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Urbanization and Its Effects on Water Resources: An Exploratory Analysis

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DOI: 10.3233/AJW-180007

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Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, Vol. 15, No. 1 (2018), pp. 67–74.
DOI 10.3233/AJW-180007

Urbanization and Its Effects on Water Resources: An

Exploratory Analysis

Muhammad Abo ul Hassan Rashid*, Malik Maliha Manzoor1

and Sana Mukhtar
Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology, Islamabad
Plot 67, Street 9, Sector H-8/4, Islamabad
1
International Islamic University Islamabad, Sector H-10, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
* [email protected]

Received February 3, 2017; revised and accepted October 21, 2017

Abstract: Urbanization often causes environmental degradation and harms human health in developing countries.
This study has an imperative focus on the effects of rapidly growing urban life and its impact on water resources
in the Muzaffarabad city. The data for this paper comes from 20 in-depth interviews with members of the local
government, political workers and local residents of the city, carried out during the year 2015, to analyze the
ways in which increasing urban life is affecting water quality in the area. The findings indicate that waters of both
rivers Jhelum and Neelum are being viciously contaminated by the local residents, which results in a scarcity of
drinking water and a number of viral diseases.

Key words: Urbanization, water, Muzaffarabad, pollution, Neelum, Jhelum.

Introduction is ongoing it is dynamic and multi-faceted. Relationship

between land use change and water quality has been
Urbanization is a process in which increasing number analyzed in several studies. Both of these factors
of people migrate from rural to urban areas. Ultimately have been affected by human activities influenced by
it leads to horizontal or vertical growth of urban areas. rapid urbanization, industrialization and rural land
A country is considered to urbanize when over 50 per conversion. Unexpected population growth is related to
cent of its population live in the urban areas. The criteria water quality degradation and is causing large increase
used to define urban can include population size, space, in nutrients and microbial loads (Ghosh et al., 2014;
density and economic organization (Grannis, 1998). Krishnan et al., 2013; Maillard and Santos, 2008).
The consequences of urbanization vary across Therefore, urban areas have the potential that generate
different regions of the globe. The United Nations has ecological and environmental impacts at multiple scales
estimated that by the end of 2008, half of the world’s (Ghosh et al., 2014). These special ecosystems provide
population would live in urban areas. It is predicted the solutions to challenges as well as problems for
that, by 2050, 64.1% and 85.9% of the developing and sustainable development in a rapidly urbanizing world
developed world respectively, will be an urbanized (Breuste and Qureshi, 2011; Grimm et al., 2008; Hanjra
international (Tribune, 2008). Urbanization is not a new and Qureshi, 2010).
phenomenon; however, since the process of urbanization

*Corresponding Author
68 Muhammad Abo ul Hassan Rashid et al.

