in later descriptions of Archaic art it is the action of the figures that draws the
propositions that they have already established. Although in some cases this attention of the viewer. 35 Although the action may be vivid and in itself
may serve to elaborate, here it serves to correct the earlier generic formulation. suggestive of a certain state of mind, there is virtually no articulation in the
 ..
68 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 69

viewer's response of emotions in the figures such as joy, anger, consternation,

confusion, lust, and so on. The chorus in Ion provides vivid descriptions of the
Gigantomachy pediment and the animation of the figures on the poetic shields
is remarkable, but there is no mention of the character or emotions of the
figures. With only one scene on the chest of Kypselos does Pausanias speak of
an emotion, when he says of Amphiaraos that he "has already placed one foot
up on the chariot, but he holds an unsheathed sword and, having turned around
toward Eriphyle, is so beside himself with anger, that he just barely restrains 27. Ivory a jour reliefs from Delphi, early
himself from striking her." 36The description matches closely several depictions sixth century. Departure of Amphiaraos.
Delphi Museum, 9940, 9939, 9931, 9938.
of the scene in Archaic art (Fig. 27; see also the second scene from the right in
(Photo courtesy of the Ecole Franc;aise
the bottom register ~f Fig. 26). 37 Although Amphiaraos is feeling anger, it is d'Archeologie, © EFA)
certain given the Archaic style and his full armor with helmet that Pausanias
was not reading facial expression but was inferring his anger on the basis of his
action. The scene itself is a departure like those that we examined in the last "Yes, certainly," he said.
chapter (Figs. 21 and 22). Unlike these, however, the violent nucleus of man "And does it seem to you that people keep the same expression on their
drawing a sword while turning back toward his wife is unusual and goes counter faces when they behold the good and evil fortunes of their friends, so that
to the more generic formulation of this type of action. The discrepancy between people who are concerned behave just like those who are not?"
a generic pattern and the specific representation is what gives specificity and "No indeed," Parrhasios said, "for they beam with joy at their good fortune,
discreteness to the departure of Amphiaraos as a mythological story. It is this and they display a sad countenance at their evil fortunes."
discrepancy too that probably prompts Pausanias's mention of the subject's "And is it not possible," Socrates said, "to imitate these?"
anger, for it is at odds with what one would expect from such a scene. This "Yes, of course," he said.
moves us into questions of visual language rather than the viewing process, but "And likewise grandeur and liberality as well as lowliness and illiberality,
the point is that the emotion described is an interpretation of an unusual moderation and thoughtfulness as well as insolence and vulgarity - these too
are revealed through the expression of the face and through the attitudes of
formulation of a typical narrative scene; it is based on the characteristics of the
the body, both stationary and in movement."
nucleus and not upon other elements.
In contrast, emotions and character are more frequently mentioned in de-
scriptions of fifth- and fourth-century works of art. This is part of a broader Later (3.10.8), Socrates also concludes "that the sculptor must represent in his
change in terminology for art that emphasizes values of simulation and imita- figures the activities on the soul." What is of interest in these general discussions
tion.38 As F. Zeitlin has shown, this is true of description in literature gener- of mimesis is that it is not simply the physical action of the figure that is
ally.39 For example, in the PhoenicianWomen, Euripides describes the figures important for Classical art and its audience, but what the physical appearance
before the gates like a painting, using their attitudes to express internal qualities of the figure tells us about his or her character or ethos,a subject that we shall
of character. In contrast, Helen in the Iliad provides names and deeds of the examine further in Sections 3.7 and 5. 3.
Achaian heroes but without sense of their location in space or their individual We find a similar distinction between the description of Classical and Ar-
appearance and demeanor. chaic narrative images in the accounts of Pausanias. In describing the paintings
In his early fourth-century Memorabilia(3.10.1-5), Xenophon constructs a of Polygnotos at Delphi, for example, he notes the emotions of several figures
dialogue between Socrates and the painter Parrhasios as one demonstration of apparently on the basis of attitude, gesture, gaze, and facial expression. Of
the worth of that philosopher to society. When Parrhasios at first denies that Peirithoos, for example, he says that Theseus "holds both Peirithoos's sword
painting can represent the character of the soul because it cannot imitate what and his own, while Peirithoos stares at the swords [see Fig. 84]. And you would
has not proportions, color, or visibility, Socrates pushes the idea of mimetic that was angry with the swords because they were useless and of no avail in
correspondence: 40 their adventures. 1141 Elsewhere, he says of Paris and Penthesileia that the former
"is clapping his hands just the way some rude country fellow would clap them.
"Well," Socrates said, "is it not natural for a man to look at certain things You will say that Paris appears to be calling Penthesileia to him by the sound
with either affection or hostility?" of his hands. Penthesileia is also there looking at Paris; she seems by the toss
"I suppose so," he (Parrhasios) said. of her head to look on him with disdain and to treat him as of no account" (see
"Therefore this much must be imitable in the eyes?" Fig. 86). 42 Although action is important, we should note that the action
 F

70 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 71

reflects the character and emotion of the individual in a way that is not found high, but contains no less than four figured friezes. Immediately below the
in descriptions of Archaic narrative. shoulder are clashing groups of hoplites, less than 1.6 cm (<%in.) high. Below
This contrast between action and emotion/character in viewer reactions to the main frieze are chariots racing leftward. On the third frieze are sphinxes,
Archaic and Classical art, respectively, leads us to a distinction in the objects boars, a lion, and a bull. Most face leftward, but some march in the other
of narration that is the subject of the last chapter. For our purposes here, direction, breaking up the frieze into smaller groupings. At the bottom is
however, it is important to note that although it marks a difference between another frieze with continuous leftward motion, six dogs chasing a hare. De-
Archaic and Classical pictorial narrative, the viewing process remains basically spite the intimately small scale, the details of the figures are articulated through
the same. The manner in which this distinction is conveyed is one that needs incision with a great degree of precision. Much of the color has worn off the
to be explored among the other elements of the discourse between artist and figures, but originally equipment was painted in a purplish color and exposed
viewer. flesh in a yellowish brown, further helping to distinguish figures and details. At
such a scale, however, the only way in which a viewer can experience the
narrative is by holding the object close in the hand, either by the handle or at
the pointed base. This means, however, that the viewing experience was much
3. 2 THE VIEWING CONTEXT
different than that for a public monument like a temple or even for a large vase
The viewing context can be generally described as the circumstances that used to hold wine for a symposion, in that the viewer must be a more active
shape the viewing process, what a viewer will see and when. The context has participant in the viewing process if he or she is to see the entire narrative.
three broad aspects that we will discuss in this section - first, the physical The Chigi aryballos raises a second issue of the viewing .context, and that is
nature or architecture of the narrative image, including its scale, the field of the field of view. With the Thermon metope, the viewer is able to see the
view, the viewing angle, and the shape and framing of the picture field; second, entire picture at a glance. So, too, on the Gorgon Painter's dinos the figures of
the place of the image, particularly whether it is public or private; and third, Perseus and the pursuing Gorgons are readily visible if one stands facing that
the purpose of the narrative work, whether votive, grave good, public commem- side of the vase. The dinos, however, raises the point that the field of view
oration, or domestic use. changes with the position of the viewer and that one cannot assume that a
For obvious reasons, the scale of a work is an important element to consider viewer will always be in the proper place. In the case of a small three-
in the viewing process. The larger that a work, is the more visibility it has from dimensional object like the Chigi aryballos the combination of small scale and
a distance and the greater likelihood that it will be noticed by a viewer. For small diameter of the vessel means that only a fraction of the surface is visible
example, the figure of Perseus on the dinos discussed before (Fig. 24) is a little at any one time, as can be seen in comparing the drawing of the vase and the
over 13 cm (51/s in.) tall. At this size, the narrative would be identifiable within role-out of the frieze in Fig. 29. A field of view that is less than the narrative
the confines of a room in a house or tomb, but beyond a distance of four or composition will automatically fragment the viewing experience in a way that
five meters none of the details that was mentioned in the description of Perseus may make the viewer scan for more information before being able to identify
on the shield of Herakles - boots, hat, sword, and so on - would be readily or describe the action. This creates a situation analogous to that when Pausanias
discernible. In contrast, the slightly earlier metope from the Temple of Apollo cannot readily identify the scene of Odysseus and Circe on the upper register
at Thermon (Fig. 28) is about 80 cm (ca. 31.5 in.) square, with a painted field of the Chest of Kypselos.
about 56 cm (ca. 22 in.) in height. 43 This is over four times taller than the An examination of the narrative micro-structure of the Chigi aryballos re-
Perseus on the vase; the large scale means that the works would be viewable veals a careful coordination of the vase's architecture with the composition of
from a distance, both from below and away from the entablature. Despite the its multiple friezes. Along the front axis of the aryballos, directly under the
difference in scale, the figures are very broadly painted. Since the metope is not mouth of the lion, there is a nucleus consisting of two confronting groups of
visible from up close due to its location, there is no real need to paint extra three warriors (figures B 1-B6 in Fig. 29). The warriors on both sides are similarly
details in the figure. Although photographs frequently distort the differences in outfitted and are distinguished only by their shield device and by the placement
scale between objects, as Figs. 24 and 28 do, they curiously have a leveling of the shields on the left in profile view and those on the right in frontal aspect.
effect in terms of understanding the images' impact on the viewer. The regular spacing of the figures and the intersecting diagonals of their legs
The same can be said for a miniature scale such as the figures on the draw the eye to the space between the two groups where the battle is about to
Huntsmen aryballos (Fig. 7) or on an aryballos by the Chigi Painter in Berlin commence. The importance of this nucleus for the narrative is confirmed not
(Fig. 29, "Chigi aryballos"). 44 Found on the island of Rhodes, it features an only by the fact that it just fills the viewer's field of vision when seeing the
elaborate plastic mouth in the form of a lion, two female heads facing sideways, front of the vase, but also by the fact that the motifs of the other friezes and
and a handle in the shape of a crouching lion. The vase is only 7.0 cm (2¾ in.) the plastic decoration of the vase align with the nucleus and draw the viewer's
72 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 73

JU A'I Bl Bl lU &I as a,{}1 88 rn BIO,·i#

I 8 f 8'
29. Late Protocorinthian pointed aryballos by the Chigi Painter, ca. 640. Battle; chariot
procession; animal procession; dogs chasing hare. Berlin, Staatliche Museen-Preussischer
Kulturbesitz, 3773. (After Washburn [1906] Tafel 2)

likely orient the lion's mouth spout out to take advantage of the motif (the
second lion forming the handle would also be facing the viewer). The other
two nuclei, however, would only be visible when holding the aryballos. If we
28. Metope from Temple of Apollo at Thermon, ca. 630. Perseus fleeing. Athens, National
assume that a viewer picks it up with the right hand to hold the vase before the
Museum. (Photo courtesy of the Deutsches Archaologisches lnstitut-Athens)
body and face, then the figures B7-B11 would be most visible and A1-A9 would
be hidden from view by the hand, as can be seen in Fig. 30.
eye to it. In the third frieze a bull and a lion confront each other; the open To summarize, in the main frieze of the Chigi aryballos, we have three
1
mouth of the lion mimics that of the sculpted lion s mouth spout above. In the nuclei that correspond to three separate fields of vision, each matching a
second frieze two chariots flank the central axis, but the charioteer on the left different situation of the viewing experience. One of them, A 1-A9, is actually
turns his head back to look at his pursuer, an action that knits the two teams obscured by the viewing context and could only be seen when rotating the vase
into a group flanking the central axis. by its base or holding it in the left hand.
The remainder of the main frieze can be divided into two sections that meet What is the relationship between the three nuclei in the main frieze? I would
along the back axis under the handle; each fills about a third of the frieze like suggest that group A constitutes an independent scene, and groups B1-B6 and
the first nucleus and fills the entire field of vision. To the left of the frontal axis B7-B11 are related but stand alone in the viewing context (hence, B and B').
is another nucleus of confronting armies (A1-A9). The configuration is basically The two scenes, A and B/B', are then best understood as two actions from the
the same as the frontal group, except that the warriors are more tightly packed same episode. In support of such a link, one can first observe that there is a
together and there is a slight asymmetry in number, with four warriors to the general equivalence in numbers for each side in A and BIB'.In A, four warriors
left and five to the right. The other, right side of the vase shows more variation face five; if one counts B4, B5, B6, B7, B8, and B10 as one side of the battle,
(B7-B11). Near the handle in the main frieze is a spear-bearing hoplite driving then five face six, with the greater force again deployed to the right. This ratio
two falling warriors to the ground before him (B7-B9). Behind him another of N vs. N + 1 is also true of B' itself, where two face three. Second, the shield
warrior thrusts his spear above a stumbling warrior (B10-B11). There is, then, a of B8 (bearing an eagle) falls in line with the rhythm of shields B4-B5-B6; if B7
relationship between the field of vision and the division of the frieze into three were standing in formation an unbroken and regular shield wall of five warriors,
different nuclei. The first (B1-B6) would be seen probably in the situation of B4-B8, would be formed. This grouping is maintained also by the consistent
going to pick up the aryballos, since in storing the vase, a person would most overlapping moving steadily inward from B8 to B4. B10 could also belong to
 ...
74 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 75

/Front Axis of Vase this series, but clearly the great gap between
him and B8 signifies that he has fallen out of
formation a few moments before, since his
comrades have marched on and opened up
l/~Handle the gap. This careful placement of the figures
creates a sense of space and depth in the
30. Diagram of figure holding an aryballos picture and serves to unite B and B' into the
(Author). same general scene. B9 and B11 belong to
the same group as B1-B3, but are now inside
the shield wall of their opponents as is confirmed by B8 overlapping B9. This
essentially constitutes a flanking attack, and B9 must belong to the same side as
B1-B3. B11 stands outside the shield wall, closest to the viewer, thus indicating
that a flanking attack has the corner of the enemy phalanx, which has now
begun to collapse. Since the orderly arrangement found in A has in B' begun to
collapse, one might conclude that A represents an initial deployment and B/B'
the successive clash. The repetition of shield devices such as eagle, goose, and
bull's head creates indexes linking the two armies and suggesting that the groups
are related. Since the devices are not repeated in the same order or even on the
same side in A and B/B', this would suggest that either two different moments
or points on the battlefield are being represented. The ordering of figures in
space and rhythmically along the frieze clearly allows the viewer to sort out
the order of battle in a way that was only suggested in the Huntsmen aryballos
earlier (see Fig. 8).
How, then, do the scenes combine as the viewer examines the vase? B' or B
would be the most prominent visually because of their position on the vase;
their relative priority in viewing would depend upon how the viewer first saw
the vase. In viewing B first when approaching the vase, one would start with
31. Metope from the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, ca. 470-458. Herakles, Athena, and Atlas
the initial confrontation. In picking up the vase to pour from it, the decisive with the Apples of the Hesperides. Olympia, Archaeological Museum. (Photo courtesy of
nucleus that shifts the battle's outcome to the one side would become visible the Deutsches Archaologisches lnstitut-Athens)
(B'). In A, hidden from initial view, we see the full armies facing off at an earlier
moment in time. In B, only a smaller number are visible, the reason being that It seems that the story is at a stasis, with Herakles unable to move to retrieve
some of the left side's hoplites have split for an attack on the flank of the right the apples. When seen in a museum setting, one is virtually on a level with the
group. Such a coordination of viewing context in the field of vision is not figures, but in the original setting, the viewer would have been looking sharply
unique to the Chigi aryballos, even if it represents a more complicated and upward from the porch below, seeing the underside of Athena's chin. From this
subtle pattern than is typical, especially considering the size of the vase. The point of view, Herakles's face and expression become quite clear and it seems
Parthenon frieze, as R. Osborne has shown, similarly coordinates the field of that he looks down and outward to the viewer (Fig. 32). Athena and Atlas from
vision with the obscuring of the relief by the columns, creating a series of this. vantage point operate on almost a different plane. The key point is that
vignettes that unfold the narrative. 45 adjusting for the original point of view, perhaps by lying down on the museum
This brings us to another, related dimension of the viewing context - the floor to look up at the metope, changes the relationship among the figures,
viewing angle and point of view. An illuminating example can be found in one making Herakles more detached from the other figures and more directly
of the metopes from the Temple of Zeus at Olympia showing Herakles, Atlas, appealing to the viewer, engaging him or her more directly into the narrative. 48
and Athena (Fig. 31).46 Herakles bears his labor of holding up the heavens with With the placement of this metope directly over the entrance into the temple,
obvious exertion, but he does not bend under the ordeal and his brows concen- Herakles looks down on one of the primary viewing areas of the metope cycle.
trate on his task and on the apples that Atlas holds. 47 Athena stands almost The change in the perception of a narrative as a result of the point of view
impassive while aiding Herakles; she and Atlas look at Herakles and each other. can also be seen in the statue group known as the Tyrannicides of Kritios and
 ....
76 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 77

Nesiotes (Fig. 3 3). 49 Placed in the plays a determining role in the shape
Agora around 477, they show Har- of the narrative. A pediment poses dif-
modios and Aristogeiton about to slay ferent compositional problems on the
Hipparchos. Although the original artist than a frieze or metope (com-
statues are gone, reproductions in pare Figs. 20 and 25); a circular field
sculpture and painting provide a good like a gem or the interior of a cup
idea of the original composition and necessitates a different arrangement of
its nucleus. Aristogeiton, with the elements, especially in the corners,
beard, holds forth his scabbard and than a square (compare Figs. 9 and
draws his right arm holding his sword 10). A long frieze necessitates a more
back for a stabbing blow; Harmodios spread-out or crowded composition
holds his sword over his head for a than a square metope depending on
slashing blow. In the photograph re- the subject (compare Figs. 13, 20, and
produced here, the viewer stands in 29). So too a frieze that carries all
the position of Hipparchos, thereby around a vase, as in Fig. 29 or 7, has
standing in for the missing victim of no defined side and in a sense contin-
the narrative. That the victim was un- ues without interruption in an endless
derstood by the viewer can be seen in loop. Given the nature of the object,
a free adaptation of the statue group the artist will have to adapt the picto-
on a stamnos in Wurzburg, in which rial narrative so as to fill the surface
the two figures are pulled apart to sur- and fulfill the decorative intent of the
round and slay Hipparchos (see ahead imagery as well as its narrative pur-
32. Detail of Fig. 31: Herakles. (Photo courtesy of the
Fig. 35). A profile rather than frontal pose. In some cases, like the Thermon
Deutsches Archaologisches Institut-Athens)
view is favored by painters of the metopes, the opposite may happen
scene, such as the depiction on a fragmentary oinochoe in Boston (Fig. 34). 50 with a composition being forced to
While these figures are clearly shown as statues standing on a base, the artist spread over several metopes in order
has placed them more in a line than side by side, and by the overlapping of to accommodate the necessary ele-
Aristogeiton's cloak over the arm of Harmodios, reversed, perhaps unintention- ments (compare Figs. 24 and 28). 53 33. Harmodius and Aristogeiton (Tyrannicides), Roman
ally, their position in space. The separation introduced by the painter clearly These considerations of the physi- copy of Greek original of ca. 477 by Kritios and Nesi-
displays the action of each figure, although the overlapping that would have cal qualities of the viewing context otes. Naples. (Photo courtesy of the Hirmer Fotoarchiv,
lead us to two other dimensions: the Munchen)
been a more accurate reproduction from the profile view would have obscured
one of the figures. 51 This profile view also conveys a sense of forward movement place and purpose of the narrative
better in a two-dimensional medium than a frontal depiction would have. work. As we have seen, some works are very personal in nature and would have
It is likely that the primary point of view would have been in front of the been seen in a private setting such as a household or, more figuratively, within
statues, as seen in Fig. 33. 52 The difference between profile and frontal points a tomb. Others like the Tyrannicides were public works, some with a notoriety
of view is significant. In the former, the viewer is a witness to the story, one of of their own that led to their reproduction in other contexts such as vase
the crowd that saw the original event. In the latter position, the viewer becomes paintings or small reliefs. The place of the viewing context may well have an
part of the action, the victim. This changes the involvement of the viewer in influence on the choice of subject, since explicitly erotic themes are less suited
the narrative significantly; the space of the viewer and of the image become to public monuments than are epic struggles like the Centauromachy or Ama-
connected and, in a sense, more real. The shift clearly can change the discourse zonomachy, but in many cases, the same subject can appear in a variety of
between the work and the viewer and the meaning of the narration. places as the discussion in Section 2.1 of the abduction of Europa showed.
One additional element of the physical nature of the viewing context needs Public vs. private seems to have had little impact on the nucleus of the micro-
to be discussed, and that is the shape and framing of the visual field. Since structure, but it may be the impetus for the change to a frontal face of the bull
many narratives are painted on an object or structure that serves another in the Selinus metope (Fig. 9). Although a relatively subtle shift and one that
purpose, such as a temple, vessel, or jewelry, the architecture of the object does not alter the basic story or action, it does engage the viewer directly in a
~ r"

78 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 79

way that the other, more private representations do not, just as the change in do and what the viewer can see; they
viewing point with the Tyrannicides and its reproductions showed before. The mediate between artist and viewer.
difference, although minor in the dimension of the narrative action, does set up Other aspects of the viewing context,
a potentially different meaning. In the case of the Selinus metope, its position place and purpose, do have a role, but
on a temple may have meant that it was a manifestation of Zeus, showing the one that is more limited in the narra-
power and action of the god in the world. On the mirror cover, the imagery is tive discourse. They may help in the
more sensuous and the acquiescence of Europa in the act is emphasized. selection of the subject matter and
Such a shift correlates with the third dimension of the viewing context: the certainly play a role in the meaning or
purpose of the image. 54 These, it should be pointed out, are different from the intention of a narrative, but they have
function of the object, such as container, drinking cup, pourer, metopal cover- less impact on the image itself.
ing between beams, pediment or gable within the roof of a building, and so on.
These factors belong to the physical nature of the context, and not the reason
behind their creation, which we shall distinguish as the purpose of the work. 3. 3 COMPOSITION
Among the objects that we have examined, we can identify a number of
different purposes: votive offering, personal adornment, monument/commemo- Although the viewing context can be 34. Fragment of Attic red-figure oinochoe, ca. 400. Tyr-
ration, grave good, domestic equipment. Although the physical aspects of the seen as dealing with the shape of the annicides by Kritios and Nesiotes. Boston, Museum of
viewing context can have a strong impact on the structure of the narrative, the discourse between the work and the Fine Arts, Henry Lillie Pierce Fund, 98.936. (Photo cour-
tesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
purpose of the work has a more subtle role and looks toward the meaning of viewer, the composition of a narrative
the work. The use of a work for a grave may have an impact on either artist or governs its internal structure. Essen-
buyer in the selection of a theme, but in most cases, it is the function and tially, the arrangement of nuclei, catalysts, indexes, and informants controls and
architecture of the object itself, rather than its purpose, that determines the directs the flow of the pictorial narrative for the viewer. To articulate this
structure of the narrative. For example, a silver alabastron formerly in the component of the macro-structure, it is helpful to draw on some of the methods
Metropolitan Museum is similar in size, shape, and purpose to the Chigi ary- and terminology of formal analysis. In the broadest terms, I would name the
ballos discussed earlier. 55 The representations of the clashing armies along the following aspects of the composition as most critical: ( 1) configuration, (2)
front axis of both vases are virtually the same. The difference in medium, silver containment, (3) rhythm, (4) movement, and (5) density. 56 To illustrate these
and vase painting is not without significance, but it has less to do with the aspects, we can review some of the works discussed in earlier sections of this
structure of the narrative or its discourse with the viewer. The silver alabastron chapter. 57
would have been more valuable because of its material, although the Chigi Configurationcan be defined as the arrangement of the flow of action within a
aryballos would have been more expensive as a commodity than a plain or more composition. Configuration can be labeled as directional, flowing from one end
simply decorated pottery vessel. After the Geometric period too, it would have of the pictorial field to the other, symmetrical or centrifugal, where equal masses
been more likely that a pottery vessel would have been used as a less expensive pivot around a focal point, or static, with virtually no internal movement at all
substitute for precious metals as a grave good, but it would also have served as and usually symmetrical. 58 An example of the directional configuration can be
a less expensive votive offering as well. The point is that grave goods, like seen in the Gorgons chasing Perseus on the Gorgon dinos (Fig. 24) or in the
domestic goods, are conceived as fulfilling a similar purpose so that they have departure of Poseidon and Amphitrite on the Minneapolis amphora (Fig. 22). A
the same shapes and arrangement of imagery, thereby creating a similar physical symmetrical configuration can be found in the front view of the Chigi aryballos
context for narrative while having quite different purposes. Basically, it is the (Fig. 29). Finally, the arrangement of roosters on the top frieze of the silver
architecture of the vase, its function, and the position of the viewer that effect aryballos, although not strictly a narrative, represents a static and symmetrical
the narrative discourse, and less issues of the purpose of the work. configuration. Frequently, different types of configuration can be found in the
To conclude, the viewing context of a pictorial narrative can have a profound same composition. The Delphi pediment (Fig. 25) has an overall symmetrical
impact on the viewer. The physical qualities of the context - scale, field of configuration, but within each wing there is a strong, outward directional
view, point of view, and the function and architecture of the object - control movement. The result is a balanced but more energetic composition.
the circumstances in which a viewer will experience an image. In formulating The different results between configurations for narrative can be seen briefly
the narrative to fit the context, the artist may make changes in the micro- in comparing the frontal view of the Chigi aryballos (Fig. 29, figures B1-B6)
structure from what he or she would fashion on a different kind of object or in and the oblique view (figures B7-B11). As noted earlier, the latter nucleus, B',
a different context. These, then, are the factors that regulate what the artist can represents the collapse of the flank of one army and pushes the narrative toward
80 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 81

a resolution. The unidirectional configuration of the composition, leading the

viewer leftward, ties this nucleus to its complement B as double and simultane-
ous actions. Were B' to move rightward or be symmetrical, the visual link
between it and B would be severed and would lead the viewer to see it as an
independent action that may be occurring at a different time.
Another example of the impact of configuration can be seen in the Tyranni-
cides. The sculpture group (Fig. 3 3) clearly has a strong directional configura-
tion, a configuration that is maintained in the painted reproduction of the group
despite the spreading apart of the figures in the profile view (Fig. 34). On a
stamnos in Wurzburg (Fig. 35 "Wiirzburg stamnos"), another painter was also
inspired by the sculptural group and added the figure of Hipparchos to com-
plete the action of the nucleus. 59 This painting is no longer a reproduction of
the sculpture, but the change goes beyond simple rearrangement, addition, and
adjustments in the positions of figures' arms. The Wurzburg stamnos has a
symmetrical composition that focuses attention on Hipparchos as the victim.
Although both Aristogeiton and Harmodios have basically the same movement
as in the sculptural group, the arrangement cancels rather than amplifies the
strongly directional flow of the individual figures. This has the clear effect of
closing the viewer out of the composition, making him or her a detached
witness. The original use of a strongly directional configuration, focused on the
primary viewing point, had the opposite effect of engaging the viewer into the
composition in the role of victim or close associate. The narrative gains or loses
in drama and impact with the change in configuration.
A second compositional aspect is containment:Is it closed (contained or cir-
cumscribed by the border of the picture surface), open (with the border cutting
off the view of a figure or being violated by a figure, suggesting movement or
the extension of space beyond the picture), or continuous (wrapping around on
35. Attic red-figure stamnos by the Copenhagen Painter, ca. 470. Harmodios and Aristogei-
itself, as on a frieze that completely encircles the body of a vase)? 60 In cases in
ton slaying Hipparchos. Martin von Wagner Museum, Universitat Wiirzburg, L 515. (Photo
which there are no clear borders, one needs to determine if the action is courtesy of K. Oehrlein)
sustained within the field of view or pushes out of it. An example of a closed
composition is the Olympia metope (Fig. 31) or the Wurzburg stamnos (Fig. the picture's relationship to the world around it (compare Fig. 49 to 28). A
35). Clearly symmetric or static configurations favor a closed composition, but closed composition would tend to evoke a greater sense of narrative closure to
it is possible that a directional composition will also be closed, as in the the viewer, that each episode or action is distinct and complete. Open compo-
departure scene on the Minneapolis amphora (Fig. 21) or the departure of sitions break beyond the space of the picture and visually provide greater means
Amphiaraos on the Chest of Kypselos (Fig. 26) or the Delphi ivories (Fig. 27). for connecting an individual composition to others. Continuous compositions
Examples of open composition include the fleeing Perseus on the Thermon do not connect so easily to other compositions, since they form closed circuits,
metope (Fig. 28) or the Berlin Europa (Fig. 11). Continuous compositions but the degree of movement within them and that of the viewer in looking at
include the friezes on the Chigi aryballos (Fig. 29) or the Huntsmen aryballos them creates a more active dynamic than in a closed composition.
(Figs. 7 and 8). A continuous composition presents particular problems in that A third aspect of the composition is its rhythm. Does the picture contain
it is not entirely visible at once, since it must double back upon itself, and so mostly equivalent or disparate visual elements, and is there a repetition in their
may be divided into smaller compositions like the battle scenes. A continuous arrangement or a variation between one section of the composition and an-
composition allows multiple points of entry into the narrative, but is actually other? Formal qualities such as shape and color may also play a decisive role in
self-contained, whereas an open composition has a limited point of entry but creating a rhythmic pattern, or a lack of one. A strong repeated rhythm, like
by its nature leads to other images. the warriors on the front of the Chigi aryballos (Fig. 29), leads to a relatively
The nature of the composition's containment, or lack of it, visually expresses stable and measured viewing experience, whereas a disruption or irregular
82 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 83

rhythm draws the eye to it, as can be seen in the rolled-out view of the battle 3.4 SPACE AND TIME
frieze. Rhythm can strongly reinforce or alter the visual cues provided by the
configuration and containment of a composition. Space and time are elements of the macro-structure that are most closely related
By movementwithin the composition I mean the formal elements that lead the to the informants of the micro-structure, telling us when and where an action
eye around the composition. The surface arrangement of the lines used to took place. At the level of discourse, space and time take on an important role
construct the forms of the figure also leads the eye of the viewer along in the in the way in which the space and time of the viewer corresponds to that of
picture, as for example, in the lines of shields and formerly spears in the Chigi the story. Essentially, there are three layers to keep in mind here. First is the
aryballos (Fig. 29). 61 Diagonals create a more dynamic movement in a compo- space and time of the story, that is, the original events that the narrative depicts.
sition than horizontals or verticals, as a glance at the New York prothesis Second is the space and time of the viewer. Third is the space and time of the
confirms (Fig. 23). Actions, too, should be considered under the category of narrative itself, which is an extension of the first two but by fact of being a
movement, since they imply something that is acted on and a vector of force narrative exists independently of either. By its construction, the narrative space
or movement. Whether or not it is present in the picture, a figure thrusting a and time link the viewer and story; once constructed, however, the narrative
spear or sword is viewed as having a target and a viewer would naturally look can reestablish the link with new viewers long after the narrator/artist is gone.
in the direction of the action for it (Fig. 34). Direction can also be important How space and time work in a narrative can create a different narrative result,
for indicating the outcome of a narrative, for generally heroes/victors move all other factors being equal.
rightward and victims leftward in a composition. 62 This, however, is not univer- We may begin by looking briefly at space. Setting, figures, and actions all
sally true, as the Naples Iliupersis (Fig. 6) points out, and may be subject to imply conceptually a minimal degree of space in which the events take place.
considerations of context or other factors. Although this space is fictional and only constructed in the mind of the viewer,
Lastly, I would turn to the density of the composition, that is, how the figures it must exist in a minimal degree for the narrative to function as a description
are deployed across the picture surface. Is each figure separately articulated and of events or situations. 63 That ancient viewers would see in a flat surface covered
silhouetted against the background of the picture, or is there overlapping or with shapes the illusion of a space filled with masses is seen in the way in which
interlocking of the figures, making a much higher density? The contrast be- both descriptions and ekphrasis approach an image as if the viewer were seeing
tween these two ends of the density scale is readily apparent in comparing the the events themselves (see Section 3.1). 64 It would be too much to suggest that
battle scene on the Minneapolis amphora (Fig. 13) with other battles employing a picture, at least before the fifth century, was regarded as a window into
overlapping and denser concentrations of figures (Figs. 20 and 29). The effect another world, and in ekphrasis, one is reminded of the existence of the object
of a denser composition will be to slow down the movement of the viewer itself through the praise of the craftwork or its materials. Still, the illusion of
within the composition, as he or she untangles one form from another and some kind of space filled with acting figures is a natural part of the narrative
comprehends their interrelationships. A denser composition like that on the discourse.
Naples Iliupersis (Fig. 6) lends itself to a greater complexity of interaction In the fifth century and afterwards, great changes take place in the construc-
within the narrative, but can also work conversely to obscure the elements of tion of space within a picture. Polygnotos is said to have placed figures on
the narrative, making it to some degree less legible. multiple levels in an effort to create a ground plane rather than a ground line
The importance of considering the composition as a dimension of the dia- (see Fig. 76 and following). Later artists developed a more systematic perspec-
logue among the viewer, object, and artist is severalfold. First, it is an element tive in conjunction with the theater (skenographia)that essentially made the
that the artist controls within the constraints of the viewing context. Through space of the picture an extension of the space of the viewer. 65 This change can
the composition, the artist can focus the prospective viewer's attention, either be seen in sculpture too. The viewer becomes part of the space of the statue
solely on the narrative at hand or beyond it. In the latter role, the composition group. He or she can walk through a narrative scene, like the group of Greek
becomes a key element in the extensional level since the direction and openness heroes casting lots to fight Hektor that stood near the Temple of Zeus at
of a composition can point the viewer to another image and so extend the Olympia, or become part of the narrative itself by playing the victim in the
episode or story (see Section 4.1 in Chapter Four). Elements of the composition Tyrannicides (see Fig. 33). 66
can also guide the viewer to the key elements of the narrative within a s!pgle Greek artists could also create a pictorial space through the illusion of mass
image. Although the micro-structure of a narrative might be basically the s-ame, or volume. By giving a figure or object the appearance of three-dimensionality,
as in the example of the copies and adaptations of the Tyrannicides, the a space is implicitly created immediately around it. The ancient convention of
composition plays a key role in creating a different version of the story with a profile head, hips, and legs with frontal chest conveys a minimal amount of
quite different impact upon the viewer. three-dimensional substance by its combination of viewing points. Foreshort-
84 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 85

ening is a much more optically convincing means for suggesting a three-

dimensional mass, as is the effective use of shading and highlights. 67
A good example of the development of both space and mass in Classical art
can be found on the interior of a white-ground kylix by the Sotades Painter
(Fig. 36, "Polyeidos cup"). 68 The cup belongs to a set of nine pots coming from
an Attic tomb, and certainly the delicate nature of the work on the cup
precludes them from having been used in daily life. The themes of the three
mythological cups in the British Museum, of which only this example is certain,
are appropriate for work intended as grave goods; all deal with death and/or
rebirth and transition and are surely intended for use by the deceased in an
eternal banquet. 69
On the interior of the Polyeidos cup, the Sotades Painter has shown the seer
Polyeidos and the child Glaukos inside a beehive tomb, seen in a sectional view
with a tripod on its crest. The edges of the tomb wall are filled with a dilute
wash that fades gradually into the whiteness of the ground in what surely is
intended as modeling to indicate the curved and receding wall of the tomb.
This effort to depict a receding plane in space breaks with the linear and
silhouette treatment of forms characteristic of vase painting, but is similar to
the more illusionistic treatment of mass and volume recorded in the literary
sources about contemporary wall painting. So too the ground on which the
figures rest is no longer a line, but is now a plane of pebbles that recalls the 36. White-ground kylix by the Sotades Painter, ca. 470-460. I: Polyeidos and Glaukos in
the tomb. London, British Museum, D 5. (Photo courtesy of the British Museum, © The
sandy beach of Polygnotos's Iliupersisat Delphi (see Fig. 77). 70 The pose of
British Museum)
Polyeidos is complicated and shows a three-quarter view with a slight torsion
as he raises a staff to strike at a snake. The snake itself appears not on the
pebbly surface, but farther down at the rim of the cup, where it moves toward Fig. 79). 71 What is new in the Classical period is the construction of a space in
a second snake that lies dead. Where the snakes are spatially in relationship to which the figures act, a space that is anchored by planes and not lines and that
Polyeidos and Glaukos is ambiguous. The slight return of the curve defining can extend in all directions.
the tomb wall where it meets the ground plane suggests, at least to a modern One might argue that the narrative would be more effective if the snakes
eye, that the bottom rim of the cup continues the sectional edge of the tomb, were moved up closer to Polyeidos, perhaps at the bottom edge of the pebbly
but now projecting forward as the edge between floor and wall as if it were a surface. Here, however, the viewing context can help to explain the construc-
perspectival, cutaway diagram. If a viewer (deceased, but imagined as using the tion of the narrative and its experience by a hypothetical viewer using the cup.
cup) were to tilt the cup toward him or herself, then the lower side of the cup According to the story, Glaukos, the son of Minos, was drowned after falling
would become the floor of the tomb, the side walls its projecting surface from in a pot of honey. 72 Polyeidos was locked in the tomb with the boy after
the sectional line, and its center the receding surface. If this were the case, then correctly interpreting signs that led to the discovery of the body. His only
the snakes are near the edge of the tomb forward in space, and Polyeidos and hope of escape was, then, to revive Glaukos. A snake came into the tomb,
Glaukos are near the tomb's center. which Polyeidos killed, but a second snake, its mate, found it and brought a
The depiction of space on the kylix is extremely unusual, but it represents a leaf to place in its mouth. The first snake was revived, and Polyeidos used the
way of reconstructing narrative space on a hard surface. There is admittedly no leaf to revive Glaukos. The moment of the story shown on the cup would seem
way of confirming this linkage of the physical shape· of the cup and the space to be the point at which Polyeidos is ready to strike the second snake as it
of the viewer's world and the construction of space within the narrative, but it appears, fearing it like the first, but now pauses in observation of its unexpected
is at precisely this time that painters begin to experiment with space and the actions. 73 Glaukos squats beside him, wrapped in all but head and feet. Glaukos
relationships that it creates among subjects and between them and the viewer. is surely dead, and his lack of animation compared to the extended pose of
In the Iliupersis,Polygnotos used the wall of Troy to divide his painting into two Polyeidos confirms a contrast in their state of being. In a moment, then, the
distinct areas, a beach scene and a city scene, and may have utilized the corner live snake will reach the dead one and the solution to Polyeidos's troubles will
of the room to coordinate this change in setting and spatial construction (see become manifest.
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86 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 87

There is, then, a consistency of time and place within the narrative, although the narrative discourse. In viewing a narrative, time may be interrupted, or the
signs like the tripod, tumulus, dead snake, and crouched and covered Glaukos quality of the narrative experience may vary from one moment to the next
allude analeptically as indexes to earlier moments of the story. 74 Dramatically, depending on the attention of the viewer to the whole or to details of the
however, the viewer's experience is somewhat more fragmented. Holding the image or on extraneous elements altogether, such as the obscurity or clarity of
cup level at chest height hides the snakes mostly from the viewer's sight behind the image. Nevertheless, the viewer's experience of a narrative is as a sequence
the rim of the cup. It is only when tipping the cup, hypothetically as if to of images and impressions. The same may be said for the events of a story.
drink, that the snakes are clearly revealed to the viewer, only to be obscured Actions and experiences, whether historical or fictional, take place as a series of
by the movement of the liquid. 75 This revelation acts much like a discovery, successive moments in a specific place. Actions may occur simultaneously in
because before the appearance of the second snake with the leaf, Polyeidos's different locations, but the story takes place with the same kind of order as the
situation seems hopeless (on discovery and reversal, see Section 5.2 in Chapter viewer's normal experience of time. A narrative depiction, however, falls be-
Five). Thus, the revelation to the viewer is, in a sense, one to Polyeidos as well. tween these two experiences of time - viewing and story - and creates another
The pregnant implications of the moment are caught once more by the hesita- ordering of time within the picture and between it and the viewer. The corre-
tion in his pose. He is poised to continue his action and land the blow, but his lation between these layers of time covers a wide range of variations that need
sharply bent elbow indicates a poise and hesitation that allows for the flash of further elaboration. By borrowing and adapting from discussions of narrative
illumination. Symbolically, the illumination is also one for the viewer, for tilting time in literature, there are a number of categories that we can establish to
the cup to drink also places the snake with the reviving leaf at the mouth of cover these variations of time in the narrative interaction. 79 In this section, we
the drinker, and promises rebirth to her or him. 76 will consider only the variations that are possible with a single picture; other
The ability of Greek art, particularly painting, in creating the illusion of mass categories will come into play with the consideration of multiple pictures in
and space finds expression in the anecdotal accounts of paintings that trick the Section 4.3.
eye, of birds attempting to peck the grapes within a painting or Zeuxis thinking First, we may consider broadly the flow of time for the viewer and within
that a curtain covering a painting was real.77 Other than anecdotes like these, the narrative. If the flow of time in the narrative follows the same sequential
however, there is very little direct evidence in literary sources for the effect of ordering as the time of viewing so that two parallel tracks are established, the
spatial illusion on pictorial narrative. When Pausanias describes the paintings of experience of time in viewing can be seen as concurrent even if not identical
Polygnotos and other Classical painters in Athens and Delphi he does mention with the time told in the story. Such a relationship may be defined as synchronous
details of the setting, such as the pebbly beach and the city wall at Troy, the (synchrony).80 On the contrary, if the events shown in a pictorial narrative jump
water and shore of the Acheron and the fish swimming in the river, and the around, the flow of time does not mimic the sequential order of viewing and
topography of the battle at Marathon, including the marshes. 78 In none of these the relationship between the two is anachronous (anachrony). Applying these
cases, however, does the setting seem to have a signal impact on the viewer's concepts to single pictures requires some adaptation, since both the elapsed
understanding of the narrative, unless it is to affirm the general believability of viewing time and the depicted events may fall within a very narrow, even
the action, enhancing but not fundamentally altering the viewer1s willingness to instantaneous span. Two possibilities exist, however. First, a pictorial narrative
regard narrative figures as representations of people and actions. Since indica- may show a single moment in the story, a kind of snapshot excerpted from the
tions of space and place belong to the informant function of the narrative main story. Other moments exist in the story, of course, but the painter has
micro-structure, it is not surprising that the nucleus has priority in the viewer's depicted only a single frame. The other possibility is that multiple moments
mind. have been condensed into the picture by the inclusion of multiple nuclei. Both
As we saw in the Polyeidos cup, time is also an important element in the methods permit the use of specific visual elements as indexes to other actions
narrative discourse. As we saw in Section 3. 1, elements of a narrative image and moments in the story; what is of concern here is the structure of time
could trigger associations in the viewer's mind with other moments and actions within the nucleus or nuclei of the picture.
of the story. Indeed, the area of viewer-picture interaction that has received the The differences can be seen by looking at two representations of the con-
most attention from scholars is that of time. Their focus has been on the time frontation between Odysseus and Circe. The first is on a red-figure calyx krater
within the picture, especially as to whether more than one moment of a story by the Persephone Painter (Fig. 37, "Circe krater"). 81 In the center of the upper
is shown in a picture or not. The structure of time in pictorial narrative is, frieze, we see Odysseus leaping out of a chair, his sword drawn. Behind him are
however, more complicated. Although the ability to view at a glance a single two men with animal heads and tails, his sailors whom Circe had meta-
picture in its entirety differs dramatically from the long unfolding of a story morphosed with her potion. 82 To the right, Circe flees from Odysseus while
through poetry, where events and figures have to be described successively, this turning back to look at him, her hand held out in a gesture of astonishment. A
does not mean that viewing time is instantaneous and singular and irrelevant to wand and skyphos fall to the ground behind her. The scene accords well with
....,,
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88 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 89

38. Attic black-figure kylix by the Painter of the Boston Polyphemos, ca. 550. Side A Circe,
Odysseus, and companions. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Henry Lillie Pierce Fund, 99.518.
(Photo courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)

sailors indirectly reminds the viewer of Hermes' intervention with the antidote.
We see in this example a single nucleus. There is no informant indicating
time of day or season, but the nucleus itself does indicate at least the time frame
within the story, a moment close to the end. Other visual elements like the
dropped skyphos and the sailors serve as indexes to refer to other moments and
actions, but they also serve as catalysts for the nucleus and belong logically
with it, even if they are inconsistent with our literary source. This consistency
of time and place within the picture led W eitzmann to label this kind of
narrative scene monoscenic,a term we will continue to use here as signifying a
single moment and a synchronous relationship in the narrative discourse be-
tween the story and viewer. The other possible type of time structure within a
37. Attic red-figure calyx krater by the Persephone Painter, ca. 440. Odysseus and Circe. single picture is anachronous, which I shall label, following A. Snodgrass,
New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Amelia E. White, 1941 (41.83). (Photo
courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum)
synoptic. In contrast to monoscenic, it represents multiple moments within a
single picture that are inconsistent with one another as simultaneous events or
actions. 83 Two types of anachrony may exist within the image: prolepsis,a future-
the account in Odyssey 10.307-35, in which Odysseus comes to Circe's house looking glance or anticipation from the main narrative nucleus, and analepsis,a
(already immunized to her transforming potion thanks to Hermes), drinks the retrospective movement in time. 84
draught, and draws his sword as if to kill her. The nucleus here is Odysseus A good example of synoptic narrative can be found in another depiction of
threatening Circe, who reacts in astonishment. The transformed sailors are Circe and Odysseus on the kylix by the Painter of the Boston Polyphemos (Fig.
catalysts as well as indexes to the earlier episode when the sailors had come 3 8, "Circe kylix"). 85 This cup has figured prominently in discussions of pictorial
without their captain to her house. Their inclusion does deviate from the narrative, and so it will also serve as a convenient way of summarizing some of
account in the Odyssey, since in the poem they were moved to a sty, but their the issues of time here. 86 Side A shows a surprisingly nude Circe mixing her
presence here is not inconsistent with the nucleus and merely points to the transforming potion in a kylix, held over a sitting dog. She is flanked on both
pictorial narrative as a variation on the same basic story used by the Odyssey. sides by Odysseus's sailors, who have human legs and torsos but animal heads
The skyphos and wand refer to the same earlier episode, as well as the action and arms. To the right Eurylochos runs rightward away from the scene, turning
of Circe serving Odysseus the same potion. That Odysseus is different from his his head backward to observe the sorcery. At the left, Odysseus comes charging
90 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 91

into the center, his sword drawn. The image compactly illustrates several suc- fully part of the third nucleus, since her reaction to Odysseus is not commen-
cessive stages described in Odyssey 10.203-335: Twenty-two men under Eury- surate as it is on the Circe krater.
lochos come to Circe's house, where she transforms them into animals by In this scene, then, we have four units that figure in the narrative as parts
serving them a potion; Eurylochos flees to tell Odysseus, who sets out to of one or more nuclei: Circe, the sailor partly transformed, Eurylochos, and
confront Circe; Hermes gives him herbs making him immune to the potion; Odysseus. To understand the syntagmatic combinations of these figures, one
Odysseus drinks the potion, then charges Circe with his sword; she mollifies might draw an analogy to sentence structure in which the verb is the action
him and they go to bed. of a figure, the subject the figure carrying out the action, and the object the
The narrative on the Circe kylix makes more explicit reference to the differ- figure receiving the action. In an image, each figure can potentially serve as
ent actions in the story than the krater and uses not only indexes but also subject or object and their action as the verb, and can serve different roles
multiple nuclei in the process. The main nucleus of the Circe kylix is Circe and in different combinations that together create an episodic treatment of the
the sailor who still has human arms and hands. This nucleus is placed in the story. For example, Circe and the sailor combine to create one nucleus
center of the kylix and the symmetrical, basically closed, and almost heraldic representing the metamorphosis of the sailors. Circe is clearly the subject and
composition draws the viewer to it. By leaving the sailor with hands, the artist the sailor the object of this action that takes place in the present and
shows the others as having been more human before and connects the appear- immediate past. A second nucleus consists of Eurylochos and Circe, with
ance of his animal head to the kylix in Circe's hand that he also holds with his Eurylochos now the subject who flees from the object, Circe. That he waits
left arm. The artist has shown Circe as mixing the potion, which she presuma- so long to flee, however, introduces a potential discord in the narrative.
bly did before the sailor began to metamorphose. She could be understood as Odysseus constitutes a third nucleus, now with Circe as the indirect object
replenishing it, not unlike a servant pouring more wine into the cup of a and Odysseus as the subject/agent of the action. Thus, Circe serves as both
symposiast, but the nature of her action and the object she holds also serves as agent and object in three different actions. Elements like her mixing the
an index to an earlier moment in the story before the transformation when she potion and her nudity, though deviating from temporal consistency, facilitate
first prepared a refreshing drink for the visiting sailors. The additional sailors the process of multiple combinations. Her nudity especially allows her to be
serve as catalysts, amplifying the scope of the action, which again belongs to the object of Odysseus's attack, for the formula of striding warrior with sword
an early moment of the story. threatening a nude or seminude female is known in Archaic art from repre-
Whereas the main nucleus with the static figures of Circe and the sailors sentations of the rape of Kassandra and other stories. 87 Even though separated
deals with the present moment (and through indexes with the past), the more from and not facing each other, a viewer would readily connect them as two
dynamic, moving figures of Odysseus and Eurylochos belong to the present and parts of a nucleus.
future. Eurylochos realizes the danger and runs off out of the picture. His The distinction between the Circe krater and the Circe kylix, then, is one in
fleeing constitutes not so much a catalyst, given the decisive and open nature which the nuclei within a picture, each representing a specific moment in time
of his action, but a second nucleus. Structurally, he could serve as a substitute within the story, are either consistent (or singular) or inconsistent with each
for the first sailor, but demonstrating a different reaction to Circe, flight instead other. In the former case, one has a synchronous relationship with the viewer,
of drinking. This nucleus would correspond to a slightly later moment of the and in the other, it is anachronous. That is not to say that both types may not
poetic account, but within the picture could also be understood as a simultane- use indexes to refer to other moments and that these can also be either proleptic
ous reaction to the event in the center. Balancing this second nucleus of Circe- or analeptic. Nor is it impossible that a monoscenic, synchronous representation
Eurylochos is a third on the left side, Odysseus charging Circe with sword could have a succession of moments in it due to the viewing context. On the
drawn. It is almost as if the viewer is to understand that Eurylochos has run Chigi aryballos, for example (see Fig. 29), the groups B and B' belong to the
back to camp, at the backside of the cup, and that Odysseus returns to confront same scene and as a cluster of multiple and repeated nuclei are essentially
Circe. That Odysseus does not come from the same direction as Eurylochos monoscenic/synchronous. Since the viewer cannot, however, see both parts
flees, however, suggests a spatial disunity in that conception of the picture. simultaneously due to the curvature of the vase, to see them he or she must
There is also a temporal disunity here too, since Odysseus only comes after turn the vessel, marking a progression of viewing time. Since the two groups
talking to Eurylochos and only draws his sword after he has tried Circe's elixir. show two distinct types of actions, it is possible for the viewer to see them
In the context of his charge, Circe's nudity, quite rare in depictions of the separately and come to the conclusion that B is an initial state and B' a later
female form in Archaic art, is an index to the final resolution of the episode state of the same battle. Depending on the order of viewing, B-B' or B'-B, the
when Odysseus finally puts away his sword and goes to bed with Circe, a scene viewer would experience either a proleptic narrative or analeptic narrative
that appeared in the top register of the Chest of Kypselos (see Section 3.1). respectively. It would still be, though, a synchronous relationship and not
Since she has her back to Odysseus, however, she cannot really be regarded as synoptic.
92 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 93

