A ZOOLOGY

OF THE FUTURE

BY DOUGAL DIXON INTRODUCTION BY DESMOND !VOR.R.

A ZOOLOGY OF THE FUTURE
BY DOLJGAL DfXON

fNTRODLICTION
BY DESMOND MORRIS •

ST ~!ARTIN'S PRESS
NEv\ YORK
 Publuhtd in th, Unirtd S14ta of Ammc.:i in 1981 by
St. Martin's Press
175 Filih Avenue
New York
NY 10010

Library of Congress Number 81-50345

ISBN 0-312-0ll63-6
ISBN 0.312--01162-8 pbk

© Harrow House Editions Limited 1981

For information, write: St. Martin's Press

All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hetton
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Edited designed and prod""4 by

Harrow House Editions Limited
7a Langley Street, Co"ent Garden, London, WC2H 9JA

Edited by James Somerville

Designed by David Fordham

Phototypeset by Tradespools Ltd, Frome, Engluid

Tllustrations originated by Gilchrist Bros. Ltd., Leeds, England
Printed and bound in the United States of America.
 INTRODUCTION BY DESMOND MORRIS 9
AlJrHOR'S INTRODUCTION 10
EVOLUTION 11
Cell Genetics : Nat:ural Selection : Animal Behaviour : Form and Development :
Food Chains
HISTORY OF LIFE 22
The Origins of Life : Early Living Forms : The Age of Reptiles :
The Age of Mammals : The Age of Man
LIFE AFTER MAN 33
The World after Man
TEMPERATE WOODLANDS AND GRASSLANDS 36
The Rabbucks : The Predators : Creatures of the Undergrowth :
The Tree Dwellers : Noct:umal Animals : The Wetlands
CONIFEROUS FORESTS 50
The Browsing Mammals : The Hunters and the Hunted : Tree Life
TUNDRA AND THE POLAR REGIONS 58
The Migrants : The Meaching and its Enemies : The Polar Ocean :
The Southern Ocean : The Mountains
DESERTS : THE ARID LANDS 70
The Sand Dwellers : Large Desert Animals : The North American Deserts
TROPICAL GRASSLANDS 78
The Grass-eaters : Giants of the Plains : The Meat-eaters
TROPICAL FORESTS 86
The Tree-top Canopy : Living in the Trees : The Forest Floor :
Living with Water : Australian Forests : The Australian Forest Undergrowth
ISLANDS AND ISLAND CONTINENTS 100
South American Forests : South American Grasslands : The Island of Lemuria :
The Islands of &tavia : The Islands of Pacaus
FUTIJRE 113
The Destiny of Life
APPENDIX 117
Glossary : The Tree of Life : Index : Acknowledgements
 F'OR
GAVIN

Tit, aul.l-m and /J"bluhm "'"'Id Ii"" ,u c:<p•r.n tlvir rh4nks II> th, ,Uusnuwr, of tlw
hook They are Du: Wollrs (..,,,_m,d &y Fnlio/: fuhn But/n and 811<Jn Mo/n1y••
f"l'=•td b)' Ian Flmnng and Am,,;,a..,, Lo!/1 Pfol1p H..-,J. Rn,y Wood4,d
r....,,_n...i b,v fultn M.,.r,n and Anut, Lt.JJ: and (..iry Mar,/,