In addition, land use change due to urbanization has over the period of past few years (Alam, 2010). Soil
changed the flow patterns of waste water and storm particles from construction and demolition sites, and
water, that ultimately has an impact on the aquatic life also oil and toxic chemicals from car maintenance and
in the receiving water i.e. rivers (Astaraie-Imani et al., runoff from road surfaces are among the other sources
2012). of water pollution which tend to occur in urban areas.
Urbanizations reflect more than demographic change. Safe drinking water is basic human right and
It is not only driven by the context and processes of prerequisite for healthy life. In many parts of the world
development but also influences it greatly. It puts forth clean water has become limited and is in scarcity.
direct and indirect benefits to the struggle towards global It is being predicted that in the next century, it will
sustainability and human development. Cities are the become even more limiting due to increased population,
root cause of numerous environmental problems that urbanization and climate change (Jackson et al., 2001).
are related to air and water pollution (Reddy, 2004). Sadly, due to rapid population growth, industrialization,
Economic growth together with changes in contamination of fresh water from the factories and
demography is generally seen as the driving force household effluents, water quality in developing
for urbanization. But unfortunately the process of countries like Pakistan has extremely deteriorated.
urbanization has resulted in environmental degradation As a result of water resources contamination from
besides economic growth. Rapid development at social domestic and industrial effluents, number of Asian cities
and economic levels in Asia has caused the lack of are facing increase in organic and nutrient material
infrastructure, lack of housing, traffic congestions, in drinking water (Ray et al., 2006). Drinking water
overall decay in environment especially in sustainable quality standards, particularly for issues with regard to
development of major cities and towns, as reported bacteria, are reported to be higher than for river water
by The Asia-Pacific Forum for Environment and (Organization, 2005).
Development (Ichimura, 2003). Although, the issue of the quality of drinking water
Across the world, rapid urbanization has led to has been taken up as a concern in developing world, it
serious consequences. On the positive side, it had led remains under-explored in developing countries. The
to the birth of gigantic cities as discussed above, it has fact that Pakistan has the availability of about 1,200
opened up new opportunities, and importantly it has m3 per capita that is rapidly declining, ranked it among
led to competition at national and international levels. the water stress countries. In addition, the production of
While on the negative side, it has led to a series of domestic and industrial wastewater, discharged directly
health hazards. It has been reported that urbanization is into water bodies, is about 4 million acre feet per year
not only causing land use change but excessive use of in Pakistan. Among this only 3% is brought under
energy and resources have overburdened the ecosystem consideration by the authorities. In Pakistan about 70
and has worst implications on the human health (Kelly percent of the people rely heavily on ground water for
et al., 2008). their household uses (Malik et al., 2010).
In the context of developing countries like Pakistan, Though there is abundance of academic literature
the rapid pace of modernization, urbanization and on urbanization and water quality across the world, the
industrialization has led to serious environmental previous research is deficient in offering a sociological
concerns. In the past few decades, due to transformation analysis of urbanization and water quality. To fill this
of economy and society natural resources have been gap this study is aimed to offer a sociological analysis
depleted extremely fast. This unabated degradation of of the relationship between urbanization and water
environment in any country is a continuous risk for quality in the context of Pakistan. The paper is an
people’s health, their livelihoods, survival of species and attempt to analyze the effect of urbanization on water
ecosystem in general (Banister, 1998; Chen et al., 2014). scarcity and to explore urbanization as a major cause
Nowadays, the biggest environmental hazards of for water pollution.
any developed nation is insufficient supply of clean
water, rapid increase in population, and the artificial Review of Literature
methods of cultivation. Moreover, clean water has been
contaminated by excrement through sewers, industrial Majority of urbanization is not only occurring in
effluent, urban and agricultural excess and saline developed countries but also in developing countries.
intrusion. In Pakistan, quantity and levels of waste Although it is a motivating force for transformation,
disposed off in the rivers has immensely increased financial and industrial development, there is also an
 Urbanization and Its Effects on Water Resources: An Exploratory Analysis 69