3. 5 VISUAL LANGUAGE AND MEANING everybody can see is Herakles, though he is not mentioned specifically in the
inscription." 93 Earlier, Pausanias mentions Herakles, who "is shooting at the
As we saw in Section 3. 1, the first step in the viewing process was the hydra .... Herakles can be easily recognized by his exploit and his attitude
identification of the general subject matter of the narrative image. This provided [schema],so his name is not inscribed by him." In neither case does Pausanias
the fundamental macro-proposition that the viewer would revise in response to mention a specific attribute such as the club or lion skin. These may well have
further observation of the work. In order for this process to be effective, the been in the picture, but as important for his identification of the subject matter
viewer must be able to recognize the subject quickly. Informants within the is the action and the general bearing and appearance of the figure. What the
micro-structure such as labels are one way to achieve this goal, but these serve variations found in narrative depictions of the same episode point out is that
generally to identify figures rather than subjects. 88 Attributes, like the lion skin the artists shared a basic understanding of the story as embodied in its nucleus
of Herakles, can also serve as informants to identify figures. But to identify the as well as its informants and indexes, which yet allowed them to choose
general subject of the narrative, it is equally important to recognize the action different moments or even attributes for their image. In other words, the visual
and thereby the basic story being represented. Since this involves tying the language allowed them to tell the same story in different ways while still being
specific action seen in the image to the sequence of actions that constitute an understood by the viewer.
episode, elements of the image must also work as indexes to evoke these other An illustration of the visual language in narrative is seen in two representa-
moments. In order for this to work, there must be a set of common pictorial tions of Herakles fighting Nessos. The first is an amphora by the Nettos Painter
forms or motifs shared by artist and viewer, in other words, a visual language. (Fig. 39, "Nessos amphora"). 94 It is large ( 1.22 m; 48 in.) and probably intended
Iconographic analysis has generally served to identify visual elements and as a funerary marker. On the neck, the painter has reduced the composition
their meaning by establishing a correlation between the image and what it to just two figures, Herakles and Nessos (inscribed in Attic dialect NETOI,).
represents. This similarity is based on an examination of sources and texts that Both figures have inscriptions serving as informants. Herakles is on the left,
provide a degree of substantial correspondence source and image, making the moving rightward to grab the hair of the centaur while planting his left foot
image in many ways an illustration and symbol, a "combination of visual detail in his back, and is about to plunge his sword into his side. Nessos also moves
and abstract concept. 1189 This approach presumes a canon of correspondence rightward, but his arms reach behind him toward Herakles' chin in a gesture
between sign and signified that is shared by artist and viewer. The problem of supplication. The torsos of the two figures form strong vertical elements that
with this approach is defining the source and authority for the canon. 90 Model lean inward, while the horse body and the outstretched leg of Herakles form a
books are sometimes posited in ancient workshops as a means for defining this counterbalancing horizontal element. Legs, hooves, and head interrupt the
visual language, or monumental prototypes are sometimes proposed for consis- frame of the panel, emphasizing the dynamic character of the action as does
tent repetition of a basic formula. 91 An image, however, can have a web of the strong use of diagonals in the composition. 95 At the same time, the masses,
meanings associated with it and can be redeployed in new situations that have actions, and lines are balanced around the central axis; the rightward move-
little to do with its initial meaning. A semiotic/structural approach to meaning ment of the composition turns back to the center with the gesture of Nessos,
is based on the relationship between the sign/image and its referent. 92 Although whose torso arrests the movement of the composition. Threat is met with
this can include a relationship between sign and referent based on convention, supplication, its opposite, and the nucleus shows a hinge moment, just before
it also includes relationships that are existentially or causally based or that are the climax.
based on similarity. For example, Iolaos in a scene of Herakles fighting the Given the wide variety of occasions on which Herakles fought centaurs, the
hydra has a causal relationship to Herakles as a helper, in addition to his inscribed names of both hero and centaur on the neck of the Athens amphora
conventional identification based on mythology as lolaos. Herakles' meaning in are critical for us in identifying the scene and interpreting the nucleus. 96 By
the picture is also based on the similarity of his image to other representations concentrating on just Herakles and Nessos, the Nettos Painter has given up the
of a hero or even himself. In other words, the similarity in his appearance to unique element of the story, Deianeira, that distinguishes it from the hero's
certain images helps to create meaning in the work. other fights with centaurs. Without attributes like the lion skin or bow and
It should be kept in mind, however, that a visual language like a verbal arrow that we usually associate with the story, we would not even be certain
language is subject to ambiguity. Attributes can change or multiply in their that the scene shows Herakles and Nessos. In other words, the modern viewer
meaning; inconsistencies or ambiguity can undermine the effectiveness of a cannot rely on the uniqueness of the actions or figures to identify the story and
sign. Further, signs that we rely on for iconographical analysis may not have then to interpret it. It was apparently not so difficult, however, for the ancient
held the same importance or meaning for the ancient artist and viewer. An viewer. Among the many representations of this story, only four have inscrip-
example can be found in Pausanias's description of the Chest of Kypselos, in tions, and Herakles is frequently shown without a unique attribute like the lion
which he states that "a man holding a sword is coming towards Atlas. This skin. 97 Indeed, when comparing this very early Archaic representation of the
 F

94 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 95

story with later images, it is clear that

there is a wide range in narrative mo-
ment, characters, and iconography.
Yet an ancient viewer could readily
distinguish between two different du-
els between Herakles and centaurs.
On the Throne of Bathykles, for ex-
ample, Pausanias states that there is a
representation of "Herakles taking re-
venge upon ... Nessos by the river
Euenos" and elsewhere "the combat of
Herakles with the centaur Oreios." 98
Given the probable metope format of
these scenes, both were probably
40. Attic black-figure kylix, ca. 550. Herakles, Nessos, and Deianeira. Collection of The
hand-to-hand struggles completely Newark Museum, Eugene Schaefer Collection, 1950 (50.279). (Photo courtesy of The New-
filling the picture surface like the Nes- ark Museum)
sos amphora. Pausanias mentions no
inscriptions in the reliefs, and it is end exist: Deianeira is frequently on the back or in the arms of Nessos, some-
probable that he relied primarily on times she greets Herakles, who can carry sword, club, or bow and arrows as
I'
I, the image itself for identification. weapons. 101 Sometimes Nessos supplicates, sometimes resists, and sometimes
What, then, would have made it pos- runs.
sible for the ancient viewer to identify Despite the wide variations in the iconography of Herakles and Nessos, the
the subject of the Nettos amphora and structural consistency of the nuclei of the Nessos amphora and the Newark
other representations without inscrip- kylix links them more closely with each other than is at first apparent. In both
tions? versions, and in all but four examples of the scene listed in LIMC, Herakles
To answer this question, we might moves from left to right, and not contrary. 102 Of even greater interest is the
turn to a later black-figure kylix in position of Nessos, who is consistently shown moving rightward but twisting
Newark (Fig. 40, "Newark kylix"). 99 his torso around 180° to face or reach toward Herakles. 103 The importance of
Here Herakles is again on the left and the positions and movements of Herakles and Nessos as the core of the nucleus
chasing Nessos, who is now in the can be confirmed in the placement of Deianeira in Archaic compositions. 104
center of the composition. Nessos, Occasionally, Deianeira will be between Herakles and Nessos, but usually she
moving rightward, turns his torso back is on the other side of Nessos and farther away from Herakles, as in the Newark
39. Attic black-figure amphora by the Nettos Painter, while holding two stones in his hands, kylix. Deianeira serves as a catalyst and index, supplying the cause and context
ca. 620-610. Neck: Herakles and Nettos (Nessos); body:
raising one of them threateningly at of the main struggle, but does not affect the action. When running away, her
Gorgons chasing Perseus. Athens, National Museum,
1002. (Photo courtesy of the Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Mun- Herakles. Nessos has let go of Dei- pose is incidental to the main action of pursuit and response; when she appears
chen) aneira, who runs off rightward on the between the two combatants, there is no real effect on the action. Whatever
far side of the composition but turns the details, Herakles and Nessos always act on each other as two halves of the
her face back toward the center. The standing, mantled figures to either side nucleus, even when physically separated. This twisting motion of Nessos, flee-
do not participate in the action and may best be referred to as observers outside ing and engaging simultaneously, and the relentless, pursing rightward move-
of the narrative situation itself. At first glance, there are many iconographic ment of Herakles seem to be the fundamental components of the Archaic
points of the kylix that are at variance with the Nessos amphora. Herakles depictions of the Nessos story. That this formulation is basic for Herakles and
carries a club on the Newark kylix rather than a sword; he has not closed with Nessos can be confirmed by looking at the different compositions used for
Nessos; Nessos takes on a belligerent rather than suppliant attitude. Deianeira other centaur scenes with Herakles, in which the hero faces his opponents
does appear in the composition, helping to identify the scene in the absence of directly or confronts multiple opponents as in the Pholos adventure. 105 One
100
inscriptions. Still other variations among Archaic representations of the leg- does find the use of the Nessos formula in depicting Herakles' fight with
96 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART

Eurytion, but as Fittschen has shown, representations of this story do not seem
to develop until the fifth century, and may derive from the Archaic representa-
tions of Herakles and Nessos. 106
The dependence on the nucleus for the creation of a narrative language in
some ways confirms the wide variation found in the iconography of the Hera-
kles and Nessos story as incidental to the story. Neither Herakles, Nessos, or
Deianeira have consistent attributes; Herakles wears the lion skin or carries a
club, but frequently wears only a chiton and carries a sword or bow. Although
the presence of Deianeira herself serves as an index to identify the scene, she is
not always present so that her presence is not critical in that identification.
Frequently too, Herakles is not in the scene, but in most of these cases Dei-
aneira is on the back of the centaur, who turns around to look at her or farther
behind while still moving rightward, the same pose as when Herakles is shown
in pursuit. This suggests two conclusions. First, the use of attributes as indexes
to identify the scene is no more and perhaps less important than the character-
istic features of the nucleus: Herakles moving forward with weapon and Nessos
fleeing in the same direction but twisting around to face him. As mentioned
before, Pausanias says of a scene with Herakles "shooting at the hydra ...
Herakles can be easily recognized by his exploit and his attitude." This state-
ment can be applied equally to the Nessos story. Second, there may have been
a widJ range of attributes and actions for a single figure than is usually acknowl-
edged, but these would not have hindered the identification of the narrative
because of the importance of the nucleus for viewer recognition. Having a
shared understanding between artist and viewer of the basic outline of a story
and the ability to recognize it due to the force of convention, the artist may
choose from a wider range of moments or objects to give a particular effect.
Nessos can be more pathetic and suppliant, as in Fig. 39, or more defiant and
belligerent, as in Fig. 40.
Another example of visual language and perhaps its development can be seen
in depictions of the Birth of Athena. On an amphora at Yale by Group E, we
see in the center an enthroned Zeus holding lightning bolts in his right hand
and scepter in his left (Fig. 41, "Yale Athena"). 107 Zeus is bearded and wears a
long chi ton; from his head springs a miniature Athena, wearing full armor. To
the left, behind Zeus, are Apollo, identified by his lyre, and Oionysos, identified
by the ivy wreath on his head. To the right are the twin Eileithyiai, goddesses
of childbirth who hold up their right arms toward Athena, and finally Ares,
identified by his armor. The scene is simply composed and the focus is clearly
on the nucleus of Athena springing from the head of Zeus. The Eileithyiai
participate in the nucleus, although in an enabling rather than performing role
41. Attic black-figure amphora, attributed to Group E, ca. 560-540. Side A Birth of Athena.
as their gesture indicates. 108 The other figures provide a divine context and New Haven, Yale University Art Gallery, Leonard C. Hanna, Jr., B.A. 1913, Fund, 1983.22.
emphasize the momentous nature of the event. (Photo courtesy of the Yale University Art Gallery)
The uniqueness of the action serves to readily identify the scene but allows
for variations even within the same workshop. Group E depicted the subject
thirteen times, of which twelve scenes are completely preserved. 109 The basic
core of the enthroned Zeus with miniature Athena springing out his head and
 98 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 99

the attending Eileithyiai is rather stable, but there are both minor and major represent a resolution by the combi-
variations, including a frontal pose for Zeus, Athena standing on his lap, and nation of both wisdom and warfare in
the deployment or either one or two Eileithyiai. 110 The Eileithyiai are usually the birth of Athena. That Hephaistos
in front of Zeus and facing him, but in one vase, they are moved to the other only rarely appears, and never next to
side in favor of Hera, identified by her crown. The witnesses are much more Zeus in Group E, reveals that this
variable, but reveal some strong preferences. Ares, identified by his armor, group of artists was less interested in
appears ten times, and always on the right side of the panel in front of Zeus that aspect of the story, and focused
and Athena and facing them. Apollo and Hermes each appear seven times, and more on the working of Zeus through
always behind Zeus on the left side of the panel, looking toward the center. Athena.
Hermes usually is behind Apollo. 111 Other figures appear less frequently, includ- Stability in a visual language, how-
ing Poseidon (four times), Hera (three times), Hephaistos (two times), and ever, does not occur overnight. Al-
Oionysos (one time), in addition to two unidentified male and two female though artist and viewer share a com-
figures. Their reactions are generally of astonishment or perhaps greeting, mon knowledge of stories through
expressed by upraised hands, or simple observation. oral-traditions and other sources, there
Clearly, the artists both of Group E and more generally of the Archaic inevitably occurs a first attempt to vi-
period felt free to introduce variations into the basic nucleus of the theme. sualize a story. Since there is at this
Given the widespread variations around a single core theme within a single point no established vocabulary, the
workshop (only three out of the twelve depictions are basically the same), it artist must adapt other formulas or in-
seems less likely that such a narrative code was transmitted through sketchbooks novate. If such formulation takes hold,
maintained by the workshops or circulating for other reasons. If sketchbooks it is easier for later viewers to identify
were the source for imagery, one might expect greater conformity among the the scene, but in cases where a repre-
II representations. Further, viewers or purchasers of the vases would not have had sentation remains unique, either as the
I

42. Relief pithos from Tenos, ca. 675. Neck: Birth of

sketchbooks available as dictionaries to help them interpret the scenes. Rather, sole representation of a story or an
Athena (?). Tenos Museum. (Photo courtesy of the
the basic stability of a nucleus, its widespread diffusion, and the placement of example distinct and different from Deutsches Archaologisches lnstitut-Athens)
variations outside of the core would speak for a broadly understood visual others, problems in identification re-
language, shared by artist and audience and communicated through visible sult. We saw this earlier in Pausanias's identification of Odysseus and Circe on
examples such as architectural decoration, dedications in public places, or wares the Chest of Kypselos, which is the only known version showing them actually
in a range of media displayed in shops or in the home. in bed together and was apparently unknown to Pausanias in that version (see
The consistent deployment of a group of onlookers at the birth of Athena Section 3.1).
raises a question about the potential symbolic role of the mythological "ob- In the case of the birth of Athena we see an early and problematic represen-
server" in Archaic narrative. 112 The peripheral figures in the birth of Athena tation on a relief pithos of the seventh-century from Tenos (Fig. 42, "Tenean
generally do little to support the action, other than to observe or exclaim upon Athena"). 113 Found in a room of pithoi at the sanctuary of Demeter, the body
it. Even the Eileithyiai here seem by their gesture to acclaim or exclaim rather of the vessel features friezes with bulls attacked by lions, a herder fighting a
than assist in the birth. Yet, within the choice and arrangement of the figures lion, a chariot procession, and warriors. It is the neck panel, however, that has
in Group E, there can also be seen a paradigmatic role for the figures in their caused considerable controversy because of its unusual iconography. In the
role as indexes. Ares, for example, appears in ten of the twelve scenes, but center sits a large figure on a throne with its legs and pelvis in profile and its
always in a position of opposition to Athena, and like her, in armor. Both are chest and head turned frontal to the viewer. Two wings and two arms extend
gods of warfare, but are usually in conflict with each other, as at Troy or in the outward from the shoulders to create a square compartment within the panel.
fight between Herakles and Kyknos. In comparison to Athena, Ares is a one- The figure wears a short chiton and long hair piled massively around the head
dimensional figure without the wisdom and craft that she possesses. Apollo with in an Egyptianizing style. The gender of the central figure is not entirely clear.
his lyre, although opposed to Athena in the Trojan conflict, is always shown The short chiton has led some to identify it as male, the longer chiton on the
behind Athena, and represents, in contrast to Ares, that element of wisdom and figure to the left being more typical of female figures, but this is not universally
technemissing in his half-brother. Hermes, too, is known for his cunning and, at accepted. E. Simon's detailed observation of the work revealed a stubble beard
the edge of the composition, would be placed to bear the news of the birth on the part of the figure's chin belonging to the original fabric, a point accepted
swiftly. The contrast between Ares and Apollo functions paradigmatically to by some scholars but disputed by E. Condoleon-Bolanacchi. 114 In any case, a
 F

100 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 101

beardless figure can be either male or female. From the head of this figure a Greek context, the T enean pithos probably shows the birth of Athena because
springs a miniature helmeted warrior holding spear in one hand and shield or this is the only incident from Greek myth, in visual or literary form, that
staff in the other. The figure is also nude and has wings like the main figure. involves birth from a head. 119 The birth of Zeus from Ge, the birth of Athena
The "ripples" from the percussive force of the spring can be seen in the course from Metis, or the imminent birth of Dionysos attempt to deal with the
of the seated figure's hair, clearly indicating an emergence and not simply a ambiguity of specific figures and their identification, but the nucleus of the
figure behind another. To the right are two more figures. Above is a fragmentary scene remains uniquely the birth of Athena. Although the wings sprouting from
male who looks leftward toward the emerging warrior and holds his hands up the front shoulders of the gods are highly unorthodox, they do serve as an
before his chest. Below him is another figure who kneels before a tripod effective sign of divinity and of the mythological dimension of the narrative.
cauldron and holds a staff or piece of wood in his hand and tends the fire. Both Clearly, attributes here are still tentative experiments, and the brunt of the
figures are nude and winged. On the left is one more winged figure, this one visual language of the narrative is carried by the nucleus rather than the specific
wearing a long, patterned chiton and facing right with hands held down and details of the figures. The stability of the nucleus and of attributes in later art
outward. A knife appears in her right hand. and its variety in the seventh century suggest that a nucleic formula is being
Structurally, the scene is fairly simple, but its identification has been more developed, at least in terms of the exploration of unique situations as a strategy
complicated for contemporary viewers. Explanations include the birth of Zeus for depicting narratives.
from Ge, the birth of Athena from Metis, the birth of Dionysos, and the birth The codification of narrative depends on consistency in the treatment of the
of Athena from Zeus. 115 Much of the problem has hinged on the identification nucleus of the narrative. Codification implies a consistency in application across
of the central figure. Simon's extensive examination of the work does indeed a culture, a visual language shared by artist and viewer that enables narration to
suggest Zeus as the most likely figure, an identification that Condoleon- take place. As Pausanias's descriptions of scenes from the Chest of Kypselos
Bolanacchi also makes while disputing Simon's reasoning, including whether pointed out, identifying the subject readily was a primary step in the process of
the figure is really bearded. As to the identity of the newborn, the figure's narration, so that ambiguous scenes deviating from a code would lose their
nudity and wings are troubling for Athena, although pose, armor, and position narrative clarity and create extra steps for the viewer ultimately to interpret the
are those that will be found consistently in later Archaic scenes of her birth. work. This raises, however, a series of issues that concerns the discourse of
Further, her wings are not unique among the figures, so that she has the same viewer, image, and artist, or elements of the macro-structure. For example, what
relationship to Zeus that she has on the Yale Athena. Based on these later is the degree of innovation or tradition followed by artists and how is this
versions, the figure of Hephaistos would be appropriate in the work and is affected by what might be called the artist's agenda or aims?120 How does
probably one of the two male figures on the right. 116 Unlike later scenes, there patronage or the format, shape, and size of a work affect the final narrative that
is no ax for Hephaistos, although one might have appeared next to the missing is produced? Is the visual language, especially the repertory of stories, set once
left leg of the upper figure. Simon and Fittschen would identify this figure as it is established, or is it like a spoken language, able to develop as time passes?
Hephaistos on the basis of the inward-pointing and contorted feet, whereas Does the style of the artist, group, or period have a direct impact on the forms
Ahlberg-Cornell cites the splayed feet of the figure below attending the tripod of the narrative, and are these part of larger currents in the arts? What are the
as Hephaistos. If this figure is indeed Hephaistos, S. Morris would suggest sources of the visual language used by artists: artistic tradition, oral tradition,
Daidalos as the name of the upper figure. 117 The other figure behind Zeus is poetry? Ultimately, these issues are all aspects of the discourse between artist
female and probably one of the Eileithyia. Her knife is for assistance at child- and viewer in the development of a visual language.
birth, although it is of little practical help. Some artists could be innovative in developing new scenes and subjects or
The problem with these identifications of specific figures is that they are all in modifying formulas to the degree that they were creating a new nucleic core.
based on parallels to later images, but as the wings of the figures make manifest, Most vase painters, however, were not innovators and preferred, like Group E,
the iconography of this vase is quite experimental in nature. Morris points to to stick to a basic and tried repertory, introducing variations to the theme
an Egyptianizing seal with a winged god, suggesting the potential of Near without altering the nucleic core. Whether an artist is an innovator or follower
Eastern models for some of the iconographic elements. 118 The result is a hybrid of tradition is determined, as R. Osborne has discussed, by the artist's agenda. 121
difficult to interpret because it is inconsistent in its visual language. Indeed, one In both cases, there is a reciprocity between artistic conventions and the use of
of the features of images and narrative motifs, as W. Burkert explains, is that images to establish an agenda. Since individual artists would differ in their
they become ambiguous crossing cultural boundaries and are understood differ- interests, not all would approach an image like Herakles and Nessos or the
ently or even entirely misunderstood. In such a case of hybridized iconography, birth of Athena in the same fashion, and artists interested in wedding imagery
the narrative nucleus becomes more crucial in understanding the story. Within or other generic action may not have been interested in mythological narrative
 pa

102 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 103

at all. Patronage may play a role in shaping this interest, in that a piece 3.6 STYLE AND EXPRESSION
produced under commission for a specific individual or family might introduce
innovations or subtleties to a narrative that a shop work painted for a broad Finally, we need to discuss the role of artistic style in the interaction of viewer,
audience might not. Through an artist's interest, he or she may then confirm an work, and artist. Elements of artistic style have already been discussed under
existing agenda, or may seek to put something onto the agenda, or some the heading of composition, but here I am referring to style as it constitutes a
combination of these approaches. Once a culture accepts a narrative innovation visual language connecting artist and viewer. Style begins with the artist and of
as part of the agenda, artists can further shape it around its nucleus. all the elements of the macro-structure is the one most closely related to his or
In choosing subject matter and narrative structure, however, the artist could her individuality. From the Geometric period through the Classical period,
not act with complete free will, if a sale and living were to be made. 122 The Greek artists continue to modify existing styles or to develop new methods of
subject and narrative would have to be comprehensible to the public to be depiction with the result that Greek art goes from a highly abstract treatment
effective, and partake of a common visual language at some level. As J. Board- of the human figure to one that mimics the appearance of things and people in
man summarizes, "vase scenes contribute to the corporate awareness of the nature. Style is a convention by which the viewer understands that a form
community, of their shared interests and responsibilities, of their common represents a figure that is three-dimensional and exists and acts in a space. As
patrons. 11123 Some artists would seem to have specialized in the foreign market; stylistic conventions change, the appearance of the pictorial narrative changes,
certain shapes appear to have been favored in one market more than another, as does the nature of the interaction among artist, object, and viewer. In order
influencing the shape of narrative, and some subjects seem to have been partic- to illuminate the role that style can have on narrative, we will begin by
ularly popular. 124 A foreign market might require a selection of scenes that were comparing two representations of the same scene by the same artist, Euphronios
more readily understandable, and certainly did affect the choice of vase shapes (Figs. 43 and 44). 126 We will later see how different styles and artists can
by artists. The viewing context - size, shape, and function of the vessel, for change the impression of a narrative by comparing two accounts of the death
example - would also determine theme and composition. In some cases, like of Aegisthus (see Figs. 45 and 46). Finally, we will look at the role that different
Group E, this results in a rather formulaic quality. With another artist like styles within a narrative image may play (see Fig. 47).
Exekias, a clearer sense of artistic individuality emerges. Like the development The early generation of red-figure vase painters known as the Pioneers,
of language, narrative in art seems to be affected by a variety of competing working in the last two decades of the sixth century, used the new, fluid
factors, standardization on the one hand and innovation on the other. drawing technique to experiment with movement and foreshortening, and in
This double track of convention and invention has been amply illustrated in the work of Euphronios and several others, we get the exploration of states of
a recent study by H. A. Shapiro of the repertory of stories used by sixth-century mind as well. 127 This development can be seen in two of Euphronios's paintings
artists. 125 In a survey of a wide range of subjects in Attic vase painting, he notes dealing with the death of Sarpedon. In the earlier version, a kylix formerly in
that some appear far more frequently before the year 560, give or take ten the Hunt Collection (Fig. 43, "Sarpedon kylix"), we see a procession of four
years, and another large set of themes first appears between 570-550 or later. figures. 128 Sarpedon's horizontal body is supported on the shoulders of Thanatos
These groups he refers to as "old" and "new" themes. In addition, there are some (Death), who also raises his right arm above his head to hold the left arm of
additional subjects that appear on either side of 560, a category of "overlapping" the dead Lykian. His twin brother, Hypnos (Sleep), holds Sarpedon's legs in
themes that includes the Judgment of Paris, several scenes with Achilles, Peleus his right arm. Both wear full armor and hold shields on their left arms. The
and Thetis, Herakles and Nessos, and Herakles and Triton. Thus, in the work procession moves to the right and is led by the Trojan Akamas.
of the first generation of Archaic painters like the Nettos Painter and Sophilos All of the figures are identified by inscription, and this is the earliest extant
(before 570), one finds only old or overlapping scenes. In the next generation, depiction of the scene described in Iliad 16, when Sarpedon is cut down by
ca. 570-550, which includes Kleitias, we find old, overlapping, and new scenes. Patroklos, stripped of his armor, and then born away by Apollo, Thanatos, and
The following generation of Exekias and Lydos abandons the old scenes and Hypnos on the order of Zeus. 129 This version by Euphronios deviates somewhat
depicts only the overlapping subjects or the new subjects. These changes are from the literary account, in that Sarpedon's wounds have not been washed by
determined by two factors, a shift in Athenian self-perception and changing Apollo, and Akamas, the son of Antenor, is killed earlier in the same episode
principles of composition and narrative. What Shapiro's study demonstrates is by Meriones (II. 16.342-50). Indeed, were it not for the inscriptions, the
that on a broader level, there is room for both tradition and innovation in participation of any divine figures in the scene would not be apparent. The
subject matter and additionally in narrative composition. Artistic choice, fash- general composition and Sarpedon's nudity and wounds (which flow freely with
ion, and patterns of patronage all play a role in shaping the narrative language blood as a graphic reminder of his death in battle) might provide enough
of artist and viewer. information to identify the scene as the death of Sarpedon. However, earlier
 .p

104 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 105

43. Red-figure kylix by Euphronios, ca. 520. Side A: Death and Sleep carry Sarpedon. Private
collection, formerly the Hunt Collection. (After Tompkins [1983], 55)

theories on depictions of this episode saw them as transpositions of the death

of Memnon, a position that von Bothmer has effectively discounted but which
points out the ambiguity of the scene as a literal depiction of the Iliad.130
These deviations are less to the point than the manner in which Sarpedon's
death is an occasion for grief, as Zeus himself shed tears when the fate of his
son was decided (II. 16.459-61 ). As Robertson has noted, the tiny painting
conveys a sense both of physical effort and of feeling. 131 Sarpedon's body is
larger by comparison than the other three, and its lifelessness is conveyed by
the way in which the limbs hang over in several directions. Thanatos's shoulders
are stooped under his burden, and a sense of the physical effort is conveyed by
the awkward, one-handed hold that he has on the body. Euphronios also
combines several different viewing angles of Sarpedon's body, including profile, 44. Red-figure calyx krater by Euphronios, ca. 515-510. Side A: Death and Sleep lift
Sarpedon. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Joseph H. Durkee, Gift
three-quarter, and frontal, making the difficult task of bearing the inert body all
of Darius Ogden Mills, and Gift of C. Ruxton Love, by Exchange, 1972 (1972.11.10). (Photo
the more apparent. He has increased the use of lines within the silhouette of courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
the figure to render more of the muscles of the arms, legs, and torso than in
earlier painting, and these details, too, help to convey a sense of exertion in the provides a much larger and uninterrupted surface for the painter (Fig. 44,
bearers. The interlocking bodies of Sarpedon and Thanatos provide a sense of "Sarpedon krater"). 132 Here Euphronios has shown a slightly earlier moment,
mass and effort. when Thanatos and Hypnos bend down to pick up the body. The wounds
The figures not only react to the weight of their burden, but also to the again flow freely, and Sarpedon is once more shown from a variety of viewing
nature of their task. Thanatos's head is bent down under the heavy body of points, but now his profile head hangs down and his left foot is twisted into an
Sarpedon, but his downcast gaze is also seen in the figure of Akamas, who leads experiment in foreshortening. His eyes, now replete with lashes, are closed, and
the procession. Thanatos, too, has lost the expressionless face or Archaic smile, his right hand trails along the ground as his body is lifted. Clearly, all animation
and the line rendering his mouth turns down in a frown. Sarpedon's mouth too is gone from his body, which is now a truly dead weight to be lifted and
is drooping, and with the outturned lower lip gives his face an appearance of carried. The stoop of the twins' shoulders as they seek to lift the body is now
slackness, of being inanimate. Although his eyes are missing along a break in obscured by their wings, whose addition signifies their daimon status. The
the cup, the narrowness of the remaining corner would suggest that they were fingers of Thanatos's left hand curl into the armpit of Sarpedon as he seeks to
closed (as they are on Fig. 44). Mouth and gaze combine to convey a sense of gain a purchase for lifting the giantlike figure. The right hand of Hypnos grabs
loss and grief, and the spread-out, slow rhythm of the procession give it a hold in the middle of the thigh in a position that suggests the volume of
somber feeling that is now quite different from the earliest funeral scenes of the Sarpedon's leg, but which looks less convincing as a hold. The mouth of
Geometric period (cf. Fig. 23). Thanatos is almost a straight line and does not convey the same sense of
Euphronios returned to this scene later in his career, perhaps a decade despondency as on the kylix. In a sense, the sense of strain and reaction is
afterward. This version is found on a calyx-krater in New York, a shape that replaced by a more delicate, supernatural operation. 133
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106 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 107

Although the core of the composition is perhaps more in keeping with the
account in the Iliad,the presence of Hermes is not part of the literary tradition.
Here, as Bothmer and Shapiro have pointed out, current religious conceptions
of Hermes as psychopompos,bearer of the soul to the Underworld, probably
dictated his substitution for Apollo. 134 This has the effect of making the picture
more generally legible than if Apollo were added. The two warriors, inscribed
Leodamas and Hippolytos, respectively, do not participate in the action, and
act as catalysts in providing a more general funerary context for the scene, like
the processions of shielded warriors on Geometric kraters. Their Lykian and
Trojan nationalities may also serve, as Bothmer suggests, as informants to
localize the scene. 135 They gaze straight ahead, without expression, and give
no indication that they see the scene before them. Their vertical forms also
serve to enclose the picture field and provide a contrast to the large number of
diagonal lines in the central composition.
The rearrangement of the composition signals a change in the conception of
the story by Euphronios and in the viewing experience of the scene from the
earlier kylix. Here the composition is basically symmetrical and closed in form;
in the cup, it is strongly (if slowly) directional. Although both scenes are framed
at the sides by spreading vines and clusters of palmettes and/or lotus blossoms,
in the kylix there is more of a sense of open composition than in the krater. It
is as if one can turn the cup around in the hand and move with the procession,
and then continue around to the other side of the cup (where there is a pyrrhic
dance performed). The openness of the conception is also conveyed by the
disappearance of the helmet crests behind the upper border, so that the proces-
sion could conceivably disappear behind the foliage around the handles of the
cup. In the krater, the viewing point is limited to a range in front of the krater;
the inward turning hoplites at either end further contain the composition.
Despite the movement of the figures within the picture space, there is no real
feeling of strong direction. 136 Clearly, the size, weight, and function of a krater
4.5. Red-figure krater by the Dokimasia Painter, ca. 470. B: Death of Aegisthus. Boston,
make it more of a fixed feature in a symposion setting than a cup held in the Museum of Fine Arts, William Francis Warden Fund, 63.1246. (Photo courtesy of the
hand. The reorganization and refocusing of the composition contribute to an Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
increased sense of monumentality, and one has a stronger sense in the krater of
a tribute to the heroic, youthful ideal typified by a kouros statue. This paradig-
matic quality of the Sarpedon scene is in some sense confirmed by the more We can further see the difference in effect that style can create by a com-
generic arming scene on the reverse of the krater. 137 Although these figures are parison of two red-figure calyx-kraters that are nearly contemporary with each
named, they are not mythological nor are they identifiable with known citizens other and that both show Orestes slaying Aegisthus. The first of these is by the
of Athens. The heroic sacrifice of Sarpedon becomes a model for their actions, Dokimasia Painter (Fig. 45, "Boston Aegisthus"), who painted on the other side
whether broadly in defense of polisor more narrowly as a call against or possibly the earlier episode of the death of Agamemnon. 138 The second is by the
for the tyranny of Hippias. In contrast, the cup bears a greater sense of emotion Aegisthus Painter (Fig. 46, "Getty Aegisthus"). 139 The nucleus of each work is
and loss (as Shapiro sums up, of war as hell) conveyed through the actions of basically the same. To the left is Klytaimestra, advancing rightward with a
the figures and the humanlike appearance. The cup shows more personal reac- double-headed ax held above her head. She advances toward Orestes in the
tions, on an object held by a viewer; the krater is a more stately and public center, whose back is to her. Orestes grabs hold of the seated Aegis-thus, and is
depiction, on an object in the center of the symposion. In each case, Euphronios in the process of slaying him with a sword. Also in both compositions to the
has rendered the space, movement, and reactions of the figures to fit the right is a female figure moving leftward toward the center and closing off the
narrative context. composition; she is usually identified as Elektra, encouraging Orestes, but this
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108 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 109

identification creates some problems. There is a great deal of variation beyond

this basic nucleus on the two kraters, but both agree with other representations
of the episode in focusing on the Orestes's act of regicide, rather than the
matricide that is the second half of his double murder. 140
The Boston Aegisthus has a more pared-down composition, using only four
figures rather than the six of the Getty Aegisthus. Orestes appears in the center
of the krater, wearing full armor and an Athenian helmet. Aegisthus, dressed in
a himation, is set off-center to the right and is splayed out on a chair. His right
arm and hand reach upward toward Orestes' chin in the conventional and futile
gesture of appeal. Blood flows from a chest wound; his left arm falls toward the
floor and holds a lyre. This instrument is rare among depictions of the scene,
and combined with the informal attire of Aegisthus it perhaps emphasizes his
"absorption in pleasant solitude," enjoying the fruits of his revenge against
Agamemnon for the crime of Atreus. 141 To the right is a female figure who also
gestures outward with her right arm and hand, and her left arm is bent and left
hand seems to be lifting upward. Her attitude has been described as one of
encouragement toward Orestes, and the contrast with the same female figure
on the obverse, who raises her left palm fully upright in what a modern eye
might describe as a sign for halting, would seem to indicate the different
reactions of Electra to the deaths of her father and stepfather. 142
The composition of the scene is energetic and the Dokimasia Painter makes
effective use of the red-figure technique and an understanding of drawing the
human figure to produce a more lifelike depiction than a High Archaic painting
(compare Fig. 41). Yet, compared to the work of the Classical period, there is
a stiffness and impassiveness about the figures that is more Archaic in spirit
than Classical (compare Fig. 36). Orestes does not really have any expression,
and the reaction of Aegisthus does not begin to compare for emotional quality
to that of Priam on the Naples Iliupersis (see Section 5.2 in Chapter Five and 46. Red-figure krater by the Aegisthus Painter, ca. 470-460. A Death of Aegisthus. Malibu,
Fig. 72). Indeed, the impassiveness of Neoptolemos on the Naples Iliupersis is Collection of the J. Paul Getty Museum, 88.AE.66. (Photo courtesy of the J. Paul Getty
much like the Orestes here, but with the Kleophrades Painter it seems to stand Museum, Malibu)

out in contrast to the other figures. As Shapiro has described it, the figures here
have a manner and predictability that does not seem truly mimetic for all of the claps her right hand to her forehead and pulls at her hair while her left hand is
krater's originality. 143 extended. This mourning action contradicts the usual representation of Elektra,
These qualities can be seen in comparing the Boston Aegisthus to the krater and so may be another character. Around the back and more fragmentary side
in the Getty Museum by the Aegisthus Painter (Fig. 46, "Getty Aegisthus"). As of the krater are more figures, including three standing males with himations
mentioned before, its narrative nucleus is basically similar to the other repre- and staves facing leftward and two running female figures heading rightward,
sentations of the death of Aegisthus, but there are several important if subtle toward the back of Klytaimestra. By using a continuous frieze, the Aegisthus
differences from the Boston Aegisthus. Among the common elements, one can Painter has essentially filled in both wings of the main scene, so that roughly
note that Orestes is nude here whereas Aegisthus is fully clothed. Aegisthus half of the elements respond to different ends. It is, as Simon noted, like a
sits on a throne rather than a chair, emphasizing his usurped regal position. chorus flanking the actors on both sides of a stage, here wrapped effectively
There are additional figures in the composition as well. An older man grabs around the vase. 145
hold of Klytaimestra's ax from behind, restraining her. From inscriptions on a The Getty Aegisthus krater shows a greater interest in the interaction and
pelike by the Berlin Painter showing the same motif, he can be identified as character of the figures that is revealed in the drawing of its figures. Orestes,
. Talthybios. 144 Between Orestes and Klytaimestra is a young woman holding a for example, is engaged in a more complicated action on the Getty krater than
child. To the right is again a young woman rushing toward the center, but she on the Boston Aegisthus krater. His left arm twists the left wrist and arm of
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110 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 111