8
 INTRODUCTION BY
DESMOND MORRIS
:\s soon as I saw this book, I wished l had wrmen it myself It is a marvellous idea,
beaunfully presented. Many years ago. as a young zoologist, 1started inventing imaginary
creatures. drawing and painnng them as an enjoyable contrast to the demands of my
scienlilic studies. Released from the restnctions of evolution as it really is, I was able to
follow my own, private evolutionary whims. I c,,:>uld make monsters and strange
orgruusms, plant-grou..chs and fabulous beasts of any colour, shape and size I liked, letuag
them chafli(e and develop according to my own rules, giv111g my imagination full rein. I
calle<l them my b1omorpbs and they became as real to me as the nrumals and plants of the
natural world.
Dougal Dixon's rrund bas obviously been working in a similar way. although !.he
rreatures he bas broughL to life are very different from mine. Instead of tnvcnting a
parallel evolution, as though it were takmg place 011 another world, he has gi,en himself
the mmgumg task of contemplating a future evolution on our own planet, closely based
on sp..'Ci!!S that exist at present. By waving a time-wand and elumnatmg today's dommant
species. including man, he has been able to watch, through his mind's eye. the lesser
animals gradually taking over as the major occupants of the earth's surface.
Setting his scenario in the distant future, about 50 million years from now, he bas given
the members of his new animal kingdom time to undergo dramatic changes 10 structure
and behaviour. But in doing this he bas never allowed himself co become too outlandish
in his inventton He has created bis fuuna of the future so pamsmkingly that each kind of
ammal teaches us an im[X>rtant lesson about the known processes of past evolution -
abour adaptation and specialization, convergence and radiation. By introducing w; to
fictitious examples of these fiictual processes, his book is not only great fun lO read but
alS<> has real scienufic value. The nrumals oo these pages may be imaginary, but they
illustrate vividly a whole range of important biological principles. It is this - the way an
u..hich he has perfectly balanced his vivid dreamings \\~th a strict scientific discipline -
tha1 makes his book so successful and his animals so convincing and, incidental!>•, so
6Upenor to the often ridiculous monsters invented by the cheaper brands or Science
Fiction.
The only danger 10 readmg this delightful volwne is that some of you may reach the
point where you suddenly feel saddened by the thought that the animals meticulously
depicted 10 it do not exist now. It would be so fascinating to be able to set off on an
eiqx'Clitiou and watch them all through a pair of binoculars, moving about on the sudacc
of today's earth. Personally, I feel this v,:ry strongly as I tum the pages and i.ht!re 1s
probably no greater prruse that l can offer the author than that. .

_ I ~.l_ ~
9
 AUTHOKS
INTRODUCTION

Evolution is a proces,, of improvemenL Hence, looking "' the

animala and plants of !Oda)• ODd their lnteractionJ - tbe c:Wicato
balance betwcet'I the llora. the herbivores and the meat-eate111, the
precise engmeenng of the load-bearing muctw:es of the giraff'•'•
I ,(9> backbone; the dcli<:nrc sculpuog of the monkey'• foot, enabling it "'
grasp obJects a. well as to climb trees, the subtle coloratioo of the
puff-adder's skin. hiding it completely amoog the dead leaves of the
furcst floor- and trying to proJect all of that into the futun, is a near
impoooibility. For how can you onpn:,ve upon perfection?
One l1end that is ( ~ l e, how,ewr, is the ruillOU$ elfl!Cl that ...---
man is having on the precise balance of nature. 1 have talcen this not
unjustifiabl)' to an ext11?111L', with man having emnguished the
,specie. that are already on the clccJine and having wn.-alted terrible
destruction on their naturnl habitatll before dyi11g out himself and
allowmg ewlution to get back to work, repairing his damage and
fillmg in the gaps left behind 'The rav.• mawials for th,s "'!"'ration
arc the kinds of anunals that do well dl:$p,tc, or because of. man's
presence and which ,vill outlive bun - thooe that man regards as
pe,,LS and vcnnm Thcoc are more likely w survive than are the
highly modifi.d and mtetbred domestic anunals that be devtJops
.") and encour.iges to BUJt lu$ own needs. The result JS a 1.oology of the
world set, ad»tnrily, 50 million years in the future, ,.,l,ich I have
us<d to expound same of the basic principles of e\-'Oluuon and
ecolc,gy. 11,e result 11 ,sp«ulaucin built on filct. What l offer is not a
firm prediction - more an explonu.ion of pos,;ibilicies.
The future world is de=ibed as ifby a tim1'-traveller from today
who has VO)lltged the world of that time and has 1tudi,,d ir,s fauna.
Sucli a traveller will ha,.,, some knowledge of t<Xlay's 111llm&l life aod
ao he can describe things with reference to the types of animals that
v.--ilJ be familiar lO the reader, Hi& repo,l is wntwn in the pre,;ent
tense as ifaddressed to fellow time-travellers who have voyaged to
the same period and wish to explore the world for themsclves.
Sit back, fellow tune-tnwellen;, and en.J(ly the spectacle and ',
drama of the =lution of life on your planet.

r~
.·
\
I ---- Dougal Di=

,>,..' Wareham 1981

T1v i~t(hts .on thu po.gt an kkrtd frr,,,1tk .:iutJ.,r-S own u1Crrktng d,J1'1tngs
•nd"""' -1 lo•tho arluts rn "'""'"' the p/a"1 and tliu,,.a,.,., ,,. Mw Man

10
 Th.r biali,grcal all, '""""'
/Ifft 1n tlW' pm= of "'Plio,un~ uaif, o, thlt /unJam,nldJ
bu11d1"1l ~·k that """"" up .U fn,i,.g tlun;p, Th< tdl~ aq,xtt)' fa, irtfirur, "'""t"'o\
w""'1 wlong port 1n ~ cepn>d..:tion. "al th, nlOt of ...,,ju11t,nwy d.,w/op,,"11t