increased apprehension about its effects on ecosystem. 21st century in India is urbanization (Ramachandra et
Rapid urbanization is in an alarming state in many al., 2012).
developing countries because of the associated problems Urban population in Iran has tripled from 15.7
such as unemployment, economic crisis, health issues, million in 1976 to 47.9 million in 2006. According to
poor sanitation, increase in urban slums, and degradation Fanni (2006), rapid increase in Iran’s urban population
of ecosystem (Adepoju, 1993; Angotti, 1993). Increased has tripled from 15.7 million to 47.9 million from 1976
urbanization and demographic trends for employment, to 2006, reflecting that about 32 million people now
food security, water supply, and shelter and sanitation reside in urban centres in contrast to 30 years ago. As
implications, especially the disposal of wastes (solid a result, quantity and quality of ground resources of
and liquid) that the cities produce are overwhelming urban water are under huge stress. Studies conducted
(Goodland et al., 1992). Water shortage and pollution by Ghafoori et al. (2011), Khazaei et al., (2004) and
are among the developed world’s greatest challenges. Mirzavand and Afrous (2015) have reflected on the
Related to such challenges are the issues of water quality of underlying water resources as an impact of
scarcity and water pollution in the developing world. growing cities in Iran. The same topic has received
The safe drinking water supply is important in terms increased attention and considerations by the researchers
of both quality and quantity as it is essential to human of Iranian universities.
existence (Peavy, 1985; Shilling and Manahan, 1994). In Pakistan, as in many parts of South Asia,
As the civilization evolved, human activity increases population growth, elite capture of public benefits, rapid
and changes occur in the nature of pollutants entering urbanization, and shifts in production and consumption
into watercourses (Hussain et al., 2014). Rivers are patterns have placed unprecedented stress on water
waterways of strategic importance across the world, resources. Like other South Asian countries, the water
providing main water resources for domestic, industrial resources in Pakistan are also under enormous stress
and agricultural purposes (Singh et al., 2009). due to rapid increase in population, urbanization, gain
Numerous studies have analyzed and probed the of public benefits, shifts in productivity and utilization
impact of urbanization on wastewater systems as well patterns (Homer-Dixon, 2010).
as the receiving water quality. For instance, Tong and The water pressure in Pakistan is intensifying the
Chen (2002) reported that in the State of Ohio, USA, instability and volatility of the country. Unavailability
there is a significant relationship between land use and of clean water is causing not only protest on daily basis
in-stream water quality at a regional scale. The response in number of cities but also lot of chaos among farmers
of surface water quality to urbanization in Xi’n, China, and landowners over water rights and lost livelihoods.
was further investigated by He et al. (2008). Another Most of the communities are prone to worst social
study by Liu et al. (2009) has defined the application of and economical situations and have been displaced
the impact of new developments on river water quality internally due to water scarcity and environmental risks.
in the integrated wastewater system context. In the same This deficiency has further jeopardized the political
context one of the review was provided by Jacobson and stability and recruitment opportunities for extremist
Delucchi (2011) on the impacts of urban invulnerability groups. There is a need to establish national policy,
on hydrological systems in various regions. laws and strategic planning to monitor water usage, for
Water is prerequisite for livelihoods, health, food improving the economy, food security and demolishing
security and general economic growth. Minhas (1996) the extremism in the region. If no significant attention
stated that by keeping in view the context of South will be paid, climate change and rural-urban migration
Asia’s unavailability of safe and clean water, the cause will further add fuel to the fire (Tufail and Khan, 2013).
of water-borne diseases is markedly high in Indian Unavailability of clean water is one of the major
slums. In Pakistan, every fifth citizen has illness or issues faced by the residents of urban areas. Despite
disease caused by contamination of water and among living in urban areas with most of the facilities, the
the water-borne diseases diarrhea is the leading cause majority has no access to their basic right of clean
of death of toddlers and children (Mohsin et al., 2013). drinking water. Even the water provided through
The global proportion of urban population has increased existing networks of water supply schemes is not up
from 28.3% in 1950 to 50% in 2010, an example can be to the standards of the World Health Organization
seen of the largest cities in India which are urbanizing (Azizullah et al., 2011).
at exceptional pace (Organization, 2012). Because of In order to fulfill the water need, barely half of the
the same reason one of the demographic issues in the urban population of Pakistan has the facility of tap water
70 Muhammad Abo ul Hassan Rashid et al.

inside their houses, whereas five percent are dependent Methodology

on the water supply outside house, 38 percent counts
on hand pump and motor pump, and the rest of the Study Site
population rely heavily on systems such as digging The locale of the study was Muzaffarabad City located
wells, public standpipes, water sellers, etc. Unsafe on the banks of the Jhelum and Neelum rivers. For
water has been reported to take a number of lives each present study two communities Chehla Bandi, located
year; the number being 30,000 for only Karachi per on the bank of Neelum River and Domail, located at
year. Bhatti et al. (2007) reported that unsafe water Jhelum River were selected.
is the cause of taking 30,000 lives per year only in
Karachi excluding number of deaths in other cities of Research Design
the country. Qualitative research design was used for present
academic investigation. In this regard interview
Theoretical Framework schedule was used as a tool for data collection. A total
Present research is explicated by relating two of 20 in-depth interviews were conducted from the two
theories that address environmental problems (Urban communities. Inclusion criterion was based on the local
Environmental Transition Theory) in cities and proposed members especially residing besides the banks of two
solution (Collaborative Planning) for which role of a rivers, members of Local Government and political
planner is most significant. In early 1990s, the urban workers.
environmental transition theory was developed by
McGranahan (2007). This theory is established and Sampling Technique
developed from studies stating a connection between For present study, purposive sampling was used to select
urban environmental burdens and increasing abundance respondents for interviews (Marshall, 1996; Miles and
in wealth (Bartone et al., 1994; Berry and Colls, 1990; Huberman, 1994). Purposive sampling also aims for
Lee and Park, 1994; McGranahan et al., 1996). Much maximal variation of the data (Patton, 2002). Sampling
of the discussion revolves around the effect of affluence of respondents was done until saturation was reached,
of cities upon any transformation among environmental i.e. when no substantial new information with regard
burdens. There is a shift, delay and dispersion in the to the research questions were collected (Dahlgren et
environmental issues because of the process of wealth al., 2007).
accumulation.
For cities which have comparatively low earnings Coding and Analysis
and revenues, the challenges to environment are abrupt, The interviews were conducted in local language from
confined to that specific area, and pose a serious threat the community members and later their responses were
to people’s health. On the contrary the cities that are transcribed and translated into English. The analysis was
more progressive the challenges to environment are at done after carefully going through the transcriptions
large scale, intergenerational and harmful to ecosystem. several times to become familiar with the data and to
The authors however have been very careful in avoid any misinterpretations. Further the themes and
determining that these tendencies are the consequences sub-themes were generated by researchers after several
not something that is determined beforehand. The role discussions on the codes and contents of the interview.
of planners is seen as essential in this regard; they can In order to validate the overt and covert ideas by the
be the mediators in such negotiations, support alliance, respondents the themes and sub-themes were carefully
strengthen and broadcast the viewpoints. Collaborative reviewed and defined.
planning is actually a very clear normative planning
theory that gives direction to the role of planners. It Results and Discussions
states that role of planners is so far people sensitive and
is essential in finding solutions for economical, social Respondents of the community were of the view that
and environmental challenges (Davoudi, 2005). they can observe that population of the city is growing
In the light of the above discussion the remainder rapidly and this is causing many issues especially related
of this paper will explore the relationship between to water scarcity and pollution. These are considered to
urbanization, water scarcity and water quality in the be very serious threats for local community and all the
context of Pakistan. inhabitants of the city.
 Urbanization and Its Effects on Water Resources: An Exploratory Analysis 71