Aegisthus around behind, while he plunges his sword into Aegisthus's breast tive value that style can have is seen in the reliefs from the interior of the
with his right arm. The position of the arm, with the elbow up, indicates that Temple of Apollo at Bassae (Fig. 47). 147 In the section showing the battle
he is about to withdraw the sword, signifying a completion of the action. between the Lapiths and Centaurs, we see two women on the left, one clinging
Orestes' head, however, is not turned toward his victim, but rather is turned to a small statue and the other gesturing in horror. To the right. a Lapith
backward to see the emerging threat of Klytaimestra. The added line for the struggles with a centaur who has grabbed the garment of the kneeling woman.
upper eye and the open, slightly downturned mouth reveal a countenance that Although the detail and subtlety of these reliefs are not as high, there is still a
is not triumphant, but surprised and intent on a new action, an attack by and discernible difference in the treatment of the centaur and Lapith. The latter's
then on his mother. His contemplation would seem ludicrous were it not for face is large and pulled down, his eyes and mouth sagging. A furrow in his
Talthybios's restraint of Klytaimestra, buying Orestes both space and time for brow adds to the effect of a strong current of emotion in him, especially
the next action to develop. In contrast, the Dokimasia Painter's Orestes is compared with the smoother surfaces and more compact proportions of the
unaware of and only minimally protected from the raised ax of his mother. Lapith. The face of the kneeling woman, too, shows emotions with the slight
There is still in the Boston version an element of time conflation typical of frown and upturned and twisted position of the eyes; the emotional nature of
synoptic narration, but the Aegisthus Painter is moving toward a unity of space her face can be seen by comparing it to the impassive, symmetrical, and even
and time that is more consistent with the action, an idea that Hanfmann called treatment of the features on the small statue, whose stiff pose is meant to
eusynoptos.146 imitate the Archaic style of many cult statues. Indeed, the sculptor here is not
The greater characterization seen in the Getty Orestes is matched by Aegis- only aware of a mimetic style as a means of expressing differences in emotion
thus. Although the Boston Aegisthus is bleeding profusely from the chest, his and character between figures, but also as a means of suggesting different kinds
grasp and movement are still vigorous. In contrast, the fingers of the left hand and purposes of objects.
of the Getty Aegisthus are limply curled in, having lost their grip in the death
blow, and the bent right arm shows that he did not have strength to deflect the
sword of Orestes. His eyes are closed shut and his head slumps forward as he
3. 7 MIMESIS AND DISCOURSE
loses consciousness. On the other side of Orestes, Klytaimestra's face is missing,
but her body is set in full stride and the weight is pushed forward, not centered The contrast between the Boston and Getty Aegisthus kraters and the figures
over the back foot as on the Boston Aegisthus krater. The effect is to give her within the Bassae frieze can be linked more broadly to the development of a
a true forward momentum, which is checked only by the two tensed arms of more naturalistic style of representation and an awareness of the "archaic" or
Talthybios, whose torso is still pulled forward from the exertion. His counte- old quality of more abstract work. 148 This contrast is often seen as dividing the
nance too is consistent with his action, with his mouth set in a firm, straight, Classical and Archaic periods, but it should be emphasized that the dividing
and slightly downward angle. His eyes and eyebrows too are straighter than line between the two is not hard and fast. The increasing naturalism of kouroi
those of Orestes, giving the effect of greater focus and intent for him and
greater doubt and surprise for Orestes. 47. Frieze from the Temple of Apollo at Bassae, early fourth century. Detail of Centauro-
The differences between the two kraters are subtle, but they can illustrate machy. London, British Museum. (Photo courtesy of the British Museum, © The British
the influence that style can have on the macro-structure of pictorial narrative. Museum)
To summarize, the scene on the Aegisthus Painter's krater shows a wider variety
of reactions, emotional and physicat among its figures. Although the basic
nucleus of this scene and that of the Dokimasia Painter is nearly the same and
both are dynamic compositions relying heavily on strongly directional move-
ments and diagonals, the effect is quite different. The Getty figures act more as
characters, their response simultaneously determined by and revealing their ethos
(see Section 5.3). Orestes is clearly heroic, but not invulnerable or wooden, and
the success of his endeavor would be in doubt without the assistance of Talthy-
bios. This figure emerges as heroic on a smaller scale appropriate for a house-
hold retainer. Were Klytaimestra's face preserved, we would undoubtedly have
yet another significant characterization, and with Aegisthus we see the lapse of
character in the loss of consciousness. The idea is to engage viewers' attention
and move their emotions in a way that the Dokimasia Painter's krater does not.
An illustration of the broad change from Archaic to Classical and the narra-
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112 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 113

during the sixth and early fifth centuries and the ability of an artist like Eu- Tyrannicides (see Fig. 33). This conceit of living images is standard in ekphraseis,
phronios to show emotion and physical response indicate that the ability to as we have seen in the passages on the shields of Achilles and Herakles, but
perceive some images as more lifelike than others belongs to the pre-Classical there is a specificity here that is new. These mimetic images of the satyrs are
period as well. To understand the impact of a more lifelike representation on not defined in terms of attribute or action or type, as were images in earlier
the viewer, however, it is useful to examine briefly the concept of mimesis.Most literary passages, but in terms of their correspondence to a specific character
studies have concentrated on the broad application of the term to the visual and in their ability to evoke a sharp emotional reaction in the viewer. The use
arts, especially their use of illusionism in the later fifth and fourth centuries. 149 of a relatively new word group to describe this relationship of image and subject
Here I would like to look at the term more narrowly and extract those elements suggests that for the fifth-century audience there was a change in the nature of
that can explain the value of representation for pictorial narrative and its the reproduction so that it represented the forms of the figure itself, and less a
potential impact upon the viewer in the narrative discourse. generalized schemata as was typical in the Archaic period. 155 Although the
The history of the cluster of words surrounding mimesis,including the noun eidolonof Aeschylus's satyr cannot truly speak any more than a kouros, it seems
form mimosand the verb form mimesithai,have been discussed extensively by G. to have sufficient animation to make the possibility apparent to the viewer's
Else and G. Sorbom. 150 The oldest attested use of the term mimesithaiis the imagination in a way that a kouros would not.
sixth-century Hymn to the Delian Apollo (h.Ap. 146-54), where the idea seems to The concept of mimesis is developed further by later authors, in particular
be that the chorus mimics or speaks with the dialect of each of the visitors to Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle. As we saw earlier in Xenophon's Memorabilia
the sanctuary. The idea that images, too, can imitate the appearance of the (see Section 3.1 ), Socrates convinces the painter Parrhasios that a painted image
world is already a topos in ekphrasis, as we have seen, but the application of can represent the soul by "the expression of the face and through the attitudes
the concept to art continues to develop. of the body, both stationary and in movement." 156 The implication of this in
The word mimesisfirst occurs in the fifth century, most notably in the frag- terms of pictorial narrative is that such representation gives pleasure to viewers
ment of a satyr play by Aeschylus. 151 The first short passage mentions "portraits and allows them to experience the fortunes of the subject in the same way that
[eikones],wrought by superhuman skill." Who is speaking and what the portraits they feel joy or sadness with their friends. In other words, the importance of
are is unclear, but presumably the images are in or on a temple. In the next mimesis in terms of narrative is that it creates a more vivid and sympathetic
section, a group of satyrs are speaking while they bring votive images to the emotional response in the viewer than was possible in earlier art. Although the
temple of Poseidon: 152 passages from the shields of Achilles and Herakles or descriptions of Archaic
works like the Chest of Kypselos often betray a sense of wonder (thauma) or
This image [eidolon] full of my form [morphai], this imitation [mimema] of
treat the figures as if they were animate, one does not get a sense that the
Daidalos lacks only a voice ... I bring these [as] a well-worn ornament to the
images cause a deeper emotional response in the viewer.
god, a well-made [painted?, kalligrapton] votive. It would challenge my own
mother! For seeing it she would clearly turn and [wail] thinking it to be me, This ability of mimesis to affect the viewer or listener was of great concern
whom she raised. So similar is it [to me]. to Plato, whose lack of enthusiasm for the role of the arts in an ideal state has
been widely noted. 157 Mimesis, as it concerns narrative, figures more directly in
The nature of the eidolonis ambiguous, but it is at least painted. Whether it is a Plato's discussion of poetry and art in Republic 3. 158 Plato states that "any story
painted panel or a work of sculpture, which the term eidolonusually implies and or poem narrates things past, present, and future" and that "it employs either
which is the medium most closely associated with the work of 0aidalos, is simple narrative (diegesis)or representation (mimesis), or a mixture of both"
unclear. The antefixes of the temple, often in the form of satyrs heads, have (3920). Mimesis here takes the form of impersonation of appearance and of
been proposed as one solution for the reference. 153 Certainly, there would be direct speech, whereby poet or performer speaks as the character and not as
an irony in actors wearing masks that look like the sculptural antefixes of a self (392C). Indirect speech and narrative (diegesis),defined as a simple account
temple commenting on their similarities, in that works of art resemble works of of events, are not mimetic modes. Later on, Plato classes poetry by its mode,
art and not nature. with tragedy and comedy being only mimetic, lyric as being narrative, and epic
The use of the term here probably does not refer· to an exact duplicate or as a mixed mode, combining descriptive passages (diegesis)with direct speeches
clone, but, as S. Halliwell has argued of mimesis, "a form of correspondence in (mimesis)as in the Iliad (394C). The danger of mimesis is that it can provide
which some aspect of reality is reconstituted in a medium as close as possible bad examples of behavior and that acting out the traits and words of bad
in equivalence to the object. 11154 Thus, the mimetic eidolonnot only looks like a characters leads to their assumption by the citizens (3950). As Woodruff has
satyr, but like a particular satyr that a mother would recognize, for better or stated, Plato's concern is that the audience will be seduced by mimesis "into
worse, as her own son. Not only does the image possess an individuality, but it becoming performers" and "of taking deception as our aim. 11159 Since one form
also seems as if it were speaking, performing a real action like the figures of the of learning in Plato's time is reciting poetry, a student must necessarily imper-
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114 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 115

sonate bad characters in mimetic poetry. Therefore, only goodness of character

shown through beauty of form and good rhythm will be permitted in the poetry
of the state (400D). This limits poetry to hymns to the gods and paeans to
good men, to the exclusion even of Homer (607A). Plato's reference to the
visual arts in the Republicis less concerned with the arts themselves than in using
them as an added argument against poetry, but the implication for pictorial
narrative is clear. 160 Mimesis in visual narrative would reveal all too strongly the
nature of actions and character, and when characters are flawed, the emotional
effect on the viewer would be detrimental. Just as literature should consist of
hymns and paeans, art should consist more of honorific and votive works and
not narrative. 161
Aristotle also discusses mimesis extensively in his Poetics, but in a different
manner than Plato. Mimesis is discussed more narrowly in terms of the art and
as a "commonly accepted notion of art in general." 162 The moral imperative for
art is yet strong in Aristotle, but he is more sympathetic to the expressive and
pleasurable aspects of art than Plato. For Aristotle, mimesis is not quite the idea
of replication or impersonation that we saw in Plato, but rather arises "from
some inclusive, if schematic, intuition of the patterns found in experience." 163
48. Boeotian (Cabiran) black-figure skyphos, late fifth century. Odysseus and Circe. Oxford,
Unlike Plato, Aristotle allows for the possibility of fictional accounts to move Ashmolean Museum, G.249. (Photo courtesy of the© Ashmolean Museum, Oxford)
or persuade an audience of the ethical dimensions of an action, as long as the
action is both probable and necessary. According to Woodruff's analysis of
Aristotle's work, the mimetic arts deal with rhythm and action, both of which 48, "Cabiran skyphos"). 165 Approaching this object as an ancient viewer, the
are categories of motion that, "when perceived, set up corresponding motions first task is to identify the subject. As we have already seen, the nucleus of a
in the mind of the audience," with the result that mimesis has "the power of woman stirring a cup with a wand is typical of Circe and her potion for
engaging our attention and our emotions almost as if it were real." Therefore, metamorphosing Odysseus and his sailors (see Fig. 38). Even when the woman
Woodruff offers a definition of mimesis as follows: "M is a mimema of O just in has dropped the cup, as she has in Fig. 37, the element of a man with drawn
case M has an affect that is proper to O ." Mimesis, then, is about the arousal of sword is also typical of the scene. This cluster of elements - cup, wand, sword,
emotion and the depiction of character. woman serving man who threatens her - is sufficient to identify the narrative,
The importance of mimesis for the narrative discourse is that it can engage whatever the precise stage of the action or whether the metamorphosed sailors
viewers more directly in the action and in the responses of the figures and are included. These elements at least would be consistent with the visual
agents of the action. Viewers can sympathize with characters, experiencing language established for this scene and so initial identification is not problem-
their joy or sorrow themselves, just as viewers would the emotions of a friend atic. So, too, space and time are fairly straightforward, and the inclusion of the
or family member. Viewers can also become part of the action itself by the loom to the right marks the domestic setting for the action, as does the chair
coordination of time and space, so that they become Hipparchos or his associ- in Fig. 37.
ates and experience firsthand the act of Harmodios and Aristogeiton. The At the next stage of the viewing process, however, some discordant elements
important point to remember about this influence of mimesis, however, is that would emerge as the viewer scrutinizes the figures and their specific actions.
it is a matter of style and expression and that these have a definite influence on Circe presents no problems in terms of her actions, but Odysseus does. His
the manner in which a narrative engages viewers. This is, however, only one position at first is like that of someone who is sitting in a chair, and frequently
variable governing the narrative discourse and it is important to remember that Odysseus is represented sitting in a chair or getting up out of one (see Fig.
other factors link archaic and classical narrative together. 164 37). 166 However, there is no chair here and in fact Odysseus is falling backwards
in a position usually associated with a falling, defeated warrior (see Figs. 64 and
74). This would certainly be an element of surprise for the viewer, based on the
3. 8 CONCLUSION typical visual language of the episode, as would other elements of Odysseus's
demeanor. The large pot belly and erect phallus are atypical of Odysseus and a
We can summarize this discussion of the macro-structure of pictorial narration heroic physique. Indeed, Circe's squat proportions and distorted facial features
by examining one last object, a Boeotian skyphos of the late fifth century (Fig. transform her and Odysseus into parodies rather than paragons of heroic beauty
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116 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 117

and strength. 167 Other anomalies present themselves in terms of the composi- distorted features also resembles a comic mask, and it seems as if the figure is
tion and style of the cup. Circe and Odysseus here face each other, creating a speaking, sotto voce, to the audience, commenting upon the action as he partici-
basically closed composition, but one that because of his falling position has a pates in it. 171 The nature of Circe's threat, her potion, remains; this is the
slight leftward direction generally. Typically, however, Odysseus and Circe weapon that has pushed Odysseus down just as the pestle of Andromache in
move or face in the same direction, as would be appropriate for one figure the Naples Iliupersis (see Fig. 74 and Section 5.2 in Chapter Five on reversal).
fleeing another (see Figs. 37 and 38). In these cases, the composition has a Since the cup that she holds is the same as the actual object, it becomes an
distinct rightward direction, opposite that of the Boeotian skyphos. The frontal index referring to the context of its function of drinking wine. Wine can
face of Odysseus also breaks with the conventions for the scene and makes the perform the same kind of transforming experience as Circe's potion, placing the
viewer engage more directly with the figures. Thus, we see that as a viewer drinker under a spell. In this light it is noteworthy that on the Circe kylix (Fig.
begins to examine the figure of Odysseus, he or she would be confronted with 38), the kylix that she holds is identical to the kylix that holds the narrative.
a series of contradictions in visual language, style, and composition from the The narrative, then, becomes a comment upon the activity or function of the
typical rendering of the scene. Odysseus is represented in a very unheroic form art object. The character of the two narratives, however, would argue a different
and his position and the composition convey the impression that it is Circe intent. The Circe kylix would seem to suggest the negative powers of an excess
who poses a threat. of wine, whereas the humor of the Cabiran skyphos makes the situation seem
The viewing context helps to explain some of the peculiar features of this not too dire. 172
and several other representations of the scene in Cabiran ware. 168 The style of There are other comments that can be made on the subject, but the point to
the cup is typical of this Boeotian group of black-figure wares that is usually be made here is that pictorial narrative is a discourse built on the micro-
called Cabiran ware for their association with the Cabiran sanctuary near structure of the image and engaging the viewer and artist through the object.
Thebes. Although the nature of the Cabiran mysteries and the identity of the The result is that every act of narration is in some way unique. In some cases,
deities are obscure, there was an opening of the cult to viticulture in the late such as a cup placed in a grave, artist, object, and intended viewer are frozen
sixth and fifth centuries and the erection of buildings for symposia. 169 Numerous in time, but in the case of monumental art like temple reliefs the artist and work
cups were dedicated at this time and by the later fifth century, there was the will remain relatively constant, but the viewer will change constantly. Although
introduction of Cabiran ware as offerings. These cups, whether they depicted the viewing process is fairly regular in its stages, deviations from a common
ritual or mythological scenes, are all characterized by the use of caricature and visual language can lead the viewer in unexpected directions. Viewing an object
the black-figure technique, which by this time was not widely used in vase in an artisan's shop and at home at a party can alter the reaction of the viewer
painting. The use of black-figure may be a conscious choice because of its to the story. Even when one artist depicts a story a second or third time, other
Archaic associations, just as Panathenaic amphorae continued to be produced factors can bring about changes in the narrative and lead to different reactions
in black-figure down to the Hellenistic period in Athens. 170 Ritual may also play in even the same viewer. Seeing a centauromachy on a temple or at home on a
a role in the caricature style of the vases, particularly if the theatrical perform- drinking cup may create two different kinds of meaning, one public and one
ances associated with the rites were comic in nature. The cups themselves private, that are not exclusive. Narration, whether literary or visual, is a broad
would reflect the general eating, drinking, and other festive activities that and fundamental activity and not one that is simply reducible to categories of
followed the rites, whether the actual cup was used on such occasions or was a space/time structure or to iconographic traditions.
momento of participation by the donor. It is also clear from some of the votive
offerings at the sanctuary that fertility was a concern of at least some of the
devout.
The general religious context behind the creation of the work helps to
explain some of the elements of the pictorial narrative. The festive nature of
the proceedings and the concern for fertility may explain the ithyphallic con-
dition of Odysseus, which is perhaps a reflection of the celebratory activities of
some among the devout. Such an episode may have been performed at the
sanctuary as a comedy, lending to its popularity. However, it should be empha-
sized that the epic account itself actually encourages this kind of parody, for it
is clear from Odysseus's account in the Odyssey that he is feigning threat. Given
that they go to bed immediately afterward, the erotic currents are now trans-
formed into a focal point of the action. The frontal face of Odysseus with its
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NARRATIVE EXTENSION 119

Chapter4 bination, since the process of viewing is the same whether the images belong
to the same story or not. Just as it is through the elements of the micro-
structure that the dimensions of the narrative discourse take effect, it is mostly
through the elements of the macro-structure that the extensional level works.
NARRATIVE EXTENSION In terms of paradigmatic combinations, we need to examine how multiple
images work together as a larger narrative cycle, or whether they need to at all.
In terms of syntagmatic combinations, we will define how images fit together
based on the macro-structure so that we can apply consistent definitions to the
narrative types that have been proposed for this category. In doing so, we may
be able to discern patterns in the deployment of both types of narrative exten-
sion in Greek art.
4.1 NARRATIVE EXTENSION FROM THE MACRO-STRUCTURE
Before examining these two areas, however, we shall look at the general
From the eighth century onward, one can find many works in a variety of media features of the macro-structure that set up the potential for narrative extension.
that have more than one scene on them, from the smallest scale (witness the Two main areas of the macro-structure enable the viewer to make the link
Chigi aryballos in Fig. 29) to the monumental. So, too, the imaginary objects between individual scenes, viewing context and composition. Additionally, the
like the shields of Achilles and Herakles are crowded with scenes, to the point role of indexes within the micro-structure, especially through the use of re-
that it is hard to imagine how they could have fit together. Since a viewer can peated motifs and actions, creates the visual cues that guide the viewer.
only identify one scene at a time, even when the scenes are close to each other Beginning with the viewing context, the linkage of different scenes within
and within the same visual field, the issue of how he or she is meant to the same architectural framework, whether a building, a vase, or other object,
comprehend the connection between the multiple scenes is an important one immediately suggests to the viewer the potential for a common ground among
for pictorial narrative. the different narrative scenes. Although this may seem obvious, it is important
Indeed, this has been one of the focal points of much scholarly study. The to remember because the context can also suggest to the viewer a priority or
traditional model envisioned the separateness of each picture until the Classical sequence of looking at the scenes or the strength of combination. For example,
period, allowing for the combination of multiple scenes from the same story at a series of metopes or a frieze that continues around the corner to another side
that time but especially in the Hellenistic and Roman periods (see Section 1.1 of the building establishes a potential for some kind of link. To draw on a well-
in Chapter One). More recent studies have extended the chronological and known example, the metopes of the Parthenon show the Amazonomachy, the
typological range of multiple-scene narratives. These studies, however, only fall of Troy, and then the Gigantomachy as one approaches and goes around
deal with multiple images within the same story, whereas many works have the building. The visual equivalence of the metopes allows the possibility of a
multiple stories as well as multiple images. Borrowing terms and concepts from link in the mind of the viewer, in this case, a series of struggles symbolizing on
structural analysis, A. Stewart has already turned to the terms syntagmaticand a paradigmatic level the wars of the Greeks against the Persians. The pediments
paradigmaticto define broader categories of narrative combination. 1 As we have of the temple, by contrast, are a more distinct space and are more indirectly
discussed earlier in Chapter Two and Section 3.5 in Chapter Three, syntagmatic connected with each other, both visually and thematically. So, too, on the
relationships are those that admit the possibility of combination in a sequence interior of the Temple of Apollo at Bassae, the two friezes, Amazonomachy and
of successive scenes from the same basic story. Examples of syntagmatic rela- Centauromachy (see Fig. 47), wrap one into the other, making them both
tionships include a series of episodes that develop the same story chronologi- equivalent and susceptible to the same kind of paradigmatic linkage. In some
cally or progressively, such as the life or deeds of a hero like Hercules or cases, the context also allows for a connection between scenes that cannot be
Theseus. It could also include a set of connected but more different stories like viewed simultaneously. For example, the Minneapolis amphora discussed in
the exploits of the members of a family that still follow a mostly linear d~vel- Chapter Two shows scenes of departure (Figs. 21 and 22) on opposite sides of
opment of time. Paradigmatic relationships are those based on the principle of the vase. The creation of a continuous field and borders that interrupt but do
substitution and similarity, along the lines of analogy or metaphor. Hence a set not halt the scenes suggests the possibility of equivalence and connection.
of images would be selected from different stories, but would all involve the Before attempting to draw and determine the strength of connections between
same kind of action, theme, or other form of similarity. For example, a series of two scenes, then, we need to consider how much the visual context helps or
wedding scenes, the loves of Zeus, combat duels, or heroic deaths from different hinders the process of extension.
battles or wars would be examples of a paradigmatic relationship. The Minneapolis amphora also points out another important foundation for
A model for pictorial narration must allow for both types of narrative com- extension, the composition (see Section 3.3 in Chapter Three).2 The Yale

1 18
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NARRATIVE EXTENSION 121

120 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART

Athena amphora (Fig. 41) has a closed and basically symmetrical composition
with a modest directional movement from the sides toward the center. The
viewer's eye is led to the center of the composition, so that combined with the
strong boundaries created by the panel framework, there is not a strong impetus
to combine this scene with another. The Minneapolis amphora, in contrast, has
a stronger directional movement in the departure of the warrior, although it is
closed off at both ends by inward-facing figures. The departure of Poseidon and
Amphitrite on the other side is also unidirectional and open at one end, creating
a visual cue leading toward the other side of the vase.
The use of open and directional compositions aids the viewer in linking
scenes and even into combining separate pictures into a single narrative. For
example, the metope from Thermon showing Perseus fleeing with the head of
the Gorgon (Fig. 28) stands well alone as a nucleus. A fragment from another
metope shows the leg and foot of a running figure like Perseus, but with the
flesh painted white, indicating a female figure and very likely one of the
pursuing sisters like that seen on the dinos by the Gorgon Painter (Fig. 24). 3
Either one or both of the Gorgons may then have appeared on an adjacent
metope(s) to the left, forever chasing but separated from Perseus in physical as
well as narrative terms. The figure probably shared the same extended, diagonal
form as Perseus, violating again the metope's border and emphasizing the figure.
The use of a repetitive series of such open and directional compositions would
help to break the physical barrier of the intervening triglyphs and to link the
individual panels together. 4 The separation of the figures by the triglyphs, then,
mimics their separation in the pursuit, close together .but in a line, a version of
a unified narrative as we shall see in Section 4.3. The repetition of the same
49. Metope from Temple of Apollo at Thermon, ca. 630. Aedon and Chelidon (Prokne and
basic form and composition links the separate panels visually into a common
Philomela). Athens, National Museum. (Photo courtesy of the Deutsches Archaologisches
nucleus. This linkage would be further enhanced by the contrast between the
Institut, Athens)
brightly colored metopes and the darker triglyphs, drawing the eye over the
latter. Thus, the artists seem to have dealt with the problem of limited surface
space by extending the composition over a series of panels. The narrative takes nightingale (Prokne) and swallow (Philomela). The inscription thus serves to
on a more staccato and simple rhythm than in a continuous frieze like that on identify the characters of a story that is relatively obscure compared to Perseus.
the dinos, but the viewing context and composition in either case links the The inscription, however, does more than identify in this case, because the use
viewing experience. of the word swallow rather than the name of the character, Philomela, brings
On another metope from Thermon, the artist moves away from the one to the viewer's mind a later episode and the ultimate conclusion of the story.
figure to one metope formula to concentrate the entire narrative on a single The inscription thus acts as an index and proleptic reference.
panel. 5 On this panel, we see two facing female figures who are bent over, the Unlike the Perseus narrative, the artist has placed the entire story into this
one on the left holding the head of a child who is mostly missing in the center single composition. Since the composition of this panel is symmetric, static,
of the metope (Fig. 49). The subject would be indecipherable but for a retro- and closed in on itself, it is difficult to imagine that there were any related
grade inscription in the upper right: CHELIDFON (XEAIL1rON). The word metopes.7 The killing of ltys is the climactic moment of retribution and conse-
means swallow, and refers to the legend of Philomela and her sister Prokne. quence, and so would not need other panels for earlier events, once the viewer
The latter was married to Tereus, king of Thrace, and had a son by him named is aware by means of the inscription of the episode's subject. The nature of the
ltys. When Philomela was sent to Thrace after Tereus reported falsely Prokne's action and the choice of moment do not require the open and directional
death, he raped her and silenced her by cutting out her tongue. The sisters composition of the Perseus metope, and result in a closed and symmetrical
exacted revenge by killing ltys, which is apparently the moment shown here, composition here. By using a mixture of compositional types over the series of
and then feeding him to Tereus. 6 Afterward, the sisters were transformed into a metopes - frontal, symmetrical, and directional - the painter provided a varied
 ..
122 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART
NARRATIVE EXTENSION 123

rhythm to the viewing of the metopes and could create long or short series
with punctuation breaks between them.
Composition can also punctuate a series in other ways. Another metope from
Therm on shows a gorgoneion,staring frontally with enlarged eyes and mouth and
protruding tongue (Fig. 50). This form of the gorgoneionfollows a canonical type
known from numerous examples of the later seventh and early sixth centuries. 8
Although strictly speaking not a narrative panel, the metope may have formed
part of the Perseus sequence, appearing at either its beginning or end. The left-
ward movement of the Perseus metope and one or two running Gorgon metopes
creates a strong directional flow that encompassed at least parts of two intercol-
umnations. If placed at the end of the series (moving from left to right), the fron-
tal, symmetrical composition of the gorgoneionwould halt the quick leftward
movement of the Perseus panel and terminate the sequence visually, much like
the period at the end of a sentence. The frontal aspect of the head, not unlike a
50. Metope from Temple of Apollo at Thermon, ca. 630. Gorgoneion. Athens, National
trophy hanging on a temple wall, would also engage the viewer directly in the Museum. (Photo courtesy of the Deutsches Archaologisches lnstitut, Athens)
story. Placed in its own metope, it is as if the viewer is called to witness a tangible
remain of the story, making the gorgoneiona highly effective index for the entire an attendant holding the head of one horse while others attend to the chariot. 10
story. Alternatively, it could have appeared at the beginning of the series as an in- One other figure, behind the horses but in the center of the composition, has
dex for the earlier moment of the decapitation. In either case, the gorgoneionwould the same curly fringe on the back of his head as the lion helmet of Herakles
serve as a symbol for the Perseus story as a whole, an example of the source of or- above. He is the only one with such a hair style; all others are smooth. While
der and protection in heroic confrontation. It is the narrative behind the symbol Athena links the shoulder and body, the chariot ties the main scene to that on
that transforms the motif into an effective apotropaic device. the mouth I which features a race of six chariots between two posts. All of the
This discussion points out the importance of the index within the micro- compositions on the hydria are somewhat directional, with the majority of
structure for creating either paradigmatic or syntagmatic links between different elements moving rightward across the shoulder and body. The chariot race,
scenes. In the case of the Thermon metopes, the repetition of the same running being a continuous frieze, moves both rightward near the handle and leftward
pose or Gorgon's head from one metope to another acts as an index linking the though upside down near the front of the vase.
two images in the viewer's mind, independent of their actual subject. Here the Are these scenes linked syntagmatically or paradigmatically? Although the
nucleus doubles as index to create a larger narrative extension. The generic subject on the body of the hydria can only be identified with certainty as
theme of departure on the two sides of the Minneapolis amphora also serves as Athena in a chariot, some elements found in this picture are also typical of the
an index to strengthen the connection suggested by composition and context apotheosis of Herakles in which Athena takes him to Olympos on her chariot. 11
between the scenes. This linkage is further enhanced by the repetition of the Given the linkage between this scene with that on the shoulder, it is possible
same subject on the shoulder of both sides of the vase, a combat between two to infer that the nude figure behind the horse is Herakles although he is without
warriors (see detail in Fig. 13). Clearly, scale and context suggest that these attribute. An explanation may be that being dead he has no need of his weapons
scenes are less important than those on the body, but the repetition serves as and attributes in Olympos. The charioteer also wears a hat like that of Hermes,
an index linking the two departure scenes more strongly together. who traditionally accompanies the dead and may indicate a change of status for
Other elements of the micro-structure, particularly repeated motifs and char- Herakles from the shoulder picture (cf. Fig. 44). We might then see for a
acters, can serve as indexes linking scenes that at first glance do not seem syntagmatic link between these two an earlier deed of Herakles on the shoulder
related. On a hydria by the Antimenes Painter in Minneapolis, for example, we and his apotheosis on the body, the latter being the more important because of
see on the body Athena holding the reins of a chariot, and on the shoulder, we its scale. The chariot race around the mouth becomes a game celebrating his
see Herakles fighting Kyknos (Fig. 51).9 The repetition in both pictures of funeral and apotheosis, establishing a sequence of shoulder-body-mouth for
Athena with aegis, helmet, and spear on a vertical axis on the left side 1 accen- narrative sequence.
tuated by the added white of her arms and face, creates a link through indexes One could also argue that the chariot scene is not the apotheosis of Herakles,
between the two scenes. The repetition of a bearded figure wearing a cloak although such allusion may have been intended. In this case the scene may be
loosely over both shoulders also links the scenes, but it is less clear if they are viewed more generically as processional, a theme of departure like that on the
meant to be the same figure. On the shoulder the figure is Zeus, intervening in Minneapolis amphora (Fig. 22). The chariot race on the mouth can yet be
the fight between Herakles and Kyknos, while below the figure acts more like funerary in nature like the games for Patroklos in the Iliad;a funerary theme
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124 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART

would make the main chariot, which has driver but no passenger, symbolic of a
procession for the deceased like that of Achilles around the tomb of Patroklos
(Il. 24. 14-17). A paradigmatic extension of the three scenes may then revolve
around the commemoration of the heroic dead, whose paragon is Herakles on
the shoulder. Athena might then symbolize divine recognition of arete and
everlasting fame for the deceased, whose passing is marked by the games on
the mouth. The allusion to the apotheosis of Herakles may be intended as a
reference to the apotheosis of the hero. In this order, we move from mytholog-
ical (shoulder) to generic (mouth) subject, with the main chariot a generic
scene given more specificity by the appearance of Athena. The chariot scene
then becomes a mediating narrative between myth and everyday life.
These two interpretations, it must be stressed, are hypothetical. Neverthe-
less, they illustrate that paradigmatic and syntagmatic combinations are not
mutually exclusive and that the foundation for narrative extension lies in ele-
ments of the macro-structure and micro-structure. In both cases, several key
components of the macro-structure (context, composition) and the micro-
structure (indexes) suggest linkage of the scenes, whether syntagmatically or
paradigmatically. Which and whether such links must exist are questions to be
addressed; in the next sections of this chapter, we examine both of these types
of narrative extension in more detail.

4.2 PARADIGMATIC EXTENSION

As mentioned earlier, paradigmatic extension is based on the principle of

substitution and similarity, along the lines of analogy or metaphor, so that there
is an equivalence between two or more narrative images. It is the task of the
viewer to determine the nature of the equivalence or metaphor, if it exists,
when confronted by multiple images. The efficient functioning of paradigmatic
extension depends on proximity in the viewing experience and quick identifi-
cation of the stories in order for the viewer to begin finding common ground.
This type of extension, then, depends heavily on indexes as keys linking the
scenes and on the development of a visual language within the culture that
assigns certain values or meanings to the story. To return to the example of the
Parthenon, the themes of its metopes - Amazonomachy, Iliupersis, Centauro-
machy, and Gigantomachy - all involve on one level struggles against forces
disrupting the social order. So, too, the three themes on the Temple of Zeus at
51. Attic black-figure hydria by the Antimenes Painter, late sixth century. Shoulder: Herakles
Olympia, the chariot race of Pelops and Oinomaos, the Centauromachy, and
and Kyknos; body: Departure for Olympos. Minneapolis Institute of Arts, John R. VanDerlip
the labors of Herakles all involve the working of dike·or justice through the
Fund, 61.59. (Photo courtesy of the MIA)
oversight of the gods. 12 That is not to say that each of the stories always had
that meaning or that the meaning that a culture assigns to these stories does
not change over time, but that at that time these stories had these common
values that allowed a paradigmatic extension between the different stories on
these temples.
Frequently, it is the generic quality of many narrative scenes, even those that
 F
126 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART

have specific characters, that permits this paradigmatic extension to take place
more readily. For example, on a hydria in Boston we see two scenes, on the
body Achilles dragging the corpse of Hektor at Troy and on the shoulder the
combat between Herakles and Kyknos (Figs. 52 and 53). 13 The main scene is a
prime example of synoptic narrative, with the painter compressing a number of
nuclei and moments into one panel. We see, for example, both the initial
dragging of Hektor around the walls of Troy and that later around the tomb of
Patroklos by the placement of the house with Priam and Hecuba on the left
and the tumulus on the right. Both serve as informants placing the action in
two different places, but each serves as a nucleus that combines with the
dragging to create two different narrative moments, one earlier with Priam and
Hecuba mourning and saying farewell to their son and the other later with the
spirit of Patroklos observing from the tomb. In the center, Iris arrives, who in
the Iliadis sent by Zeus to tell Thetis to come hear his command that she make
her son relent from his punishment of the corpse, and to tell Priam to come
ransom the body. In the picture, we may rather assume that Iris delivers Zeus's
message directly to Achilles. What gives the scene an added power, however,
is that Achilles is shown stepping into the chariot as if he is about to depart
from the home, so that the mythological narrative has strong overtones of the
departing warrior, as can be seen by comparing it to the leave-taking on the
Minneapolis amphora (Fig. 21 ). Because of this generic level of visual language,
the scene also resonates with the departure of Amphiaraos (see Fig. 26, bottom
register and Fig. 27), so that the leave-taking on the Boston hydria clearly has
elements of death associated with departure.
The painter has also added some unusual elements to the scene on the
shoulder (Fig. 53). The nucleus is like that on the shoulder of the Minneapolis
hydria (Fig. 51), with Herakles charging from the left, Kyknos from the right,
and Zeus intervening in the center. There is a change, however, with the
placement of two chariots in the center of the composition, Herakles' driven
by Athena to the left and Kyknos's on the right. According to the Shieldof
Herakles, chariots are the means by which the opponents reached the battlefield,
but generally these are left out or placed to the sides of the composition.
Placing them in front of the combatants makes them more prominent and as
indexes links the scene to the dragging of Hektor below. So, too, the appear-
ance of gods in the middle of both compositions, Zeus above and Iris below,
gives both stories elements of divine intervention.
How, then, is a viewer meant to link the scenes together? In a nutshell, the
combination of the scenes brings together the elements of a heroic life and 52. Attic black-figure hydria by the Leagros Group, ca. 510. Body: Achilles dragging the
death. A departure from home is followed by combat and death in battle. The body of Hektor. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, William Francis Warden Fund, 63.473. (Photo
courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
family is responsible for mourning and attending to the fallen family member,
who will receive a tumulus and funeral games like a chariot race. Such a
combination of scenes would be ideal for a grave offering, particularly for a son
fallen in battle. The ability of the artist to suggest such a link between two
unrelated stories, however, depends on a willingness to depict the story in such
a way that the common or generic qualities of actions link the two mythological
128 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART NARRATIVE EXTENSION 129

narratives together, even to the point at which there are the introductions of
some anomalies in the visual language and traditional iconography of a scene.
Unfortunately, we have little direct testimony as to the interpretations that
an ancient viewer might have made with paradigmatic extension. Pausanias
describes a number of works that combine multiple narratives, such as the Chest
of Kypselos, the Throne of Bathykles, and the panels around the statue of Zeus
at Olympia. Both of the ekphrastic shields of Achilles and Herakles contain
multiple scenes that bear strong similarities to actual works like the Chest of
Kypselos or the Frarn;ois vase. Rarely, however, do the descriptions provide a
clue as to the paradigmatic connections between the scenes, rather, they usually
list the scenes in succession without connecting them. At most, a connected set
of scenes is given a general label, as in the cities at war and peace in the poetic
shields. Although scholars can find common themes or organizing principles,
both in described and existing works, we are sadly devoid of ancient testimony
that provides a guide for this kind of interpretation. Indeed, such connections
go beyond the focus of literary accounts-description of the narrative, and move
beyond to the realm of interpretation (see Section 3.1 in Chapter Three).
Ancient viewers undoubtedly engaged in interpretation, but at this level, it
moves into the realm of criticism and reflection and moves beyond the place of
immediate discourse with the work of art that is the focus of literary sources.
53. Attic black-figure hydria by the Leagros Group, ca. 510. Detail of shoulder: Herakles
Making a scholarly assessment of a paradigmatic link between narrative is and Kyknos. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, William Francis Warden Fund, 63.473. (Photo
complicated by the flexibility of the visual language and the multivalent nature courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)
of the images. A specific story such as the birth of Athena can be combined
with a host of pendant scenes elsewhere on a work. For example, on the Yale structure and macro-structure. I would propose that when a number of connec-
Athena (see Fig. 41), the other side of the vase shows a frontal representation tions at multiple levels of the narrative structure exist, then we may have
of a quadriga. We can find eight other examples in which Group E paired the grounds for discussing the importance of the paradigmatic link between two
birth of Athena with other scenes, including two with Herakles and the lion, narratives.
one with Theseus and the minotaur, two with Oionysos, Ariadne, and satyrs, As an example, we might examine the rim of an Attic black-figure dinos that
two others with frontal chariots, and one with warriors departing. 14 In terms of is crowded with twelve miniature scenes (Fig. 54). 15 Six of these feature quad-
the chariot, we frequently see Athena in a chariot (see Figs. 51 and 53) and the rigae ready to depart. The figures with the chariots are varied and include older,
chariot may well be regarded as a sign of her divine status and importance in bearded men, youths, and women. None seem directly engaged in the various
the affairs of humans since she frequently uses it to travel to and from Olympos. battles in the adjacent scenes, but their directional arrangement does create a
Just as she often intervenes in battle in the Iliad,the pairing of her birth with pattern of focus for the viewer. The chariots alternate rightward and leftward,
warriors arming suggests her importance as a protector and aid in battle. The so that they point toward three of the narrative nuclei ( 1, 3, and 5) while
repetition of armor and armed figures (including Ares) in the two scenes would turning their backs on the other three nuclei (2, 4, and 6). This corresponds to
establish visually a link between the two scenes as indexes. Athena also appears the basically larger compositional size of scenes 1, 3, and 5, suggesting that
commonly with both Herakles and Theseus (see Figs. 53 and 67) as their divine these scenes were to have a greater prominence for the viewer. Their subjects
patron, so that there is a causal link between her birth and their exploits with include Theseus and the Minotaur ( 1), warriors fighting over a fallen comrade
which the viewer would be familiar. The pairing with Dionysos can be seen as (3), and Herakles and the Nemean lion (5). The linkage of Theseus and
one of type, equating the two gods. The nature of the compositions and the Herakles in their defining combats is a popular one. The linkage here is rein-
divine casts of both scenes would help the viewer to link the scenes. To forced by the basic arrangement of the opponents as upright, the use of a
summarize, there are a number of directions in which narrative combinations weapon (although the Nemean lion was impervious to these), the inclusion of
could go. In the absence of direct testimony about the process of paradigmatic spectators on both sides, the inclusion of a female figure in each composition
extension by the Greek viewer, determining whether a paradigmatic link be- (next to the chariot on the right in 1, Athena in 5), and the same short skirt
tween the subjects is intended must depend on a close analysis of the micro- and scabbard for each figure. The linkage of Herakles and Theseus is particu-
130 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART
- NARRATIVE EXTENSION 131

larly strong in that both of their opponents are monstrous in nature. The same
basic elements are repeated in the warrior combat, but this scene has no indexes
or informants to link it to a specific mythological story. One should probably
think of this in a more generic light, since the struggle with one's comrades is
a great duty of heroes and of contemporary citizens. By including this scene as
a one of a trio with Herakles and Theseus, the painter may be suggesting a link
between the actions of heroes and warriors, both mythological and contempo-
rary.16
This equation is confirmed in the three smaller nuclei. Two of these, 4 and
6, fall into the category of armed struggle like no. 3, and one (2) shows
Herakles and Nessos. The Nessos scene shows the same nucleic core elements
that we saw in Figs. 39 and 40: Herakles moving toward the right with a
weapon, Nessos moving rightward but turning his torso around to confront
Herakles, here pleading for mercy by cupping his chin. It is important to note
that in the corresponding warrior fights, the warrior on the right also moves
rightward but turns his head back toward his charging opponent. The corre-
spondence is strengthened by the fact that all three opponents are forced to
their knees. The poses thus serve as indexes linking the scenes 2-4-6 as a set
distinct from 1-3-5. Still, this group has the same mixture of mythological hero
and generic fighting warriors that we found in the first group.
Overall, there is an even division between heroes vanquishing scourges and
warriors fighting on the battlefield. It is interesting that the latter scenes are
generic in nature whereas the former are clearly mythological. One might
conclude that the painter is suggesting an equivalence in heroic value between
the struggles of warriors and those of heroes, particularly Herakles and Theseus.
That this is a planned theme is also shown in the symmetrical placement of
some of the scenes. The two Herakles scenes are set directly opposite each
other on the rim (2 and 5), the duel of Theseus and the minotaur is placed
opposite the only warrior duel ( 1 and 4), and the two scenes with three warriors 54. Attic black-figure dinos from the Circle of the Antimenes Painter, ca. 520-515. Counter-
clockwise from the bottom: (1) Theseus and Minotaur; (2) Herakles and Nessos; (3) warriors
are pendants ( 3 and 6). This type of symmetrical arrangement and equivalence
fighting over fallen comrade; (4) warriors fighting; (5) Herakles and Nemean lion; (6)
in scene selection suggests a careful plan of selection and arrangement that warriors fighting. © Cleveland Museum of Art, 1988, John L. Severance Fund, 1971.46.
makes the potential for paradigmatic extension plausible. (Photo courtesy of the Cleveland Museum of Art)
Besides vase paintings and lost works like the Chest of Kypselos, there is
another group of encyclopedic collections of mythological narratives, the shield is no repetition of any character and the stories themselves are distributed
bands from Olympia. There are a total of seven mythological subjects on one among the Trojan (with Oresteia), Herakles, Theseus, and Theban sagas,
of the best preserved examples: (top to bottom) ransom of Hektor, Herakles although the war at Troy and its aftermath predominates (4 out of 7). This is
and the lion, the strife between Amphiaraos and Lykourgos (buckle plate), not universally true of the shield bands, but of the 32 examples of shield bands
Ajax and Kassandra, Theseus and the Minotaur, the suicide of Ajax, and that E. Kunze lists with at least two surviving scenes, only 7 repeat a character,
the murder of Agamemnon (Figs. 55 and 56). 17 Clearly, the metopal format and 3 of those are Herakles in different labors. 18 It would appear then that
of the shield band is a determining factor in selection, for the scenes are paradigmatic rather than syntagmatic connection governs any possible narra-
basically confrontations of two figures, with sometimes a third or fourth fig- tive extension in the shield bands. Does this encyclopedic collection of myth-
ure added as a catalyst (ransom of Hektor, Ajax and Kassandra, suicide of ological narrative, however, demonstrate a narrative program, or instead selec-
Ajax). When the format is wider, as in the buckle plate, the same choice of tion criteria governed by other factors such as compositional homogeneity,
confronting pair is followed, but the ends of the composition are filled out with subject diversity, and a pattern of distribution based on narrative or decorative
additional figures who help to restrain the warriors. On this shield band, there design?
 *1

132 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART NARRATIVE EXTENSION 133

We might begin by comparing two protection to Kassandra as they do to

scenes that were linked on the Cleve- Priam. 20 Although there is some
land dinos, Herakles and the Nemean grounds for linking the two scenes,
lion (IV g) and Theseus and the Mino- the emphasis visually is strongest with
taur (IVe). Both heroes are nude and the Trojans begging for mercy, and
bearded, both wear scabbards over not on heroic action by the Greeks.
their shoulder, and both face standing, The two remaining scenes are also
charging opponents who are mon- interesting both in terms of their sub-
strous and nonhuman in nature and jects and their narrative structure. Be-
who raise a limb toward the head of low the rape of Kassandra is the sui-
the hero. Both are placed at the bot- cide of Ajax (IVc). Like the body of
tom of their narrative groupings. Hektor, that of Ajax fills the entire
However, the actions of Herakles and bottom of the composition with three
Theseus are less closely linked as in- figures standing behind it. The figure
dexes. Theseus raises his right arm up on the left is closely linked visually to
to throw a stone, and Herakles sets his Achilles above through the repetition
down and thrusts forward with a of nudity and hair, left arm holding a
sword. Both grab their opponent with spear, and right arm pointing down-
the left arm, but Herakles' arm is hid- ward toward the body. The figure on
den and reaches behind the lion's the right raises his right arm like Her-
head. The whirligig pose of the Min- mes, but makes a gesture of mourning
otaur, too, is distinct from the lion. In and holds a staff on the ground. The
other words, the paradigmatic link be- nude middle figure is turned rightward
tween these two scenes is weaker than and points with both hands, making
on the Cleveland dinos, although the him quite different from Priam above.
general equation of Herakles and The- Like the scene of the lesser Ajax and
seus is still strong. Kassandra, the suicide of the greater

~
The top scenes of each group are Ajax is not a sterling example of Greek
similarly linked by theme, in this case, heroic triumph. What links the two
the Trojan War. In both cases, we see scenes with corpses is grief and
the demise of the children of Priam, mourning appropriate to the fall of the iv,

with Hektor lying dead (IVf) and Kas- hero.