The fonn and position of living things on earth can be attributed

ro two things - evolution and environment The study of evolution explores bow lile originatl?d,
how it diversified the way it did and bow different creatures have
developed from others. The study of a creature's enviromnent (ecology) shows how
the vanous life forms interact \vith one another and how they interact with the environment they inhabn.
ln other words evolution can be thought of as showing a longitudinal sectJon
through the Life of our planet whili? ecology shows the same situation in cr055-sectioo.
Each is inextricably entwined with the other and the two cannot be studied totally independently
Although both aspects deal with survival it should not be forgotten
that extinction 1s a very unportant factor. \Vithout it there would be no room for evolution
oo take place. There would be no new ecological situations for nature to fill by the evolution of nev.
animals and plants from older stocks.
That evolution has taken place is apparent both from the fossil record
and from the evidence contained within living plants and animals
Examination of fossil remains reveals a general development from the simple to the more
complex and also the part played by the environment
in shaping UI1 organism co prevailing condition11. ln livmg creatures,
comparability in structure, embryonic development and chemistry are powerful mdicanons of similar
evolutionary history or of c:o=n aa=1ry
Evolution is therefore not a process that has happened only in the past in order
ro establish the animals and plants of today's ecology. but is a constantly continwng
process that we can study botb from its results and from the fossil evidence of the past. It bas happened
1t is happening now and it will continue to happen as long as life remains on this planet.

11
 EVOLLITION

CELL GENETICS

!uurnal,, ,"1<1 inde,,d planu.. am cvll'lf"'$'d of m1Ct01COp,c bncb The peculiar thing aboul the ON,\ molecule ,. ns 11hil11y to
callocl cells Tho cell• found in chffi,reru organs and t!SSUCS ol the reproduce ,tscl! The mol«:ulo splus along us lengch end uno.vi.nds
same cMttu.n• rue of quite <lifT,·nmt ,17.es ~nd $hopes - bon"8 are "° that oad, hair of the ladder coruuscs of a rJ,ru\ and a fieOeti of hnlf.
made from w,gular cells. Jodneys tmm :spber,c,ll cells, m,rva from rungs. Tut m1s:smg ladder halves are buih lrom the pc,ol of $USB'-
long. onrrow cells - but .U are rn.'l<le from sin:uLu c:mnponenll!. phoophate i:...... 11,hich as •uppbed by lhe cre.ru,e• food and "'
RowuJ l.ru: our,,~1<! meach cdl "' • ;Ian, the Ct'll mcmbtan•. present m each cell nucll!1lli. flJ4 each of the four cypea of nucleic
encJ,,.ing !he gelaunou~ cytoplasm which came& a number nr sm•U odd ha.sc in !he &tnllld anracu. only • •fl'.-cilic kmd of nudi,,c acid
strurnm... ctllod organello. The moot 1mp<>rtant of these IS the «U hru..- lO iLsclf w~ two new complete strand,, of ONA an: fumll.d
nucleus, whu:h lid at lhc centre of th< ocll and cama ,he they ate ahrolurely J<lenucal to each other in th,, ""'(ll"""" of their
inform,tion from whicli the "'1bre on.anism,. built components. 'This it th,; most important pl'QO?IIS ino.'Cllved in cell
multipi,catiwn and under~cs tbe gro"-'tb. of oil organmnu.
HO"-.oe\'cr. b) grow. otganisms aUIO rcqutrt! proteins 1.t1 the fonn of
either ,tructurnl elements liUCh as collagen. m the <:as<' of m.<
pock~ 1assue !,.-,tween Of'!!lllll. ar as m;cym,,s ..iucli ll!d i;poafic
b1,,lagarnl prncc$.W!. Allb.nugn the production ol Pl'OI.Clll$ 15 QIIT,ed
on o,m,tde the ccll m.1drua it .. com.nilled by the ONA and "
produra:I in • way ru>alogou~ to DNA replication. The ~ r
that 1ro1Sm1t, tht· DN/\'1 1ll!Mlct<0os ID the p?Qtean production
1[' centre, the ribosome, is a molecuk ltno11on as RN:\. It is form<d
.Jong partly "uoz,pp,od" sections of DNA and differ& only '\Ubtly
from i~ The meso,,nger RNA tn1wls to the ribooome, when, tt liol.s
up with anoth,,r fonn of R,\IJ\. trnn.'lfer RNA, which bean amino