Reasons for the Rapid Growth of Urban Life Problems due to Urbanization
According to view of respondents there are many Problems related to sanitation and water is found
reasons for the growing population in the study area to be prevalent because of this growing population.
and this population (Muzaffarabad City) growth is a Residential issues are also prevailing due to the growing
serious threat to natural resources and the indigenous population and people are facing problems related to
community as well. Degradation of forest can be the settlement of housing as well as availability of
experienced because of the unplanned urban settlement. clean drinking water which is going to be a scare for
They argued that though all the inhabitants of cities. Water pollution owing
urban mess and similarly air pollution due to traffic
We have enough land to accommodate many smoke are very emerging and common problems in the
people but over crowded city will affect our lives study area. Participants were of the view that people
and natural resources too. are migrating towards the city and it is a very serious
Majority of the arguments which were recorded threat to all of us. Clean drinking water is becoming
revealed that modern facilities available in the city a scare for residents and there is no surety that water
attract people to seek residence. Economic opportunities from water supply and from local resources which they
are other pulling factors for individuals across the named Chashma (spring)1 is pure. Water of the rivers is
areas to reside in the city. Many people came in polluted now and there are many risks of diseases due
Muzaffarabad after earth quake 2008 and they are doing to the pollution of water.
their businesses and employed in many government and We are suffering from many diseases like kidney
private sector organizations. failure, stomach problems due to this impure and
There are many factors which are considered to be polluted water and many epidemics in the seasons
responsible for the unplanned growth of population of heavy rains and floods.
in Muzaffarabad city. Availabilities and provision of
basic facilities related to the human social life as well Unplanned urbanization has disrupted human life in
as economic opportunities attracted people to reside many ways, especially housing settlement is a major
in study area. Respondents were of the view that problem because Muzaffarabad is a hilly area and town
population is growing rapidly and it has its hazardous planning according to the model cities is not possible.
effects on all the inhabitants. This growing urban mess has polluted water of the
rivers and underground water resources are also being
Although it is a hilly area and facilities of life affected because of leakage of sewerage pipes.
are not as much as there are in big cities, it is
the only city which has big hospitals, university Water Contamination
and market for shopping and doing business. All There are two sources of drinking water for the
institutions have their branches in the city and members of the communities in Muzaffarabad. One
people come here for jobs, education and for the is provided by the local government (water supply)
purpose of business. and second from spring that is a natural reservoir of
drinking water. These two sources according to the
Due to the jobs, educational attainments and for the
local communities cannot be considered as completely
purpose of business many people are intended to settle
pure and hygienic. Water of these rivers is not reliable
down in the city. This rapidly growing urban settlement
and safe for drinking.
has many effects on human life. Due to the urban mess
both rivers which are passing from the east and west We do not know if the purification of water is
of Muzaffarabad city are being polluted by the garbage reliable or not. That’s why we cannot have a trust
and human waste which people directly throw in these on these plants but do not have any other option.
rivers. They were of the view that Water is not clean enough to drink and we do
not have any guarantee of water which we bring
We are not annoyed with people who are coming to from Chashma (spring) is pure. It passes through
the city for residences and for jobs but, including the surface of land and human waste and sewerage
those who are living prior to these new comers, pipes might contaminate it.
everyone should keep the city clean.
1
Chashma is urdu word used for fountain or spring of water.
72 Muhammad Abo ul Hassan Rashid et al.