55. Shield band from Olympia, ca. 575-550. Top to sandra pursued to the statue of Athena The last scene is the murder of Ag-
bottom: Ransom of Hektor; Herakles and lion; sphinxes; (IVb). 19 Both scenes contain four ele- amemnon by Klytaimestra and Aegis-
strife between Amphiaraos and Lykourgos (plate); lions;
ments. A god appears on the right thus (IVd). The composition and nu-
Ajax and Kassandra; suicide of Ajax; Theseus and Min- 56. Shield band from Olympia, ca. 575-550. Top to
otaur murder of Agamemnon. Olympia, Archaeological
(Hermes and the statue of Athena), cleus here bear a strong resemblance
bottom: Ransom of Hektor; Herakles and a lion;
Museum, B 1654. (Photo courtesy of the Deutsches Ar- and the Greek hero appears on the left to the other lower scenes of Herakles
sphinxes; strife between Amphiaraos and Lykourgos
chaologisches lnstitut, Athens) (Achilles and Ajax). The Trojans are and Theseus, and indeed there are (plate); Ajax and Kassandra; suicide of Ajax; murder
in the middle, and their role as victim some strong links through indexes be- of Agamemnon: Theseus and Minotaur. Olympia,
is emphasized by the similar pleading gesture of hand reaching to chin made tween the scenes. Both Klytaimestra Archaeological Museum, B 1654. (Composite of
by Priam and Kassandra. In both cases, one might say that the gods are and Herakles thrust a sword into their drawings after Kunze [1950], Taf. 18-19 and Beilage
13)
supporting the Trojans. There are some significant differences, including the opponent and grapple him with their
presence of armed confrontation in the Kassandra scene and the fact that the other hand, and the whirligig posture
nude figures are male in one panel and female in the other. The actions of the of Agamemnon is similar to that of the Minotaur in reverse. The pose of
Greek heroes differ significantly, and the actions of the gods do not afford Aegisthus has no close parallels in the other compositions, but the spear stand-
134 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART

ing in the ground behind him is repeated in the ransom of Hektor and the
T NARRATIVE EXTENSION 135

suicide of Ajax. There is a general structural equivalence between the murder

of Agamemnon and the deeds of Herakles and Theseus, except that the victim
is turned around and stabbed in the back. This transforms the linkage into a
contrast rather than an equivalence.
In looking over the collection of scenes as an ensemble, one might speculate
whether antithesis is the strategy here. We have two examples of heroic tri-
umph (Herakles and Theseus) and one of piety (the ransom of Hektor) that
contrast with scenes of rape/sacrilege, suicide, and murder. In other words, we
have a contrast between heroic and nonheroic narratives. Indeed, if the artist
were trying to suggest a sharp contrast, the structural links between the scenes
would have to be balanced by disparities to make the point that they are not
equivalent. This would explain the weaker correspondence between Theseus
and Herakles on the shield band compared to the Cleveland dinos, since the
artist is contrasting these with their antitheses in addition to comparing them
as equivalent.
This antithetical comparison between virtue and its opposite might also
explain the choice of subject for the buckle plate, the confrontation between
Amphiaraos and Lykourgos. Interestingly, this is the only scene from the The-
ban saga among the shield bands, suggesting that it had some specific meaning
for the artistic program or patron of the shield. 21 Unlike other confrontations
of warriors, in this case, figures on the side reach out to hold the sword hand
of the two warriors, and Adrastos intervenes between them. Although at first
glance the nucleus appears similar to other generic confrontations (see Figs. 13
and 20), in fact, there are two equivalent nuclei (supporters grabbing sword of
warrior) that make the narrative one of restraint rather than fight within a
57. Attic black-figure volute krater, signed by Ergotimos (potter) and Kleitias (painter), ca.
confrontation. Although the exact circumstances of this encounter are not 570. Side B: Thes~us and Ariadne; Lapiths and Centaurs; wedding of Peleus and Thetis
clearly understood, the connection of Adrastos and Amphiaraos with an agree- (continued from side A); return of Hephaistos. Florence, Museo Archeologico, 4209. (Photo
ment to settle their disputes by submitting them to Eriphyle as an arbitrator courtesy of the Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munchen)
may indicate that strife and battle are inappropriate means for resolving a
conflict among allies (although this agreement itself led to the betrayal of subtle understanding of narrative extension is generally taken for granted, it is
Amphiaraos by his wife). Indeed, the conflict between ostensible allies ties the more controversial for the Archaic period. To see if such extension was possible
three antithetical scenes together as a group (Ajax vs. Athena as patron of the in the Archaic period, we may turn to the shield of Herakles. As we saw in
Greeks as Troy; Ajax vs. his fellow Achaians; Klytaimestra vs. her husband). Section 3.1 of Chapter Three, this ekphrastic shield was a divine work closely
This interpretation of the paradigmatic connections among the scenes might modeled on the shield of Achilles and reflecting the hero's world. There are,
be considered as a little abstract in nature and in the absence of ancient however, a number of mythological figures and narratives included in the shield
testimony about the construction of such narrative extension we must turn to description, like the combat between the Lapiths and Centaurs (11.178-90), that
other means for justifying this approach. I would argue that the examination of have close parallels to the scenes in contemporary sixth-century art like the
the micro-structure and macro-structure provides a means for deciding whether Franc;ois vase (Fig. 57). 22 Following the Centauromachy on the shield of Hera-
such linkages are structurally plausible and to define their nature. In some cases, kles is Ares with his chariot, urging on some soldiers with the help of some
it may well be that variety of subject is the only agenda at work in a narrative gruesome personifications (11. 191-200). Athena also hurries toward the fray,
ensemble, but when one can find strong structural links combined with unique perhaps from the side opposite Ares. Next is a scene of the gathering of the
elements that correspond to that formula, we have grounds for exploring the gods and goddesses, including Apollo and the Muses (11. 201-6). Another
paradigmatic nature of the narrative. innovation from the shield of Achilles is a harbor scene (11.207-15), which is
Although the ability of a classical audience to develop a sophisticated and followed by the episode of Perseus fleeing the Gorgons discussed earlier in
136 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART
T NARRATIVE EXTENSION 137

Section 3.1 (11.216-37). Following these scenes, all of which are new to the
ekphrastic shield repertory, are generic scenes of war, peace, and agriculture. Table 4.1 Types of Syntagmatic Extension and their Variables
At first glance, there does not appear to be any direct connection among
Variables
these scenes: Centauromachy, Ares and Athena at the battle, Apollo and the
Extension
assembly of the gods, and Perseus fleeing the Gorgons. However, as Janko has Agent Space Time Containment Type
pointed out, the order of appearance of the gods in the description of the shield
No repetition Varies Constant Continuous Panoramic
- Ares, Athena, and Apollo - mimics their appearance in the narrative of the
Framed Unified
fight between Herakles and Kyknos. 23 Ares starts for Herakles after the latter Varies Varies Continuous Progressive
has killed his son Kyknos, and Athena rushes in to restrain him. Fear (Phobos) Framed Serial
and Terror (Deimos)accompany Ares in both poetic and shield narratives. Apollo Repetition Neutralized Varies only Continuous Continuous
more indirectly stirs up Herakles against Kyknos, and orders the river Anauros Framed Cyclic
to destroy the latter's grave. Perseus is an ancestor of Herakles, and slays a
monster as Herakles is about to do, for Kyknos is an exemplar of hubris as
Herakles is of arete.The Centauromachy may be seen in the same light, with space, time, and the segregation or integration of individual scenes. By treat-
Theseus as the heroic exemplar for Herakles here (even though Theseus was ment of the agents, I mean to focus on the nuclei/actions that form the core of
the younger of the two). Certainly, the popularity of Theseus fighting the the individual pictures. Are the protagonists or actions in one picture repeated
Minotaur as an accompaniment to scenes with Herakles confirms their equiva- in another or not, in other words, does the nucleus or its agents act as indexes
lence as heroic exemplars. Clearly, not all of the scenes chosen for the ekphras- to link quickly the two scenes in the mind of the viewer? Within these two
tic shield, especially the generic ones, have such a direct connection to the categories of repeated or nonrepeated agents, one must next consider the
main story, except to establish Herakles' shield as akin to another work of measure of time and space: Are they constant or do they vary? Finally, there is
Hephaistos for Achilles. the containment of the composition (see Section 3. 3 in Chapter Three). Are
It is interesting to note, then, that most of the mythological scenes on the the separate scenes placed each in a distinct frame, segregated from the others,
shield of Herakles do have some kind of more substantive connection to or are they integrated into a single picture surface? We shall consider the
Herakles and his fight against Kyknos. The ability of the poet to select and interaction among these parameters in what follows, but Table 4.1 will help to
arrange mythological scenes according to a program or purpose in this imagi- situate each type of narrative extension before we begin.
nary work of art is fundamentally no different than what an artist could do. A
highly individualized context, for example, an expensive commissioned work Panoramicand UnifiedNarrative
like a shield, creates the same opportunity that the poet had with the shield, to Beginning first with works that contain no repetition of figures, either space
create a work whose scenes reflected a theme in a thoughtful and substantive or time must vary from one picture to the next, since two figures cannot inhabit
manner. Whether an artist chose to take advantage of such an opportunity to conceptually the same space and time. It is possible that time is constant, but
develop an intricate theme or was directed to do so by the patron or followed that space is varied, as in the Naples Iliupersis (Fig. 58). Earlier studies have
other criteria in scene selection is a different issue from the ability to do either. labeled this type of picture as monoscenic based on the consistency of time and
space, but the picture is really five separate episodes set next to one another in
a kind of panorama. 24 Space, although consistent, is not localized to one place
4.3 SYNTAGMATIC EXTENSION as time is to one possible moment. Indeed, all five episodes could have hap-
pened simultaneously, but could equally have occurred at staggered times as
The type of narrative extension that has received the most attention in scholarly well. By linking them into a simultaneous time frame, the scenes may be seen
study is syntagmatic, or the combination of successive scenes from the same as having an important paradigmatic as well as syntagmatic dimension, revolv-
basic story in a sequence. As we saw in Section 1.1 in Chapter One, categories ing around the theme of the fall of Troy (see Section 5.2 in Chapter Five). A
such as cyclic, continuous, serial, unified, and progressive are in fact efforts to similar situation pertains to the lost wall paintings of Polygnotos in the Knidian
define different types of syntagmatic combinations. Since these terms are al- Lesche at Delphi (see Fig. 77 and following); indeed, the vast range of action
ready in widespread use, I shall here define them by a precise and consistent in the story of Troy's fall lent itself to the use of multiple scenes (see Figs. 61
consideration of the elements of the micro-structure and macro-structure. and 71). 25 Since on neither vase nor mural could the viewer have seen the
Within a syntagmatic set of images, there are four parameters that determine entire composition clearly at once, we are in fact dealing with multiple pictures
the nature of a specific combination. These are the treatment of the agents, combined within a continuous picture surface, each inhabiting a separate space
138 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART
T NARRATIVE EXTENSION 139

59. Metopes from the Athenian Treasury at Delphi, ca. 490. East side: Amazonomachy.
Delphi. (Drawing after Boardman [19916], Fig. 213)

a Greek and an Amazon (Fig. 59). 27 Although in the Therm on metope what
essentially constitutes one nucleus has been split apart (Gorgon chasing Per-
seus), in the Amazonomachy metopes you essentially see a collection of nuclei
placed together in a series. Fundamentally, however, the two series work the
same. For the Thermon metopes to cohere, each separate image has to be
understood as a nucleus by the viewer. Without this support of the micro-
structure, there is no foundation for narrative extension from one metope to the
next. Thus, we have two nuclei comprehended by the viewer: Gorgon pursues
and Perseus flees. Either one alone would be sufficient to narrate the story to
the viewer; their combination provides a more comprehensive narrative. In the
case of the Amazonomachy metopes, the nuclei are more self-contained, but
the process of extension is the same. Two or more duels combine into a battle;
two or more figures combine into a fight. This effect and how the viewing
context works to knit together the separate scenes can be seen in the recon-
structed east front of the Athenian Treasury in Fig. 60 (although the recon-
structed metopes are not those that originally filled the east side in Fig. 59).
58. Attic red-figure hydria by the Kleophrades Painter, ca. 490-480. Counterclockwise from
This type of syntagmatic extension using separate and discrete pictures is
top: Aeneas escaping; Ajax raping Kassandra; Neoptolemos slays Priam; Andromache attack- obviously suited to particular formats, such as a Doric temple frieze, and the
ing Greek soldier; rescue of Aithra. Naples, National Museum, 2422. Drawing from Furt- uninterrupted variety of extension fits well in a frieze format.
wangler and Reichhold. There has been little recognition that these two types of combinations
(framed or continuous compositions) are distinct from monoscenic, since the
but sharing the same general moment of time. The viewer must experience the viewer is really dealing with multiple images that share time in a kind of
episodes sequentially in order to see the whole picture, injecting a possibility panorama. Shapiro has proposed the term unifiednarrative in which the different
of chronological sequence back into the images. In these examples, space is the spaces are segregated into different pictorial fields. 28 I would propose the term
defining variable of the narrative, but viewing context has the potential for panoramicnarrative to cover an example such as the Naples Iliupersis in which
breaking a constant moment of time into several. This situation differs substan- the spatially separated episodes are integrated into a single pictorial field and
tially from monoscenic narrative, in which the image consists of a discrete core share generally a common moment in time.
that can at least be glimpsed all at once.
Another variation on this type of combination exists when the episodes are Serial Narrative
segregated into separate panels. For example, the scene of Perseus fleeing from Although unified and panoramic narratives hold time constant but vary space,
the Gorgons on the Thermon metope (Fig. 28), if pla~ed in sequence with a both space and time may be varied within a series of images without the
metope of a chasing Gorgon, would essentially contain the same actions and repetition of characters. Again, this can take two forms, as a series of images
time as in an unbroken depiction like that on the Gorgon dinos (Fig. 24), the run together without interruption or as a series of discrete panels. An example
only difference being the framing and visual separation of the actions. Other of the latter can be seen in the Mykonos pithos (Fig. 61). 29 The three rows of
examples of this can be found in the works of Euphronios, the metopes of the metopes on the body of the pithos show the slaughter of the inhabitants of
Parthenon, and the Amazonomachy metopes of the Athenian Treasury at Del- Troy by the Greeks. The metopes contain one, two, or three figures, but most
phi.26 Though badly preserved, the six metopes each contained a duel between follow the same basic format of Greek warrior threatening or killing Trojan
 140 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART

women and children. The composi-

T Greeks. In two metopes of
NARRATIVE EXTENSION 141

tions are simple, with pairs of figures each frieze, a women resists
facing in toward the center of the attack by grabbing the limb
composition in a generally symmetric or weapon of a warrior, but
and closed manner. This use of an of- the supplicating gesture of
ten repeated nucleus and composi- hand under chin is only found
tional formula brings a unity to the in the top two friezes. The
large number (20) of metopes, giving women who do not resist or
them a visual coherence that would supplicate are most numerous
begin to be lost if different composi- in the bottom frieze. Finally,
tional types were employed. Within the compositions of the bot-
this formula, however, there is an al- tom row are more repetitive
most infinite variability in terms of and less varied than those
number of figures, placement, details above, creating a kind of cres-
of appearance, gesture, and action. As cendo as a finale to the nar-
can be seen, most of the female figures rative. The cumulative effect
gesture helplessly toward the threat- of these patterns suggests that
ening warriors, but one is killed and the top frieze, with the fallen
two supplicate by placing their hands Echion and only one child,
under the chin of their attacker. The shows the earliest stages of
children are also shown in various the destruction of the city's
states: threatened, attacked, and dead. inhabitants, whereas the
Of the males, some are armored, oth- lower two friezes are later
60. Athenian Treasury at Delphi, ca. 490. View of east- ers carry only swords, some are moments as the warriors work
em side of building as reconstructed. Delphi. (Photo
courtesy of Cynthia Bland)
bearded whereas others are not. Only without armor and proceed
one metope in the top row (no. 2B), more systematically in the
missing from the restoration but found afterward in Copenhagen, shows a fallen slaughter, without regard for
warrior, who must be Greek according to the similarity of his armor to those of supplication. This pattern can
the other Greeks on the neck and body. 30 He may be Echion, who is said to be confirmed in noting that
have died after leaping out from the horse. The placement of the warrior in a only three of the metopes,
metope directly below the Trojan horse on the neck ties him to the warriors due to the unique qualities of
above and below, and his prominence as the only fallen warrior on the pithos their nucleus, can be linked
serves to signify the battle that followed the disembarkation and that preceded through visual language with
the slaughter. Overall, the number and arrangement of the figures varies, so specific characters: 2B - the 61. Relief pithos from Mykonos, ca. 675-650. Neck: Trojan
horse; body: scenes from the sack of Troy. Mykonos Museum,
that there is no duplication within the metopal series. 31 death of Echion,- 7 - Mene-
2240. (Photo courtesy of the Deutsches Archaologisches lnstitut,
At first glance, this series seems to hold time constant but to vary place and laos recovering Helen, and 17 Athens)
thus fall into the category of unified narrative. However, a closer examination - the murder of Astyanax by
reveals certain patterns that suggest a progression of time as one moves down Neoptolemos. Clearly, 2B occurs earlier than the other two, confirming the
the friezes of the pithos. For example, in the top frieze, there are fewer children earlier time for the scenes in the top register, whereas in some literary accounts,
than in the bottom ( 1/at least 3/at least 5). Two figures, including the only Astyanax is killed toward the end of the sack, making the bottom register later
Greek warrior, are dead or mortally wounded in the top frieze, two or three in in the story. Thus, the metopes actually progress in time through subtle varia-
the middle, but at least three in the bottom. Thus, the number of Trojan tions in the figures and their actions.
casualties increases in the lower registers and the only Greek casualty appears This progression in time continues in the neck panel that shows the Greeks
in the top. All of the warriors in the top frieze wear armor, whereas only one disembarking from the Trojan horse. 32 This must logically take place before the
does so in the next two (no. 19), suggesting that there is now less threat to the scenes on the body with the slaughter of the Trojans, so that a chronological
 'P"

142 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART NARRATIVE EXTENSION 143

and synchronous succession is established viewing the pithos images from the
neck to the friezes on the body. The nature of the overall narrative combination
of the scenes hinges on whether there are repeated characters between the Hera Athena Herakles Marathon Kore Demeter Pan
Theseus
fourteen warriors on the neck panel and those on the registers below. With
metopes 2B, 7, and 17, one can tentatively identify some of the figures on the +-
KALLI-
Echetlos

Mykonos pithos through action and context: Astyanax, Andromache, Helen, PLATAEANS MACHOS
Neoptolemos, Menelaos, Echion. Erwin-Caskey has sought to identify some of MILTl- EQUAL
the warriors in the neck, in particular, Neoptolemos as the warrior raising his ADES BATTLE
►
PERSIAN ►
GREEK PERSIAN
spear in front of the horse and Odysseus as the one resting his foot on its ATHENIANS PERSIANS
ATTACK KYNE- SHIPS
IN MARSH RETREAT
wheel. 33 However, Neoptolemos cannot be depicted in the neck panel, for he GE/ROS
is bearded in metope no. 17 and beardless in the neck. Indeed, none of the
warriors on the neck is bearded, whereas five in the metopes are, including all
62. Reconstruction of the Battleof Marathonby Mikon and Panainos. (Author, adapted from
of the identifiable male figures: Echion, Menelaos, and Neoptolemos. Of the Harrison [1972a], ill. 1.)
fifteen remaining metopes, one has no male figure (no. 13), and in two of them,
the condition is too fragmentary to be sure. Assuming these were beardless,
painting there are Phoenician ships and Greeks slaying those of the barbarians
however, there would be fourteen beardless males in both the metopes and in who are climbing into them. Here too is a depiction of the hero Marathon,
the neck. This coincidence would suggest that at least some of the warriors on after whom the plain is named; Theseus is represented as rising out of the
the neck are repeated in the metopes, but it is important to note that none of earth, and Athena and Herakles are here also. For Herakles was first decreed
those that can be identified as heroes is included in this group. to be a god by the Marathonians, as they themselves say. Of the combatants
To conclude, it is unlikely that there is any significant repetition of characters the most conspicuous in the painting are Kallimachos, who was chosen by
from the neck panel on the body of the pithos. Since time does progress from the Athenians to be the supreme commander, and of the other generals,
the neck and through the metopes, we can follow Hurwit in defining this type Miltiades, and also the hero who is named Echetlos.
of syntagmatic extension as serialnarrative. 34 It should also be noted that the
Mykonos artist has chosen to show a visually unique event from a story on the Although vivid in its imagery, there is not sufficient detail in either Pausa-
neck while placing more generic compositions on the body. Given the greater nias's account or in the other testimony on the painting to make a full recon-
scale and visibility of the neck due to its height and the value of the composi- struction of this painting; E. Harrison's diagram of the composition, however,
tion as an index due to its unique narrative nucleus, the Trojan horse panel provides a clear and sound representation of the general features of the painting
permits the viewer to identify readily the story being told on the pithos and that I have modified here to include the direction of the action (Fig. 62). 37
provides a key to the more generic scenes below. What is most noteworthy about this account is the variety and placement of
the action. In the first section of the painting, the battle is just beginning. In
the middle of the painting, the fighting is fully engaged, possibly as a series of
ProgressiveNarrative
small duels spread over the surface of the work in multiple levels. This section
The variation of both time and space can also occur in a single pictorial of the Marathon painting is probably the source for the south frieze on the
field, as was the case in the lost mural painting of the Battleof Marathonthat was Temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis as Harrison argues, only here the
in the Stoa Poikile of the Athenian Agora. 35 The painting was one of at least multiple levels have been disentangled into a single, continuous frieze. 38 Finally,
three large works in the Stoa described by Pausanias. It is clear from his at the edge of the painting, the Persians flee to their ships at the shore. Clearly,
description that the paintings, which included an Amazonomachy and an Iliu- three different types of action corresponding to three different moments of the
persis, were arranged in a row and that he describes the paintings in the order story - beginning, middle, and end - are run together in a continuous land-
that he views them. Further, it seems that he describes the details of the Battle scape, moving from the plain on the left to the sea on the right. 39 Even more
of Marathon,the last painting in the set, in sections from one end to the other: 36 significant, the structure of time in the narration is completely synchronous; the
elapse of time in the story matches that of the narration and also of the viewer's
The final part of the painting represents those who fought at Marathon
experience of the work when moving, like Pausanias, from left to right along
[painted by Mikon and Panainos]. The Boeotians who inhabit Plataea and the
Attic force are coming to grips with the barbarians. In this section the struggle the painting. E. Harrison has used the term progressive narrative for this painting,
is an equal match. In the center of the battle, however, the barbarians are recognizing the explicit progression of time as one moves along in the space of
fleeing and are pushing one another into the marsh, and at the borders of the the picture. 40 Here we should define it more precisely as a narrative work in
144 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART NARRATIVE EXTENSION 145

which multiple episodes are integrated into a single pictorial field in which no We have seen the potential for this type of narrative combination before,
figures are repeated but in which time and space develop. particularly in the Chigi aryballos (see Fig. 29) and in the Huntsmen aryballos
The value of this narrative strategy of coordinating time, space, and viewing (see Figs. 7 and 8). 45 Since these battle scenes are deployed as a continuous
experience can be seen in the heroic ethosdisplayed by a group of soldiers and frieze that is impossible to see all at once due to the architecture of the vase,
their leaders (see also Section 5.3 in Chapter Five). Pausanias picks out three each picture must be viewed in stages, as Pausanias sees the Marathon paint-
figures of specific note: Miltiades, Kallimachos, and Kynegeiros. Pliny too says ing. In the case of the Huntsmen aryballos, it is not so clear, given the
that these figures are portraits (iconicos)in the painting, as are the Persians Oatis confusion over who is on what side of the fight, that time varies within the
and Artaphernes, implying at least their individualization if not their complete picture, but the inclusion of two pairs of opposed phalanxes as nuclei on the
fidelity to their subject. 41 Each of the Greeks seems to represent a different Chigi aryballos and the breakdown of the flank mark three areas of action on
aspect of arete and sophrosyneand so a different type of heroic ethos. Miltiades the vase. As noted in Chapter Three, the viewing context can transform the
stands out among the ranks of Attic and Plataean troops and leads them toward micro-structure of the frieze into a series of nuclei that show the course of the
the battle. According to literary accounts, he was set isolated and in front of battle. Beginning with the front and turning the aryballos clockwise, you have
the ranks of troops and stretched out his arm to lead the troops forward, a synchronous and continuous viewing experience like that of Pausanias view-
probably in the same manner as a relief from the Heroon at Trysa. 42 The ing the Battle of Marathon. If, however, one started from a different point of
moment is in a sense one of the most critical for the narrative, in that the the vase or at the other end of the Battle of Marathon, there would still be a
choice to attack was pushed hard by Miltiades on a somewhat reluctant group progression of time but it would be anachronous with the viewer's time, in
of leaders. The decision to attack rather than another option such as delay (to both cases moving analeptically to earlier stages of the story. Whether syn-
wait for reinforcements) or a tactical retreat is a pivotal point in the history of chronous or anachronous, however, the narrative structure remains the same
the battle and by placing it at the beginning of the narrative the painters have and it is the task of the viewer to sort out the sequence of events as they
given the choice of action prominence in the story. occurred in the story.
The effects of this choice begin to play out in the central section of the
painting that featured the general Kallimachos. The figure identified by Harri- Cyclic Narrative
son as Kallimachos in the Nike Temple frieze is clad only in a himation that The last, broad type of syntagmatic extension involves multiple pictures with
falls from his figure, and his stance recalls the pose of the Tyrannicide Harmo- the repetition of agents. By definition, time must be variable within this type,
dios.43 The valor of Kallimachos was of great renown, and accounts have him since the same figure cannot inhabit a specific moment twice. This linkage of
continuing to stand and fight despite an arrow sticking in his chest, thus agent and time essentially creates an emphasis on chronological succession as
terrifying the Persians. As Harrison reconstructs the composition, the figure was the viewer moves from one scene to the next. This equation of figure, time, and
probably placed near the center of the painting at an elevated level. In such a scene constitutes the great counterpart to monoscenic narration in previous
position, he would appear prominent among the dueling figures occupying the studies of pictorial narration, and has been labeled variously cyclic, continuing,
space and serve as an epitome for heroic ethosin combat. In the last section of and other names. According to Weitzmann and others, this repetitive type
the painting, the Persians flee to their ships while the Greeks pursue them and observes the same rule of unity of time and place as monoscenic narrative, but
attempt to prevent their escape. This is the ultimate result of the decision made now multiplies the number of pictures and therefore of scenes, creating a denser
in the first part of the painting, a vindication of Miltiades' strategy as well as narrative fabric. It is possible that space could be constant or varied, but space
Athenian and Plataean valor and resolve. In this section of the painting, Pausa- in this type of narration becomes secondary in importance to time and agent.
nias notes the figure of Kynegeiros, who rivaled Kallimachos among the heroic If out of a number of pictures in a monument there are two contiguous scenes
dead of Marathon. 44 Kynegeiros was a young soldier who rushed at the Persian that show no repeated figures, some of the qualities of space in the preceding
ships to prevent their escape, only to have his hand chopped off while it categories would assert themselves temporarily, but overall space loses its im-
grasped the helm of one of the ships. If the depiction on the Brescia sarcopha- portance as a means of structuring the narrative and leaves it mostly the role of
gus is indeed from the painting, Kynegeiros would also have been represented setting (informant) to play. Although this is important to the story and narra-
as slumped and already or almost dead, while a comrade heroically recovers his tive, of course, the role of space in the repetitive type of narrative combination
body and pulls it away from the ship. Kyneigeiros becomes a heroic martyr, does not constitute itself a distinguishable category. Finally, pictures may be
one of the 192 dead who became immortalized during the Classical period. separated, as they are on the metopes in a building, or they may blend together
Thus, we have not only a change in action, but a change in the level of against a common background in an unbroken panel, as they do on some cups
consciousness at the same time and a kind of heroic biography played out on a or long friezes. The terms for these two types might be defined as continuousfor
collective level. the latter and cyclic for the former, since these assignments seem to fit the
146 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART NARRATIVE EXTENSION 147

."\ r,.ri.

r·,: ,,,
r \
-.
,.
::_::_

63. Metopes of the south side of the Athenian Treasury at Delphi (drawing), after 490.
Deeds of Theseus: (leftto right):Sinis (no. 1), Skiron (no. 2), Kerkyon (no. 3), Prokrustes (no.
4), Theseus and Athena (no. 5), Marathon bull (no. 6), Minotaur (no. 7), son of Pallas (?,
missing), Amazon (no. 8). (Adapted from Boardman [19916], Fig. 213)

original intention of the terms best. Cyclic narrative, then, is one in which one could also represent Theseus's arrival in Athens, greeted by the city's patron
or more agents are repeated on segregated pictures, with time changing from goddess. The arrangement of each set of four scenes is much less certain and,
one picture to the next. Continuousnarration is one in which the agents reappear as Hoffelner points out, a chronological ordering of the youthful deeds is by
against a common background in an integrated pictorial field, with time shifting no means common practice in Theseus cycles. Still, the order of Sinis, Skiron,
from one scene to the next and space either changing or remaining the same. Kerkyon, and Prokrustes is the same as that used by Bacchylides 18.16-30, with
We can note the effect of these kinds of narrative by examining two roughly the omission of the sow of Kremmyon. The sequence followed here also follows
contemporary works showing the deeds of Theseus, the Athenian Treasury at the topographical progression of episodes enunciated by Brommer, strengthen-
Delphi and a red-figure kylix by Douris. ing the synchronization between the story, the narration, and the viewing
To begin with the cyclic narrative, the nine metopes of the south side of the experience. 50 Metope no. 8 with the Amazon would nicely fit in the last
Treasury were all devoted to a single theme: the exploits of the Attic hero position to provide a transition to the east facade, preceded by the Minotaur
Theseus (Fig. 63). 46 The identity of only some of the metopes is positive and (7), bull (6), and son of Pallas (29). The advantage of this arrangement is that
their arrangement too is uncertain. Before we can examine the narrative struc- metopes would be laid out in roughly chronological fashion, moving synchro-
ture of the frieze in more detail, it is necessary to consider details of its nously from left to right as the viewer looks at the scenes and turns to ascend
reconstruction. The metope showing Theseus and Athena (no. 5) was certainly farther on the Sacred Way (Fig. 65).
in the middle of the frieze, as cuttings in the block above for Athena's regalia The metopal format already provides a connective architectural framework
indicate. 47 Theseus's encounters with Sinis (no. 1), Kerkyon (no. 3), the bull of to link the different scenes, but the sculptors of the Athenian Treasury use the
Marathon (no. 6), and the Minotaur (no. 7) are recognizable, but two of his composition of the scenes to develop the flow of the narrative further. Most of
encounters with brigands (nos. 2 and 4) are more ambiguous in their present the metopal compositions are strongly diagonal and place Theseus on the left
state. Most scholars would place metope no. 8 of Theseus and the Amazon side, standing or leaning over his foe and moving in a rightward direction, the
(Fig. 64) in the south side, but this has also been placed on the north side of same direction that the viewer walks past the Treasury. Thus, there is an
the Treasury in a long frieze dedicated to the Amazonomachy. One metope is insistent rightward flow in the cycle that synchronizes the time of the story,
missing; Coste-Messeliere and Neils suggest the fragmentary no. 29 here as the narration, and the viewer. This movement, however, is not uniform. Two
48
showing the encounter between Theseus and a son of Pallas. metopes, nos. 2 and 5, place Theseus on the right side of the metope facing
The basic arrangement of the Theseus cycle by Coste-Messeliere and Neils leftward. In metope no. 5, this serves as a punctuation mark for the flow of the
49
remains the best effort to reconstruct the south frieze of the Treasury. Metope cycle, arresting the rightward progression both by change in compositional
no. 4 probably shows the encounter with Prokrustes; metope no. 2 is most format as well as the displacement of Theseus. The picture is more iconic than
likely the encounter with Skiron, although he is frequently shown more hori- narrative in nature and serves more of a paradigmatic role in the cycle, remind-
zontal and elevated. With the restoration of metope 29 to the south side, there ing the viewer of Theseus's divine patronage as a hero and secondarily equating
emerges a basic symmetry in the selection of scenes: four are dedicated to the him with Herakles, who is often seen standing with Athena.
fights on Theseus's journey from Troizen to Athens (with Sinis, Skiron, Kerk- The other leftward metope, no. 2, presents more of a problem. In the second
yon, and Prokrustes); four are episodes following his arrival in Athens (Pallas, position (S2) on the frieze, it counters the movement of the opening metope
bull, Minotaur, Amazon). Metope no. 5 with Athena and Theseus is different (S 1), essentially halting the rightward flow that dominates the remainder of the
both in subject, showing a god and lacking strong action, and in composition, frieze. It is possible, if the chronology preserved in Bacchylides is ignored, that
being strongly vertical, symmetrical, and closed. This metope, certainly in the another position might make more sense for this metope. At the end of the
middle, would act as a divider between the two sets of deeds and symbolically frieze (St), it would lead the eye toward the west end of the Treasury toward
148 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART NARRATIVE EXTENSION 149

context within the cycle, but the patterns found within the metopal series
indicate that the designers were probably aware of these factors.

ContinuousNarrative
Theseus becomes a common subject for narrative extension during the late
sixth century and is featured on a series of red-figure cups of the late Archaic
and early Classical periods. 52 These begin to appear at around the same time as
the expulsion of Hippias, son of Peisistratos, from Athens in 510, and may well
be part of a new or renewed interest in Theseus as an Athenian national hero
associated with the development of a new government. Whether or not these
pictorial accounts of his deeds were inspired by a new epic commissioned by
the Alkmaionidai on their return to Athens is conjectural, but seems unlikely
since there is little concrete testimony of such an epic. 53 Further, the variety
with which the scenes are ordered suggests that a canonical chronology did not
exist. On an early cup in London by the Painter of Louvre G36, for example,
are placed on one side the episodes with Prokrustes, Kerkyon, and the Mino-
taur, and on the other side are the sow and the Marathon bull. 54 As Shapiro
notes, this makes thematic sense by placing scenes with animals on one side,
but mixes scenes belonging to the periods before and after his arrival in Athens.
Paradigmatic links, rather than syntagmatic connections, would appear here to
govern the ordering of the scenes on each side of the cup, whereas syntagmatic
criteria govern the overall selection.
The viewing context, particularly the architecture and function of a kylix,

65. Athenian Treasury at Delphi, after 490. South side, originally with deeds of Theseus in
the metopes. (Photo courtesy of Cynthia Bland)

64. Metope from the south side of the Athenian Treasury at Delphi, after 490. Delphi
Museum. Theseus and Amazon (no. 8). (Photo courtesy of the Ecole Franc;aise d'Archeologie,
© EFA)

Herakles' encounter with Geryon, establishing a visual link between the two
heroes of the building. Skiron would then be back to back with Geryon (no.
27) around the corner of the building, whereas Herakles (no. 26) and Theseus
would both face toward the corner and each other. Alternatively in position S4,
next to the Athena metope, metope 2 would bring a conclusion to the youthful
deeds, more emphatically dividing them from the mature deeds on the right
side of the south wall. 51 Whatever the actual arrangements of the youthful
scenes, all of the mature scenes have rightward compositions so that the conclu-
sion is more clearly coordinated of space, time, composition, and viewing
150 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART
r
I

NARRATIVE EXTENSION 151

presents some compositional challenges to the painter. 55 The interior of the holder, then side A would face the holder when the cup is held upright and
cup naturally assumes a circular shape like the rim of the bowl. The shape, away from the face and side B would face the other guests. Thus, the earliest
however, is not always well suited to narrative compositions if the entire circular scenes would face the drinker at the beginning of the symposion, and the last
area is to be filled. A groundline is often added across the bottom, but this is a chronologically would appear when the cup is drained.
narrow ledge for the feet, if the limbs are to expand outward to fill the edges The two exterior sides share some basic compositional features. Both have
of the tondo. On the exterior, the surface has a pronounced convex curve two scenes that intertwine with one another and repeat Theseus. The hero has
below the rim, and a second concave curve nearer the foot. In addition, the a short chiton (once hanging on a tree) and a youthful, unbearded face, in
picture field narrows at the bottom, creating a curved and trapezoidal shape. contrast to his bearded and nude opponents. Theseus in all of the scenes either
The division of the cup into two halves by the handle is not a complete wields a sword or has it by him. Along with his costume, the sword not only
impediment to the continuation of a narrative from one side to the other, but serves to distinguish Theseus among the multiple figures of each frieze and the
it does create a natural marker for a change in scene or in story entirely. Thus, tondo as well,' bvt also serves as an attribute, an analeptic index to his father,
there are some natural divisions in the architecture of the object, but the Aigeus, who had buried the sword under a rock. At the left on both sides is a
extended friezes of the exterior lend themselves to a continuous series of scenes female figure, a woman behind the sow on side A and Athena on B. On each
rather than the segregated compositions of a Doric temple. side of the cup, Theseus appears on the same side of his opponent, but on A
To these concerns should also be added those of the cup's function. The he is to the right whereas on B he is to the left, as he also is in the tondo. Both
kylix is a drinking cup, and unlike a larger vessel such as a krater or pitcher, it sides of the cup also feature trees, which serve like stage props to assist the
is held by the viewer and thus experienced at a much closer range than the action but also help to locate the scene as taking place out of doors. They are
others. In this context, only half or slightly less of the cup may be seen by the absent, of course, from the slaying of the Minotaur in the labyrinth, and the
viewer at one time, but its other side is also visible to the other guests of the coincidence of the tondo-interior scene and the exterior-outdoors scene is
symposion but at a greater distance. Thus, the exterior scenes are simultane- interesting. The darkening of the tondo picture by the wine in the cup fits well
ously visible to user and guest, but the viewing angle will change as the cup is the idea of a dark and enclosed labyrinth, as does the revealing of the scene
lifted and tilted, so that at times a profile view obscures the feet and lower with the slaying of a monster. The consistency is certainly suggestive, but one
portions of the picture, and tilting may hide the upper portions of the picture might attribute this coordination of cup shape and informants with a humorous
near the lip. It is when drinking that the far side of the cup becomes most or playful intent that still has a narrative effectiveness about it.
visible to the guest, and the near picture is completely obscured to the drinker. On the left side of A (Fig. 66), we see the sow pierced by a spear with a
However, drinking brings the interior tondo to view. At first obscured because woman behind it. She gestures in supplication toward Theseus, who moves
it is covered with wine, as the drinker tips the cup, the top portions of the leftward and has drawn his arm back in order to plunge his sword into the
picture are revealed, until gradually the entire picture is visible when all the beast. The woman has been identified as nurse or mother of the sow, but may
wine is gone. The cup may also be held by the stem, leaving the drinker free also be a personification of the meadow where it lived. 57 The upright figure of
to rotate the cup and to see both sides around a handle. The cup can also be the woman creates a vertical termination to this side of the cup, and her
hung on a wall by one of its handles when not in use, bringing both sides of outstretched arm and the sow's head move the eye leftward. Theseus, however,
the cup into view at once as a continuous field. is set in a strongly diagonal position that interrupts the leftward movement of
The net effect of the viewing context is to emphasize the segregation of the the composition, serving to contain this first scene. His sharply angled back
narrative images in the visual field. Although such segregation also exists for leg, however, stretches behind the fallen figure of Sinis in the adjacent scene,
the metopes of the Athenian Treasury, the monumental context and field of who raises himself on his right arm while clutching a stone in his right hand.
view clearly bring the metopes together as a group. Given these factors, it is Sinis pulls leftward away from Theseus, who pulls his arm rightward and
not surprising that multiple narrative images on cups would follow a continuous upward. Theseus moves rightward, but turns his head back to look at Sinis. His
type of extension since this would help to emphasize the interconnectedness of position is more vertical than Sinis, and like the nurse, acts as a stop for the
the scenes and overcome the limitations of the context. We can see this in composition. In both scenes, then, figures are set moving in opposite directions
more detail by looking at a Theseus kylix signed by Douris (Figs. 66 to 68). 56 and balance against each other. The strongest movements are located toward
On the exterior of side A are the episodes of the sow and Sinis; on side B is the center, and the end elements help to contain the composition.
Skiron and Kerkyon; on the interior (I) are Theseus and the Minotaur. Although On side B (Fig. 67), we see Athena at the left, upright and moving slowly in
the sow precedes Skiron viewing from left to right, the scenes are arranged a leftward direction. She turns her head back toward Theseus, and the long line
synchronously with the architecture of the cup in the order of A-B-I. If the cup of her spear creates a diagonal leading back toward the middle of the cup. Since
were held so that the picture of the interior is properly oriented toward the the scenes on this side of the cup are later, she may represent an end to the
152 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART
I NARRATIVE EXTENSION 153

66. Red-figure kylix signed by Douris, ca. 490-480. A: Theseus and sow; Theseus and Sinis. 67. Red-figure kylix signed by Douris, ca. 490-480. B: Theseus and Skiron; Theseus and
London, British Museum, E 48. (Photo courtesy of the British Museum, © The British Kerkyon. London, British Museum, E 48. (Photo courtesy of the British Museum, © The
Museum) British Museum)

youthful cycle and Theseus's arrival in Athens, as did metope no. 5 of the the compositions to overlap. 59 Further, there is not the architectural context to
Athenian Treasury (cf. Fig. 64). 58 The center of the cup is filled by a large rock help orient the viewer and provide a direction for viewing, as toward the front
formation, to which Skiron clings with his right arm. Theseus, moving in of a building. Although the two scenes on each side of the cup read quite
rightward from the left, has turned Skiron horizontally as the latter clings effectively together, a vase painter like Douris might also consider how both
precariously with his right arm to the rock. Theseus attempts to loosen his grip, sides of the cup connect, whether in the situation of turning the cup while
while at the same time rotating the figure as if he were on a spit. Behind the holding the stem or when the cup is hung on a peg in the wall. In order to help
rock is the basin with which Skiron waylaid his victims. At Skiron's head is the viewer connect all of the scenes, the artist must rely on cues within the
another tree that divides this scene from the next one to the right. Here individual scenes. The repetition of informants like the trees and the repetition
Theseus wrestles with Kerkyon. The latter has his right arm around Theseus in of the hero are both essential, and in this guise, the figure of Theseus moves
an awkward effort at foreshortening and has both of his feet off of the ground from being the nucleus of the narrative to an index connecting different scenes
line. Theseus has wrapped both arms around Kerkyon's torso, and seems ready together. In finding Theseus again, the viewer begins to put the pieces of the
to flip the villain over. The motif of a body suspended in space is similar to the cycle together.
depiction of Skiron, but the pair of Theseus and Kerkyon are more self- The movement of Theseus in this case, as well as the overall configuration
contained in a closed and symmetrical arrangement. Whereas the movement of and containment of the composition become important guides for the viewer.
the Skiron scene is rightward, the Kerkyon scene is more static and provides a In seeing the Sow scene (Fig. 69, no. 1) on the cup, for example, Theseus
termination for the right side of the frieze. moves strongly leftward and is met by an equally strong movement to the right.
The repetition of Theseus in four exterior scenes that run together without The same can be said for the Kerkyon scene (no. 4), although the configuration
a break clearly makes this cup an example of continuous narrative. On the here is more like an inverted curve. Thus, two of the exterior scenes have closed
Athenian Treasury, this took the form of distinct compositions separated by and symmetrical compositions that do not lead significantly in either direction.
triglyphs, but a vase painter like Douris faces a different problem in organizing The scenes with Sinis (no. 2) and Skiron (no. 3), however, have different
his narrative. Given the trapezoidal shape of the compartment, it is almost configurations. Both move generally to the right, less decisively in Sinis and
impossible both to fill the available surface of the cup, fulfilling the decorative more so in Skiron. Significantly for side A, the right-end figure of Theseus in
purpose of the painting, and show scenes of vigorous action without causing no. 2 does not move in toward the center of the cup, but away toward the
154 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART
T a starting and end point for viewing
the cup.
NARRATIVE EXTENSION

~!,Sow
155

Viewing context and vase geome- T =Theseus

try, therefore, create a number of pos- A=Athena
sible combinations for reading the
scenes of a cycle. A sequence of A-B
~ 2,Sinis

is probably the moSt common formu- 69. Direction of composition on Theseus kylix by
lation, but when the tondo is con- Douris (Author).
nected thematically with the exterior
scenes, other possibilities emerge: A-
B-I or A-1. The key features that help to connect the scenes are the repeated
character(s) and the movement, configuration, and containment of the individ-
ual scenes. Consistency in the treatment of the main figure(s) is necessary to
allow the viewer to connect the scenes and to a degree discern their order, but
variations can allow for alternative viewing sequences to exist simultaneously.
Since the viewing context in a cup provides for less control over the presenta-
tion of the scenes than with a building, the provision for alternative narrative
sequences is more important.

4.4 CONCLUSION

Multiple-image works have a potential for greater narrative complexity and

density than single pictures, but the process of narration still takes place in
much the same fashion as with single pictures. Although viewers may be able
to see more than one scene or picture at the same time, they can only focus
68. Red-figure kylix signed by Oouris, ca. 490-480. I: Theseus and the Minotaur. London,
their attention on one image at a time. One cannot, for example, see all of the
British Museum, E 48. (Photo courtesy of the British Museum, © The British Museum)
Naples Iliupersis scenes simultaneously; the viewing distance for the small
panels on the Mykonos pit hos is much shorter than the Trojan horse on the
handle, creating an open end to the frieze on that side. The slow rightward neck. Thus, the dimensions of the discourse between viewer and work are
movement of Theseus here is matched by Athena in no. 3, whose body faces essentially the same as with a single composition.
to the left and leaves the left end of the frieze on side B open. The diagonal of There are however some aspects of the discourse that become increasingly
her spear and her gaze, however, continue the rightward direction of Theseus important w~thin mul;i-image works because they affect the way the viewer
in 2, and picks up in a much more rapid push with the main action of scene 3. connects the different images together. For example, the viewing context is
As can be seen in Fig. 69, Douris develops a consistent clockwise or left-to- important because it controls how the images are juxtaposed, whether they are
right sequence for the four scenes, and helps to cue the viewer as to the in immediate proximity, and whether there is much in the way of a visual
direction for turning the cup in hand or reading the scenes while on the wall barrier between them. Thus, a metopal series would connect in the viewer's
by the contrast between directional and symmetrical compositions. Viewing the mind in a different and more staccato rhythm than a frieze. Pictorial composi-
scenes in this manner then creates a synchronous ordering of time among the tion is also significant. In terms of configuration, a unidirectional composition
story, picture, and discourse. will better lead the viewer to another picture on the same level than a symmet-
This type of ordering of scenes, moving from left to right in side A to rical one, but a series of symmetrical compositions stacked vertically might
continue onto side B is found frequently in red-figure kylixes, as R. Stupperich connect better than directional panels, as could be seen on the shield bands. A
has argued. 60 This general orientation is complemented frequently by the place- contained or closed composition will lead elsewhere less readily than an open
ment of the signature or the choice of filling ornament under the handle to the composition, and lines of movement cannot only guide viewers within a com-
left of side A (and right of side B). The signature can, then, sometimes serve as position, but also to others. Time operates with much the same principles as
156 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART

outlined before, but the possibilities for prolepsis and analepsis are enhanced
considerably with multiple images. Repetition of actions, attributes, and figures
T NARRATIVE EXTENSION

ently, was not a good candidate for an extended narrative before his rise as a
paradigmatic Athenian hero in the late sixth century. These factors must be
157

will also serve to connect differing compositions; indexes such as these are accounted for before we can determine whether a conceptual or philosophical
particularly important for paradigmatic narrative, allowing the viewing to use a shift in the use of multiple images takes place during the course of Greek
visual typology to connect differing stories. In this regard, the reliance of Greek narrative art.
art on generic actions as the basis for even mythological scenes is especially
significant in opening up extensions between different scenes.
The appearance of narrative extension as we have seen goes back to the
Orientializing period of the seventh century, but even earlier in the Geometric
period, artists combined several scenes. On the New York krater, for example
(see Fig. 23), the prothesis between the handles is set above a chariot procession
of warriors. Although both scenes are only minimally narrative in structure, the
thematic relationship between the two scenes is clear. They can be viewed
either paradigmatically as actions appropriate for the burial of a hero or worthy
citizen, or seen syntagmatically as different stages of the funerary ritual. Al-
though the actions may not be truly narrative because their micro-structure
may not meet the requirement of being open-ended, the process of extension is
the same as we have seen for later art. An even earlier example that would
qualify as extensional narrative is the Eleusis skyphos (see Figs. 15 and 19). On
the one side, we see a ship arriving or departing and on the other side a battle. 61
The use of archers and asterisks helps to link the two scenes visually together
and one can clearly create a syntagmatic sequence between the two. Which
comes first is uncertain, as is whether any of the characters are repeated given
the generic nature of the style and subject, but a sequence of invasion by ship-
battle or battle-retreat by ship is a logical construction. Given the generic
nature of the individual scenes, it is likely that both syntagmatic and paradig-
matic extensions are important for viewing the two scenes on the skyphos.
The point is that the presence of narrative extension is not a sign of greater
viewing or artistic sophistication, or that one period is more advanced than
another. As a process of narration, extension works at the earliest periods of
narrative imagery in Greek art and in ekphrasis such as the Shield of Achilles.
It may well be that certain types of extension may be favored at some times
over others, but an important question to consider as part of a more historical
study of narration is what role elements such as the viewing context play in the
choice of an artist to utilize narrative extension. 62 For example, if the surface to
be covered with images is a square panel, it creates quite different problems for
constructing the narrative than an extended frieze. A panel picture, too, will
impose a choice of single image, whereas a series of metopes demands multiple
images, but not necessarily narrative extension. The scale of a building will also
determine whether the number of metopes is small enough to stretch out one
story over all the panels, as in the Athenian Treasury's Amazonomachy, or large
enough to require multiple stories as in its Theseus cycle. A building dedicated
to a specific figure will possibly narrow the options for an artist. If Herakles is
an appropriate subject, the potential for narrative extension is much greater
than in a building dedicated to Bellerophon or Perseus. Even Theseus, appar-
 THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 159

Chapters There are many other possibilities. For this book, I would like to focus on
Aristotle's discussion of the third level of tragedy, its objects, from which I have
given the name to this level of narration. The value of Aristotle is that he
provides an articulation of what some of the broader dimensions of narrative
THE NARRATIVE OBJECT effect might be for the ancient Greeks. Clearly, a concept like catharsis would
be important in such a discussion, but Aristotle's use of the term also points out
the limitations in using him as a source. The meaning of that particular term is
very much the matter of dispute, making its application to the area of pictorial
narrative at best conjectural. For the three objects of tragedy that Aristotle
defines as plot, character, and thought, we are on somewhat firmer ground.
In earlier chapters, we have examined the various levels that constitute pictorial However, given the structural nature of his discussion of tragedy, there must
narrative. In each case, we have been concerned with defining the parameters have been particular objects that were appropriate to other forms of narrative
that lend structure and definition to the narrative image and how these interact, such as comedy, epic, and lyric, not to mention the other mimetic arts such as
within and across levels, to create the narrative experience. This brings us to painting, sculpture, music, and dance. To focus on the objects of tragedy, then,
the point of asking whether narration is a simple depiction of action or whether can only provide a partial glimpse of the ancient response to pictorial narrative.
it reveals something more to the Greek viewer. In other words, what is the It is with these limitations in mind that I propose using Aristotle as a preliminary
viewer to take away from the experience? guide for beginning the process of defining the objects of narrative.
There are a number of different, possible answers to that question since it In the Poetics,Aristotle defines three elements as constituting the "objects" of
really brings us out of the immediate narrative experience into the broader tragedy: mythos (the action or plot-structure), ethos (character), and dianoia
cultural environment that enframes it. A representation of Troy's fall may have (thought).2 He goes on to say that "the most important of these elements is the
one meaning in the seventh century, but the same work will be understood structure of events [mythos],because tragedy is a representation not of people as
differently by a fifth-century viewer. In some cases, this may be due to devel- such but of actions and life, and both happiness and unhappiness rest on action
opments in visual language and style or to the emergence of new kinds of [praxis]."3 To Aristotle, it is possible one can have a tragedy with action but
objects or media. It may also change its meaning because of historical circum- without character, but not character without action. The primacy of action
stances and changes in the values and structures of the culture. In such a case, emerges elsewhere in his works, as S. Halliwell has noted, so that without
a fifth-century representation of the Iliupersis that shares most of the same action "what remains except contemplation?'' 4 This is not to say that one should
structural elements as an earlier image may convey the same meaning to the produce a tragedy without character, but for Aristotle, character is revealed
fifth-century viewer as its predecessor, but this meaning may be at variance through the actions and choices of the figures. Ethos or character is important
with a seventh-century response. In other words, dealing with the last level of in that it represents the ethical qualities of action.
the narrative framework requires a consideration of historical and cultural con- For our purposes, the distinction between action and character serves to
text. distinguish two purposes of pictorial narration. The first is to depict a story in
It is beyond the scope of this book to attempt to explore all of these such a way as to reveal the relationship between the individual actions or
possibilities; rather, it is hoped that the narrative framework will contribute to episodes and how these constitute an essential unity. This last element is
the analysis of the meaning of ancient narrative. One might apply a feminist essential for Aristotle, in that "just as a particular thing may have many random
critique to narrative imagery, comparing, for example, representations of Achil- properties, some of which do not combine to make a single entity, so a
les and Penthesileia to see the underlying implications for that story on gender particular character may perform many actions which do not yield a single
relations. A comparison of the representations of Exekias and the Penthesileia 'action.' 115 Unity, as Halliwell defines it succinctly, "arises out of the causal and
Painter would show some important changes at all levels of the narrative that consequential relations between the actions or events of a tragedy, and it is the
indicate that a very different story is being told in the later work, and one that connective sequence of these events which constitutes the intelligible structure
is distinctly less sympathetic to women. One could also look at narrative as an that Aristotle terms both the action and the plot-structure." Ethos or character
expression of civic values, such as the program of the Parthenon or the Stoa is, according to Aristotle, "the element which reveals the nature of a moral
Poikile. 1 By comparing the narrative structure of large-scale public works to choice, in cases where it is not anyway clear what a person is choosing or
smaller, domestically oriented works, one may be able to define how the stories avoiding. 116 (In order to maintain the ethical dimension of character as Aristotle
are both maintained and adapted structurally for the different audience and defines it, I shall use the word ethos rather than character with its somewhat
context. different modern associations.) Ethos is revealed through action, in particular,