,\1Q.J- cr.r11"1ftl «U.1 rorrtruri rhr sc;,nr b.uac tysinpanrnu· .•.\a thr ct'nt~ J.rJ 1hci
rrurkus fAI, u,lut.11 <r1ntairu th, r.rll't gt•nruc ,r1uwnal Thr mttor.huodri?n (BJ.
mp,,.mbk J.,.. <"'"XJI prudw:tron, an.J rlw f.•J!Wffll• (C), u./ritla """'lo th,,,ua,I
"""'"""· ,... MlTrr ,,.. ,w,/<lat"' '"" ')'"'p/am tD~ Tlr, """''''"" .e,. ulicr,
ilv! prnteuu arc"-ollll'f'nhtrd, l11 ~la:i'lg. a nm1,1'uml rtru,c:turr of '"4fflbrtU10' ~ll''n
.., ,1,. ...
~ 11'b<!J/um IFI,

Thl5 informatlCln as stared as a code. made up from • "-"<JU"OC~ of

components a:•nlllmed u, o I""!! mok,;ulo of • oompl"" sul:istllrux-
known as d..-><>xyribonude10 llCJd CONA, The DNA mokcule JI a
littk bu Jlki, a ladd..'r that ha. bceo IWIS!i'd tbroughoot its length.
The .Wu of th.- 1.iddcr •re m.ld• up nf ougar-pho,phate mol..,c;ul.,.
and each rung roll5lllt> ol a pair ot mr,l<CUI"" known"-' nu<'!e,r...,dd
h.w• There dl't ooly four <11 th,•.., ba,,.,. and th< S<qUl!l1C>! in \\lh>rh TM SPf"1" prn,1ra,~~ rhct Ot'U'" (1\J and coma to /1,. t J ~ tht tl'(..,nt1 rn,ckw
they an, found •long the N.1.,ted ladcl•r gl\es the c«J,~l m,truL't1on,
(BJ. Th, rh"""""""" ,,f both 'P<'"" und °'"'" dnw '""' ..,,.,,,.,, ,trondJ
ltom which th,· whol,• organism •• form,'CI ,\lth<iugh rcpcno,d ,n 1ta
,·ntin·ly m the nud= of each ,-ell of Lbc oriram,m only o:r1au1 '°""""' "' """""''ltU Ccm,,,pc,,,d"'J1 ''"""'"'id, ,,,.,..,
iO opp,,,,~ ,rid, of rh<
m,um tCJ. iclv-rr they arr rurroundo:f by n11rko:r Mffllhmrtn ll)} ~ .ftrurturr
paru ,J the code il!l.' needed to bu,ld up pan,.,,i., organ,. t1Vf'I sr/1B,,,to
trp:ir,11.- "'111 (El

12
r1uring ,fll Ju,ntlfl, llihrn nru.:· cr:Ur art ht..'lngjurmtd, 111!: Di'!A {A J1.'tmWJl'lnl
11..ltrhrn fN d1t,d1t1,t all unz:1p, u,id fvrm, ,u_'l,ir moWl.1.,b vf OJ\.".·\ aL.,,•.t ru free
lmd, !BJ Jn,,n ,;,,. 11ud&-<U:Jd bartt and rugar phmpJklid a,nr.i,oed in rlw «II
,,..-!nu To p!Odua1 """""&" R.I\,\, ,ii< DNA """"' •parr pa,ruJly 1CJ an,/
Im/<, 1<,1/1 lm.u11)• rim1ldT mairnuJ; 1ht rujlat pl¥ophulr ""'kbo•~ ~ ,i,i:J,1/y
dlffrn·,11 t-htmic,.Jly ..iml ortt• if IN nutlttr tJOJ.s u tuhdtCtik'd Thi ttle.t!,tfi~'d
R.">A •10«1 ~· rhr ribo""""'· •.1,.... ti r,nlu "I' u,r/1 t><JIU/t'f RNA. •·h,ch
carnn amino OL1J:U ,n,. T~ IT'IIW(rtgn' R.t'-:A (1.'t1ta1m tlw C'(,t{k tlUJlmtlm'; l}ll!I
tht tnJ111frr RN.r\ u /,nkrd ,~1gf1Ji,r, 1,1 U1r COff'l't'C srqun11:t ~t 1>1001~a rht chau1
of cm•no oods rhor fQTffl rhr J....11,rd prntnn,