People usually live with shortage of water and Strategies for the Solution of Problems
this occurs on routine basis. Water remains short for While discussing about the issues and their solutions
domestic use and they manage it from natural spring for communities members advocated many measures and
household use and for drinking purpose. It is not easy strategies to overcome these problems which are related
to bring water in a bulk amount from Chashma (spring) to the water pollution especially the contamination of
or to arrange water tanks from private water suppliers. two rivers Neelum and Jhelum in study area. They were
Human waste and improper sanitation system is a of the view that human waste and garbage is viciously
major cause for the contamination of water as well as contaminating the water which is a valuable asset. They
land sliding is another major factor that makes the water suggested that this is the responsibility of government
impure. Construction material and all solid waste and and all the citizens to think about all these issues, related
garbage of the city are also major factors that make to the urbanization and water. Local communities should
the rivers dirty. Both the rivers in study area are being take care of their natural resources and they should
polluted by many means and all these are intentional protect their rivers from these wastes and garbage.
and deliberate efforts of local communities; they can Our government is careless and do not pay any
play a positive role to overcome these situations or attention to clean the city and to pay attention
they can accelerate these issues more and more. The or look after the rivers; local bodies are just
rainy seasons and floods in rivers cause many waste concerned to their own interests and ultimate
and garbage from the adjacent areas. suffering is for us. Those who have means to
A study by Siegmann and Shezad (2006) revealed buy mineral water they do not care about the
that in order to achieve the goal of Pakistan water contamination of Chashma (spring) or water
intervention there is a need for inclusion of all supply.
stakeholders, handling the bureaucratic power, proper
interventions, provision of economic incentives etc. Local community members were very much
similar strategies can also help in the issue of water concerned about these water related issues and this
contamination in Muzaffarabad. growing urban life which is serious threat for their
water resources. They considered it a major problem
Some important points from the discussion of the
for upcoming years for the urban settlement and water
participants were coded which show that garbage of
scarcity. They suggested many solutions including
the whole city include household mess people throw
awareness and self-help to overcome these problems.
into the rivers. Filth of shops is being rapidly thrown
They cannot stop the urban migration but they can
into the rivers.
reduce many issue related to the urban life.
We face many problems during the season of flood A study by Qiu (2013) and Xu et al. (2013)
and heavy rains. During this season, rivers include emphasized that the urban environmental transitions
much trash and scrap in their water and throw it in Japan by classifying it into four categories: public
directly to those areas which are little beneath the hazard control phase, energy saving and amenity-town
bank of these rivers. phase, eco-city and cycling economy promotion phase
and low carbon society development phase. Urban
Other than flood and rainy season, garbage and
environmental transition in Japan revealed that in
mess of the whole city is directly thrown into the river
order to cope with this transition in positive way Japan
including heavy stones and worthless construction
followed the following steps. First it is responding to
material and household things. All these elements make
its environmental issues through legal and regulatory
these rivers more dirty and polluted.
actions. Secondly Japanese government stressed a lot on
The findings support the urban environmental the role of planning in urban environmental management.
transition theory (Murray et al., 2001), as it gives Thirdly it is essential for local city governments to
the wider picture of those developed cities that have formulate urban environment plans which are focusing
result in shift from access to water and sanitation and on promoting eco-city, eco-town, low-carbon city, etc.
indoor air pollution to metro-wide air and river water If same practices can be implemented in the developing
pollution (Piracha and Marcotullio, 2003). Due to entities like Muzaffarabad, there are significant
urbanization, the same shift can be seen in the city of prospects of eliminating the environmental hazards as
Muzaffarabad. a result of urbanization.
 Urbanization and Its Effects on Water Resources: An Exploratory Analysis 73

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Qualitative methodology for international public health.
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