158
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160 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 161

through the choice of action that a figure makes. In some sense, it is more example, makes different choices as to the moral quality of those agents. 10 So,
about deciding to do rather than doing. As we shall see, this distinction also too, the mode of narration may change. For example, what distinguishes tragedy
serves to differentiate much of Archaic pictorial narrative from Classical, but from other forms of poetic narrative is its mode of presentation, mimesis(dra-
both objects can be found in each period. matic enactment), as opposed to diegesis,meaning an indirect or third-person
The third object, dianoia, involves the reasoning and thought behind a moral narrative. Ultimately, painting, poetry, dance, and music must all represent
choice.7 As such, it lends itself well to the characterization of a figure, but since action according to the limitations and strength of their media, but all place
it involves speeches explaining a figure's actions it is less suited to the discussion emphasis on action.
of pictorial narrative. It is possible to see its relevance in the case where the Aristotle uses several terms to distinguish action. Praxis on one level deals
image of a figure recalls in the viewer's mind a speech from a literary narrative, with the individual actions of the agents, while pragmatarefers more broadly to
but since pictures can only be mute poetry, it is an object that is least suited to events. Praxis on another level can also be, according to Halliwell, the "organ-
the process and medium of pictorial narration. Indeed, this element is almost ized totality of a play's structure of events," and the term mythos is "the mimesis
more portraitlike and nonnarrative in its mode, in that it depends very little on or enactment of the (or a) praxis." 11 Put another way, mythos is what the poet
the representation of action for its effect. Aristotle, himself, says that "if a poet makes or shapes and praxis is the object or content of the mythos. Ultimately,
strings together speeches to illustrate character [ethos],even allowing he com- however, Halliwell notes that this distinction between praxis and mythos is "of
poses them well in style and thought, he will not achieve the stated aim of little or no practical weight." What is important for the mimetic arts generally
tragedy. Much more effective will be a play with a plot and structure of events, is that the individual actions that the artist represents produce a unified action
even if it is deficient in style and thought." 8 More suited to our discussion of or plot. As Halliwell notes, this "unity arises out of the causal and consequential
the objects of narrative than dianoia is Aristotle's distinction of plot types relations between the actions or events of a tragedy, and it is the connective
(mythos) as simple or complex. The latter involve three components that will sequence of these events which constitute the intelligible structure that Aristotle
be discussed in the second section of this chapter: recognition, reversal, and terms both the action and the plot-structure." 12
suffering. It is this unity in the representation of action that is of particular concern for
our discussion of pictorial narrative. For Aristotle, plot-action, or mythos, is an
arrangement of incidents, which must be of a unified or single piece of a story
5 .1 MYTHOS: PLOT AND ACTION and the whole of it, that is, its causes and conclusion and everything in between
them. 13 Aristotle provides a test for the unity of a plot by saying that if one
Aristotle accords primacy to action over ethos,stating that "tragedy is a represen- were to remove an incident from a unified plot that it would destroy the
tation not of people as such but of actions and life." Since agents must carry relationship between the actions and their events, that is, cause and effect (Poet.
out actions, we learn about their ethos through their deeds. Tragedy, however, 8.4). It is not enough to show simply an incident, like the murder of Agamem-
is not unique in placing primary importance on action as the object of narration. non, without the logical or causal relationship between that single incident and
The distinction between action and ethosholds true in the other arts as Aristotle other incidents, such as debate between him and Klytaimestra in the carpet
states in Poetics2: 9 scene. To remove this scene would remove the opportunity for the audience to
understand Agamemnon's role in the action, to see his death as the result not
mimetic artists portray people in action, and since these people must be either
good or bad (for men's characters practically always conform to these cate- just of the actions of his wife and cousin, but of his own hubris as well.
gories alone), they can portray people better than ourselves, worse than Therefore, the action is necessary to demonstrate that Agamemnon's own deci-
ourselves, or on the same level. The same is true in painting: Polygnotos sions led in part to his death. It is not, however, necessary for the poet to show
portrayed men who are superior, Pauson worse, and Dionysius on the same all the incidents of an action. As Aristotle states, "it makes a great difference
level. And it is evident that each of the stated types of mimesis will exhibit whether things happen because of one another, or only after one another." 14
these differences, and will thus be distinguishable according to the variations To string together a series of actions is not to produce a unified plot; to do so,
in the objects which it represents. For such differences are possible in dancing, there must be a logical necessity and probability to them.
and in music for the pipe and lyre, as well as in the arts which use language Not only should the action be appropriate and likely, according to Aristotle's
alone or language in metre: for instance Homer represented superior men, definition of tragedy in Poet. 6, it should also be "serious, complete, and of a
Cleophon men like us, Hegeman of Thasos (the first writer of parodies) and certain magnitude." 15 The latter two terms describe broadly the formal qualities
Nicochares (author of the Deiliad)inferior men.
or overall composition of the tragedy. By complete (teleias),Aristotle does not
The point is that the mimetic arts generally deal with the actions of human mean that every part of an action is represented on the stage (cf. Poet. 23), but
agents. Each type or form within a mimetic art, comedy and tragedy, for that it is sufficient to represent fully the action. His meaning is amplified in his
 f
162 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 163

explanation of a related term that he introduces in the following chapter of the is rare in Greek myth and art, so that
Poetics,"whole" (bolas), saying that a plot should have a beginning, middle, and when a viewer sees a warrior fallen on
end. Lastly, by magnitude (megathos),Aristotle states that the work should not a sword the identification of the scene
be too small or too grand, but that it should be large enough to treat its theme as the suicide of Ajax is not problem-
while still being of a sufficient scale "which allows it to be perceived all together atic. We have already seen one such
(eusynoptos)... [and] be easily held in the memory. 1116In other words, a tragic representation on the shield band
representation should be sufficiently monumental in scale to deal with its sub- from Olympia (see Figs. 55 and 56).
ject, and it should encompass the essential elements of the action so that its There Ajax is lying face down with
development and outcome are clear. the sword protruding up through his
To summarize, the unity of the plot/action is essential to the effectiveness of back. This is the typical formulation
a narrative. This narrative should be complete in that it can fully encompass of the action in Orientalizing and Ar-
the stages of the action or sequence of events and should be sufficient in scale chaic art, as can be seen in the earlier
to be perceived as a whole and to be held in the memory. Since most pictorial Middle Protocorinthian aryballos by
narrative is limited to a single image, an artist is severely limited in his or her the Ajax Painter (Fig. 70, "Ajax arybal-
ability to show a sequence of actions and the attendant causes and conse- los").19 Beneath the handle, we see
quences. Using synoptic narrative or a judicious employment of indexes within Ajax again face down with the sword
the single image will help the viewer within the narrative's macro-structure to sticking up through the back. To the
recall other actions of the story, but since the main narrative burden is carried left and missing much of its paint is a
by the nucleus, cause and effect are hard to show explicitly. So, too, the idea second figure, whom we shall call "B,''
of wholeness encompassing a beginning, middle, and end cannot be applied who looks at the dead warrior while
directly to the single image; these can only truly result with the use of syntag- exclaiming with outstretched hands
matic extension through a series of images (see Figs. 3 and 4 or 66 and 67). and running in the opposite direction.
The concepts of completeness and magnitude, however, offer a way for us to There are a few differences between
understand the representation of unified action in the visual arts that is analo- 70. Middle Protocorinthian aryballos by the Ajax
this representation and that on the
Painter, ca. 675. Suicide of Ajax. Staatliche Museen zu
gous to what Aristotle articulates as its qualities in the dramatic arts. Complete- shield band. The pommel is shown Berlin - Preussischer Kulturbesitz Antikensammlung
ness does not imply that all actions of a story are represented, but enough to fully on the aryballos and is not partly 3 319. (Photo courtesy of the Bildarchiv, © Bildarchiv
show sufficiently the story. Aristotle notes approvingly, for example, that Ho- buried below the ground line as on the Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, 1997)
mer in composing the Odyssey "did not include everything that happened to shield band. Another difference is that
the hero .... Instead, he constructed the Odyssey around a single action of the his right arm is pushed back as if he were trying to catch himself in his fall.
kind I mean, and likewise with the Iliad."17 For the visual arts, what we might Although the reaction of the discoverer on the aryballos is quite different and
seek as a definition is the representation of an action that epitomizes the whole more energetic than on the shield band, it serves essentially the same purpose
of a story and can readily invoke in the mind of the viewer the other events of discovery and reaction.
connected to it. By magnitude, Aristotle's definition of a structure "which allows How, then, does this single representation fulfill the criteria for a unified
it [the action] to be perceived all together (eusynoptos)... [and] be easily held action, particularly given the circumstance that the action of the protagonist,
in the memory" works quite well for the visual arts. As we have seen in the Ajax, is only shown as a fait accompli? The suicide itself is near the end of the
earlier discussion of visual language, artists and viewers share a common vocab- story and follows on a long sequence of actions: the recovery of the body of
ulary that immediately evokes a story through a single image, whatever varia- Achilles, the dispute between Odysseus and Ajax over the possession of Achil-
tions may be present. To see Athena spring fully armored from the head of les' armor, the decision by the Greeks to give it to Odysseus, the wrath of
Zeus indeed captures a memorable moment that is easily held in the memory Ajax and his plot to kill the Greek leaders, Ajax's demented slaughter of the
(see Fig. 41). If such a moment can also encapsulate the entire plot for the herd of sheep rather than the leaders, the hero's realization of his treachery and
viewer, it can be left to the viewer to remember the events leading up to or madness, his suicide, and the discovery of the body by the Greeks. Even though
from the represented action. artists actually represent the ultimate event in this sequence, the depiction of
To illustrate this concept of unity, a narrative image that can epitomize the the corpse in a way that reveals the nature of death welds the discovery to the
whole of a story as well as its causes and effects through its completeness and suicide. Given the uniqueness of Ajax's suicide in Greek storytelling and the
magnitude, we can examine the representation of the death of Ajax. 18 Suicide rarity of suicide in Greek myth, the presence of the corpse is sufficient indica-
 .,.
164 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 165

tion that it is the main point of overall narrative interest and would promise a qualities for Aristotle were not symptomatic of virtue and ethos,but were exter-
jolt for the viewer. This, indeed, constitutes the importance of the event and nal goods given by good fortune. 21 Indeed, the best tragedy represented figures
encapsulates the whole sequence of actions, for the suicide is a shocking action who were not too much better than ourselves so that we could sympathize with
concluding a series of misadventures and delusions that are untypical of a great their story.
hero. The reactions of the discoverers emphasize this bizarre situation and in a To emphasize actions is to create more of a chronicle than an explanation.
real way represent the most salient points of the story. The image, then, is It is to simplify narrative by limiting its objects. This is not to say that such
sufficiently complete to narrate not only the death of Ajax but its unique pictorial narrative is limited in its meaning. The metaphorical value of the
qualities and causes. Focusing on the fallen warrior with a sword through him actions, their relationship to the actions of everyday life or to principles and
is also memorable and sufficient to encapsulate the entire story easily in the beliefs, constitute a real meaning for the viewer. Indeed, the use of generic
mind of the viewer. formulas in both mythological and everyday subjects emphasizes the impor-
To compress this action, or mythos, into a single picture clearly shifts much tance of heroic actions for the life of the viewer, as we saw in the discussion of
of the burden of remembering the story onto the viewer, so that the task of the the Minneapolis amphora in Section 2.3 in Chapter Two (see Figs. 21 and 22).
artist in constructing the narrative is to compose a scene that encompasses all Still, it is the actions themselves that are most important. This type of "action"
of the action and that suggests the pattern of cause and effect. What the artist narrative continues without break into later periods of Greek art and mythos may
has done in this case is to choose a moment near the end of the action that be said to be the dominant object of Greek narrative art generally. Indeed, one
emphasizes the effect or conclusion. 20 By choosing this moment, the artist might describe it, to paraphrase Aristotle, as illustrating the principle that
emphasizes the result of the story and leaves to the viewer the reconstruction narrative can have action without ethos,but not ethoswithout action. 22
of the preceding actions that led to it. The advantage of this is that it also
emphasizes one of the visually unique elements of the story, the body on top
of the sword. By this choice, the nucleus can efficiently double as index, 5. 2 SIMPLE AND COMPLEX ACTION
allowing the viewer to identify the scene and story immediately and providing
a context for the discourse of the macro-structure. Before turning our attention to the second object of narrative, ethos,it is oppor-
Picking a narrative moment near the end of a story is typical of Greek art tune to discuss two categories of action or plot that Aristotle defines, simple
and its representation of vigorous action. For example, in the Centauromachy and complex:2 3
on the Bassae frieze (see Fig. 47), the relief shows the fight near the end of the
story, and not the details of the wedding and banquet that created the condi- By a "simple action" I mean one which is, as earlier defined, continuous and
unitary, but whose transformation occurs without reversal or recognition. A
tions for the centaurs' riotous and inappropriate behavior. In the representations
"complex" action is one whose transformation involves recognition or reversal,
of Theseus and the Minotaur (see Figs. 54, 56, and 68) we see the two figures
or both.
locked in struggle. In Herakles and the Nemean lion (Figs. 54 and 56) and with
Nessos (Figs. 39, 40, and 54), we see the struggle again reaching its conclusion, Aristotle defines reversal (peripeteia)as "a complete swing in the direction of the
with little emphasis on the actions that led to the climactic fight. action," a change of a narrative situation into its opposite. 24 Just as Oedipus
It is not too risky of a generalization to state that most pictorial narrative is thinks that he has escaped the prophecy that he would kill his father when he
primarily and even exclusively concerned with action. As we will see in Section hears of his father's death in Corinth, he learns next that Polybus was not his
5. 3, what distinguishes ethos as an object of narrative is that it represents the real father and that he had indeed unknowingly killed his biological father
moral choices of an individual. Indeed, Ajax and the other figures discussed Laius. This particular episode also employs simultaneously the device of recog-
here can be said to have made such choices, but by focusing on the climax or nition (anagnorisis),that is, "a change from ignorance to knowledge, bringing
near climax of a story as representative of its whole, the artist necessarily the characters into either a close bond, or enmity, with one another, and
stresses the results of the action and not the elements of decision making that concerning matters which bear on their prosperity or affliction ... recognition
led to them. When an artist chooses to depict a diff~rent, earlier moment of can relate to inanimate or fortuitous objects, or reveal that someone has, or has
the story, it is possible to give attention to these turning points that reveal ethos, not, committed a deed." 25 For Aristotle the combination of recognition and
but this is not the case here. We might risk a generalization, that will be reversal is the most potent form of complex plot and is most suited to produce
qualified later, that pre-Classical art was primarily interested in action and not pity and fear in the viewer.
ethos.To show Herakles and the Nemean lion was to emphasize the exploits of The examples in the last section illustrate to some degree recognition and
the hero and to signify the qualities that made him a hero: strength, beauty, reversal. In the suicide of Ajax (see Figs. 70 and 56) the reactions of the other
courage, and so on. As Halliwell has noted, however, many of these heroic figures to the death are forms of recognition or discovery. Although they may
 r

166 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 167

have expected to find Ajax to make him answer for his actions against the
Greeks, clearly they did not expect to find him in such a state. His action is
unexpected and a shock to their social conventions, but it is also a reconciling
experience for their anger begins to turn to dismay and grief over the loss of a
hero. The scene is also to some degree a reversal, in that it contradicts expec-
tation on the part of the discoverer. Particularly in Fig. 70, the discovery has
produced a shock, so great is the unexpected find. Since Ajax and Achilles were
the bastions of the Greek forces, their deaths now portend a change in the
fortune of the Greeks. Indeed, they must now resort to guile by stealing the
Palladion and building the Trojan Horse to secure a victory.
We might also label the scene of Menelaos and Helen at the side of the
Iliupersis by Lydos (Fig. 71, "Berlin Iliupersis") as constituting a reversal. 26 Given
the relentless slaughter of the Trojans by the Greeks and the great anger against
Helen, we might expect her to be killed too. Indeed, Menelaos has drawn his
sword and advances on her with apparently that thought in mind. However,
Helen pulls aside her mantle to reveal her beauty, with the result that Menelaos
simultaneously "rediscovers" her and his anger is transformed into desire and
reconciliation. It is the contrast between this nucleus and the adjacent nucleus 71. Attick black-figure amphora by Lydos, mid-sixth century. Iliupersis. Staatliche Museen
of this panoramic narrative that makes the element of reversal apparent. The zu Berlin - Preussischer Kulturbesitz Antikensammlung, F 1685. (Drawing by E. Gerhard after
Charbonneaux [1971], pl. 73)
reactions of Priam and the first woman to Neoptolemos are clearly supplicating,
and this is true of most of the confrontations on the Mykonos pithos as well
(see Fig. 61). The other woman reacts more as if she is in mourning, but this a complex narrative. 28 On one level, it is impossible for a generic narrative to
too is appropriate as a proleptic response to the action. This scene, then, has have such reversal because it requires the basic formula of the action to be
nothing of reversal or discovery in it. The reaction of Helen to the same threat violated in order to make such a reversal apparent. On a broader level, however,
of death, however, does not match. Her action is that of a bride to a husband it is not necessary that a complex pictorial narrative be definitely mythological
and seems wholly inappropriate to a scene of great slaughter.2 7 The same lack in subject. For example, the battle on the Huntsmen aryballos (see Fig. 8) is
of commensurability between action and reaction also sets apart the same basically a generic battle scene. As we saw, however, there is an unexpected
composition on the Mykonos pithos. nucleus of figure A coming up behind B and stabbing him in the back. The
We can see the representation of Helen and Menelaos as both a discovery actions of the two figures are not a normal juxtaposition, in that stabbing figures
and a reversal that make Lydos's amphora a complex plot, in large part because usually approach their victim head on (with the notable exception of Klytai-
we, like the ancient Greek viewer, know the basic story and the result. Were mestra stabbing Agamemnon in Fig. 56); archers are usually protected by dis-
this picture a generic narrative, without specific subject, we would be much less tance and shield-bearing warriors from such a direct assault. At least for the
certain as to the resolution of the action, but it would still be possible for nucleus of A-B, this does represent a change of the narrative situation into its
recognition and reversal to be present because the elements of the micro- opposite and introduces a strong element of uncertainty into the narrative, as
structure and macro-structure create the potential for reversal and discovery. we saw earlier. There is little element of recognition and discovery here, but
Indeed, an important part of the narrative structure in the Berlin Iliupersis is these too would be possible in a generic narrative. In the battle scene on the
that the individual actions, warrior threatening woman with sword and woman Chigi aryballos (see Fig. 29), one of the warriors (B8) turns his head around to
pulling aside her veil, are quite common in Greek art and would be instantly see a spear aimed at him by another warrior (B9). Since none of B8's comrades
recognizable. What is not typical is the juxtaposition ~f these two actions, in are aware of this threat or have already been struck, the interaction of these
that women threatened with swords usually flee or plea and bridegrooms do figures constitutes a discovery and a change in awareness that is accompanied
not pull swords on their brides. This contrast with generic narrative formulas is by the turn in fortune for that group of warriors. This indeed is one of the
1
the foundation for reversal. elements that makes this collective nucleus (B different from B and the ensem-
)

This raises the question as to whether a generic narrative such as discussed ble B/B1 different from A in narrative effect. As the comparison demonstrates,
in Section 2.3 in Chapter Two can have both discovery and reversal, making it though, including reversal and discovery in a scene without a specific subject
 P"'

168 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 169

would make it untypical and give it a greater degree of narrativity by the more
open-ended nature of the action (see Section 2.2 in Chapter Two). It would
not, though, need to be mythological to be complex.
Although reversal and recognition make these narratives more complex than
others, they still remain primarily focused on action and not on ethos.Judging
from the literary testimony in Sections 3.1 and 3.6 in Chapter Three, it is hard
to imagine that the ancient viewer of such scenes experienced the pity and fear
that Aristotle names as the effect of complex plots. 29 In part, this is due to the
lack of pathosor suffering in the figures, the third component that Aristotle adds
to the complex plot: "To the definitions of reversal and recognition already
given we can add that of suffering (pathos):a destructive or painful action, such
as visible deaths, torments, woundings, and other things of the same kind." 30
Although in fact both the Ajax and Iliupersis scenes show "destructive and
painful action," I would argue that their nature is not one that is designed to
portray true pathos.
To illustrate this point, we might look again at a detail of the Naples
Iliupersis (Fig. 72). Sitting behind the altar with Priam and the statue of Athena
are two women turned toward each other. Both tear at their hair in grief-filled
mourning, and one holds up her empty right hand in dismay and perhaps
resignation. At first glance, they are equivalent to the women behind Priam in
the Berlin Iliupersis (Fig. 71). One pulls her hair in the same gesture of mourn-
ing, while the other reaches out her hand, but in supplication like the hand of
Priam. In representing the women, however, the Kleophrades Painter concen- 72. Attic red-figure hydria by the Kleophrades Painter, ca. 490-480. Iliupersis: Detail of
trates on pathos,"reactive emotion" or suffering, in a way that is quite different. 31 Priam and Neoptolemos, mourning women. Naples, National Museum, 2422. (Photo cour-
tesy of the Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munchen)
What distinguishes the pathoshere is the internalized nature of the emotional
response. In Lydos, the figures express their feelings through action and gesture;
they generally do so in response to direct physical experience. 32 On the Naples consecutive and overlapping scenes in a frieze reaching almost all the way
Iliupersis, and more broadly in the Early Classical period, reactions appear on around the shoulder of the vessel (see Fig. 58). In the central scene, we see
figures who are not being directly tortured or otherwise physically acted on to Neoptolemos killing Priam, who holds his dead grandson on his lap (see Section
produce the effect. The two women are not yet molested like Kassandra and 2.1 in Chapter Two for a more detailed analysis of the scene's micro-structure).
do not even see what is happening around them. Instead, one must presume What is most striking about this scene in comparison to the Berlin Iliupersis is
that they react to the sounds carrying from the surrounding city into the that Priam no longer reacts directly to the threat of Neoptolemos. Like the
sanctuaries or to scenes they had earlier witnessed. This is a much deeper and unexpected revelation of Helen to Menelaos on the Berlin Iliupersis, Priam's
more personal type of emotional reaction, and may be granted the term pathos. reaction is not commensurate with Neoptolemos's action as a direct, physical
Combined with reversal and recognition, pathos has the potential to create response. We see Priam grieving for his city and family, and through his display
the effect of pity and fear in the spectator. These are effective in helping to of emotion the viewer is invited to sympathize with him. Indeed, Priam in this
arouse an emotional response in the viewer, and thereby to bring about the role fits well Aristotle's criteria for the ideal tragic figure of a person involved in
ultimate purpose of mimetic art: pleasure and understanding. 33 As Aristotle "a change from prosperity to affliction (rather than the reverse) caused not by
notes, for tragedy, this is best when it is the result o{ the plot-structure and wickedness but by a great fallibility/' to wit, his acquiescence in the abduction
involves reversal and recognition, but it can also be evoked directly by visual of Helen. 35 Although Priam's culpability in harboring Paris and Helen has not
experience, the theatrical spectacle (opsis).34 In terms of pictorial narrative, changed, there is here no false plea. The effect is to deny the viewer the
pathos is created by mimicking the appearance of emotions in the characters corroboration of guilt that a pleading gesture would have. This makes Neopto-
and by the coordination of the macro-structure and its extension in multiple lemos's action less certain in its justness, since he also pulls the king away from
scenes. We can look further at the Naples Iliupersis to illustrate this. the sacred altar where he has sought refuge. 36 Triumph begins to appear more
As we have seen in earlier discussions, the Naples Iliupersis contained five like sacrilege, adikia replaces dike. This reading is amplified by another change
 ...
170 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 171

of convention, and that is the direction of Neoptolemos. The warrior now faces
leftward, rather than the rightward direction reserved for heroic action. Here
the exigency of viewing context cannot be offered as an explanation for the
change in direction, for the scene is centrally placed and is approached, as we
shall see in what follows, from either side of the hydria.
There are some stylistic elements that make this depiction of pathos more
credible. Neoptolemos's pupil has moved forward, giving the face a clearer
sense of focus and direction than the earlier convention of the frontal eye. His
mouth is still set with a trace of the Archaic smile, but he now firmly grabs the
older man on the back of his costume and pulls him forward. The effect would
be to bring the neck forward and bare it for the executioner's sword. The dead
child's body hangs limply over Priam's lap, conveying an effective sense of
lifelessness. The emphasis on mourning and deep grief, captured in the hidden
face of the king, the droop of his head, and the resulting arc created by hands,
head, and neck is repeated throughout the scene, appearing again in the palm
tree next to the altar and the woman under it, not to mention the contour of
the body of Astyanax. The use of a drooping palm tree may serve as a trope
and pathetic fallacy, echoing the action of Priam and the women under it. 37
The Priam-Neoptolemos scene is the center of an intricately constructed
web of scenes that are carefully linked visually and semantically with each
other. Immediately to the left is Ajax raping Kassandra (Fig. 73). Kassandra,
nude but for a cloak tied around her neck, clutches a statue of Athena. A 73. Attic red-figure hydria by the Kleophrades Painter, ca. 490-480. Iliupersis: Detail of
conscious awareness of artistic style emerges in the treatment of Athena, who Ajax and Kassandra; Aeneas fleeing with Anchises and Askanios. Naples, National Museum,
2422. (Photo courtesy of the Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munchen)
is stiff and archaic in her pose and expression; even her eye has moved back to
the frontal position. Placed on a base, the figure is clearly meant to be an
archaic statue and designates the sacred space of Athena's shrine at Troy. 38 The the scenes. Although Ajax faces in the direction normally given to victors, this
figure of Athena, then, serves as an informant in addition to other roles as a semantic value of direction is undercut by the visual context. First, the linkage
catalyst and index. Her spear points toward Ajax, who charges in from the left of the sacred spaces means that he must face in the direction opposite of
to grab Kassandra by the back of her head, reaching inside the statue's shield Neoptolemos. Since this scene is to the side, its configuration also directs the
to do so. His sword is held in a position of grave threat and menace, in sharp viewer toward the central scene, making a rightward direction for Ajax neces-
contrast to the supplicating appeal of Kassandra's right arm. This combination sary. The placement of this scene to the side is also necessary for the parallel
'i I
of signs is more expected, but his hold on her head is not. Clearly, if he pulls that it creates on the other side of the hydria, as we shall see in what follows.
her away from the statue it will topple over, and bring Athena's spear toward Finally, the arrangement of Ajax-Kassandra-Athena is also counter to the pre-
him. The action is shown at a pivotal moment, where Ajax is to choose between dominant formula used in red-figure painting at the time, in which the order is
the sanctity of Athena's sanctuary and his violent desire. 39 The statue serves as usually reversed. 40 Thus, built into the composition is an unexpected reversal
a threat, a catalyst that does not participate directly in the nucleus of the scene, that ironically places Ajax in the position of doomed victor. The net result is to
but that makes the implications of the nucleus of Ajax and Kassandra far more link Ajax and Neoptolemos as pendant forces of sacrilege, attacking the altars
portentous. The statue further serves as an index, a proleptic reference to Ajax's of the Trojans. This is exactly the course of action that Klytaimestra warns
death for this sacrilege by drowning on the return from Troy. against in the Agamemnonof Aeschylus, with dire consequences for Agamemnon
The statue stands in front of the drooping palm of the Priam scene, and the and many of the Greeks: 41
palm serves visually to link Palladion and altar together as twin sanctuaries of And if they reverence the gods who hold the city
the Trojans, both now being desecrated. This link between the two scenes is and all the holy temples of the captured land,
reinforced by another grieving woman placed behind the statue, who faces in they, the despoilers, might not be despoiled in turn.
the direction of the woman sitting against the palm tree. The latter's right hand Let not their passion overwhelm them; let no lust
points toward the statue, strengthening the web of interconnections between seize on these men to violate what they must not. (Ag. 338-42).
 ......

172 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 173

At the far left end of the hydria, we see Aeneas carrying his father Anchises
on his back; his son Askanios walks along beside him. The whole group moves
leftward, away from the center, implying escape from the fate of Troy. Both
Askanios and Anchises look back, directing the viewer toward the center. The
stubble on Achises' chin and head mirror those of Priam in the center, so that
Anchises serves as an index, moving horizontally to another episode of the
same story. The grouping of three generations is also similar to the central
scene, but here the contrast between death and escape creates a sharp distinc-
tion between the houses of Anchises and Priam. The contrast between direction
of gaze and direction of movement ties the end scene to the drama in the
center, but moves it proleptically toward a future quite different. Here, too, an
unexpected juxtaposition emerges between Ajax and Aeneas, the latter demon-
strating filial piety by carrying his father (and the household gods) while the
former is poised on a moment of impiety. The Trojan will escape to found a
new realm, and Ajax will die before he reaches home.
On the other side of the hydria are two parallel scenes (Fig. 74). At the far
right are the sons of Theseus, Akamas and Demophon, finding their grand-
mother Aithra, seated on a low pedestal. Here, too, three generations are
implied, with the middle generation of Theseus, however, absent. Like the
other end, this scene, too, is one of rescue, as her grandsons reach for her arm
to pull her up. The pose of the leftmost grandson is balanced between reaching
in toward her and turning away to lead her; the balance between left and right 74. Attic red-figure hydria by the Kleophrades Painter, ca. 490-480. Iliupersis: Detail of
movement in this section recalls that of Aeneas escaping. In both cases, the Andromache and Greek; rescue of Aithra. Naples, National Museum, 2422. (Photo courtesy
composition simultaneously arrests outward motion at the end of the frieze but of the Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munchen)
also turns back inward like waves breaking against a seawall. The figure of
Aithra also mimics the poses of the women between Priam and Kassandra, and their opponents, who both crouch with the left leg bent and knee touching the
the lunging pose of the bearded figure, pulling the woman toward him, is like ground and their right thigh and knee rising slightly. Visually, the parallels
that of Ajax but without the drawn weapon and hostile intent. Aithra has her between the Kassandra-Ajax and Andromache scenes are quite striking, and
back turned toward the rest of the sack, and unlike the younger women nearer were it not for the role reversal that we see, they would be virtually mirror
the center, she has hope of escape. opposites of each other.
The scene next to the slaying of Priam shows a surprising combination of Although the individual episodes on the Naples Iliupersis are not brand new
combatants. Behind Neoptolemos and facing the other direction is a crouching to the viewer, the Kleophrades Painter treats them in a unique way and utilizes
Greek warrior, his sword drawn but lowered while he hunkers behind his shield. reversal, recognition, and pathos to create a memorable narrative. The depic-
The expression on his face can be described as one of dismay or even fear; his tion of Andromache is a prime example of reversal, both by the unexpect-
mouth is slightly downturned and his eyes apparently have rolled up in their edness of the agents as well as by the contrast that is evoked with the less
sockets. His opponent, to the contrary, has clearly directed eyes and a smile, honorable and sacrilegious actions of Ajax and Neoptolemos. Both recognition
but is unarmed save for a huge pestle that she wields in her two hands. In pose, and reversal are apparent in the scene with Aithra. It is surprising to the viewer
she closely resembles Neoptolemos, especially in the sharply upturned and bent to find here a Greek on the losing side. 43 Although Aithra is similarly posed
left arm, elevated right shoulder, and lunging pose. Her pose also mimics that and situated to the women by the altar, her recognition is accompanied by her
of the statue of Athena, at least in the position of the arms and shoulders. What rescue, a reversal of the Trojan women's fate. Reversal is used more broadly in
is surprising is that the role of Greek warrior and Trojan woman are here contrasting Neoptolemos, armed and attacking an unarmed old man, and
reversed. The figure is usually identified as Andromache, mother of Astyanax, Andromache, unarmed and attacking an armed youthful warrior. The discovery
based on the inscription next to a similar figure on a kylix in the Louvre by the on the part of the viewer is that the painter has focused on the sacrilege of
Brygos Painter, and indeed the correlation between the figures is quite strong. 42 Neoptolemos and Ajax, and not their heroism. 44 So, too, where the viewer
Both Ajax and Andromache move toward the center of the composition against might expect a justification for the sack by including in the work the recovery
- 174 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 175

of Helen, as on the Mykonos pithos or the Berlin Iliupersis, we see instead the The pose and actions of the figures are very distinctive, but Pausanias moves
recovery of Aithra. The recovery of Helen points to Trojan hubris and ate, but beyond that to describe the sharp contrast in the ethos of the figures (see
Aithra evokes an example of Theseus's arrogance and folly in earlier abducting reconstruction in Fig. 86). This sense of ethosis conveyed not simply by action,
Helen. All of this is made possible by the careful symmetry and use of but as the reference to Penthesileia's toss of the head and the look of disdain
repetition within the work, for it is particularly by comparison that the rever- indicates, by the glance and facial expression. In other words, Pausanias reads
sals are effected. In general, Greek triumph is surprisingly turned back on the figure's emotional reaction to Paris. This understanding of her pathos leads
itself. further to a contrast in their character. That it is a woman who emerges as the
The Naples Iliupersis stands at the beginning of the Early Classical interest more heroic character, even though she is not dressed as a warrior, is itself an
in pathos and ethos.The very dramatic change in the shape and structure of the interesting reversal of value that plays generally into the reversal of fortune for
narrative from earlier examples may be a reaction to the struggles, disasters, most of the figures in this section of Polygnotos's painting (see Fig. 86).
reversals, and victories of the Greeks during the early fifth century. Boardman
and Simon propose dating the hydria after 480, and eloquently argue that its
imagery is a response to the Persian sack of Athens and destruction of its 5.3 ETHOS
religious sanctuaries. 45 Pollitt points to another event that might be linked to
the Iliupersis scenes, the sack of Miletos and the enslaving of its entire popula- The discussion of complex action has brought us already to the second of
tion in 494. 46 Athenian feeling about this incident ran very high, and Herodotus the objects of narration, ethos, or character. Clearly, an effect on the viewer of
(6.21) tells us that a play by Phrynichos about the disastrous result of the Ionian understanding reversal and recognition and of seeing the portrayal of pathos as
revolt brought the audience to tears and afterward led to a stiff fine of 1,000 well as physical action in a figure is to create an awareness of the nature of the
drachmae and the proscription of the play. Boardman's and Simon's theory is agent. Aristotle's use of the term ethos is not meant to convey the idea of
attractive, and if one could be sure of the precise dating of the hydria one could psychological character as in modern drama, but of ethical character. Ethos, in
surely see it as a personal and general reaction to contemporary events. Even if 11
other words, represents the ethical qualities of action, a specific moral factor in
the hydria dates before 480, surely, the fate of Miletos, so parallel to that of relation to action. 1149 It is the narrative context that brings out the ethical
Troy, could continue to be part of the associations of the work. But either character of an individual by emphasizing the deliberate human choice, prohai-
situation as inspiration, Miletos or Athens, requires a reversal on the part of resis,in a given situation. Ethos, then needs to be distinguished from such heroic
viewers, in that they are now expected to identify sympathetically not with the trappings as strength, beauty, and wealth, which are bestowed by fortune but
victorious Greeks on the hydria, but rather with the Trojans. 47 Oppositions do not bear on the ethical nature of an individual. Indeed, this is why Aristotle
such as Lapiths and Centaurs, Herakles and his adversaries, Greeks and Trojans, stated that a drama about an extremely good or bad individual experiencing a
had long stood as metaphors for the struggle to define order (kosmos)amidst the reversal of fate is not appropriate for tragedy, in that there is no moral choice
disorder (chaos) of events. As metaphor, the value of the Greeks has here to be made: 50
reversed, breaking with the narrative codes established during the Archaic
period. As we shall see later, this change in the narrative code extends to the We are left, then, with the figure who falls between these types. Such a man
choice of narrative moment as well. is one who is not preeminent in virtue and justice, and one who falls into
affliction not because of evil and wickedness, but because of a certain fallibil-
In a sense this is a modern reading, a personal reaction of a much later
ity (hamartia).He will belong to the class of those who enjoy great esteem
viewer, but it is one that is appropriate for an Early Classical painting. The
and prosperity, such as Oedipus, Thyestes, and outstanding men from such
figures of Polygnotos, for example, could evoke similar reactions in ancient families.
viewers. In describing the figures of Penthesileia and Paris in the Nekyia, Pausa-
nias says: 48 The key element for pictorial narrative in emphasizing ethos as its object
involves the matter of choice. To take an example, the actions of Ajax in
Above Sarpedon and Memnon is Paris, who does not yet have a beard. He is
attempting to slaughter the Greek leaders lead him to decide on taking his own
clapping his hands just the way some rude country fellow would clap them.
life. In the earlier examples of this narrative that we examined, we see that the
You will say that Paris appears to be calling Penthesileia to him by the sound
artist has depicted the suicide as a completed action and has emphasized the
of his hands. Penthesileia is also there looking at Paris; she seems by the toss
of her head to look on him with disdain and to treat him as of no account. reactions of the Greeks to its discovery (see Figs. 70 and 56). Although this is
The representation of Penthesileia is that of a virgin [maiden]; she carries a the most typical pictorial version of the story, there are other examples that
bow that is like the Scythian bows and wears a leopard skin on her shoulders. depict an earlier narrative moment before Ajax throws himself on the sword.
(10.31.8) An Early Classical lekythos in Basel shows Ajax kneeling before the sword that
 +-

176 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 177

he has planted in the sand and raising his hands in supplication. 51 An earlier narrative when it becomes important
version by Exekias shows a nude Ajax patting the sand into a base around the as an object is that the artist may need
hilt of the sword (Fig. 75). 52 His Boeotian shield stands propped against the to focus on a different moment of the
right frame, as are his two spears; his helmet sits on top of the shield facing story than when the action itself is the
slightly downward toward its owner. To the left is a palm tree, whose fronds primary or sole narrative object. 54 For
are partly cut off at the left by the frame and just overlap part of the lotus and example, the east pediment of the
palmette chain at the top. Temple of Zeus at Olympia has the
Whereas other depictions concentrate on the finished deed and reaction to same subject as one of the scenes on
it, Exekias focuses on the decision of the greatest of the Greeks after Achilles the Chest of Kypselos in the same
to kill himself. 53 The lines on the brow and below the eye help to convey to sanctuary: the chariot race of Pelops
the viewer Ajax's concentration on his task, and perhaps his despondency as and Oinomaos. In the Archaic version
well. The contrast between the gentle action of patting down the sand (as (see the reconstruction in Fig. 26, bot-
conveyed by an open hand rather than a closed hand ramming the sword into tom register), the two chariot teams
the ground) and the massive, bulging muscles of the warrior create a quite are flat out racing toward the climax.
different impression than the emphasis on strong action that typifies the Archaic In the temple pediment, we see the
period. This, too, is seen in the structure of the nucleus. Ajax is the protagonist, moment before the race when Pelops
the subject of the action, but there is no apparent external object that reacts to agrees to the terms laid out by Oino-
him. We know from the story that he is both subject and object of the action, maos. Whether the pedimental ver-
and it is possible to read hand and sword as subject and head as object, since sion is sanitized like that of Pindar's
convention would have the object at sword point be the intended victim. Here, Olympian 1 or has a darker meaning,
then, Ajax sees his fate like any other warrior about to fall at the hands of a the sculptors have emphasized the
hero, but now is both parts of the equation. ethosof each agent by his or her phys-
Exekias's depiction of the suicide of Ajax is less about action than about the ical, emotional, and ethical reactions
agent. This is a signal shift from the emphasis on mythos because it represents a to the circumstances. 55 The point is
restructuring of the nucleus. Rather than pick a moment at or near the final that the emphasis on ethoschanges the
outcome, Exekias picks a more open-ended moment when the result has a narrative moment in the story, usually
greater potential for doubt. Of course, aware of the story, the viewer will know 75. Attic black-figure belly amphora by Exekias, toward
to one that is earlier. 530. Suicide of Ajax. Boulogne-sur-Mer, Musee Com-
the inevitable course of events that follows, and Exekias has provided signposts We can see the impact of the em- munal 558. (Photo courtesy of the Chateau Musee de
along that path in his use of prolepsis. Still, the moment and action do not in phasis on ethos and choice on the nar- Boulogne sur mer, Photo DEVOS)
and of themselves necessitate a specific outcome in the same way that a spear rative moments in another work of the
or sword point disappearing into a warrior's body does. Because the outcome is fifth century. On the kylix with Polyeidos and Glaukos in the tomb (see Fig.
more open-ended theoretically, it makes the result all the more poignant be- 36) the painter has chosen a middle moment, rather than a later moment where
cause the catastrophe might have been avoided. As has been frequently noted, the outcome is more clearly in view. Following Polyeidos's reversal of fortune,
in mood and spirit and in choice of action Exekias's work looks forward to the from successfully finding the missing Glaukos to being sealed in the tomb with
Classical period and is without true parallel among his contemporaries. Al- the boy, we see a moment of discovery in which the knowledge gained will
though Early Classical artists such as Kritios and Nesiotes (see Fig. 33), the provide a successful conclusion to the story. Polyeidos, reacting to the threat
Sotades Painter (see Fig. 36), or Polygnotos (see Fig. 77 and following) were of the second snake, raises his staff to kill it, but pauses at the decisive moment
noted for their ability to depict ethos, this was based on an ability to describe when he is ready to strike. Perhaps puzzled by the untypical behavior of the
the human figure in more mimetic and expressive terms (see Section 3.7 in second snake, he hesitates in order to observe. By staying his original impulse,
Chapter Three). The difference with Exekias's representation is that the artist he discovers the properties of the herb that will revive Glaukos and furnish his
must rely mostly on the configuration of the action, for we can only infer and own salvation from the tomb. We see in the choice the ethosof a seer, someone
not really read the pathos that Ajax is feeling. In some ways, this confirms the who sees beyond the obvious to understand a hidden meaning that can help
idea of action being the foundation for ethos,but here ethoscomes to the fore as guide humans. As a tomb offering, as this cup undoubtedly was, the theme and
the narrative object. object of the narrative are particularly appropriate.
Since ethostypically involves a choice of action, the implication for pictorial The particular relevance of ethos in Classical art can be found in Aristotle's
178 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 179

comparison of ethosin poetry to its representation in painting. In earlier stating

that the subject of mimesis is humans better than, worse than, or like ourselves, Odysseus Boatof Ship of Menelaos Helen City
Eriphyle Charon Wall
Aristotle states that the Early Classical painter Polygnotos "portrayed men who
OdysseusScene SeaScene
are superior, Pauson worse, and Oionysius on the same level. 1156 Indeed, Poly-
gnotos was noted for this ability to portray ethos, and, clearly, Aristotle means Nekyia lliupersis
this in the same sense that he is defining ethos in tragedy, for Sophocles, who Aias
won his first victory in dramatic competition in 468, is the same kind of artist Achilles/Patroklos Achilles Altar
Altars
Scene Scene
as Homer and Polygnotos in their respective media, portraying people as they Orpheus
Kassandra
ought to be (Poet. 3.4 and 25.11). Aristotle says later (Poet. 6.15): "Compare,
among painters, the difference between Zeuxis and Polygnotos: while Poly-
HeroesScene Land Scene
gnotos is a fine portrayer of character, Zeuxis' art has no characterization," that Aias
is, that it relies on action but not ethoswhereas Polygnotos develops both in his Hektor Paris Cliff Householdof Antenor Laomedon

art. 57 I I
Although none of Polygnotos's paintings survive (although the painting on
the Polyeidos kylix is closely related in style), there is detailed literary testi-
0 1
111111
2m
I t
mony about them, in particular the paintings in the Lesche of the Knidians at 76. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Polygnotos. Plan of the Lesche of the Knidians
Delphi, that has served to reconstruct their compositions. 58 Although it is in Delphi with the arrangement of the paintings of Polygnotos. (Author, from Stansbury-
impossible to analyze the micro-structure and macro-structure of these works O'Donnell [ 1990], fig. 2)

except in the broadest terms, they are of interest for the discussion of ethosas a
narrative object because we have the reactions of Pausanias as viewer to what together the two paintings formed a cyclic narrative, linking the destruction
he saw, providing at least a measure of testimony about the result and meaning and preparation for departure from Troy with the results of the journey. 60 The
of the narrative experience for the ancient viewer. The importance of narrative selection of the nuclei and catalysts of each scene and the coordination with
extension in this large work also allows us to glimpse how Polygnotos organized the viewing context reveal a coordination of time - of the viewer, of the
his narrative to guide the reactions of the viewers to the work by noting the narration, and of the story - that broadens the dimensions of the narrative. At
depth or detail of Pausanias's description of the paintings. A comparison of the same time, the smaller scenes are linked together and to the main action
these paintings with the tragedy of Aeschylus will further demonstrate the through a symmetrical and ringlike compositional structure similar to the trag-
impact of ethos on pictorial narrative. The goal is to re-create the narrative edy of Aeschylus. The result is a painting that engages the viewer into a
experience more than the narrative work, although the latter is necessary to complicated narrative experience.
make the former more concrete in our discussion. To demonstrate this, it will be necessary to follow along in the footsteps of
On the right, east side of the rectangular Knidian Lesche was the Iliupersis;to Pausanias and describe the salient points of each scene. On entering the Lesche,
the left and similarly covering three sides of the room was the Nekyia (Fig. 76). the viewer first confronted the scenes in the center of the north wall with the
The moment of the Iliupersiswas not the sack itself, as shown by Lydos (Fig. preparations for departure from Troy on the right side and the arrival of the
71) or the Kleophrades Painter (Figs. 72 to 74), but rather the morning after raft of Charon in the Nekyia to the left (Fig. 77, Paus. 10.25.2-3 and 10.28.1-
when the prisoners are taken, the spoils and camp are being loaded onto the 6). Although other portions of the painting would have been visible, some of
ships, and the Greek leaders confer to decide the fate of Ajax the Lesser for his the columns that supported the roof would have framed the central section of
rape of Kassandra and the desecration of Athena's altar. In the Nekyia, one saw the north wall and focused the viewer's attention on the ships in the middle of
the sacrifice of Odysseus, described in Odyssey 11, along with some of the the wall. To the right was a ship being loaded on a pebbly beach and a tent
Greek leaders in the first mural and other Trojan and Greek her~es like Achilles, being struck. These are generic actions that serve to set the scene from the
Ajax the Greater, Memnon, and Hektor. It is importa.nt to note that the scale doorway, but they do not provide any information about the specific subject,
of the Lesche paintings was too large for a viewer to comprehend them all at the Iliupersis.Only when the viewer is close enough to read the inscription
once, as the perspectival reconstructions here seek to demonstrate. 59 Polygnotos identifying Phrontis, Menelaos's pilot, can the subject be certainly identified as
divided each of the paintings into smaller scenes connected by a continuous, Trojan. Perhaps the selection of nonheroic figures to fill this scene was intended
changing landscape. The paintings' elaborate scale allowed Polygnotos to ex- to draw the viewer into the tableau at the first glance by its generic quality. At
plore paradigmatically through his choice of characters other moments of the the far end of the scene is a small boy with his head in his hands; this strikes a
broader story. Each painting was syntagmatically a panoramic narrative, but discordant note into the scene and prepares the viewer for what is to follow.
 180 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 181

The beginning of a new scene is marked

by the three women who gaze at Helen,
seated farther to the right with two servants
waiting on her (Fig. 78, Paus. 10.25.4-8). 61
The herald Eurybates addresses Helen, and
this constitutes the nucleus of the scene. Be-
hind Eurybates are Aithra and Demophon,
and they as well as some of the captive T ro-
jans above can be supposed to look toward
Helen, focusing the viewer's attention on
her. With the aid of the identifying inscrip-
tions, the viewer could, like Pausanias, inter-
pret this scene as the freeing of Aithra. Un-
like the previous scene, Polygnotos has here
painted a scene of relative inaction, substi-
tuting ethical for physical interaction and
inviting the viewer to contemplate more
fully the scene and its figures. Indeed, Pau-
sanias lingers in more detail over several of 78. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of 79. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of
77. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of Po-
the figures who serve as catalysts in the Polygnotos. North wall, right of center: Helen Polygnotos. Northeast corner: Trojan women;
lygnotos. North wall, center (view from door-
way): Raft of Charon (Nekyia) and preparations scene. Pausanias describes Helenos, for ex- and Aithra (Iliupersis).(Author) Neoptolemos (Iliupersis).(Author)
for departure from Troy (Iliupersis).(Author) ample, as "looking extremely downcast ....
One might surmise that it was Helenos, the both walls together in a depiction of the actual sacking of Troy. The strong
son of Priam, even before reading the inscription. 1162 The depiction of Helenos action of Neoptolemos slaying Astynoos on the east wall (see Fig. 80), which
recalls his forced aid to the Greeks and the complicity of the Trojans in their seems to strike a sharp contrast from the other Greeks in the painting for
own fate. His reaction can only be described as full of pathos and from it the Pausanias, must be considered the nucleus of the scene and marks a shift to a
viewer gains a sense of his ethosas a consequence of his actions. Aithra recalls more active mode of action from the Helen scene. 64 On the left side on the
an earlier episode in the life of Helen, her abduction by Theseus and Peirithoos. north wall are captive Trojan women and Astyanax, set opposite to Neoptole-
Her grandson Demophon, Pausanias decides "from his attitude, is trying to mos. Among these on the bottom level is Polyxena, who with Astyanax will be
determine whether it will be possible for him to save Aithra." Apparently, he slaughtered in the future by Neoptolemos; they extend the killing proleptically
does not trust the good will of Helen and is at the moment of deciding on a while the nearly dead figure of Elasos behind and beneath Neoptolemos pushes
course of action. Indeed, it is somewhat startling to find Helen set in the role it analeptically. Despite the continuing slaughter of a fallen city's inhabitants, it
of judge or ruler here. Her inclusion in the Iliupersisas a symbol of the Trojans' should be noted that Polygnotos did not represent Neoptolemos killing women,
culpability by protecting Paris is clear, but her authority to decide the fate of a children, or old men as was traditional for scenes of the Iliupersis (see Figs. 71
Greek is disturbing, at least to Demophon, and involves a noteworthy reversal to 73). The change in action is noteworthy as a reflection of the ethos of
of gender roles. 63 The reversal here is even more startling than in the Berlin Neoptolemos, especially considering the adjacent scene with the rape of Kas-
Iliupersis, in that Helen has maintained her role as ruler despite the collapse of sandra. Indeed, Pausanias interprets this representation of Neoptolemos by
Troy. To summarize, the Helen scene involves a moment of decision making saying that "it was his [Polygnotos's] intention that the whole painting should
for several individuals and combined with the emphasis on reversal, recognition, be above the grave of Neoptolemos." 65 Given the nature of the next scene, this
and pathos creates a complicated mythos. The ethosof each figure may be seen, more sympathetic treatment of Neoptolemos fits with the context of the paint-
as Pausanias states, from his or her attitude; the variety of responses is notewor- ing, although the fate of Polyxena and Astyanax at the hands of Neoptolemos,
thy for the way in which it reveals the individual reactions to the situation. which an ancient viewer like Pausanias not only knows but recalls when viewing
Moving further to the right brings the viewer to the corner of the room (Fig. them (Paus. 10.25.9-10), must surely have lent some disquiet to the scene, like
79, Paus. 10.25.9-26.4). Although there is a change of setting here, marked by cattle waiting for slaughter.
the pebbly beach and wall of the city, the configuration of the corner brings The focal point of the east wall and the climax of the Iliupersiswas the oath
 182 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 183

sworn by Ajax the Lesser in the center (Fig.