acids. It LS from these ammo acids that thll protem!i nre formed The
RNA molecules tw merdy code calTleni and ensure that the ammo
ocid, lmk to,:ethcr ID ili,, oo= sequence to form tbo protean type
requitro ln th15 way DNA controls the workings of the whole cell
and ben<'<' ol the wh<>l• "'i:"o,sm
The DNA molecuJ.. in the cell nucleus are ~1£<.1 mm
strucrura called chromosomea, nod spcofk groupings al nucleic·
aod boM> '"-'Cjll""'-"" on the DNA !!""<' rise ro speofic trailS in lhe
0<1(3llisrn. These groupings AT< ca)J.,d ge,u,s. Hall Ule cru'Qm()(!()mC!
an n cn,ature'• <ell•. and bence half us genes. come from ii,; ,nother
and half from its futhor 1bio 1& n,lkcted in rhc alignment of m..-
d,rcmlOSOrn.. during cx:11 dl\;~ioo Th,· chmrnOSM\et1 then arc
arranged m pairs. mother-donated one,, aligned .,,,th ,dentlClll
latb<!t-donated one,; so that comparable g~nes are side by ••de.E'""'
though each gene m • pa,r rootnbutes 10 the detttminaooo of •
parucu1ar charoctcrlSUC, one gene often mnsks the ctlect of another
A., fl'lrt of the r~roducoon pr~ spectal cells known as
gametes - that •• sperms or eggs - CDntlUOU>g only half the number
of cbromoaomes. found an orclioary cells, are formed in the """
org,,M Although one chromQOOmC frllm a,ach pair " prescnt in
oath gamete. none •• &ticnl to nny of th<, chrol'llQIOITleS l\lClli,'l?d
from .ithor th• mother or the father. bu1 contains a mixture of
matl!l'ial from both paren!ll. This chara=istic of gamete duomo-
"'°"" u primarily responsible for !he ,'ltrinuon between wd.Jvldum
of th• same gp<cies that i!1 """" in nature Dun11g fercili7;mon. the
l!'lfll"ICO um te w,th others from • a«:ond tndavidual to produce a
complete <ell. w,,h die fuJJ numbt.>r ot chromot10m... which m tum
c:L,idcs and bwkls up a completely new orgarusm wu:lt ~eneuc
c h . , ~ Wl\'ed from both parems.
'I'lus. hr1<0y, LS !he sophisticated mecb•mBlD !hat enable. plao11

one g<?nerauoo 10 the =-

J.nd anirMls to reproduce and~ on their dtstincu\'e UWb from
It is arnall chanws, "' mutatiO<l>, in the,
gene.a involved m thi, process that allow evolution to take place. A
muiation =Its in a \'ariation in tht chlU'3CteriAr.ics of the aduh
organiun growing 6:om the e<>ll conunning the gen,. In roo,,t Cll>6
the change that takes pl.,a, n; brumful and gi\•es the orgarum, •
dlsadvanlllgC in the cmn~tlll~ wor-ld ruttti<i.!. The orgn.nL-.m
perishes and the mutllnt \lffi• f"'nshes wnh IL Occasionally
i,,,.,,.,_..,. the muuuu g,,ne produces a tra11 that '!"'"' the O'!JillllSOl •
dasunc:, advantllBC an its fight for suMval.
The var1at1on 111 gent'tJC rnru<c·up d•1t ,;cxual reproclucO(H'l ma.lees
poosible produces the mnge of chnracteruitia that are found
throughout individµal,; or a sing!" 'f"'Cics Nnnual sel,,cnon, which
may be thm,gh1 of as du: clim:tiornal impetus o( ,-,uluuon. ~ru on
th11 va,wl,1luy. fuvouru,g cermu, charactertstio and rl!)ecang uthi,r< liiiToymlnetONA) fil Cytosine OAdenine 0Guanl'1G
acronlmg to ,heir 15\UVMI mmt. . u,acil IRNA) l!il