80, Paus. 10.26.2-6). We have once again a
scene of inaction and of dramatic choice, as
the leaders decide on the fate of Ajax. Kas-
sandra clutching the broken statue of Athena
serves as both catalyst and index, providing
the context for Ajax's oath and referring to '
I
I '

the earlier destruction of Troy and the des- I

.J/

ecration of its altars. 66 The child clinging to 11(1J111//i

the altar below recalls Kassandra clinging to ~

the statue of Athena earlier in the night
(compare Fig. 73), a graphic reminder of
how she came to be clutching the broken
statue in the picture. By not punishing Ajax
~
and violating the property and rights of the
gods, the Greeks did not behave with sophro-
syne. As Klytaimestra tells us in the Agamem-
non (11.338-42), by this action, the Greeks
bring destruction in turn on themselves. The
80. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of focus here is not on the action of destruction 81. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of 82. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of
Polygnotos. East wall, center: Oath of Ajax (Iliu- but is on Ajax and the council to deal with Polygnotos. Southeast corner: Priam's palace (?) Polygnotos. South wall: Departure of Antenor's
persis).(Author) and dead Trojans (Iliupersis).(Author) household (Iliupersis).(Author)
his transgression. This shift of narrative mo-
ment may be an effort, as D. Castriota pos- have to do with reports that he had sheltered the Greek embassy at the
its, to put attention away from the hubrisand ate of the Greeks collectively that beginning of the war and had been in favor of the return of Helen. 68 Still, the
emerges in the Naples hydria (Figs. 72 to 7 4) and instead to deal with the idea desolation of the family at losing their home and city is manifest in Pausanias(s
of communal retribution for an individual act. 67 The Greeks themselves, how- description of the figures: "The look on the faces of all of them is that of people
ever, are divided into groups based on their support or disapproval of the oath, who have suffered a great disaster."
and the lack of success of the council can be observed in the Nekyia where Ajax The symmetry of the Iliupersis'sgeneral composition is apparent, and indicates
the Lesser and Agamemnon appear among the dead, while Odysseus yet lives, the possibility that one could read the paintings from the opposite direction
though delayed in his own return for angering another god. In short, Polygno- with the same sequence of the scenes: the opening or setting of the drama with
tos has in the climax of the painting focused on a moment of ethical decision, scenes of the preparation for departure using mostly nonheroic figures, followed
whose consequences follow in the pendant painting. by a contrasting scene of inaction that recounts the past and present of the
In the southeast corner is further evidence of carnage (Fig. 81, Paus. 10.26.7- Trojans (Helen, Laomedon), scenes of more active destruction and malaise
27.3). Polygnotos places a single corpse at the end of the east wall, a motif that (Neoptolemos, field of corpses), and ultimately the oath that portends so much
is multiplied in the next scene of the field of corpses on the south wall. At the of the ethosand fates of the Greeks. It would appear that there was an established
edge of the field nearer the center of the south wall, two Greeks carry away the rhythm of action followed by inaction, of a few individuals constituting the
body of Laomedon, reference to the destruction of the Scaean gate as well as nuclei of the panoramic narrative with a crowded cast of less famous characters
to an even earlier episode of Trojan hubris and conflict with the Greeks. Like that served as catalysts and widened the narrative scope. Although the actions
Aithra, Laomedon serves to move the conflict into an earlier generation, estab- take place in a fairly narrowly defined present, the contrasts between scenes
lishing a long pattern involving not only the Trojans but also the Greeks. and between individual characters· create abundant references to earlier and
Generally, this scene is one of grief and destruction and although not as violent later stages of the story and the moral implications of choice and action. Thus,
marks a similar tone to the Neoptolemos scene. within the Iliupersis,Polygnotos moves his narrative along not chronologically,
The composition of the final section of the Iliupersis(Fig. 82, Paus. 10.27.3- but paradigmatically by associations set up through contrast and juxtaposition.
4) mirrors that of its beginning, only now showing the departure of the Trojan He would not appear to be reproducing the legendary history so much as
Antenor and his household by land. The reasons for Antenor being spared may retelling it from a particular point of view.
 ::ya

184 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART

THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 185

A similar pattern of organization is to be

found in the Nekyia. The painting opens on
the north wall with water and the arrival of
a boat (see Fig. 77, Paus. 10.28.1-7). Anon-
ymous, personifying figures on the shore
serve the same purpose as those loading the
ship of Menelaos, setting the tenor of the
scene and drawing the viewer into the pic-
ture. The repetition of water and a ship here
serve as well to connect the two paintings
into a larger, continuous cycle. This first
scene continues on to include the demonic
figure of Eurynomos, who apparently pre-
sented an impressive form to the eye of Pau-
sanias and punctuated the end of the first
scene.
In the next scene, the two rams signal a
sacrifice, and the inscriptions inform the
viewer that these are Odysseus's companions 84. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of 85. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of
8 3. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of
Polygnotos. North wall, left of center: Women (Fig. 83, Paus. 10.28.8-29.7). Thus, the iden- Polygnotos. Northwest corner: Sacrifice of Polygnotos. West wall: Achilles among the dead
and sailors of Odysseus (Nekyia). (Author) tification of the specific subject must wait Odysseus (Nekyia). (Author) (Nekyia). (Author)
until the viewer is already engaged in the
painting. Contrasting with these active fig- Farther along the western wall are several Greek heroes from the Trojan war
ures in the upper register is a large group of quieter figures, including eleven who contemplate Achilles and Patroklos in the center of the composition (Fig.
women, so that the overall mode in this scene is one of relative inaction 85, Paus. 10.30.3-7). On the other, left side of this pair are clusters of figures
compared to the opening scene. 69 By their selection, the women may represent from earlier generations of Greeks. These include another previous visitor to
a visual genealogy of contemporary cities and families. The women provide a the Underworld, Orpheus, as well as both victims and proponents of hubrisand
commentary on the fate awaiting human behavior in the Underworld, and in treachery, developing the theme visually stated by the women on the north
some measure the relative equality in death. They also recall the similar group wall. The figures are apparently still and there does not seem to be a single
of captive Trojan women at the other end of the north wall (Figs. 78 and 79), unifying action here at the center of the Nekyia as there was in the Iliupersis.
linking the two paintings visually like the water at the beginning of both Indeed, here at the center of the Nekyia, things are about as dead as they get.
paintings. By glancing back at the earlier sections of the painting, it is clear that there is
In the final section of the wall at the northwest corner is the focal point of a continuous diminishment of activity from the active punishment of sinners at
the northern part of the Nekyia, the sacrifice of Odysseus (Fig. 84, Paus. the beginning to the group of heroes around Achilles. This is different from the
10.29.8-30.2). As with Helen, inaction rather than action is emphasized, as alternating pattern used in the Iliupersis,but leads just the same to the center
Odysseus crouches to listen to the first of several shades. Odysseus's freedom point of the panorama.
of movement, however, contrasts with the bonds of Theseus and Peirithoos In the southwest corner are more musicians guilty of hubris,Thamyris and
below him. Again, this contrast between figures serves to expand the narrative Marsyas, and the lightness of their pursuit is picked up in the game of dice
to a more general consideration of human relations with the Underworld and played by Palamedes and Thersites on the south wall (Fig. 86, Paus. 10.30.8-
with the fate of heroes. 70 Ethos is revealed through choice: Odysseus, acting on 31.8). These figures are more active than those in the central scene with
Circe 1s instructions, visits the Underworld to learn his fate; Theseus and Peiri- Achilles; the patterns of activity follow a continuous increase as one moves
thoos enter to steal Persephone as a bride and are trapped by their hubris. away from the center. The enemies of Odysseus are strategically placed across
Farther along on the central, western wall, the painting continues with two from his sacrifice, and together with the dead Trojans below they form the
more women, Kameiro and Klytie, quietly engaged in a game. south wall's focal point. These heroes provide a broad picture of the events
 "'+'

186 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 187

leading up to the visit of Odysseus to the and tragedy, especially Aeschylus. The
Underworld, filling in not only the narrative points of similarity might by summarized
time span between the Iliupersisand the Nek- briefly as follows. First, although there is in
yia, but also still earlier events of the Trojan both a focus on a limited period of time in
war. the present, there is a broadening of the
The more active figures in the southwest action through paradigmatic and anachro-
corner of the Nekyia also portend a move- nous references to past and future or to other
ment to the deepest parts of the Under- stories. Second, there is less interest in phys-
world, farther away from the land of the ical action than in dialogue and decision
living and closer to the great sinners Tanta- making in both. Third, the nuclei or main
los and Sisyphos. 71 Between the heroes and actions alternate with scenes of communica-
sinners are more female figures, some sym- tion or commentary and fall into a distinc-
bolic and unheroic and others known from tive rhythmic pattern. Fourth, both artists
mythology (Fig. 87, Paus. 10.31.9-12). They use imagery to connect different parts of the
are pendants to the female figures on the whole. Fifth, antithesis, contrast, and ambi-
north wall and provide another moment of guity are central features of both tragedy
contemplation before the final scene with and painting. One can conclude by saying
the punishment of T antalos and Sisyphos that both place as much emphasis on para-
and several water carriers. Like the begin- digmatic as syntagmatic narration, elevating
86. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of 87. Reconstruction of the Lesche Paintings of
Polygnotos. Southwest corner: Greek and Trojan ning of the Nekyia, there is a mixture of ethosabove action as the object of the narra- Polygnotos. South wall: Sinners (Nekyia). (Au-
heroes (Nekyia). (Author) generic and mythological figures; there is tive. thor)
also an emphasis on action and punishment To begin, one can say that the action of
that sharply contrasts with the inactivity on the central wall. Clearly, the both the Iliupersisand the Agamemnondeals with a narrow range of time in the
organization of the end of the painting repeats, in reverse order, that of its present. The events of the Agamemnonare few: the announcement of Troy's fall,
beginning, completing another ring structure but with a gradual rather than Agamemnon's return, and his murder. Aeschylus focuses instead on the ethosand
alternating pattern of action and inaction as in the Iliupersis. choices of the participants. When a visually impressive spectacle does take
It is a genuine pity that nothing of the paintings of Polygnotos or another place, such as Agamemnon's walk on the carpets, it is richer in its symbolism
ethnographoshas survived so that a direct visual comparison between the Berlin than in its presentation of actual action. 72 Similarly, Polygnotos focuses on a
Iliupersis, the Naples Iliupersis, and the Lesche Iliupersiscould be made. Still, narrow slice of time showing the aftermath of Troy's destruction and features
the testimony of Pausanias provides us with something that we do not have for relatively few physical actions in comparison to the scale of the composition
vase paintings or reliefs that have been linked to the Polygnotan style, and that and characters. In each case, this fits with Aristotle's dictum that the action of
is a direct viewer reaction to the images. From Pausanias's description, it is clear a tragedy should fit within a day.
that he observes not only the action of the figures, but as important their Neither Polygnotos nor Aeschylus, however, were very interested in the
demeanor and emotions. At the core of the Lesche paintings are a small number exposition of the events of a story in simple chronological sequence. Indeed, as
of figures that serve as focal points of the action and that emphasize the J. de Romilly has pointed out, only 300 of the Agamemnon's1,700 lines deal with
interaction among the agents of the action. Each of the main figures acts the immediate present. 73 By the end of the play, we have learned from the
differently from the others and in many cases we see them at a pivotal moment chorus and dialogues that the events of this day continue a story begun in a
when each must choose between various courses of action and reveal their ethos. previous generation and that will extend into the future. Time and events do
Polygnotos also makes judicious use of reversal, recognition, and pathos in his not, however, pass in chronological fashion from beginning to end, but in a
painting to create a complex action, the best kind for representing a tragic more flitting way, alighting on moments selected from the past according to
action and eliciting a sympathetic response in the viewer, as clearly happens to their thematic or symbolic relevance. For example, in the beginning of the
Pausanias. Indeed, one might well give to the Lesche paintings the label of Agamemnon,we learn of the course of the war (11. 40-71), and then move
tragic pictorial narrative. backward to the portents and sacrifice at Aulis ( 104-59 and 183-257) and
The narrative structure of the Lesche paintings and Polygnotos 1s emphasis forward to the beacons and fall of Troy (281-347). Next, we hear in succession
on ethossuggests the possibility of comparing storytelling in Early Classical art of Paris and Helen (355-418), of the discontent during the war (419-74), of
 •
188 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART THE NARRATIVE OBJECT 189

the destruction of Troy again (524-37), and of the loss of the returning fleet temple of Apollo (see Section 2.1 in Chapter Two). These, like the end portions
(615-80). Once more Helen is evoked (681-781) and Agamemnon himself of the Lesche paintings, establish vividly the scene, but their full import is only
retells the fall of and return from Troy (811-43). This shifting from present to revealed with the succeeding scenes. Like Aeschylus, Polygnotos builds in a
different levels of the past continues with Kassandra's account of the crimes of steady rhythm to the central scene, and then turns back symmetrically to the
the previous generation and of her own past, and leapfrogs now into the future other end of the painting. This symmetry allows the painting to be approached
with the prophecy of murder ( 1100-1241). Following the murders is a coda of from either direction, but draws the viewer along insistently.
all of these themes, welding the present action to the past once more. Clearly, The rhythmic similarities include the structuring of the Agamemnon into
Aeschylus sees the events of the day inextricably connected to those of past alternating sections of episode and the stasimaor kommoiof the chorus. During
and future, but he deals with this wider range of time paradigmatically and the first half of the play, the chorus bears the burden of informing us about
anachronously, maintaining a temporal and syntagmatic consistency in the the events of the past. This recounting of the past is sandwiched around the
actions shown on the stage. So, too, the actions shown in the Iliupersisare slowly developing action of the episodes, and so serves as commentary on
temporally consistent within a panoramic narrative, but the catalysts and in- the present, widening the boundaries of the dialogue and narrative. The slow
dexes within the painting broaden the scope of the action in several directions pace of the opening sections of the play quickens toward the middle with
into the past and into the future, exposing the relationship of events across a the arrival of Agamemnon and reaches its climax in the dialogue between
range of time. Paradigmatic time is also anachronous as in the Agamemnon. him and Klytaimestra and his choice to trample the costly carpets. Realisti-
The introduction of actors to drama undoubtedly changed the way in which cally, his fate has already been sealed, but his choice epitomizes the earlier
a tale was presented to the audience. Tradition credits Aeschylus with the decisions that he had made. The rest of the play provides further background
introduction of a second actor to tragedy and the division of his plays into for the impending murders and a recapitulation of the events leading to his
alternating episodes and choral parts would be a logical structural development death. So, too, in the painting of Polygnotos, we found a similar structure.
from earlier lyric drama. By the time of Oresteia,there were three actors, but These include the alternation between confrontations of key figures and the
Aeschylus rarely exploits the actors to re-create the actions of the story. The more choral-like crowds that widened the scope of the present actions and
purpose of his dialogues was less to have the characters interact than to encap- the slow buildup from the introductory scenes to the climactic moment of
sulate the points of conflict. 74 Thus, in the Oresteia,we are given a series of choice in the center of the painting, followed by a recapitulation and elabo-
appositions that only occasionally resemble true interactions, as in the carpet ration of earlier themes.
scene of the Agamemnon in which Klytaimestra's words truly respond to the With time as only a loose connective in his works, Aeschylus relies on other
protestations of her husband (Ag. 855-974). The episodes are interrupted by means to help bind the parts to the whole. The use of images as a thread
long choral passages that serve a variety of purposes, but most certainly place connecting the parts of the Oresteiais well known and has been the subject of
the events of the present into a much broader context. The choral odes and much discussion. For example, the net that is figuratively cast over the walls of
some of the characters' monologues, in fact, present a far more vivid picture of Troy (Ag. 358-61) in the first stasimon of the Agamemnonbecomes the webbing
events than do the dialogues. The most decisive action in the whole play, the of the cloth that Agamemnon tramples and the net that finally snares him in
76
actual murder, takes place off stage and we only hear the cries of the victims his bath, an image that is continued into the LibationBearersand the Eumenides.
and later see their bloody corpses. In the Lesche paintings, we have observed a This use of imagery is far more developed in Aeschylus than in his successors.
similar division of the whole into parts, in which the focal points are frequently Antiquity also remembered Aeschylus for the magnificence of his special effects,
inactive or quiet nuclei that are surrounded by crowds of peripheral figures or such as the appearance of Darius at his tomb in the Persiansor the carpet or
by other scenes that serve as commentary and broaden the meaning of the murder scenes in the Agamemnon.Spectacle, or apsis,made a dramatic impression
central exchanges. on the viewer, as we noted earlier with Aristotle, and is an aspect of the link
The arrangement of the scenes too in Aeschylus and Polygnotos have a between tragedy and art that has been explored by R. Gais. 77 One can find
similar rhythm. 75 The Agamemnon,for example, moves very slowly in its first half parallels in this use of imagery in the Lesche paintings. Polygnotos frequently
and features long choral passages that heighten the anticipation of the arrival used motifs such as corpses, gaming, ships and donkeys, and groups of women
of Agamemnon. The carpet scene, although occurring in the middle of the to connect one part of the paintings to another. In his description, Pausanias
play, actually represents its climax when Agamemnon agrees to walk into the also singles out a number of images for their striking visual qualities, such as
palace over the fabrics, a small but highly significant symbolic act of hubrisand Helenos Kassandra and the broken idol, Eurynomos, Tityos, and Ajax the
impiety. Although the beginnings of his plays move slowly, Aeschylus also '
Lesser. Some of these, such as Helenos and Ajax, serve to enhance and sharpen
creates stunning visual images to open his plays, such as the beacons signaling the meaning of the narrative, whereas others such as Eurynomos seem to be
the fall of Troy or the priestess running from the Furies who sleep inside the more general but vivid in their effect, catching the viewer's eye and arresting
 1
190 PICTORIAL NARRATIVE IN ANCIENT GREEK ART

his or her movement momentarily along the wall. Image or spectacle can thus
be used to freeze the passage of time and invite contemplation.
Aeschylus used antithesis, contrast, or dialectic in his work, encapsulating
the salient points of his narrative in a series of appositions such as dikeladikiaand
male/female, as mentioned earlier. 78 This pattern has been found in the Lesche
CONCLUSION
paintings as well, as, for example, when the enemies of Odysseus are set up
across the room from the latter, or when Penthesileia spurns Paris. Indeed, it is
through contrast, whether in Polygnotos, the Olympia pediments, or elsewhere,
that the individual ethosis brought to vision more clearly. Another example of
the links between the two is the use of ambiguity. S. Goldhill has shown, for
example, that although dike is the central theme of the Oresteia,the meaning of One saying goes that a picture is worth a thousand words; another says that
this term varies widely depending on its context, and that it is this variation every picture tells a story. For this book, that has literally been true, and in the
that actually moves the narrative along.7 9 Oaths and dike are also prominent in case of the word count, even an underestimate. In the real world, images can
the Lesche paintings, but their meaning is not straightforward. Helen is set up tell stories, but as we have seen, storytelling demands the active participation
as judge over a Greek issue, and must have appeared strange in the role of an of the viewer as part of the narrative structure and the narration itself. Except
adjudicator. Similarly, the oath of Ajax is undercut not only by the evidence of in rare cases, both today and in ancient times, viewers do this without verbal-
his rape, but also by the behavior of Neoptolemos. There is also a more izing. They may experience a story in the deepest emotional way, but it is
fundamental ambiguity about Polygnotan painting that has been noted espe- usually left to critics and scholars to analyze and explain that experience.
cially in the Niobid krater, in that without labels, one can construe the relation- Similarly, most readers enjoy a tale without reflecting consciously and critically
ships between figures and hence the meaning of the painting itself in several about what they are reading; their engagement with a text is more personal. To
plausible ways. The role of ambiguity in pictorial narrative has not received understand narrative, it is necessary to indulge in a more theoretical exercise so
much attention, but should bear more in the future. that we can attempt to reimagine the experience and in so doing reconstruct
This comparison of the Lesche paintings of Polygnotos and the tragedy of the importance of the stories for the culture that produced them.
Aeschylus is not intended to demonstrate a dependence of literary or pictorial To summarize the narrative framework that has been the goal of this book,
narrative on each other. Rather, it is meant to illuminate the narrative potential I would like to return to the Cabiran skyphos shown in Fig. 48. On the other
of large-scale pictorial compositions combined with a coordination of time and side of the cup, we see a man running on top of two pithoi that float over the
space and an ability to reveal through action or inaction the ethos of the water (Fig. 88). 1 The figure wears a cape that billows behind him and holds a
characters. The effect on viewers would be to move their emotions, perhaps to trident as he runs; his phallus hangs prominently beneath him. To the right, a
achieve a katharsislike that of tragedy. Regardless of what katharsisitself means large head appears with distended cheeks. Inscriptions serve as informants to
and entailed, the effect on a viewer of the Polygnotan painting might be identify the running figure as Odysseus and the large head as Boreas, the god
glimpsed in a passage of Pollianus preserved in the GreekAnthology:80 of the North Wind. The image's nucleus consists of the running Odysseus; he
is running from or toward something that must be the cause of his action, but
This is the Polyxena of Polykleitos [Polygnotos], and no other hand touched
the action itself is basically that of a running figure and is not distinctive in
this divine picture. It is a twin sister of his Hera. See how, her robe being
itself. He may have been attempting to spear the fish below the pithoi, but
torn, she covers her nakedness with her modest hand. The unhappy maiden
is supplicating for her life, and in her eyes lies all the Trojan war. judging from the position of his arm, he has either missed his target or is more
focused on his momentum. The two pithoi are placed carefully mouth to mouth
as if they were lashed together. Since Odysseus runs on top of them, they must
be intended as a vessel of sorts for the hero. Boreas constitutes a catalyst for
the composition, apparently aiding Odysseus since he is blowing him in the
same direction that he is running. There are several indexes in the composition,
including the trident that refers to Poseidon. The pithoi, too, serve as an index,
holding wine that would have been poured into the cup. Their horizontal
position suggests that the wine might have been poured already as the viewer
holds the cup.
This image has attracted less attention than the pendant scene with Circe,

191
 -------------~--~---~-- ------------------------------, ...

192 CONCLUSION CONCLUSION 193

in part because the action does not precisely match any event described in the
Odyssey and because the cause of his action is not apparent.2 As a single image,
the work is highly ambiguous, its nucleus basically a variation on a generic
running figure. Indeed, were ~t not for the inscriptions in the scene, one might
suppose that the figure was Poseidon on the basis of the trident as index and
attribute. Still, even knowing that the figure is Odysseus does not help the
viewer to see the narrative clearly because the cause for his running is absent,
leaving the event basically generic in its meaning. Elements of the macro-
structure, however, help to connect the scene at the extensional level to the
pendant scene of Circe and Odysseus, making the running scene more suscep-
tible to interpretation. The strongly rectangular shape of the pictorial field on
the cup suggests that its two scenes were meant to be viewed together, and the
strongly directional configuration of the composition leads the viewer's eye
from the running scene to the Circe scene on the other side. Odysseus is
repeated in the compositions, making a syntagmatic combination of the scenes
possible. Indexes within both compositions serve to reinforce this link, particu-
larly the phallus and cape of Odysseus, his nudity, and the position of his legs
and arms that, although reversed in the two images, feature both bent and
88. Boeotian black-figure skyphos, late fifth century. Odysseus running over the sea. Oxford,
extended legs as if he were engaged in energetic action.
Ashmolean Museum, G.249. (Photo courtesy of the© Ashmolean Museum, Oxford)
The potential for syntagmatic extension from one scene to the other leads a
viewer to speculate about which is the earlier scene. The strongly directional
nature of the running scene contrasts with the more centrifugal composition of it is not introduces a discontinuity in the visual language. Since Poseidon is
the Circe scene, so that visually, the running scene would lead to the Circe responsible for several of Odysseus's shipwrecks, the discontinuity becomes
scene. One might then see Odysseus as traveling over the sea, only to run extreme in that Odysseus is now equipped with the symbol of his oppressor
headlong into Circe, rebounding from the encounter like running into a wall. and can be seen as embracing Poseidon paradigmatically. At the extensional
However, if one turns the cup in the direction of the running Odysseus, level, this would suggest that Odysseus prefers a possible shipwreck to the bed
figuratively following him in his action, he runs toward the loom and Circe on of his goddess lovers and that sex and women, whose importance is indicated
the other side of the cup. This might suggest that he is in fact running away by his phallus, is the greater threat to the hero.
from Circe, as if he turns 180° on the Circe side and flees across the other side These considerations lead one to question whether the object of narration
of the cup. In the Odyssey, Odysseus does indeed leave Circe twice by sea, and here is in fact the same as in the other representations of the Odysseus story
the second time his ship is wrecked by the winds after his men have wrongly that more closely follow the epic (see Figs. 37 and 38). For example, the action
eaten the cattle of the Sun. Clinging to flotsam, he lands on the island of or plot - mythos - is important, but is the action here complex and if so in the
Calypso. Ultimately, the ambiguity of the running Odysseus allows it to be same way as the Naples Iliupersis (see Figs. 72 to 7 4)? Certainly, in the epic
connected both ways. Starting with the Circe scene, a viewer might see Odys- version of the encounter with Circe, Odysseus turns the tables on Circe and
seus as fleeing from Circe, whereas starting with Odysseus, one might under- becomes the dominant character; on his voyages by ship, he not infrequently
stand him as traveling over the sea and then meeting Circe. One might turn ends up losing ship and crew. In both cases, there is a reversal at work, as well
the cup one more time to view again the running scene as one of flight. as a discovery, at least on the part of Circe, that this unknown traveler is
At the extensional level, then, the Circe scene helps to define elements of Odysseus. One might argue that reversal and recognition are present on the
the running scene's macro-structure, but it still leaves much of the story unre- Cabiran skyphos, but the quality is different. In the Circe scene (see Fig. 48) it
solved and at variance with the events and characters described in the Odyssey. seems that Odysseus is the one who is threatened and who has recognized the
This is due in large part to the paradigmatic value of some of the signs in the power of Circe. The reversal here, though, is one less with the plot than with
scene. The enlarged phallus and distortion of face and figure link the represen- the expectations of the viewer. Knowing the story of Odysseus, the viewer
tation to the broader category of Cabiran ware representations that are noted would expect a more heroic, dominating figure. On a more generic level, the
for their distinctly comic nature (see Section 3.8 in Chapter Three). Other viewer would expect a man with a sword to be unafraid of a woman with a cup.
contradictions abound. A figure with a trident should be Poseidon; the fact that Both expectations are confounded by the narrative. This is also true of the
194 CONCLUSION

running scene. A hero usually moves from left to right across the picture, but
Odysseus is moving in the opposite direction like a vanquished foe or a fleeing
coward.
As an action, Odysseus's story on the skyphos is actually simple - man feels
threatened by woman and runs away. The hero is never truly in a dominant
NOTES
position from which he can experience a reversal; that he feels threatened by
Circe makes the representation of his flight a congruous event and does not
indicate a change in his situation from good to bad. Instead, the pictorial
narrative becomes complex in the way that it contradicts the expectations of
the viewer, so that the element of surprise, discovery, and reversal falls within
the narrative discourse rather than within the narration itself.
This analysis would suggest that ethos,at least as we have considered its tragic CHAPTER ONE. AN APPROACH TO PICTORIAL NARRATIVE
manifestations in Section 5.3 in Chapter Five, was not intended as an object of
narration for the Cabiran skyphos. Whether Aristotle's theory of comedy would 1. Robert (1881). For the historiography of pictorial narrative, see Weitzmann (1947) 12-
have helped to explain the difference in the way that action is understood by 36 and Meyboom (1978) 55-7. See Shapiro (1994) 1-10 for a general review of these
issues.
the viewer is a matter of speculation. 3 Certainly, the ethos of the figures in
2. Wickhoff (1895); see also Wickhoff (1900) 6-16.
comedy must be different, but the terms that he uses to describe tragic charac- 3. Weitzmann (1947) 12-36. See also the papers from a panel on narration held by the
ters do not readily embrace parody and humor. The characters here do not face Archaeological Institute of America; see Hanfmann (1957), Blanckenhagen (1957), and
complex and difficult choices, nor does error and virtue enter into the narrative Weitzmann (1957).
in the same way. Surprise and discovery lay more in the experience of the 4. Eleusis Museum. Published in Mylonas (1957), with comparison to other scenes of
viewer than in the characters. The point is that the objects of comic narrative the blinding. See also Mylonas (1958); Arias, Hirmer, and Shefton (1962) 274; Sche-
fold (1966) 34; Johansen (1967) 35; Touchefeu-Meynier (1968) 12, no. 3; Fittschen
must be different from those of epic or tragedy.
(1969) 153, no. SB41 and 192, no. SB111; Robertson (1975) 51; Simon and Hirmer
Rather than define different types of narrative on the basis of their structural (1976) 41-2; Kannicht (1982) 78; Cook (1983) 4-5; Schafer (1983) 79-80; Morris
elements or on stylistic parallels to literary modes of narration, as has been the (1984) 11-12, 43-6, and passim; Hurwit (1985a) 165-72; Stewart (1987) 29-30; Os-
case in the past, it is hoped that the narrative framework here can define borne (1989) 1-5; Ahlberg-Cornell (1992) 94-6; Buitron and Cohen (1992) 33-4;
different modes and categories of pictorial narration on the basis of differences Whitley (1994) 63-5.
5. Argos, Archaeological Museum C149. Courbin (1955); Robertson (1959) 43-6; Fittschen
in their objects of narration. This will necessarily require an examination of the
(1969) 192, no. SB112; Robertson (1975) 50; HumanFigure(1988) 97, no. 21; Hurwit
broad and multilevel context in which pictorial narratives are produced, as well (1991) 43; Ahlberg-Cornell (1992) 94.
other forms of ancient narration. By undertaking such a historical and contextual 6. The fragment of the foot of a third figure appears at bottom right. It is doubtful given
study of narration, one can hope to elucidate the meaning of pictorial narration the size of the original vase that more than one figure is missing completely; see Courbin
for the ancient viewer and how these stories, like their literary counterparts, (1955) 18-21.
helped to shape the experience and ideas of the culture. 7. Weitzmann (1947) 17.
8. London, British Museum E 76. ARV2 406.1; Para. 371; Add.2 232. See Williams (1993)
65-6 and pis. 72-3 with an earlier bibliography; see also Bulas (1929) 2-5; LIMC 111.1,
158 and 160, s.v. Briseis nos. 1 and 14 (A. Kossatz-Deissmann); Shapiro (1994) 13-15
and figs. 4 to 6.
9. On the arrival at Agamemnon's camp: Bulas (1929) 3; Beazley, ARV2 406; Johansen
(1967) 155-60; Brommer, Heldensage 3
341 B 2; Kemp-Lindemann (1975) 132-4; LIMC
111.1, 157-66, s.v. Briseis (A Kossatz-Deissmann), and Shapiro (1994) 14. Contra: Wil-
liams (19916) 59, and (1993) 66.
10. See, for example, Bielefeld ( 1956) and Froning ( 1988) 171. Bielefeld pushes the appear-
ance of continuous narration back to the Classical period, and Froning pushes it further
to the Geometric period.
11. See Schefold ( 1985c, 1985d) for a discussion of his categories and principles.
12. Himmelmann-Wildschtitz (1967), esp. 79-84; Hemelrijk (1970); Raab (1972) 93-101;
Raeck (1984).
13. Snodgrass ( 1982) 4. Hemelrijk ( 1970) 166, earlier uses the term as an adjective, stating

195
196 NOTES TO PP. 6-11 NOTES TO PP. 11-24 197

that Archaic artists showed myth "in a synoptical way." For the adoption of this term, 47. Aris., Poet. 4.1-6, tr. Halliwell ( 1987) 34. See Nagy ( 1992) for the importance of
see Stewart (1990); Connelly (1993). considering performance in understanding the Iliad.
14. Hurwit (1985a) 173. 48. Halliwell (1987) 79.
15. Ibid., 174-6; Harrison (1983) 237-8, who borrows the idea from Weitzmann's charac- 49. Aris., Poet. 6.
terization of the general nature of literary narrative; see Weitzmann (1947) 12. 50. Barthes ( 1982) 252-7. For the influence of Aristotle and Plato, see, for example, Chatman
16. Shapiro (1991) 324; Shapiro (1992) 37-8. (1974-5), Genette (1976-7), Ricoeur (1984-8).
17. Connelly ( 1993) 119. 51. Steiner (1982) 19-31 and 51-65.
18. Holliday (1993). Connelly (1993), mentioned before, is one of the articles in this 52. On semiotics and structural analysis generally, see Eagleton (1983) 91-126. Eagleton, p.
collection. 100, summarizes that structuralism is a method of enquiry, whereas semiotics is a field
19. Berard (1983). of study. For the purposes here, semiotics will be particularly important in understanding
20. Stewart (19836, 1985). See Chatman (1974-5) and (1980-1). and interpreting the signs that narratives present, whereas structuralism provides a guide
21. Osborne (1988) 3-4. for creating a framework that articulates the relationship of visual elements and partici-
22. Stewart ( 1987). pants in narrative.
23. Brilliant (1984), Elsner (1995), Castriota (1992). 53. Barthes (1982).
24. Goldhill and Osborne ( 1994). 54. See Steiner (1982) 51 and 57-61.
25. Zeitlin (1994). 55. On a critique of structuralism and an articulation of a poststructuralist view in literary
26. Lissarrague ( 1987, 1990). criticism, see Eagleton (1983) 127-50.
27. See Sourvinou-lnwood (1991), with more theoretical discussion on 11-13. 56. See Osborne (1991).
28. Hoffmann (1994a); Osborne (1994). 57. This is also the level at which Saint-Martin ( 1990) seeks to define a process of semiotic
29. On the critique of the new methods, see Boardman ( 19896). analysis for visual language.
30. Fish (1980) 147-8. 58. This term is employed by Eco (1979) as the first references in a narration to a possible
31. See, generally, Lessing ( 1984) 1-22, and more specifically 85-90. Lessing (p. 18) be- world. The term as I have used it is somewhat different although related.
lieved that art is restricted to depicting a single moment of time "by virtue of its material
limitations" and that "the artist can never make use of more than a single moment in
ever-changing nature." The painter and sculptor can compensate for this by a judicious CHAPTER TWO. THE NARRATIVE MICRO-STRUCTURE
choice of moment and by their greater descriptive ability, for "the more we see, the
more we must be able to imagine." On Lessing and modern criticism, see Beaujour ( 1980) 1. Barthes (1982) 260-8, see also Chatman (1969). Genette (1976-7) 5, distinguishes
37-43 and more broadly Steiner ( 1982) 1-50. On the opposition of description and between diegesis (representation of actions and events) and description (representation
narration as modes, see summary in Hamon (1980) 9-12. of objects and people). Chatman (1975), who has a somewhat different but analogous
32. Chatman (1980-1) 121-40, esp. 121-7; Chatman (1974-5), esp. 314-17. On discussions structure consisting of ( 1) events, consisting of (a) actions (active) and (b) happenings
of time in the context of Greek art, see Snodgrass ( 1987) 135-46 and Stewart ( 1987) (passive); and (2) existents, consisting of (a) characters and (b) setting.
and objections of Boardman ( 19896). 2. New Haven, Yale University Art Gallery 1913.146. ARV2 658.30; Add.2 277. See Baur
33. See Steiner (1982) 35-6, Baxandall (1985) 2-3, and more generally Haber and Hershen- (1922) 99, no. 146; Matheson Burke and Pollitt (1975) 66-8, no. 56 with bibl.; Matheson
son ( 1980) on the mechanics of visual perception. ( 1988) 30-1.
34. Lotman ( 1974-5) 333-8, esp. 336. 3. For recent discussions of domestic scenes with women, see Fantham et al. (1994) 96-
35. See Dewey (1934) chap. 3, 35-57. 115, and Reeder (1995).
36. Bonheim (1975). See also Blanchard (1978) 252-3 on the incorporation of description 4. Some definitions of pictorial narrative require that at least two images be present; see
and narrative into a "paranarrative" in the shield of Achilles. Steiner (1988) 13, 21, and 144, and Prince (1982) 4. This question will be discussed in
37. Goldhill and Osborne ( 1994) 6. the next section. On the choice of the "pregnant moment" as a proto-narrative see
3 8. Saint-Martin ( 1990) 18 3-5, 192-3, 201. Steiner, pp. 154-6.
39. Eco (1979) 3-43. 5. My thanks to Ann Steiner for clarifying the value of the objects as indexes for action.
40. Quoted by Plutarch, De glor. Ath., Moralia 346f. On ut picturapoesis,see Hagstrum ( 1955) 6. Naples, Museo Nazionale 2422. ARV2 189.74; Para. 341; Add.2 189. The bibliography
3-36, and Steiner ( 1982) 5-9. On the applicability to pictorial narrative see Holliday on this work is vast; see, among later references, FR I, 182-7 and pl. 34; Arias, Hirmer,
(1993) 5. On the universality of narrative see White (1980-1) 5-7. and Shefton (1962) 330-1 and Fig. 125; Beazley (1974) 6-7 and 19, no. 66; Robertson
41. Plato, Rep. 596-8. (1975) 233-5; Simon and Hirmer (1976) 105-6 and pis. 128-9; Robertson (1992) 61-4;
42. Aris., Poet. 6.20-1. Connelly (1993) 112-19.
43. Ibid., 6.15-16. 7. On the perception of verbal vs. visual information, see G. Cohen ( 1975-6).
44. Ibid., 20. This view has been extremely influential in structuralism and literary analysis; 8. For a more detailed example of such literary analysis, see Chatman (1969).
see, for example, Chatman (1974-5), Genette (1976-7), Ricoeur (1984-8). 9. Corinth, CP 2096. See detailed description in Eliot and Eliot (1968) 348-51. See also
45. Aris., Poet. 6. On action as the foundation of tragic narrative, see also Freeland (1992) Benson (1956) 220; Dunbabin (1962) 15, 57 no. 27; Snodgrass (1967) 56-7; Carter
116 and Woodruff ( 1992) 81. (1972) 57; Greenhalgh (1973) 69-70; Robertson (1975) 25-6; Boardman (1983) 28;
46. Aris., Poet. 1.2-6. In Poet. 5, Aristotle distinguishes the differences in diction among the Amyx (1988) 25, "Near the Huntsmen Painter" no. 1; Ahlberg-Cornell (1992) 148. The
poetic genres such as comedy, epic, and tragedy. scene has attracted attention for the light that it may shed on the development of the
198 NOTES TO PP. 24-36 NOTES TO PP. 36-42 199

hoplite in early Greece, but for our purposes, we will focus on the actions of the figures mixed context of the sixth century; Coldstream (1968) 27-8; Schweitzer (1971) 35-6;
and, importantly, the recipients of that action. For a review of the hoplite controversy, Carter ( 1972) 28-9; Benson ( 1970) 80, places this as the earliest human figure, noting a
see Snodgrass ( 199 3). tentative quality of the effort not as apparent in the horse.
10. Athena and Gigantomachy: Snodgrass (1964) 230, n. 94 and Ahlberg-Cornell (1992) 33. See detailed discussions of Whitley (1991) 45-53, 138-44, and 160-1 with earlier
148; generally see LIMCII.1, 990-2, s.v. Athena B.2.a (R. Fleischer). Trojan War: Eliot bibliography; Hurwit (1993) 15 and 36.
and Eliot (1968) 349-50; on Memnon generally, see LIMCVI.t, 448-61, s.v. Memnon 34. Eleusis 7 41. See Stansbury-O'Donnell ( 1995) 327-9 and n. 60 with earlier bibliography.
(A. Kossatz-Deissmann); on Penthesileia generally, see LIMCVIl.1, 296-305, s.v. Pen- 35. This is a point noted about a sixth-century hydria by Vermeule (19656) 42 and 46, and
thesileia (E. Berger). Shapiro ( 1994) 29-32.
11. See Vickers and Gill (1994) and earlier Gill (1988, 1991) and Vickers (1985). Contra, 36. On the potential meaning of the asterisks, see Stansbury-O'Donnell ( 1995) 328.
see Boardman (1987), Cook (1987a), Robertson (1992) 2-6. 37. See Ohly (1953) 73-80; Fittschen (1969) 76-88; Kubler (1970) 69-88; Rombos (1988)
12. Palermo, Mus. Reg. LIMC4.1, 81, s.v. Europe I no. 78 (M. Robertson). On the metope, 185-208.
see Langlotz and Hirmer (1967) 253-4 no. 8; Ridgway (1977) 243-5; Giuliani (1979) 38. Athens, First Ephoreia of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, 1955 ERK 643. From
43-50; Zahn (1983) 16-19 and 106, no. 5. On Europa, see LIMC4.1, 76-92, s.v. Europe Erechtheion street cemetery, grave q2. See Brouskari (1979) 24-7 and synopsis, 74-7;
I (M. Robertson); Buhler (1968); Zahn (1983); Carpenter (1991) 39-40. HumanFigure(1988) 66-7, no. 5; Rombos (1988) 187, 498, no. 303 and pl. 38a. On
13. Oxford, Ashmolean Museum 1966.596 (impression). Boardman ( 1968) 106, no. 305, Burly Workshop, see Davison (1968) 99-100; Brouskari (1979) 76-82 (synopsis); Rom-
108, and pl. 20; Boardman and Vollenweider (1978) 16, no. 75, pl. 14; Zahn (1983) 80-1 bos ( 1988) 352-7. A skyphos-pyxis from the tomb (ERK 645) shows two facing lions;
and 152, no. 200; LIMC 4.1, 81, s.v. Europe I no. 84 with illustration of gem (M. see Rombos ( 198 8) 498, no. 302 and pl. 356. On the theme generally in the Late
Robertson); Carpenter ( 1991) pl. 56. Geometric period, see Fittschen (1969) 76-88 and Rombos (1988) 185-208. Of
14. See Ridgway ( 1977) 244-5 and generally on the function of architectural sculpture Fittschen's 45 examples, 5 belong to the second quarter of the eighth century, 6 to the
Holloway (1988). fourth quarter, and 10 to the end of the century (ca. 700).
15. Berlin, Staatliche Museen F2347, attributed to the Achilles Painter. ARV2 989.25. Zahn 39. Right and left are somewhat ambiguous given the lack of detail in Geometric painting.
(1983) 114, no. 37; LIMC4.1, 79, s.v. Europe I no. 46 (M. Robertson). Normally, one would expect the sword to be in the right hand, but if the head faces
16. Athens, National Museum 7422. From Eretria. Zuchner (1942) 88, no. KS 146; Zahn down and toward the right, as the bumps on the head would suggest, then the sword
(1983) 135, no. 109; LIMC4.1, 82, s.v. Europe I no. 100 (M. Robertson). must be in the left hand. The limitations of the Geometric figure style in describing
17. Reeder ( 1995) 125 and 124-8 generally on gesture and wedding with bibliography. On action become apparent here.
the related iconography of Nereids with Europa, see Barringer ( 1991). · 40. Webster (1955) 40, comments on another lion attack in Copenhagen that the warrior
18. See, for example, C. H. Kraeling in the introduction to the symposium "Narration in might survive the attack like Jonah and the whale or Jason emerging from the mouth of
Ancient Art": AJA 61 (1957) 43 or Carter (1972) 52. a cup by Douris (Rome, Vatican Museum, ARV2 437.16; see Boardman [1975] fig. 288).
19. On the question of Lebensbild vs. Sagenbild
and the requirement that pictorial narrative be In the later case, the presence of Athena would indicate heroic survival; no such harbin-
mythological, see Fittschen (1969) 9-14; Isler (1973); Kannicht (1982) 73-6; Boardman ger appears on the Burly oinochoe.
(1983); Schmitt-Pante! and Thelamon (1983) 16; Snodgrass (1987) 147-8; Benson 41. Hurwit ( 1985a) 65-70.
( 1988); Holliday ( 1993) 4; Stansbury-O'Donnell ( 1995) 319-21. 42. For various opinions on sources, see Benson (1970) 84 and 99-103 (Mycenaean and
20. Minneapolis Institute of Arts 57.1. Para. 59.2. Beazley (1958); Moon (1979) 70-1, no. Minoan influence, also Eygptian influence on prothesis scene); Carter ( 1972) 39-45
43 (M. B. Moore). (Near Eastern sources); Benson (1988) 72-3 (on epic lays). Against the influence of epic,
21. On these terms, see Prince (1982) 149, and Steiner (1988) 41. see Snodgrass (1979) 120-2; also Cook (1983) for later periods.
22. On parables and narrative, see Kermode ( 1979) 23-5. 43. See Ohly ( 1953) 76-82 and esp. nos. A7-11. On the decline in metal offerings see
23. On this approach to creating heroic subjects in the Polygnotan Group, see Matheson Whitley (1991) 165; on the sources of the image, see Kubler (1970) 69-72 and passim.
(1995) 248. 44. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 74.51.4554. See Bothmer (1984) 20, no. 10
24. On the importance of the nucleus as opposed to the identity of the character, see Burkert with color reproduction and detail on p. 7; see also Gjerstad ( 1946) 10-11; Mitford
( 1979) 79-80 and passim. Burkert, p. 96 notes that the name of the character is often (1963); Frankfort (1970) 331, and drawing in Fig. 393.
later than the story patterns. Schmitt-Pante! and Thelamon ( 198 3) 16, note that the 45. See Rombos (1988) 205-7. The exception is a four-legged stand: Athens, Kerameikos
images of reality and myth are constructed in the same way. 407; see Kubler (1954) 177 and n. 171; Fittschen (1969) 81, no. L28; Hurwit (1985a)
25. Prince (1982) 145 and 2-4. 115-19; Rombos (1988) 537--8, no. 414. The two lion-man struggles on this stand are
26. See Steiner (1988) 13 and 144. much closer to the nucleus of Near Eastern art.
27. Prince ( 1982) 149, and generally 145-51. See also Steiner ( 1988) 8-9 and 35-41. 46. See Rombos (1988) 195-9.
28. Carter ( 1972) 39-40; for a reexamination of the relationship of the Near East and 47. See Kubler (1954) 177, n. 171, and Fittschen (1969) 81, n. 420, for the Kerameikos
Greece, see Morris (1992). stand.
29. Generally, see Coldstream (1968) 26-8; Carter (1972) 28-37; Kopcke (1977); Hurwit 48. Markoe (1989) 88-92; see also Ohly (1953) 76-7 and Schefold (19856) 2-3.
(1985a) 33-46. 49. Among various arguments for this viewpoint, see Brunnsaker ( 1962) 188.
30. Himmelmann-Wildschutz (1967) 92; Carter (1972) 38. 50. Hurwit (1985a) 115-19.
31. Carter ( 1972) 52; Boardman ( 1983) 25-9. 51. A four-legged stand from the Kerameikos does show two scenes of a warrior confronting
32. Kerameikos 2159. Kubler (1954) 135-6 and Taf. 111 and 141, from a disturbed and an upright predator; the other two scenes show a herder carrying an animal. This work
200 NOTES TO PP. 42-45 NOTES TO PP. 45-48 201

clearly intends some reference to the herd protection scenario. Athens, Kerameikos 407; bibliography); Kunze (1954) 54-5; Davison (1968) 28-9; Coldstream (1968) 31, no. 17
see Kubler (1954) 177 and n. 171; Fittschen (1969) 81, no. L28; Hurwit (1985a) 115- and 38-9; idem (1977) 113 and 352; idem (1991) 49-52; Ahlberg-Cornell (1992) 33
19; Rombos (1988) 537-8, no. 414. and 40, text fig. 2; Hurwit ( 1993) 34-6. Much of the discussion of this vase regards the
52. See Stansbury-O'Donnell ( 1995) for a comparison of ekphrasis and pictorial narration twin warriors at lower left.
and earlier bibliography. 63. Webster (1955).
53. On the relationship of Near Eastern and Greek art and literature see generally Boardman 64. On the basic positions for the shield controversy, see contra,Boardman ( 1983) 27-8 with
( 1980) 54-84 and Morris ( 1992) 124-49. bibliography; pro: Snodgrass (19806) 55-8 and summary in Hurwit (1993) 35-6.
The parallels between ekphrasis and artwork can be summarized as follows. First, the 65. Boardman (1983) 27-8.
poet focuses a great deal of attention on the process of manufacture and on the materials 66. Snodgrass (1979); Snodgrass (1980a) 73-4; idem (19806) 54-8. Kannicht (1982) 74-5
and their appearance, such as gold, silver, and tin. The description mixes elements of has also suggested that a picture may have several possible interpretations that are not
iron age metalwork with those of the bronze age as exemplified by the dagger blades mutually exclusive. Hurwit ( 19856) 122-5 suggests that Geometric armorers created the
from the shaft graves at Mycenae. The specificity and detail of the ekphrasis point to an Dipylon shield, modeling it on the Mycenaean double-axe motif; the aristocrats of
awareness of real processes and materials. Second, the compositional configuration used Athens used it as a symbol of heroic status. Thus, the painters are imitating a real shield
in the shield is a long frieze, sometimes self-contained, essentially symmetrical and type, but one that was more symbolic than practical.
tripartite in nature like on the Eleusis skyphos, and sometimes going continuously around 67. Snodgrass ( 19806) 52; idem ( 1987) 15 3. Snodgrass points out that the Di pylon warriors
in a circle, as on the New York krater or on Near Eastern metal bowls and plates; on the are losers in 13 of 23 battles.
tripartite structure of composition in the Iliadand Geometric art, see Andreae and Flashar 68. For a discussion of the multivalent nature of signs, see Sourvinou-lnwood (1991) 11-16.
( 1977) 218-22 and 236-7. Third, the figures in the shield are described in terms of their 69. LIMC 1.1, 472-6, s.v. "Aktorione" (R. Hampe) lists nineteen examples. No. 5 is the
actions and of the objects that project from the body, such as flutes, weapons, or farm Louvre prothesis krater (A 517), of which only the four legs survive and not the body.
implements. There is little mention of internal details of anatomy or of facial features. Another, no. 10, is a reference by Pausanias (3.18.15) to a relief on the throne of
Only a few figures are individualized in any way, but these are almost always in terms of Bathykles at Amykeai. The bibliography on this debate is considerable; see LIMCI. 1, 472.
their function, like the king in the field holding a staff (Il. 18.556-7), whereas most are 70. Proponents of the identification include Hampe ( 1936) 45-9; Ahlberg ( 1971 a) 248;
repeated units collected into groups. Fourth, there is a consistency of scale. For example, Coldstream (1977) 354; King (1977) 37; Snodgrass (1980) 76-7; Froning (1988) 184;
in describing the armor of Agamemnon in another ekphrasis (II. 11. 15-42), the poet Coldstream (1991) 51; Ahlberg-Cornell (1992) 32-5.
provides details of its parts and decoration. Such a level of detail is not used in describing 71. For Hesiod, see Fr. 17a (Merkelbach/West); for Iliadpassages, see 11.708-9, 11.750-60,
the armor of the figures on the shield of Achilles, rather the arms are simply named. If and 23.638-42. On the literary sources see Snodgrass ( 1979) 125-6 and Hampe in LIMC
one imagines the shields of Achilles and Agamemnon as comparable in dimension, then 1.1, 472.
the scale of the warriors depicted on the former would have been miniature, making the 72. Funeral games: New York 14.130.15; see Ahlberg (19716) 240-52 and Froning (1988)
details of their armor microscopic by comparison with Agamemnon's. By simply naming 181-6. Combat with Nestor: Athens, Agora P4885; see Webster (1955) 41; Coldstream
the armor depicted on the shield of Achilles, the poet maintains a consistency in the (1968) 351; Schweitzer (1971) 44; Coldstream (1991) 51. Shapiro (1983a) 89 maintains
level of detail that is commensurate with the size of what is described. Fifth, although that the linkage to the Neleids is not inconceivable.
the shield's figures have a lifelike animation conferred on them by the poetic imagination, 73. Boardman (1970) 501; idem (1983) 25-6.
a similar effort of fantasy can invest the vase paintings with the same qualities. Finally, 74. LIMC I. 1, 474, "Aktorione" nos. 6-10.
the generic nature of the scenes on the shield and the appearance of figures who are 75. Skeptics include Fittschen (1969) 71, and Boardman (1970) 501. Duplicate argument:
almost exclusively identified by the function is virtually the same as on the vases, Richter (1915) 395; Cook (1934-5) 206; Boardman (1983) 25-6. See also Brunnsaker
although their range is broader; the exceptions are Ares and Athena (Il. 18.516), and ( 1962) 204: "a general formula for inseparability."
three personifications - Hate, Confusion, and Death (Il. 18.535). Taken together, these 76. See Coldstream (1991) 48-9.
parallels between the poetic ekphrasis and contemporary works open up the use of 77. For example, the Louvre battle krater (Hampe no. 11) and nos. 4a, 46, and 12.
ekphrasis as a model for Geometric pictorial narration. 78. Brunnsaker ( 1962) 204; King ( 1977) 37.
54. See, for example, Byre ( 1992) 38-9. 79. The term "generic narrative" is based in part on Snodgrass's idea of generalized heroic.
55. See Byre ( 1992) 39-40. Snodgrass's term fits very well the qualities of many scenes found in Geometric painting,
56. The Iliadof Homer,tr. R. Lattimore (Chicago, 1951) 390-1. a monumental expression in which the events of both everyday and heroic ideal mingle.
57. Il. 18.581: EAKE't'O = imperfect, indicative, passive, singular, third person of tAKEw. However, not all generalized heroic scenes are narrative.
58. Il. 18.580: 8XE't"l1V exw.
= pluperfect dual third person of 80. Ahlberg ( 1971 a) 36 proposes that the figures are floating on the sea since their bent
59. Il. 18.582-3: avappfJ~<XV't'E = future active participle of avapp11ywvµL;A<X<p'lJO"O"E't'OV and raised arms show that they are not corpses, but rather that they are flailing about
= pres. ind. act. d3. in the sea as in the shipwreck scene on Munich 8696 or on the krater from Pithekoussai.
60. Snodgrass (1987) 148-50; Whitley (1991) 137-42; Coldstream (1991) 40-2. For a Schafer ( 1983) 75 downplays the idea of a spatial or physical connection among the
review of figural scenes outside Attica, see Coldstream ( 1991) 42-5. Most of these figural figures.
scenes are not narrative, although the Cretan Late Protogeometric bell krater (Cold- 81. Il. 16.140-4.
stream, 1991, Fig. 15) showing a man being devoured by two lions does predate the 82. Fittschen ( 1969) 159, n. 780 notes that this equation of direction and victory is opera-
occurrence of the theme in Attic vase painting (see Fig. 16). tive by the late eighth century. See also T ouchefeu ( 198 3) 24 and Snodgrass ( 1987)
61. Hoffmann (1988a) 748. 144.
62. Paris, Louvre A 519. See Hampe (1936) 48-9; Villard (1954) 6-7 and pl. 5 (with earlier 83. The bibliography on the stylistic character of the reliefs is vast. For a description of the
202 NOTES TO PP. 48-59 NOTES TO PP. 59-65 203

sculpture and reviews of the character see Picard and Coste-Messeliere (l 928); Coste- 19.226-30. For discussions of these, see Pollitt (1990) 15-18; Lorimer (1929), Gray
Messeliere (1936) 237-448; Robertson (1975) 152-8; Moore (1977); Ridgway (1977) ( 1954), Stansbury-O'Donnell ( 1995) 317 and 320-1. Like descriptions, it should be
267-71; Stewart (1990) 128-9 with earlier bibliography; Boardman (1991a) 158-9. On noted that ekphrastic imagery does not have to be narrative, particularly if the object
the reconstruction of the treasury, see Daux and Hansen ( 1987) 223-36. being described has no figural decoration or simply shows a nonnarrative action like the
84. Brinkmann (1985) 110-21; followed by Stewart (1990) 128 and Boardman (1991a) Fig. doves feeding on the cup of Nestor (II. 11. 633-4). Here I do not agree with Heffernan
212. Interestingly, the isolated position of Nestor is also found in the Iliupersispainting ( 1991) 302, that "language releases a narrative impulse which graphic art restricts, and
by Polygnotos that stood in the Lesche at Delphi. that to resist such an impulse takes a special effort of poetic will."
85. Brommer (1969) 31; see Herodotos 1.31. See also Pollitt (1972) 7-9 and idem (1990) 18. For example, the silver krater awarded in the funeral games of Patroklos is of Sidonian
31. On inscriptions see Rouveret (1989) 137-9, who contrasts the Archaic system of manufacture (II. 23.740-4). On the materials and craft of the shield, see Morris (1992)
inscriptions with that based on expression in the Late Classical and Hellenistic periods. 11-12.
In point of fact, however, most Archaic scenes did not have inscriptions. Only four 19. See Fowler (1989) 5-15. See Apollonios of Rhodes, Argo. 1.721-70; Theokritos, Idyll
scenes of Herakles vs. Nessos, for example, have inscriptions, whereas the vast majority 1.25-54; Moschos, Europa37-62.
do not (see Section 3.5 in Chapter Three). The role of inscriptions in comprehending 20. On the idea of hieroglyphs in pictorial narration, see Himmelmann-Wildschtitz ( 1967).
Archaic pictorial narrative is important, but does not constitute a different system of The use of the term here refers to the standardized form of the nucleus for certain types
narration but a different form of engagement with the viewer within the macro-structure. of actions that provide an instant recognizability to the viewer. In some cases, this may
86. On the iconography of departure see Shapiro ( 1990a). consist of just the nucleus, as in Herakles and the Nemean lion, or might include other
87. See also the analysis of a cup by Epiktetos in Lissarrague ( 1994). functions as integral parts of the formulation as in the Judgment of Paris, where the
goddesses serve more as catalysts than as nuclei, despite their necessity for the story.
21. See Pollitt ( 1990) 15-18.
CHAPTER THREE. THE NARRATIVE MACRO-STRUCTURE 22. II. 18.497-508, tr. by the author. For a more detailed discussion and bibliography on
this passage and its relationship to Geometric images, see Stansbury-O'Donnell ( 1995).
1. Eco ( 1979) 27-32. 23. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 14.130.14. See Richter (1915); Davison (1968)
2. Aesch., Eum. 46-59; translation from AeschylusI: Oresteia,tr. R. Lattimore (Chicago, 1953). 141; Coldstream (1968) 42, no. 13. On the prothesis, see Ahlberg (19716) no. 25.
See Shapiro ( 1994) 143-4 for a discussion of this passage. 24. Morris ( 1992) 12-13. Named are Ares and Athena and Hate, Confusion, and Death. No
3. On ekphrasis generally, see Friedlander (1912). Bartsch (1989) 9-10, points out that mortal figures are named, only their status or function is indicated.
ekphrasis in the rhetorical handbooks of the late Hellenistic and Roman periods simply 25. Sc. 139-317. See Janka ( 1986) with an earlier bibliography on the origins and authorship
means description, and not specifically a description of works of art. There is in the of the poem and Fittschen (1973) 18-23, and bibliography on 27-8 for the archaeology
present study, however, a value in distinguishing between description of real works and of the shield. On the dating of the poem, see Cook (1937). On the qualities of ekphrasis
creations of the literary imagination. As the Oxford ClassicalDictionarypoints out, the use here, see Becker (1990) 141-7 and idem (1992) 15-19.
of ekphrasisfor rhetorical and literary descriptions of art, usually imaginary, is a commonly 26. Tr. Hesiod,The HomericHymns and Homerica,tr. H. G. Evelyn-White (London and Cam-
understood definition for the term. bridge, Mass., 1914) 235-7.
4. By description and ekphrasis,I am speaking in similar but narrower terms to two of the 27. Paris, Louvre E 874. ABV 8.1. See Beazley (1986) 15-16, with earlier bibliography;
sources of ancient art criticism identified by Pollitt: the compilers of tradition and the Hurwit ( 1985a) 219-21; Cook ( 1997) 71-2. On the iconography of Perseus in flight,
literary analogists. See Pollitt ( 1990) 6-7. see LIMCVII.1, 338-42, s.v. Perseus III (L. J. Roccos).
5. See Becker (1992) 12-13 and 17-19, and the following discussion on ekphrasis. 28. Color is more richly prominent and varied than in the shield of Achilles, such as the red
6. Baxandall ( 1985) 2-4. of blood, and the expressions as well as the gestures of figures now attract the attention
7. An excellent example of this is Harrison's reconstruction of the Battle of Marathon; see of the poet. Examples: [I. 145] "eyes that glowed with fire"; [11.159-60] "a garment red
Harrison (19726) and Fig. 63. For the Lesche paintings of Polygnotos, which examine with the blood of men; and terribly she glared and gnashed her teeth"; [I. 193] "[Ares]
the spatial relationship of prepositions and other locating terms in Pausanias's detailed was red with blood"; [11.229-30] "Perseus himself, the son of Danae, was at full stretch,
description and plots them on the plan of the building revealed by excavations, see like one who hurries and shudders with terror."
Stansbury-O'Donnell (1989, 1990). 29. Euripides, Ion 188-218, tr. R. F. Willetts from EuripidesIII, ed. D. Grene and R. Lattimore
8. Eco (1979) 27-32. See also idem (1990) 64-82. (Chicago, 1958) 191-2.
9. The following discussion relies heavily on Becker ( 1992) 7-13. See also Bartsch ( 1989). 30. See Stewart (1990) 129 and Fig. 200, with earlier bibliography; Boardman (1991a) Fig.
10. Translation from Becker (1992) 8. 203. The building that the chorus describes would be the temple reconstructed in the
11. Ibid., 12. late sixth century, whose eastern pediment was all in marble, a gift of the Alkmaionidai
12. The following discussion is based on Becker's analysis of the Shield of Achilles and the of Athens, opponents of the Peisistratidai. The patronage is based on Herodotos 5.62;
Shield of Herakles; see Becker (1990) 141-7 and idem (1992) 15-19. see Pollitt (1990) 184. The subject described by the chorus, a Gigantomachy, was on
13. Becker (1992) 16. the limestone west pediment, not the east pediment that they are approaching. Addition-
14. Paus. 5.11.6, tr. Pollitt (1990) 60. ally, how the scenes with Herakles and Bellerophon mentioned before the description of
15. Eco ( 1979) 12-1 3. the pediment fit with the temple's decoration is unclear.
16. Apollonios of Rhodes, Argo. 1.721-70; Theokritos, Idyll 1.25-54; Moschos, Europa37- 31. Zeitlin (1994) 147-52.
62. 32. Tr. Pollitt ( 1990) 186.
17. Shield of Achilles: II. 18.474-608; cup of Nestor: II. 11.632-7; brooch of Odysseus: Od. 33. Paus. 5.19.7, tr. Pollitt (1990) 214. See Massow (1916) 92-4. On the iconography of
204 NOTES TO PP. 65-76 NOTES TO PP. 76-84 205

this scene, see Touchefeu-Meynier (1968) 81-131, esp. no. 169; LIMC Vl.1, 55, s.v. 50. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts 98.936. See Hauser (1904) 163-5; Robinson (1905);
Kirke, F, no. 51 (F. Canciani). For an alternative reading of this scene as the wedding of Brunnsaker (1971) 105-6; Mattusch (1988) 125-6.
Peleus and Thetis see Carpenter ( 1986) 7. 51. See the arguments of Brunnsaker ( 1971) 156-64.
34. The verh Ka0E'llbwnormally translates as "to lie down to sleep," but with a couple, the 52. The purpose of the pillar in front of the group in Fig. 34 is unclear, but the beveled
sense is more "to lie down together" for other purposes, as is the case when Hephaistos surface facing forward would suggest that if it had an inscription, it was meant to be
discovers Ares lying down with his wife Aphrodite in Od. 8.313. read from the front.
35. See, for example, sources in Pollitt (1990) 19-42, 124-6, 206-16. One exception is 5 3. The only element lacking in the Perseus metope is the pursuing Gorgons, but a fragment
Pliny's account (N.H. 36.13) of the statue of Artemis in Chios by the sons of Archermos. from another metope shows the leg and foot of a running figure like Perseus, but with
He reports that "it is set on high and those entering the building find its expression sad, the flesh painted white indicating a female and very likely one of the pursuing sisters.
while those who are leaving find it cheerful"; tr. Pollitt ( 1990) 29. See Payne ( 1925-6) 127, no. 4; Kahler ( 1949) 34 identifies this definitively as a pursuing
36. Paus. 5. 17. 7; tr. Pollitt ( 1990) 211. On the iconography of this scene, see LIMCI.1, 695- Gorgon.
7, s.v. Amphiaraos E, esp. no. 7 (I. Krauskopf); on the core features of the departure, see 54. See discussion in Sparkes ( 1996) 155-67.
discussion on 706-7. See also Amyx (1983). 55. Formerly in New York, Metropolitan Museum 66.11.27. See Bothmer (1984) 35, no. 45;
37. First published by Amandry ( 1939); see Carter ( 1985) 163-73 and detailed discussion of Markoe (1989) 106 and pl. 20.
Carter ( 1989) with earlier bibliography; see also LIMC1.1, 695, s.v. Amphiaraos no. 16. 56. Saint-Martin (1990) 54-73, uses some of these aspects to define the variables of visual
3 8. See Vernant in Zeitlin ( 1994) 190. semiotics. Some of these aspects have been discussed in Hurwit ( 1977). The list here
39. Ibid., esp. 176. has been compiled with an eye toward the discussion of pictorial narrative.
40. Tr. Pollitt (1990) 155-6. See Halliwell (1986) 112-13. 57. For a discussion of different compositions within a single subject, the rape of Kassandra,
41. Paus. 10.29.19; tr. Pollitt (1990) 138. See Section 5.3 in Chapter Five for a fuller see Connelly ( 199 3).
discussion. 58. On elements of configuration, see Hurwit (1977) 1-15 and Stupperich (1992) 427-8.
42. Paus. 10.31.8; tr. Pollitt (1990) 140. 59. Wurzburg, Martin von Wagner Museum L 515, attributed to the Copenhagen Painter.
43. Athens, National Museum. See Koch (1914); Pfuhl (1923) 492-3; Payne ( 1925-6); ARV2 256.5; Add.2 204. See Brunnsaker (1971) 108; Boardman (1975) 113-14; Beckel,
Payne (1931) 96-7, 125; Kahler (1949) 28-37; Matz (1950) 237-47; Robertson (1959) Froning, and Simon (1983) 102-3, no. 44; Berard (1983) 29; Simon (1985) 71-2;
48-51; Schefold (1966) 35-8; Fittschen (1969) 155, SB48 and 198, SB119; Robertson Mattusch ( 1988) 126-7. Simon points out that the other side has a related composition
(1975) 53; Hurwit (1985a) 161-3 and Fig. 69; Ahlberg-Cornell (1992) 114, no. 122; of the tyrant's supporters fleeing, making this an example of unified narrative (see Section
133, no. 152; and 138, no. 158. On the reconstruction of the form of the temple itself, 4.3 in Chapter Four).
see Beyer ( 1972). 60. Hurwit ( 1977) 5-15 defines four different types of open modes: obstructed image,
44. Berlin 3773. See detailed description in Washburn ( 1906) 116-19. See also Friis Johansen interrupted frame, overlapped and overlapping image, and free field. The effects of each
(1923) 98, no. 52 and passim; Pfuhl (1923) 103-9, esp. 104-5; Payne (1931) 244; type on narrative will be reserved for more specific discussions later.
Neugebauer (1932) 14; Payne (1933) 14-15, 23 and pl. 23.1-3; Lorimer (1947) 84-85; 61. Saint-Martin ( 1990) 61 discusses vectorality, but I use the term movement here for
Matz (1950) 227-8; Benson (1953) 19, list no. 15, no. 2; Dunbabin and Robertson narrative art to suggest both a pictorial as well as a representational element.
(1953) 179, no. 11; Amyx (1988) 32, no. 2. 62. See, for example, Touchefeu (1983) 24 and Snodgrass (1987) 144.
45. Osborne ( 1987). One might also compare the Chigi aryballos as a scale suitable for a 63. Chafe (1980) 9-50; Chafe (1990) 93-5. See also Genette (1976-7) 7.
personal object with the silver aryballos formerly in the Metropolitan Museum; see 64. Becker (1990, 1992).
Bothmer (1984) 35, no. 45. 65. On perspective and the rendering of depth and volume in Greek art, see White ( 1956);
46. Olympia Museum. The bibliography on the metopes is vast; see, among others, Treu Richter (1970); Pollitt (1974) 236-53; Bruno (1977) 23-30; Hurwit (1985a) 299-309;
(1897) 150-78, and Taf. XXXV-XLV; Ashmole and Yalouris (1967); Robertson (1975) Pollitt (1986) 187-92; Rouveret (1989) 16-127. The interpretation of skiagraphia is quite
274-6; Geertman (1987) with bibliography; Cohen (1994) 705-14. varied and uncertain; see Rouveret ( 1989) 24-59.
47. Carpenter (1950) 332 notes that the sculptor here "steps free of chronological impedi- 66. The figures are attributed to Onatos; see Paus. 5.25.8. Harrison (1985) 47-53 argues
ment and attains a timeless universality" by conflating different moments. In particular, strongly that the Riace bronzes belonged once to this group. Pemberton (1989) 187-8
he notes that the cushion that Herakles uses was a ruse by him to get Atlas to shoulder points out that painting did not face the restrictions of relief sculpture in developing
the sky again while he fetched it. There is no reason, however, to think that this is the multiple ground lines, but the shift to a gri:mnd plane can be seen in works like the
only version of the event. It is possible, for example, that Herakles wanted to adjust his Albani relief and in the shield of Athena Parthenos (with its multiple levels). A more
cushion or used some other ruse to entice Atlas. The cushion may serve as index to the important development for sculpture, however, is the extension of its space into that of
version of the story that we know, but it need not distort the unity of space and time the viewer, making sculpture in the round a more dramatic medium for narrative.
within the picture. · 67. Whether the term skiagraphiasignified the use of light and shadow or modeling is
48. See Brommer ( 1969) 21; Osborne ( 1994) 62. disputed and the interpretation of the term is quite varied; see Rouveret ( 1989) 24-59.
49. Naples, G 103-4. See generally Brunnsaker ( 1971) with earlier bibliography and specifi- 68. London, British Museum D 5. ARV2 763.2; Add.2 286. The set of three cups has been
cally pp. 45-83 for the Naples statues; Ridgway (1970) 79-83; Taylor (1981) 37-46; the subject of much recent discussion, especially concerning their subject matter; see
Boardman (1985) 24-5 and Figs. 3 to 9; Landwehr (1985) 27-47; Schuchhardt and Pfuhl (1923) 547 and pl. 199; Robertson (1975) 263-6 with earlier bibliography; Burn
Landwehr ( 1986); Mattusch ( 1988) 119-27; Stewart ( 1990) 135-6. On a semiotic anal- (1985); Simon (1985) 77-8; Griffiths (1986); Osborne (1988) 9-14; Schefold and Jung
ysis of the Tyrannicides, see Berard ( 1983) 27-33. (1989) 75; Hoffmann (1989a); Robertson (1992) 185-8; Sparkes (1996) 159-60. For
206 NOTES TO PP. 84-89 NOTES TO PP. 89-94 207

color detail, see Robertson ( 1959) 130; see also Hoffmann ( 1989a). On Glaukos, see see Snodgrass ( 1987) 137-9. Snodgrass ( 1987) 136-7 and 139-46 and ( 1982) 6-8 has
LIMCIV.1, 273-4, s.v. Glaukos II (0. Palagia). argued instead that time is not disregarded, but rather defied in order to place successive
69. On the cup context, see Burn (1985) 99-101; generally, for funerary context, see episodes together synoptically. This type of narration is typical of the Archaic period;
Hoffmann ( 1988a); ( 19896); ( 19946) 71. cases where time is more synchronous with space (monoscenic) are more the result of
70. As described by Paus. 10.25.11. the amount of material the artist felt was needed to make the story clear or where an
71. Robertson ( 1975) 249; Stansbury-O'Donnell ( 1989) 207. episodic treatment was less appropriate.
72. Hyg. Fab. 136. 87. See Sourvinou-lnwood (1991) 30-2 on the intent of this motif.
73. See Osborne ( 1988) 12. Burn ( 1985) 94, views the narrative as conflating different 88. There are examples of general subject labels in Greek art. The fragmentary dinos by
moments at once, viewing Polyeidos's raised stick as intended for the first, already dead Sophilos showing the chariot race at the funeral games of Patroklos is inscribed
snake, and showing Glaukos as alive. As Hoffmann ( 1989a) 79, points out, burial is a PATROKLUS: ATLA or "games in honor of Patroklos" (Athens, National Museum
transition state between life and death, and the ancient Greeks may have believed that 15499, ABV 39. 16). The Lesche paintings of Polygnotos at Delphi were inscribed
the soul remained in the tomb for nine days. Thus, to show Glaukos as alive but "Polygnotos, Thasian by birth, Aglaophon's son,/ Painted the sacking of Ilium's citadel";
inanimate would be an understandable representation of this transition state. Paus. 10.27.4; tr. Pollitt ( 1990) 133. Curiously, Pausanias mentions this inscription at
74. On the spatial and temporal ambiguity of the work, see Burn (1985) 94, and Robertson the end of his description of the painting, nor does he record any inscription for the
(1992) 187-8. subject of the other half of the program, Odysseus in the Underworld.
75. The cup was, of course, intended as a grave good and not to be actually used. However, 89. Steiner ( 1982) 9. See also her summary of semiotics on 19-24.
the idea that grave goods served symbolically the same purpose as real drinking vessels 90. See Hoffmann ( 1990) and also Isler ( 1973) 37-8.
would argue that a coordination of the decoration with the vantage point of the deceased 91. On the idea of the model book, see Schefold (1985a) and (1992) 1 and 303, with
user would be similar to that of a real cup for a live viewer. See Hoffmann (1988a) 748, earlier bibliography. This idea has been treated skeptically and rightly, I believe, by
(19886) 152-5, and (1994a) 32 and Vermeule (1979) 56-8 and Fig. 13. Boardman ( 1978) 11 .
76. On the general funerary implications of the iconography and the idea of death as a 92. See Berard (1983) 5-13.
transition, see Burn ( 1985) 102-3 and Hoffmann ( 1989a) 69 and 81. of Greece,3, tr. W. H. S. Jones and
93. Paus. 5.18.4 and 5.17.11; tr. Pausanias, Description
77. See Pliny, N.H. 35.65. H. A. Ormerod (London/Cambridge, Mass., 1960). On the meaning of schema and its
78. On Marathon, see Paus. 1.15.3; on Delphi, see Paus. 10.25-31 and illustrations in reference to "the position of the body and the arrangement of its drapery" or to a
Section 5.3. A more detailed setting can be found in Lucian's description of Zeuxis's "formula," see Pollitt (1974) 260-2.
painting of the centaur family; see Zeuxis or Antiochos 3, tr. Pollitt ( 1990) 152. 94. Athens 1 National Museum 1002. ABV 4-5.1; Para.2.6; Add.2 1-2. For detailed descrip-
79. See generally Chatman (1974-5); Genette (1980); Ricceur (1980-1); Chatman (1980- tions 0 f the vase see Arias and Hirmer (1962) 276-7 and pl. 18-20, and Simon and
1). Hirmer ( 1976) 66-7 and pis. 44-6; for other discussions, see Robertson ( 1975) 54-5;
80. Genette (1980) 34-6. Hurwit ( 1985a) 176-9; Cook ( 1997) 69-70. I will follow Beazley's spelling of the
81. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 41.83. ARV2 1012.3, Para.440, Add.2 314. See painter's name, while referring to the figure of the centaur in his more common spelling
Alexander (1941) 203-4; Touchefeu-Meynier (1968) 95-6, no. 187; Connor (1988) 45- of Nessos. On Nessos and Herakles, see LIMCVl.1, 838-47, s.v. Nessos (F. Dfez de
9; Buitron and Cohen (1992) 90-1, no. 25. On Circe generally, see Touchefeu-Meynier Velasco); Vasenlisten
3
153-8.
(1968) 81-131; LIMCVl.1, 52-5, s.v. Kirke, D (F. Canciani); Buitron and Cohen (1992) 95. Hurwit (1977) 29.
77-94; Cohen ( 1995) 36-8; Reeder ( 1995) 403-6. 96. In addition to the large variations that occur in depictions of the story, there is also no
82. On the representation of metamorphosis, see Davies ( 1986). literary account of the attack by sword. Nevertheless, there is a consistency in its
83. I have chosen the term synoptic over simultaneous or complementary since its seems depiction that shows the existence of at least a widespread pictorial and perhaps oral
best to convey the idea of multiple scenes as contrasted to monoscenic. tradition for such a story.
84. Genette (1980) 39-40. 97. Fittschen (1970) 163, lists four examples with inscriptions, one of which is Athens
85. Boston, MFA 99.518. ABV 198; Para. 80; Add.2 53. See description in M. True, CVA 1002, a second is a Tyrhennian amphora (Paris, Louvre E852 = ABV 96.13) and two
Boston2 (U.S.A. 19) 30-2 and pl. 88, with earlier bibliography. On the narrative qualities red-figure cups.
of this vase, see especially Himmelmann-Wildschutz (1967) 74-6; Touchefeu-Meynier 98. Paus. 3.18.12 and 3.18.16; tr. Pollitt (1990) 25. In this passage, Pausanias assumes a
(1968) 86-7, no. 171 and 283-4; Snodgrass (1982) 6-8; Raeck (1984) 5-6; Snodgrass high level of familiarity in the reader with w\lat he sees, as he comments at the
(1987) 136-40; Shapiro (1989) 45; Buitron and Cohen (1992) 77-80; Shapiro (1994) beginning that "To go through the reliefs one by one in detail would only be a bore to
53-9. my readers. But, to give a brief description (since many of them are not unfamiliar) ... ";
86. Himmelmann-Wildschutz (1967) 81 views the closed, symmetrical composition as typi- Paus. 3.18.10, tr. Pollitt ( 1990) 23. For bibliography on the throne, see Pollitt 241, s.v.
cal of archaic narration, as is its un-unified time. Each element carries its own story with no. 10.
it, and their combination in the closed composition binds them together into a single 99. Newark, Museum, 50.279. See LIMCVl.1, 841, s.v. Nessos no. 44; Dusenbery (1951-
narrative panel. This is the essence of his hieroglyphic narrative system. In this case, 2) 5.
Odysseus and Eurylochos would be excerpts from later stages, added to the core motif 100. Even with club and Deianeira present in the Newark kylix, there is no guarantee, only
of Circe to create an expanded range of time. In many ways, this is similar to the a very high probability, in the identification. For example, a red-figure stamnos in
structuralist school in anthropology, which views mythological figures as important for Naples (Mus. Naz. 3089) shows the basic compositional elements of the Nessos story,
the idea that they represent rather than the role that they play within a given narrative; but the centaur is labeled Dexamenos, perhaps a mistake for Eurytion but in any case
 1 NOTES TO PP. 98-105 209
208 NOTES TO PP. 94-98

not Nessos; see LIMC 111.1, 385-6, s.v. Dexamenos II (D. Gondicas) and LIMC IIl.1, the episode, even though they are not mentioned in any literary source, see Pingiato-
359, s.v. Deianeira II, no. 2 (R. Vollkommer). See the discussion of F. Dfez de Velasco glou (1981) 14-19. They are not identifiable by attribute, but only by subject context.
in LIMCVl.1, 844-5. 111. On Tarquinia 626, there is a bearded figure wearing a long chiton like that of Apollo
101. On the depictions of Nessos, Deianeira, and Herakles see LIMC VI.t, 838-47, s.v. in front of Hermes, but he does not carry a lyre as Apollo does elsewhere. Apollo,
Nessos (F. Dfez de Velasco), with bibliography; see also Brommer (1984) 48-53. however, is usually beardless.
102. See Dfez de Velasco in LIMC VI.t, 845, s.v. Nessos nos. 36, 50, 71, and 72 for the 112. The role of "observers" is a subject that needs much more exploration. See generally
exceptions. Scheibler ( 1987) and Steiner ( 1993). On the different roles of the Eileithyiai as specta-
103. This is quite at variance with the Protoattic amphora in New York showing Nessos tors vs. helpers, see Pingiatiglou (1981) 18.
facing forward toward Herakles; New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 11.210.01; 113. Tenos Museum. See Schafer (1957) 72; Brommer (1961) 72-3; Schefold (1966) 32;
see Morris ( 1984) 65-8 and Fig. 15, Shapiro ( 1994) 156-8 and Figs. 110 and 111. Fittschen (1969) 129-30, no. GSl; Kontoleon (1970) 228-32; Erwin-Caskey (1976)
Another Protoattic representation of a hero with sword facing a centaur fits more 32-4; Simon (1982); Condoleon-Bolanacchi (1984); Ahlberg-Cornell (1992) 144-5,
closely with the New York amphora; Herakles stands on the right facing leftward, and no. 166; Morris ( 1992) 91-2.
the centaur faces forward and rightward toward him; see LIMC VI.t, 845, s.v. Nessos 114. Simon (1982) 37-8; Condoleon-Bolanacchi (1984) 21.
no. 114. On three other Archaic depictions illustrated in LIMC (Nessos nos. 33, 43, 115. The various identifications are reviewed in Erwin-Caskey ( 1976) 3 3-4, and Ahlberg-
and 102), the torso of Nessos is turned frontally, but his head apparently (but unclearly Cornell (1992) 144. See also LIMC 11.1,988, no. 360, s.v. Athena (H. Cassimitis),
due to the painting) faces rightward away from Herakles. In two cases, 33 and 102, where it is regarded as the first of the series of this depiction; see also Brommer ( 1961)
Herakles is absent from the composition, although a striding male figure in 33 may be 72-3; Fittschen (1969) 129-31; Simon (1982); and Condoleon-Bolanacchi (1984).
him. Kontoleon ( 1970) 229 rejects the birth of Athena and argues for the epiphany of a god
104. The Archaic iconography of Deianeira also differs from her presentation in a chariot springing from the head of a goddess, without making a more specific proposal.
on the Protoattic New Yark amphora. Archaic depictions consistently show Nessos 116. Simon ( 1982) 35-6; see also Fittschen ( 1969) 131.
carrying or having carried Deianeira himself; chariots do not feature in these composi- 117. Morris ( 1992) 84 and 99.
tions. Even when Deianeira is standing by or fleeing, the implication is clear that 118. Ibid. 92; Burkert (1992) 83-7, esp. 87.
Nessos has carried her to this point, a point that is not at all clear in the New Yark 119. Fittschen (1969) 129.
Nessos amphora. 120. Osborne (1991) 261-2 and 271-2. A more general review of these issues can be found
105. Brommer (1984) 54-9. In his encounters with Pholos, Herakles is usually confronting in Sparkes ( 1996) 114-67.
more than one centaur and brandishes either a burning log or bow and arrow, and 121. Osborne (1991) 261-2 and 271-2.
frequently there is a container of wine present and Pholos holding a cup. The few 122. Generally on potter, painter, and patron, see Webster (1972) and Beazley (1989) 39-
exceptions to the identification of the scene in figures 39 and 40 as Herakles and 59.
Nessos should not obscure the fact that there exists a very large number of uninscribed 123. Boardman (19916) 88-9; see also Lissarrague (1987).
scenes that can be confidently identified as such. 124. See Penny ( 1994) on the distribution and use of Attic vases in Etruria; Moon ( 1983a)
106. Fittschen ( 1970) 163 and 170. The Nessos formula is also used in fifth-century depic- 106 on the popularity of the apotheosis of Herakles in Etruria; Lissarrague ( 1987) 268
tions of Herakles and Dexamenos. Dfez de Velasco in LIMCVI.t, 845 notes the general on adjustments to the markets. In the case of vase shapes correlating with foreign
iconographic ambiguity, but concludes that most of the depictions represent the Nessos markets, the pottery of Nikosthenes and the Tyrhennian amphorae would seem to be
story; Vollkommer ( 1988) 27 concludes differently that many of the uninscribed scenes clear illustrations.
of the Classical period may represent the Dexamenos story. 125. Shapiro ( 19906).
107. New Haven, Yale University Art Gallery 1983.22. ABV 135.46; Add.2 36. See Matheson 126. For a judicious appraisal of the place of style and attribution in the study of vase
(1984) 10-11; and Matheson (1988) 12, for color reproduction. On the birth of painting, see Sparkes ( 1996) 90-113.
Athena, see Kauer (1959) for literary sources; Brommer (1961); Loeb (1979) 14-27; 127. On the development of red-figure painting see Robertson ( 1992) 7-42, and Boardman
LIMC 11.1,985-9 and 1021-3, s.v. Athena, B.1 (H. Cassimatis); Schefold (1992) 7-16. (1975) 11-18, 29-36, and 55-62.
108. See H. Cassimatis in LIMC II.1, 1022, s.v. Athena, B.1. See also Pingiatoglou ( 1981) 128. Private collection, formerly the Hunt Collection; sold at Sotheby's June 19, 1990.
14-19, who notes that although there is no literary account with the Eileithyia, they Signed by Euphronios. Not known to Beazley; see Add.2404. See Robertson ( 1981) 23-
are present in virtually all images of the Archaic period. 5; Tompkins (1983) 55-7, no. 5; Capolavori (1990) 58-61, no. 1, with earlier bibliogra-
109. The vases, with Beazley (ABV or Para.)and LIMC (no. under entry on Athena) refer- phy; Euphronios (1990) 168-9, no. 34; Robertson (1992) 22-4 and Fig. 15; Shapiro
ences: 1: New Haven, Yale 1983.22 (ABV 135.46); 2: Paris, Louvre F32 (ABV 135.43); (1993) 134-5; Shapiro (1994) 21-5; D. van Bothmer in LIMCVll.1, 698, s.v. Sarpedon
3: Boston 00.330 (ABV 135.45); 4: Munich 1382 (ABV 135.47, Athena no. 352); 5: no. 3.
Wurzburg 250 (ABV 136.48, Athena no. 368); 6: Vienna 3596 (Para.56 [ 136.48 bis]); 129. On the death of Sarpedon, see LIMC VIl.1, 696-700, s.v. Sarpedon, esp. B (D. van
7: Richmond 60.23 (Para.56 [136.48ter], Athena no. 351); 8: Berlin 1699 (ABV 136.53); Bothmer). On Thanatos, see LIMCVII.t, 904-8, s.v. Thanatos (J. Bazant); on Hypnos
9: Tarquinia 626 (not in Beazley, see Brommer [1961] #Ila12 and pl. 31); 10: London and Thanatos, see Shapiro ( 199 3) 132-65.
B147 (ABV 135.44; Athena no. 349); 11: Basel (not in Beazley, Athena no. 353); 12: 130. Bothmer ( 1981) 76-7. On the conflation of time through the wounds, see p. 68.
Vatican 340 (ABV 138.2; Athena no. 340). 131. Robertson ( 1992) 22.
110. Frontal Zeus and Athena: Richmond 60.23, Para.56; see Brommer (1961) pl. 37, and 132. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 1972.11.10. Signed by Euphronios. Not
LIMC 1.1, pl. 744 (Athena, no. 351). Athena in lap: Wurzburg 250, ABV 136.48; see known to Beazley; Add.2 404. See Bothmer (1976), esp. 485-9; idem (1981); Euphronios
LIMC I.1, pl. 746 (Athena, no. 368). The Eileithyiai appear in almost all depictions of (1990) 77-88, no. 4; Williams (19916) 287; Robertson (1992) 24; Schefold
210 NOTES TO PP. 105-111 NOTES TO PP. 111-114 211

(1992) 248-50; Shapiro (1993) 133-5; idem (1994) 21-5; D. von Bothmer in LIMC 147. London, British Museum. See Hofkes-Brukker and Mallwitz (1975) 54-5 and 153, along
VIl.1, 698-9, s.v. Sarpedon no. 4. with earlier bibliography on p. 170; see also Ridgway ( 1981) 94-6; Hurwit ( 1985a) 15-
133. Shapiro (1994) 24. 16; Stewart ( 1990) 169-70.
134. Bothmer ( 1981) 68; Shapiro ( 1994) 24. 148. See the discussion in Hurwit (1985a) 15-32, esp. 16-18. Gombrich (1960) 128-9,
135. Bothmer (1976) 493-4. following Hanfmann ( 1957), links the development of mimesis to a change in the
136. Idem ( 1976) 490-1 and idem ( 1981) 67-8 speak of a fixed viewing point and posit a nature of narrative. As the discussion of the Exekian suicide of Ajax shows (Section
slight rightward movement, as indicated by the position of Thanatos and the direction 5.3), the ability to render character or ethos as an object of narration works in an
of the blood flow. archaic style by the choice of moment in the narrative. Mimesis certainly helps in
137. See illustrations in idem (1976) Fig. 2 and 12-13. On the names and political interpre- focusing on character, but its development in Greek art is gradual and its role is just
tation of the vase, see pp. 494-5. Vermeule ( 1965a) 37 proposes that the figure of one element of the narrative discourse.
Thodemos on another krater by Euphronios may reflect a gathering of Peisistratid 149. See Pollitt (1974) 37-41; Keuls (1978); Stewart (1990) 73-85, esp. 81-5.
supporters (Munich 8935, ARV2 1619.3 bis; see illustration in Euphronios [1990] 89- 150. Else (1958); Sorbom (1966) 41-98; see also Keuls (1978) 19-22.
95, no. 5). On the use of myth and genre scenes as paradigms for Athenian youth in 151. P. Oxy. 2162; see text and discussion by H. Lloyd-Jones in AeschylusII, ed. H. Weir
the Archaic period, see Scheibler (1987) 95-7, and Steiner (1993) 206 and 216. Smyth and H. Lloyd-Jones (Cambridge, Mass./London, 1983) 541-56; Hallett (1986)
138. Boston, MFA 63.1246; Para. 373.34 quater;Add.2 234. Vermeule (1966); Davies (1969) 75-8. On this passage, see also Morris ( 1992) 217-20, and Stieber ( 1994) 87-94.
240-60; Simon (1985) 72-3; Prag (1985) 3-4 (A6) and 23-6 (C21); Schefold and Jung 152. Tr. Morris ( 1992) 218.
(1989) 299-301 and Figs. 257-8; Shapiro (1994) 127-30 and 136-8. 153. Fraenkel (1942) 244-5.
139. Formerly Malibu, J. Paul Getty Museum 88.AE.66; not known to Beazley; returned to 154. Halliwell ( 1986) 56 and further 110-13 and 115. Alternatively, Sorbom ( 1966) 52
Italy in 1999. Published in Simon (1985) 72-3 and pls. 67-8; Prag (1985) 106-7; argues it more generally indicates images that are "vivid, vital, and concrete represen-
Matheson ( 1987) 4-5; Shapiro ( 1994) 138-40. The other version of the scene by the tations of the 'models' appearing directly and immediately to the beholders 'as if they
Aegisthus Painter appears on a volute krater, Bologna 230; AR V2 504.8; for illustrations, were living.' " Keuls ( 1978) 20-22 suggests that movement is implicit in the use of the
see Vermeule (1966) Fig. 14 (drawing); Prag (1985) 20-1 and pls. 12c-d; and Boardman term, and not a static reproduction.
(1989a) Fig. 35. 155. See Hallett ( 1986) 77 and also Vernant in Zeitlin ( 1994) 190-1. For a contrasting
140. See review in Vermeule (1966) 15-19 and discussion in Shapiro (1994) 135-6. On the opinion, see Stieber ( 1994), who argues that Aeschylus is referring more to "archaic"
iconography, see also LIMC1.1, 371-9, s.v. Aigisthos (R. M. Gais) and LIMCVI.1, s.v. than to "classical" images. Although I do not agree that a kouros or kore is a true
Klytaimestra (Y. Morizot). portrait, I think that it is wise to remember that the development of naturalism in Greek
141. Vermeule ( 1966) 20. Vermeule also discusses an influence of images of Orpheus here, art is gradual and that even an artist like Polygnotos appeared "old" in style to later
and the desire of the painter for a novel depiction of the scene. eyes. For example, Quintilian (InstitutioOratoria 12.10) states that "the first artists whose
142. On the problems of the gestures, see Shapiro (1994) 136. Whereas the right arm makes works should be inspected not only for the sake of their antiquity [but also for their
the same movement in both cases, the left arm is done differently. Unless the hand artistic merit] are said to have been those famous painters Polygnotos and Aglaophon,
manages to cusp the chin of the attacker, the gesture would seem to be more broadly whose simplicity of color has still such zealous advocates that these almost primitive
interpreted as one of catching attention. For example, in a black-figure scene of Athena works, which are like the primordial beginnings of the great art of the future, are
introducing Herakles to Olympos by the Phyrnos Painter (London, British Museum B preferred to the works of artists who came after them (tr. Pollitt [ 1990] 221). An
424; ABV 168.3; see Cohen [1994] Fig. 5), Athena uses the same gesture toward Zeus, ancient viewer would have been aware of whether one image that was more lifelike
clearly getting his attention and asking for his consideration. In the case of the than another and may have reacted differently to each. If, as Stieber ( 1994) 97-8
Dokimasia Painter krater, the position of the left hand would seem to differentiate the proposes, Aeschylus truly prefered a high Archaic style because it was more "godly,"
gestures on both sides. then it would suggest that reverence or awe would be the most appropriate reaction to
143. Shapiro (1994) 139. a narrative in that style, as can be seen in the shields of Achilles and Herakles. The
144. Pelike attributed to the Berlin Painter, Vienna 3725, ARV2 204.109. See Boardman reactions to the satyrs' images, however, suggests a more emotional response from the
(1975) Fig. 143. viewer that fits with the discussion of mimesis and reactive emotion in Xenophon,
145. Simon (1985) 72; Shapiro (1994) 140. Contra see Prag (1985) 107. The identity of Plato, and Aristotle.
some of these peripheral figures is unclear. For the female figure behind Aegisthus, her 156. Tr. Pollitt (1990) 156. See Halliwell (1986) 112-13.
gesture is more clearly one of mourning that would not be appropriate for Elektra, who 157. Schweitzer (1953) 82-7; Sorbom (1966) 99-175; Pollitt (1974) 41-9; Keuls (1978);
is in a similar position on the Boston krater. Simon ( 1985) 73 proposes that two female Halliwell ( 1986) 116-21.
figures on the reverse are Elektra and her sister Chrysothel.1).is, and the woman behind 158. Sorbom (1966) 117-25; Woodruff (1992) 75.
Aegisthus is his daughter by Klytaimestra, Erigone. The nurse holds her child by 159. Woodruff (1992) 76.
Orestes, Penthilos. Prag ( 1985) 106-7, identifies the woman behind Aegisthus as 160. Keuls ( 1978) 24-8; Woodruff ( 1992) 77 points out that painting does not really deceive
Elektra, and the nurse as holding a child of Aegisthus and Klytaimestra, possibly Aletes; like poetry in that it deals with objects, whereas poetry deals with morality.
see also LIMC111.1,714, s.v. Elektra no. 51 (I. McPhee). On Erigone, see LIMC111.1, 161. The arts, too, must be required to show only beauty, and not bad character, ill-
824-5, s.v. Erigone II.A, no. 1 (R. M. Gais), who notes the difficulty with the age of discipline, meanness, or ugliness (401A-B). Judging from his discussion in the Laws of
Erigone. Shapiro ( 1994) 140 sees the nurse as holding a child of Aegisthus and Egyptian art and its timeless and unchanging quality (656D-E), Plato would seem to
Klytaimestra, which would fit better with the overall chronology of events. prefer the "beautiful forms" (kala schemata)of a more Archaic style of art, where codified
146. Hanfmann (1957) 76, based on Aristotle. forms are reproduced faithfully from an idealized prototype. The illusionism necessary
 ""
212 NOTES TO PP. 114-123 NOTES TO PP. 123-135 213

to convince viewers that they are seeing an object or figure is deceptive and inappro- 11. On the apotheosis of Herakles see Vasenlisten 3
159-73; Shapiro ( 198 36); Carpen tar
priate. That this is contrary to well-established conventions in art by Plato's time signals (1991) 133-4; Schefold (1992) 33-46; LIMC V.1, 121-32, s.v. Herakles VIII (J. Board-
in some belated sense the shift taking place in narrative art during the Early Classical man). It should be noted that the large number of attendants to Athena is more typical
period. See Pollitt ( 197 4) 46-8 on a discussion of Plato's attitude toward "eikastike, the of the apotheosis than of Athena alone in a chariot. Boardman ( 1972) 60-5 makes a
production of images that are other than but like what they imitate (235D), and controversial link of the apotheosis in late Archaic art to a Peisistratid program of linking
phantastike,the production of images that appear to be like what they imitate but are in the dictator to Herakles and Athena to Phye, a statuesque woman who impersonated
reality quite unlike it." See also Rouveret ( 1989) on this element in the interpretation Athena. See also review of the question in Cook ( 19876).
of skiagraphia. 12. See Stewart (19836) and Tersini (1987).
162. See Halliwell (1986) 122-7, quotation from p. 123. 13. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts 63.473. Para. 164, 31 bis; Add.2 96. See CVA Boston 224-
163. Woodruff (1992) 81, 87, 91-2. On necessity and probability, see Poet. 9 and also 5 and pl. 82 with bibliography (M. True); see also Vermeule (19656); Johansen (1967)
Halliwell (1986) 99 and 146-8, and Golden (1992) 74. 149-51; Shapiro (1994) 29-31. On the dragging of Hektor, see LIMC 1.1, 138-47, s.v.
164. See summary in Hallett ( 1986) 82-4 on mimesis and sculpture. Achilleus XX (A. Kossatz-Deissmann).
165. Oxford, Ashmolean Museum G.249. See Gardner (1893) no. 262; Walters (1892-3) 14. See ABV 135.43, 135.44, 135.45, 135.46, 135.47, 136.48, 136.53, Para. 56 (135.48 bis
81-2; Wolters and Bruns (1940) 109, no. M16; Touchefeu-Meynier (1968) 99-100, no. and 135.48 ter).
195 and 120-1; Snowden (1970) 27, 161; Vickers (1978) 62-3; Buitron and Cohen 15. Cleveland Museum of Art 71.46, attributed to the circle of the Antimenes Painter. See
(1992) 92, no. 27. On Cabiran ware, see Cook (1997) 97-8. Kathman (1979) 54-7; Moon (1979) 110-11, no. 63; Burow (1989) 26, n. 144.
166. Seated in a chair, see LIMCVI. 1, s.v. Kirke no. 17. 16. Steiner (1993) proposes a similar linkage of mortal and mythological in the repetition of
167. On the nature of the distortions, see Wolters and Bruns ( 1940) 126 (burlesque and scenes on the same vase by Group E. In her theory, Group E made changes in the basic
comedy); Snowden (1970) 27, 161 (representation of Africans); Touchefeu-Meynier mythological scene that transformed it into a generic scene. A similar transformation was
(1968) 120 (exoticism and caricature); Schacter (1986) 109-10 (caricature/humor). proposed for the apotheosis scene on the Minneapolis hydria (see Section 4.1 and Fig.
168. On the Cabiran ware representations of the subject see Touchefeu-Meynier (1968) 98- 51). The theory is appealing but needs to be demonstrated on a much broader range of
101, nos. 192-7. examples before we can conclude that it is a paradigmatic strategy for Archaic or
169. See Schachter (1986) 98-100 and 108-10. Classical art.
170. See Boardman (1974) 167-70; Sparkes (1996) 17, 118-19. 17. Olympia, Inv. B 1654. See Kunze (1950) 10-11 and passim, Form IV, no. 8; Johansen
171. On the use of frontality as a kind of apostrophe and indication of death, see Frontisi- ( 1967) 51; Mallwitz and Herrmann ( 1980) 107, pl. 69. 1.
Ducroux ( 1986). See also idem ( 1995) 77-94. 18. See catalog in Kunze ( 1950) 7-42. Forms with no repetition include I, II, III, IV, V?, VI,
172. See Buitron and Cohen (1992) 92. On wine, see Lissarrague (1990) 3-18. VII, VIII, IX, XI, XII?, XIII, XIV, XV, XXIV, XXVI, XXIX, XXIX bis?, XXXII, XXXV,
XXXVI, XL, XLVII, XLIX, L. Forms with repetition include X (Zeus), XVI (Herakles),
XVII (Ajax, Achilles?), XXII? (Helen?), XXX (Herakles), XXXIII (Achilles), XLI
CHAPTER FOUR. NARRATIVE EXTENSION (Herakles). The repeating ex~mples come from a wide chronological range of 600 to
475.
1. This approach for Greek art, based on literary models, has been developed by A. Stewart 19. On the rape of Kassandra, see Connelly ( 1993) 91-9 and LIMC I.1, 339-49, s.v. Aias II,
in studies of the Fran<;ois vase and the Temple of Athena Nike in Athens: (1983a) and C (0. Touchefeu).
( 1985). For discussions of these terms in a literary context, see Culler ( 1975) 12-14. See 20. The convention of victor moving rightward from the left side would imply that Athena
also Brilliant ( 1984) 65-73 on tropes and modes and the use of rhetoric as a basis for is defeated in this composition; see Connelly ( 199 3) 106.
understanding essentially paradigmatic relationships, and further Schafer and Rice ( 1977) 21. Kunze (1950) 174-6; see also Schefold (1966) 81-2. On the theme, see LIMC 1.1, 698,
121-49, esp. 122-7 and 136-40. s.v. Amphiaraos (I. Krauskopf).
2. See Saint-Martin (1990) 61-4 and 105-7 for a discussion. 22. Florence, Museo Archeologico 4209. ABV 76.1, Para. 29-30, Add.2 21. For detailed
3. Payne (1925-6) 127, no. 4; Kahler (1949) 34 identifies this definitively as a pursuing discussions of the vase, see esp. FR I, 1-14 and 55-62 and pis. 1-3 and 11-13; Pfuhl
Gorgon. (1923) 255-8 and pis. 51 and 52; Arias, Hirmer, and Shefton (1962) 286-92 and pis.
4. See the discussion of Kahler ( 1949) 34-6. 40-6; Simon and Hirmer (1976) 69-77 and pls. 51-7; Christofani (1980); Stewart
5. See generally ibid. (19836). On the shield, the Lapiths and centaurs fight with spears and pine trees,
6. Apollonios, Bibi. 3.14.8. See generally LIMC VII.1, 527-9, s.v. Prokne et Philomela (E. respectively, and are locked in hand-to-hand combat in a form exactly like the compo-
Touloupa). Schefold (1966) 36 says they are mourning; Ahlberg-Cornell (1992) 133, sition of the Fran<;ois vase. See Janka ( 1986) 40. Kleitias does not seem to be illustrating
sees them as performing their deed. See also Fittschen ( 1969) .198, SB119. the scene in the poem directly, but may draw on a similar source as the poet of the
7. Kahler (1949) 35; Hurwit (1977) 11. shield. Common to vase and shield are the figures of Kaineus, Theseus, and Hopleus
8. On the Gorgon, see Payne (1925-6) 130-1; Morris (1984) 44. (Hoplon on the shield) for the Lapiths, Petraios and Asbolos (Hasbolos) for the centaurs.
9. Minneapolis Institute of Arts 61.59, attributed to the Antimenes Painter. Para. 119, Ster The differences between the two lists of combatants on vase and shield are greater than
(= ABV 267.Ster); Add.2 69. See Beazley (1962); Burow (1989) 92, no. 110. See LIMC the similarities, and the numerical superiority is with the centaurs on the Fran<;ois vase
VIl.1, 975, s.v. Kyknos no. 58 (A. Cambitoglou and S. A. Paspalas). and with the Lapiths on the shield. One of the centaurs on the vase is named Melan-
10. On Herakles and Kyknos, see Vian (1945); Vasenlisten 3
102-8; Shapiro (1984); Brommer chaetes, which may be a misunderstanding of the adjective µEA<X"fX<XL'TT\V from line 186
(1984) 81-3; LIMC VII.t, Suppl. 970-1, s.v. Kyknos I (A. Cambitoglou and S. A. according to Janka ( 1986) 40, who uses the Fran<;ois vase as a terminus antequemfor the
Paspalas). poem.
214 NOTES TO PP. 136-142 NOTES TO PP. 142-148 215

23. Janko (1986) 40. (1990) 85-90; Castriota (1992) 76-87; Morris (1992) 313-17. On the excavation of the
24. Cohen ( 198 36). On the unification of the composition and temporal consistency of the Stoa Poikile, see Shear (1984).
action, see idem ( 1983a). 36. Paus. 1.15.3; tr. Pollitt (1990) 144. Pausanias does not name the painter in his descrip-
25. For an analysis of the Iliupersis kylix of Oncsimos see Anderson (1995) and earlier tion, but does name Panainos, brother of Pheidias, as the painter when describing his
Williams (19916). paintings at Olympia (5.11.6). Pliny, N.H. 35.37 also names Panainos as the painter.
26. For Euphronios, see Shapiro ( 1992) 37-8, with pis. I-IV and LIii. Examples include Mikon is named more indirectly; see the review of evidence in Jeffrey (1965) 43, n. 14.
Euphronios's Amazonomachy krater in Arezzo (for which there is an intriguing earlier, Mikon also painted the Amazonomachy and perhaps, given the scale of the Battle of
but unrelated black-figure example), and a cup on the Acropolis with the story of Peleus Marathon, he and a younger Panainos collaborated. Certainly, battle paintings seem to
and Thetis. In both cases, handles and filling ornament serve to separate the two scenes. have been Mikon's forte; see testimony in Pollitt (1990) 141-3.
Other examples, such as the death of Aegisthus on a pelike by the Berlin Painter or a 37. Harrison (19726); see testimony on 370-8; for an earlier graphic reconstruction, see
kylix in Basel by Oltos, show that this idea is not an isolated example in the Late Archaic Robert (1895). The reconstruction diagram here is based on Harrison (19726) 364, ill.
period. For Oltos: Basel BS459, Para. 327, see Shapiro (1992) pis. LIV-LV. For Berlin 1 with the addition of some directional lines of movement. Holscher ( 1973) Tafel 5
Painter: Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum 3725, ARV2 204.109; see Boardman (1975) ~akes a similar reconstruction, but shifts Kallimachos and Kynegeiros to the right.
Fig. 143. 38. See Harrison ( 19726) 353-6.
27. Delphi Museum. The bibliography on this building is vast. See the detailed description 39. On the potential significance of the tripartite structure for this painting and early
in Coste-Messeliere (1957) 82-103 and passim and idem (1966), and earlier in Coste- Classical culture see Morris ( 1992) 3 15-16.
Messeliere ( 1923) 396-413; additionally, see Kahler ( 1949) 55-8 and 79-83; Robertson 40. Harrison (1983) 237-8 after Weitzmann (1947) 12. Also used by Hurwit (1985a) 176
(1975) 167-71; Ridgway (1977) 236-8; Hoffelner (1988); Stewart (1990) 132-3; Board- and Stewart (1990) 83-4.
man (1991a) 159-60. 41. Pliny, N.H. 35.57. On the use of portraits within the painting, see Holscher (1973) 60.
The date of the building and its sculpture has ranged between 510 and 480 and even 42. See Harrison (19726) 356-7 and Fig. 13.
later, mostly on the basis of the relationship between a ledge where the trophies were 43. See ibid. 354-5 and 358-63 and Fig. 1.
displayed that was next to the building itself. Following Harrison ( 1965) 9-11, perhaps 44. See ibid. 358-60 and Fig. 16.
the most widely accepted dating is between 500 and 490; see Hoffelner ( 1988) 78; Neils 45. Holscher ( 1975) 79 mentions the similarity of the Battle of Marathon's narrative structure
in LIMC VIL 1, 928 (s.v. Theseus 54). For earlier than 500, see Brommer ( 1982) 68. to the Chigi olpe.
Cooper ( 1990) presented a reexamination of the building fabric that concluded that the 46. Delphi Museum. See the detailed description in Coste-Messeliere ( 1957) 37-81 and
shelf was supported by the foundations of the building, and that the whole project must idem (1966); additionally, see Kahler (1949) 55-8 and 79-83; Robertson (1975) 167-
postdate 490. A date of after 490 was favored by Coste-Messeliere (1923) 419 and idem 71; Ridgway (1977) 236-8; Brommer (1982) 68-9; Neils (1987) 46-51; Hoffelner
( 1957) 179-82, and has recently been used by Stewart ( 1990) 132 and Boardman ( 1991 a) (1988); Stewart (1990) 132-3; Boardman (1991a) 159-60.
159. 47. Coste-Messeliere (1957) 27 and 54.
28. Shapiro ( 1992). 48. Ibid. 78-81, where Herakles and Kyknos are suggested for the metope and no. 30 as an
29. Mykonos Museum 2240. See the detailed publication in Ervin (1963); see also Schefold alternative for the south side; Coste-Messeliere ( 1966) 702 places no. 30 in the Herakles
(1966) 46-7; Johansen (1967) 26-30; Fittschen (1969) 182-5, nos. SB99, 101-2; Kon- cycle; Neils (1987) 50. Hoffelner (1988) 102 makes metope no. 29 an Amazonomachy.
toleon (1970) 228; Christiansen (1974); Zindel (1974) 87-92; Ervin-Caskey (1976) 28- Hoffelner instead would place metope no. 30 and restore the sow as its subject and
9 and 36-7; Kannicht ( 1982) 82-4; Hurwit ( 1985a) 173-6; Ahlberg-Cornell ( 1992) 77- fragment no. 77 as the encounter with Skiron.
85; Shapiro (1994) 162-3; Morris (1995) 226-7. The numbering system used follows 49. Coste-Messeliere (1957) 78-81; Neils (1987) 48-51; Neils in LIMC VII.1, 928 (s.v.
that of Ervin (1963) and Ervin-Caskey (1976) 36. Theseus no. 54). For other arrangements, see the diagrams in Hoffelner (1988) Figs. 33
30. Published by Christiansen (1974); also illustrated in Ervin-Caskey (1976) Fig. 19 and to 37, and also Kahler (1949) 81-2. The reconstruction by Hoffelner (1988) 104-17,
Hurwit ( 1985a) Fig. 76. See Christiansen ( 197 4): identification as Deiphobos; Ervin- diverges significantly from the reconstruction of Coste-Messeliere. Two principles guide
Caskey ( 1976) 36-7; Hurwit ( 1985a) 175-6. Ervin-Caskey posits an alternate tradition, his overall reconstruction. First, he notes a fundamental asymmetry in the overall orga-
in which Echion is the first killed in battle, much like Protesilaos at the beginning of the nization of the Treasury's themes, with Herakles on the west and north sides, away from
Trojan war. the lines of sight, and Theseus on the south and east. He rearranges the metopes to
31. Two metopes, nos. 11 and 18, are missing most of their fabric. Only part of their place the deeds of Herakles on the east end, next to the deeds of Theseus on the south
contents can be determined. side. Herakles and Geryon fill the west end, and the Amazonomachy fills the north
32. See the discussion in Hurwit (1985a) 174-6. The neck panel, as Hurwit explains, most metopes, creating an east-west axis with Herakles and a north-south axis with Theseus.
closely fits into the category of synoptic narration, combining different phases of the This maintains a principle of polarity for the Treasury. In arranging the scenes of the
episode into a single picture. south side, he maintains a closed composition for the frieze, so that the rightward-facing
33. Ervin (1963) 56. metope of Theseus and the Amazon would be inappropriate; rather metope no. 2 with
34. Hurwit ( 1985a) 172-4 for the combination of metopes on the body of the pithos. On Prokrustes is the only candidate for this space, pendant to the leftward metope with
pages 175-6, Hurwit names the progression from the neck to the body as progressive, Periphetes (no. 4) on the other end of the frieze.
but I reserve this term to designate a continuous pictorial field as explained below. 50. See Brommer ( 1982) 73-6 and Fig. 11.
35. See Harrison (19726). For other recent discussion of the painting see Harrison (1972a); 51. Such an effect can be seen, for example, on a Theseus cup by Euphronios that shows
Holscher ( 1973) 50-84, esp. 78ff.; Jeffrey ( 1965); Francis and Vickers ( 1985); Francis Theseus wrestling Kerkyon and facing leftward, and next is a rightward Theseus wresting
216 NOTES TO PP. 148-160 NOTES TO PP. 160-170 217

the bull. Paris, Louvre G104, and Florence, Mus. Arch. PD321, ARV2 318.1; see LIMC 9. Poet. 2.1-6, tr. Halliwell ( 1987) 32. On the application to the Olympia pediments of the
VII.1, Theseus no. 36. ethical categories of better, worse, and the same as ourselves, see Stewart ( 1990) 82.
52. See Brommer (1982) 3-34 and 65-76; Hurwit (1985a) 314-15; Neils (1987) 31-43; 10. Golden ( 1992) 91-2 defines comic character as ignoble, showing ridiculous behavior
Schefold (1992) 175-82; Shapiro (1994) 109-17, LIMC VII.1, 925-8, s.v. Theseus nos. arousing righteous indignation in the spectator.
32-53 U. Neils). See also Schefold and Jung (1988) 236-51, on fifth-century versions 11. Halliwell (1986) 141-2. See also Else (1986) 104-6.
and transformation from adventure to inner journey under Polygnotos. 12. Halliwell (1986) 144. See also Davis (1992) 46.
53. There are five episodes that make up Theseus's journey from Troizen to Athens, as 13. Poet. 6 and 9. See Halliwell (1986) 96-108 and 140-6; Else (1986) 106-7; Davis (1992)
described by the Early Classical poet Bacchylides ( 18), all of them involving the death 49-55.
of scourges or villains who had menaced the countryside and previous travelers: ( 1) 14. Poet. 10.4, tr. Halliwell ( 1987) 42.
Sinis; (2) the Kremmyon sow; (3) Skiron; (4) Kerkyon; and (5) Prokrustes (Procoptes). 15. Poet. 6.2, tr. Halliwell (1987) 37. See also Poet. 7.2.
This is the same order that Plutarch uses in his much later biography of Theseus, with 16. Poet. 7. 10, tr. Halliwell ( 1987) 39.
the addition of the subduing of Periphetes as the first of his labors. See discussion of 17. Poet. 8.3, tr. Halliwell (1987) 40.
literary sources by Neil (1987) 5-16, esp. 11-12. Contra see Schefold (1985e) and idem 18. For an overview of the suicide of Ajax and its history, see LIMC 1.1, 328-32, s.v. Aias
(1992) 175-83, who dates the Theseid before 510 because of its earlier appearance on I.XXV (0. Touchefeu) and Shapiro (1994) 149-55.
cups. Shapiro ( 1989) 144-5 concludes that the developments expressed in the Theseus 19. Berlin 3319. See Furtwangler (1895) 33-4; Friis Johansen (1923) 92, 103, 112, 144 and
cups and the Athenian Treasury were the culmination of a longer development over the passim; Payne (1931) 137; Neugebauer (1932) 14; Benson (1953) 14, List 5, no. 3;
sixth century and were not the first innovation in his iconography in Athens. Dunbabin and Robertson ( 1955) 176, no. 4; Friis Johansen ( 1967) 30-3; Steuben ( 1968)
54. London, British Museum E36. See Neils (1987) 38-9 and Figs. 12 and 13; Shapiro (1994) 67 and nn. 235-6; Fittschen (1969) 181, no. SB93; Papastamos (1970) 37-9; LIMC 1.1,
112-13 and Figs. 76 and 77; LIMC VIl.1, 926, s.v. Theseus no. 34 CT.Neils). For other 328-32, s.v. Aias I, no. 118 (0. Touchefeu); Amyx ( 1988) 23, no. 3, 367, and 637;
examples, see Theseus nos. 33 and 36. Markoe (1989) 113-14; Ahlberg-Cornell (1992) 74, no. 52; Benson (1995) 343-4.
55. See generally Wegner (1973), Robertson (1975) 229-32, Seki (1985), and especially 20. On the Archaic choice of moment, see Brommer ( 1969) 29. This is also the idea of the
Stupperich ( 1992) 425-9. "pregnant" moment; see Steiner ( 1988) 154.
56. London, British Museum E48 (GR 1843.11-3.13). ARV2 431.47; Add.2 236. See Williams 21. See Halliwell (1986) 154 and 166, based on Poet. 13.
(1993) 33-5, no. 19 with earlier bibliography and pis. 26 and 27; see also Wegner 22. Poet. 6.14-15: "Besides, without action you would not have a tragedy, but one without
(1968) 106-16; Neils (1987) 92-5; Buitron-Oliver (1995) 78, no. 87 and 25, 29-30. The character would be feasible, for the tragedies of most recent poets are lacking in
designation of sides A and B follows Williams (1993) 34. characterization, and in general there are many such poets"; tr. Halliwell ( 1987) 38.
57. My thanks to Alan Shapiro for the suggestion of the personification. On personifications Ideally, of course, one would have both action and character in tragedy.
generally, see Shapiro ( 199 3). 23. Poet. 10.2-3, tr. Halliwell (1987) 42.
58. Williams (1993) 34. 24. Poet. 11. 1, tr. Halliwell ( 1987) 42. See discussion in Halliwell ( 1986) 212-19.
59. Robertson ( 1992) 48 argues that the black background tends to separate rather than 25. Poet. 11.4 and 6, tr. Halliwell (1987) 43.
unify the scenes. 26. Berlin 1685. ABV 109.24; Add.2 30. See Wieneke (1954) 296-7; Schefold (1992) 286;
60. Stupperich ( 1992) 432 and his discussion of the cups of Makron on 434-5. Castriota (1992) 97-8; Shapiro (1994) 163-4.
61. On the relationship of these images to each other see Stansbury-O'Donnell ( 1995) 327- 27. The aspects of bridal imagery as formalized abduction perhaps make it less jarring than
9.
otherwise, but the reaction is still not commensurate to the threat. On bridal ceremony
62. On the related point of artistic needs guiding the use of monoscenic or synoptic and abduction, see Jenkins (1983); Oakley and Sinos (1993) 11-21, esp. 12-13; Reeder
narrative, see Snodgrass ( 1982). ( 1996) 126-8.
28. My thanks to Ann Steiner for the question that led to this discussion.
29. See Else ( 1986) 139-41 and Golden ( 1992) 76-9 on pity and fear. Else emphasizes that
CHAPTER FIVE. THE NARRATIVE OBJECT for Aristotle, ethos and daianoia are not enough by themselves to elicit pity and fear,
but require action as well.
1. See Castriota ( 1992). 30. Poet. 11.10, tr. Halliwell (1987) 43.
2. In considering the concepts and definitions in this chapter, I have relied heavily on Else 31. See Pollitt ( 1985) 102 for definition and discussion of term.
(1986), Halliwell (1986), Davis (1992), and Golden (1992). The discussion of action 32. One might also look at the open mouth and teeth of Antaios on the krater in the Louvre
and character in this chapter owes a particular debt to Halliwell, particularly since his (G 103, ARV2 14.2) by Euphronios as quite expressive of the stranglehold that Herakles
discussions seem most germane to the problem of applying literary concepts to pictorial has obtained; Herakles in contrast betrays a more impassive, heroic demeanor. See Arias,
narrative. Hirmer, and Shefton (1962) pls. 108-10; Boardman (1975) Fig. 23.
3. Poet. 6.12, tr. Halliwell (1987) 37. 3 3. See Halliwell ( 1986) 66-71 and 169-78; Golden ( 1992) 64-6.
4. EN 11786 20f, tr. Halliwell (1986) 140. For the definition of ethos,see Halliwell 151. 34. Poet. 14.
5. Poet. 8.1, tr. Halliwell (1987) 40. On unity, see Halliwell (1986) 144. 35. Poet. 13.5, tr. Halliwell ( 1987) 45.
6. Poet. 6.24, tr. Halliwell (1987) 38. On ethos,see Halliwell (1986) 151. 36. See also Castriota (1992) 96-101. On a different interpretation of Neoptolemos as
7. See Halliwell ( 1986) 154-5. idealized hero, see Wieneke (1954) 303.
8. Poet. 6.16, tr. Halliwell ( 1987) 38. 37. See Hurwit ( 1982) 196-7 who defines this particular type of pathetic fallacy as "sympa-
 218 NOTES TO PP. 170-178 NOTES TO PP. 178-194 219

thetic,1' in which nature responds to the feelings of the poet or character. See Madden ( 1892, 189 3) have also been widely reproduced, but place the entire painting within one
( 1983) and Hurwit ( 1983) for debate on this point. Wieneke ( 1954) 303 earlier suggests visual field. For reproductions of other reconstructions and an argument against the
that the palm tree represents nature joining in the lamentation. exercise, see Faedo ( 1986).
38. On the function of the base to denote a sacred space, see Berard and Durand ( 1989) 26. 59. For a related discussion of viewing context and its effect on the presentation of a
39. Cohen ( 1993) 43-5 points out the jarring note that the beauty and eroticism of the composition in the Parthenon frieze, see Osborne ( 1987).
figure of Kassandra creates in this violent scene; Connolly ( 1994) 116, emphasizes the 60. The use of water as a transition between the Nekyia and Iliupersis on the north wall
erotic pursuit element of the scene. might be classified as continuous narration, but the intervention of the doorway on the
40. See Connolly ( 1994) 109-10. The depiction does match other characteristics of this south wall would have more effectively segregated the paintings, leading to my choice
group, including turning the shield to the profile view to expose fully the figure of of cyclic for the whole.
Kassandra. Athena is differentiated more clearly as a statue, and the scene is often set 61. On this scene as a reflection of Polygnotos as painter of ethossee Rouveret ( 1989) 135-
within the broader context of the sack of Troy than before (compare here Fig. 73). 9.
41. Translation from AeschylusI, Oresteia,tr. R. Lattimore (Chicago, 1953) 45. 62. Paus. 10.25.5, tr. Pollitt (1990) 131. All translations of Pausanias are from Pollitt (1990)
42. Paris, Louvre G 152. ARV2 369.1. See Arias, Hirrner, and Shefton (1962) 338-9 and pl. 127-40.
139. For the identification of this figure as Polyxena on the Naples hydria, see Williams 63. See Goldhill (1984) 33-42 and idem (1992) 37-46 on the reversal of sex roles and the
(19916) 52. conflicts between the genders in Aeschylus. This can also be seen with Paris and
43. My thanks to A. Shapiro for this observation. Penthesileia in the Nekyia; see Fig. 86.
44. See Schefold and Jung ( 1989) 285. 64. See also Castriota ( 1992) 115. Contra, Kebric ( 1983) 22-3 and 29 sees Neoptolernos,
45. Boardman (1976) 15; Simon (1985) 67. See also Castriota (1992) 99. an ancestor of Kirnon, "the most impressive single figure."
46. Pollitt(1985) 103. 65. Paus. 10.26.4, tr. Pollitt ( 1990) 132. The grave was below the Lesche according to Paus.
47. On this reversal generally in Classical tragedy, see Hall (1989) 203-23. Taplin (1992) 10.24.6.
110-27 argues that a sympathetic view of the Trojans also exists in the Iliad. This makes 66. The presence of the statue may also be a reference to the Palladion that the Greeks had
an important point that we cannot be sure that in Archaic art the Trojans were always to steal before Troy would fall; see Robertson ( 1967) 6 and Stansbury-O'Donnell ( 1989)
the bad guys and the Greeks the good guys, but the contrast between the Berlin Iliupersis 207, n. 18. The other signs in the painting are the fountain outside Troy where Achilles
and Naples Iliupersis would argue for a change in perception. Trojans continued, how- ambushed Troilos and the tomb of Laornedon (represented by his body) at the city gate,
ever, to serve as metaphorical equivalents to the barbarity and hubris of the Persians, broken to allow the horse to be brought in the city.
Centaurs, Amazons, and Giants, as the rnetopes of the Parthenon attest. 67. Castriota (1992) 113-15.
48. Paus. 10.31.8; tr. Pollitt (1990) 140. On these figures, see also Stansbury-O'Donnell 68. Ibid. 114-15. On Antenor as traitor, see Robertson (1975) 250. Tr. Pollitt (1990) 133.
( 1990) 227-8. 69. On the women in the Nekyia, see Buitron-Oliver and Cohen (1995) 38-40.
49. Halliwell (1986) 151; see also Pollitt (1985) 104. On prohairesis, see Halliwell 154-5 and 70. See also Robertson ( 1952). Castriota ( 1992) 121-2 sees a more laudatory role for
165. On the applicability to painting, see also Rouveret ( 1989) 129-35. Theseus, as does Kebric ( 1983) 21.
50. Poet. 13.5, tr. Halliwell (1987) 44. 71. Castriota ( 1992) 114 and 120-5.
51. Basel, Antikenrnuseurn. See Schefold ( 1976), LIMC Il.1, Aias I, no. 105. Schefold dis- 72. Jones (1962) 83-8; Conacher (1987) 31-8; Vernant and Vidal-Naquet (1988) 47.
cusses the relationship of the Basel lekythos to the Sophoklean version of the story. For 73. Aeschylus's tale, however, stands between the shifting time of the epic and the more
other unusual Late Archaic depictions of Ajax, see Davies ( 1971, 1973). consistent time of later drama; see Rom illy ( 1968) 6.
52. Boulogne 558. ABV 145.18; Para. 60; Add.2 40. See Pfuhl (1923) 269 and pl. 59 (draw- 74. Kitto (1961) 31 and 107; Vernant and Vidal-Naquet (1988) 42. See also Goldhill (1986)
ing); Simon and Hirrner (1976) 88; Moore (1980) 431-2; Hurwit (1985a) 271-2; Beazley 5-13.
(1986) 62; Schefold (1992) 280-1; Shapiro (1994) 151-2. 75. Lesky (1966) 249; Rornilly (1968) 12.
53. On Exekian narrative imagery, see Moore (1983). 76. See Kitto ( 1961) 110-11; Fowler ( 1967) 26-7; Conacher ( 1987) 17. See also Smith
54. See Brommer ( 1969) 29-30. (1965).
55. The interpretation of the program as involving the aid of Poseidon to Pelops to win the 77. Gais (1974). See also Davis (1992) 43-6.
race, or treachery on the part of Pelops, is debated by Stewart ( 198 3a), Hurwit ( 1987), 78. See Goldhill ( 1986) 152-61.
and Stewart ( 1990) 81-2 and 144. It is entirely likely that the program resonates at two 79. Ibid. 46-7; Vernant and Vidal-Naquet (1988) 18-19 and 34.
levels, depending on which figure or catalyst one views as important. 80. 16.150, The GreekAnthology,tr. W.R. Paton (London and New York, 1927) 5,249.
56. Poet.2.2, tr. Halliwell ( 1987) 32.
57. Poet. 6.15, tr. Halliwell ( 1987) 38. On ethnographiain painting, see Pollitt ( 1976) and
( 1985) 104-6. . CONCLUSION
58. On the reconstruction of these paintings, see Stansbury-O'Donnell ( 1989) and ( 1990)
with earlier bibliography. The illustrations here are generated from a three-dimensional, 1. Oxford, Ashmolean Museum G.249. See Section 3.8 in Chapter Three and Fig. 48 for
computer-generated model with these reconstruction drawings scanned onto the walls bibliography.
of the Lesche. See also Robertson ( 1975) 248-52 and Castriota ( 1992) 109-27 for a 2. Buitron and Cohen ( 1992) 92 suggest that the scene may refer to Odysseus's companions
discussion of the ethnographic and compositional qualities of the painting. Some of the unleashing the bags of winds before the encounter with Circe. They describe Odysseus
following material was presented in a talk at the annual meeting of the Archaeological as simply fishing for his dinner.
Institute of America; see Stansbury-O'Donnell ( 1992). The reconstructions of Robert
I

! :
3. For an effort to define comedy, see Golden (1992) 91-2 ff.

'.,
I ,'1
 Cf (
I

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ABB RE VIA TIO NS

AA Archaologischer Anteiger
AbhMaint Abhandlungender Geistes-und Sotialwissenschaftlichen Klasse,Akademieder Wissenschaften
und der
Literaturein Mainz
ABV J. D. Beazley, Attic Black-figureVase-Painters(Oxford, 1956).
Add.2 T. H. Carpenter et al., eds., BeatleyAddenda.AdditionalReferences to ABV, ARV and Paralipo-
2

mena,2nd ed. (Oxford, 1989).

AJA AmericanJournalof Archaeology
AJP AmericanJournalof Philology
AM MitteilungendesDeutschenArchaologischen Instituts,AthenischeAbteilung
AntK AntikeKunst
ArchDelt Archaiologikon Deltion
ArchEph Archaiologikon Ephemeris
ARV2 J. D. Beazley, Attic Red-figureVase-Painters, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1963).
BABesch Bulletinantiekebeschaving
BCH Bulletinde correspondance hellenique
BClevMus Bulletinof the Cleveland Museumof Art
BdA Bollettinod'arte
BICS Bulletinof theInstituteof ClassicalStudiesof the Universityof London
BMFA Bulletinof theMuseumof FineArts, Boston
BMMA Bulletinof theMetropolitan Museumof Art, New York
BSA Annual of theBritishSchoolat Athens
CJ ClassicalJournal
ClAnt ClassicalAntiquity
CIMed Classicaet mediaevalia. Revuedanoisede philologie et d'histoire
CP ClassicalPhilology
CQ ClassicalQuarterly
CVA CorpusVasorumAntiquorum
I
cw The ClassicalWorld
FdD FouillesdeDelphes,Ecolefranraised'Athenes
FR A Furtwangler and K. Reichhold, GriechischeVasenmalerei, 3 vols. (Munich, 1900, 1905,
1932).
GettyMus] The J. Paul GettyMuseumJournal
HallWPr Hallisches Winckelmannsprogram
Heldensage
3
F. Brommer, Vasenlisten tur griechischenHeldensage, 3rd ed. (Marburg, 1979)
JdI JahrbuchdesDeutschenArchaologischen Instituts
JHS Journalof HellenicStudies
IRA Journalof RomanArchaeology
JRGZM JahrbuchdesRomisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, Mainz
JWarb Journalof the Warburgand CourtauldInstitutes

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145, 152-5, 160-1, 174-6, 186 role in extension, 116, 119, 122, 138, 149-
Aktorione, 46-7 50, 155-6
ambiguity, 19-20, 25, 45, 92, 98-104, 187, continuous narration, 1, 4, 7, 145-6, 149-
55 (defined)
190-2
anachrony, 87, 89, 187-9 contrast, seeantithesis
analepsis, 22, 43, 86, 89, 91, 145, 151, 155, cyclic narrative, 4, 7, 145-9 (defined), 179
181
antithesis, 43, 85, 98-9, 134, 183-4, 187, daianoia(thought), 11, 16, 159-60
190 degree of narrativity, 32, 35-6, 168
architecture (of art object), 71-2, 76-8, 149- density (of composition), 82
50 description
Aristotle, 10-13, 113-4, 159ff. contrasted to narration, 8-9
seealso means, manner, and object (of nar- of works of art, 56-7
ration) direction (configuration), 79-80, 119, 192
artist, 11, 101-2, 136 discovery, seerecognition
attributes, 20, 92-3, 96, 123, 151, 192 discreteness, seespecificity

Eco, U., 8, 54, 57

Barthes, R., 13-16, 18-21, 34 ekphrasis,12, 54, 56-8, 113, 156, 200 n. 52
Berard, C., 6 emotion, seepathos
epic, 5, 10-11, 45
catalyst, 13, 19-21 (defined), 32 episodic narrative, 6-7
catharsis, 159, 190 ethos, 10, 13, 16, 69, 110, 114, 144, 159-60,
cause and effect, 95, 161, 163-4 164, 174-8, 184-6
character (as agent of action), seeagent Euripedes, 58, 63-4
character (as quality), seeethos eusynoptos,110, 162
climax (of plot), 93, 121, 164, 177, 181-2, extension, Chapter 4, 15-16, 82, 178, 192
188-9
comedy, 113, 116, 160-1 field of view, 71
completeness (of plot, teleias),161-2, 164 frontality, 29, 76-8, 100, 116-7, 122

235
236 INDEX INDEX 237

function (of art object), 78, 150 mythological subject, 18, 22, 31-5, 44-6, point of view, 7 4-6 static (configuration), 79-80
functions (of micro-structure), seecatalyst, 52-3, 62, 68, 101, 126-8, 130-1, 136, pragmata,161 Stewart, A., 6-7, 118
index, informant, nucleus 167-8, 186 praxis, 161 story, 83
mythos, seeplot Prince, G., 34-5 structural analysis, 13-16
generic narrative, 45, 48-53, 68, 124-6, process (viewing), 54, 57, 64, 119 style, 103-12, 116
130, 142, 156, 165-6, 179, 193 narrative progressive narrative, 6-7, 142-5 subject matter, identification of, 59, 62, 101,
Geometric narrative, 35-9 definition, 31-5 prolepsis, 43, 89, 91, 121, 155, 166, 170, 115, 118, 124, 142, 162, 179, 184
extension, seeextension 172, 176, 181 symmetry (configuration), 79-80, 106, 183
Harrison, E., 6, 143 object, seeobject purpose (of image), 78 synchrony, 88-9, 143, 147, 150, 154-5
Himmelmann-Wildschtitz, N., 5 types, seecontinuous narrative, cyclic nar- synoptic narrative, 5-7, 89-91, 126, 162, see
Homer, Iliad, seeShield of Achilles rative, monoscenic narrative, pano- Raab, I., 5 also simultaneous narrative
Hurwit, J.M., 6, 142 ramic narrative, progressive narrative, reader response, seeviewer response syntagmatic narrative or connection, 6, 13-
serial narrative, synoptic narrative, uni- recognition (anagnorisis),86, 163-5, 173, 14, 118-9, 123, 136-7 (defined), 149,
iconographic analysis, 5, 7-8, 92-5, 100-1 fied narrative 177, 180 186 19 3
I I 162, 178, 187, 192
identification (of subject), seesubject naturalism, 103, 109-11, seealso mimesis repetition, 6, 34, 53, 74, 81, 120-3, 133,
inaction, 180, 183-4, 190 nucleus, 13, 18-19, 21 (defined), 32, 50-2, 137, 145, 152-3, 174 thauma (wonder), 58, 113
index, 13, 19-21 (defined), 44-5, 151, 153, 137, 153, 162, 164 response, seeviewer response thought, seedaianoia
162, 164 distinguished from catalyst, 19, 22-3, 25- reversal (peripeteia),165-6, 169, 172-3, 177, time in narration, 1-7, 14-15, 57, 83, 86-
role in extension, 119, 121-2, 124, 126, 6 180, 186, 193 91, 137, 175-7, seealso anachrony, ana-
130, 133 multiple, 22-6, 72-4, 87-91, 126, 145 rhythm, 81-2, 104 lepsis, prolepsis, synchrony
role in macro-structure, 59, 67, 86, 93, role in macro-structure, 55-6, 62, 67-8, ring composition, 179, 186 tragedy, 10-12, 16, 113, 159-62, 165, 168,
98, 117 71, 87-91, 93, 95-6 Robert, C., 1, 3-4 175, 187-8
informant, 13, 19, 21-3 (defined), 44-5, 49,
145, 153 object (of narrative), Chapter 5, 13, 16, unified narrative, 6-7, 120, 137-9
Sagenbild,31-2, 45, seealso mythological sub-
role in macro-structure, 56, 86, 92-3 159, seealso Aristotle unity (of plot), 159, 161-3
jects
inscriptions, 49, 103, 120-1, 179-80, 191 observers, 94-5, 98, 129 ut picturapoesis,seeliterature and art, compari-
scale, 70-1, 122
interpretation, 128 opsis, 11-12, 168, 189 son
Schefold, K., 5
oral tradition, 64, 99
semiotics, 6, 9, 13, 92 viewer response, 7, 9-12, 15-16, 54, 57, 76,
Lebensbild,31-2, 45 origin of narrative, 39-42
serial narrative, 6-7, 139-42 113-4, 162, 165, 168, 178, 186
levels of narration, 10-13 artistic precursor, 40-1
Shapiro, H. A., 6, 139 viewing context, seecontext
literary theory and perspectives, 8, seealso tabula rasa, 41-2
Shield of Achilles, 42-4, 56, 58, 60-1, 118, viewing process, seeprocess
literature and art, comparison
128, 200 n. 53 visual language, 92-102, 116, 124-6, 162,
literature and art, comparison, 10-13, 22, panoramic narrative, 137-9, 166, 178, 188
ShieldofHerakles,61-3, 118, 126-8, 135-6 193
37, 87-9, 99, 104, 149, 160-5, 178, paradigmatic narrative or connection, 6, 14,
simile, 40-1 codification and tradition, 101-3
213 n. 22 98, 118-9, 122-36 (defined), 147-9,
simultaneous narrative, 1-3, 7, seealso syn- innovation, 101-3
156, 178, 183, 187-8, 192
optic narrative
macro-proposition, 54, 65-7, 92 parody, 116-7, 194
Snodgrass, A. M., 5-6, 45, 89 Weitzmann, K., 1-4, 89, 145
macro-structure, defined, 15, 54-5 pathos (emotion), 110-1, 168, 173-4, 176,
space, 20, 60, 83-6, 137 wholeness (of plot, holas), 162
magnitude (of plot, megathos),162 180, 186
specificity in narrative, 32-3, 68, 124, 167- Wickhoff, F., 1, 4
manner (of representation), 11-12, seealso patronage, 101-2, 136
8, 179
Aristotle Pausanias, 56, 58-9, 64-6, 92-6, 128, 142-
spectators, seeobservers Xenopho~ 68-~ 113
masks, 112, 1 17 5, 174-5, 178ff
means (of representation), 10-11, seealso Ar- perception, 8
istotle perspective, 83--:4
medium (of art object), 27-31 pity (in viewer), 165, 168
micro-structure Plato, 10, 113-4
defined, 14, 18-31 pleasure (in viewing), 11-12, 113, 168
relationship to macro-structure, 30-1, 48- plot (mythos), 11, 13, 16, 159-61, 164, 180,
53 193
mimesis, 10-11, 68-9, 111-4, 160-1, 176-8 complex, 165-7
model books, 92, 98 simple, 165
monoscenic narrative, 3, 7, 89, 145 seealso completeness, magnitude, unity,
movement (of composition), 82, 155, 172 wholeness