lJ
 E.VOLlrflON

NATURAL SELECTION

Naturnl .selection. resultu>g Imm the enruonmental coodiuon.s in The direcnonal influence of aatural selection JS more evtdeot
which an o,g;irusm lwes. <:ail ha,•e one of throe dilforent uulu•.nces when the cnvirorunent ,tsclf changes. Uodet these circums~
oo • population fl <:au1 be stabilizmg. direcuooal or divcrsify,og. """IUUODlll)' obanges OCL-ur such ""to give the unpress,on that the
The otnhil~ m!luence can be seen when, conditions ba,oe mgani!m ,.s CIIQlvmg nlong • set path with a puttcular goo! in v,ew.
l'l"fflll® unclw,ged °'""
a long P""od of t,rru- Th, n:sultant Th10 is <JU•tc "'1'0<100US 4nd u,.ses frmn the fact that in w context
mvironment consequently suppons • well-balanced population <1f of ns environment the most recent member of an evolutionary series
..rumaJ. and plant1 in which "'dutimruy dt\..,Joprru,nt is disaclvan- IU"'11YS oppears much bcncr adapt«! than the earlier intennediate
!llg<OO&. Und<!r sud, cin:umsuinccs ""Y change ocxumng in a plant siru,,s wrud,, when, they are .known, loolc bill'-foomed snd
or animal will bnng it uut of the en,ironment'• n<at, dlicient, time- mrornplete by compori....,n. <"'en though they were equally well
hanow\'d !UCVMll pnttcrn and put the cn,:ttun? at • disadvanmge, adapll!d tO the env,ronment'a own orulier intermedtatl! stages. t\n
e.'<:fltoally =lting in h.a exr.u>etion Ii., mon, consen'lllM! rontem· exru:nplc of this- is the evoluuon of the ~ . which developed from
p;,ranes on the other tmnd will SU1V1ve. Arumnls that hav,, been a •mall forest-living browser into a large. Jong-legged runrunggrutt
S\lhiccted to stab,lmne selection far a long period of tune may ...,m as ,ts enol!Onment altered from forest to open f!TllJSY plain. The
qum, uru;pccialized and prun,uve cornpruoo with UlO$e of sumlar small changes that enubled ,t to deal moet effectively wnh 118
aocesU)' that haw expenenced a more ...,oentful evoluuonary history. changing ermrorunent were contmually selected for throug~ us
Ofien they are cbamcrerized by pass!\'< survival rue,:bani•ms sud, hl&10<)' and in this way th<! booe e-.dved.
as heavy am,c,ur, or high ftcund.ty to ocr..,t looaeo through Th• divcnifymg uuluonc\l of n;,tural selection taJces effect when•
predation. new environment is established oll"-enng a fresh range of lood

Mesohippus Merychlppt,s
25 million yo1r1

Ages dated from before

the rime of man
Pliahlppus
10 l'nlUlon year1
Equus 2 million ye.ars

Tlw ltc,,,rwi ftfflittt Jnnu,n ancnt.ur, H)TDO>tbcrl.um, iJ smcJU "ng-t.old cm,h.;rr """" """ duapp,,amJ, ""1•1,ig a nnil,, hmny hot(: Ju ltc, i....,,,.. /anjJ<r a, ,,
.,. IJimr thnn a dt,s. inlwlncnJ ,,.. u11,u,w [0"11 atttJJ foonJ. on rh. Nflh ttoluod into ofully Jl,dgtd 'lmmng onm111I a"1 ,u ""1th"°" and di,:c,rir1< I)....,
llttuw:n 50 o.nd 60 1111UJc,n ,,r.1:r, bl:ftm rk A~ uf 1\!ar1 A.a a,,xlitlOtll becomt ,"'2nl1!>1/rom lho1 of a ~ M 1!,.,1 ofa gra..,. ru ,rs d"1t oli,md.r- ww
dn.. at th< ,nd ofih,: Ttmory a'ltl IN uncd/anJ .....W, rlw "'"'"'"' '"'''""' "' gra.<s. Tl•• """' onp,rtant ,rn,cltmll changt, .xrurnd about .,.. on.. of
pmpm,..Jy ""'" odapr,J to /,fr"" ti,, pla,,u tu[,., •lut•)!al md""'11y; rht r...f1.-"f'YC'h1ppus., uihkl1 appmml ah."Ul 2.5 mdt.'011 ~n agr1
 At tame: r,f m.tfl, a ch.l1M o.( aub·,pn,,:t, Of 4.ii1fll!:, A'Ukd ~,mund t~ l\101'UI
tit,,
P.,!, w,th tltc Bntuh ""'"' hl<,ck-"'1ckcd iuU. l..arus fU&Cua gnell.r~ and th,
Bnruh htmng ll''U, Laru, IIJ!lffl"''"'
orgenlllrus, as md 111ffllbm. AU
nt1,;/1bmm•n - of the d111< oou/d mlfflm:«l u.,th .... """tlwrr
"""'1''"'8 th,
,.,,J '""""""· tthod,, by th, '""" th, eham WOJ <rm,plrl,, ...... UJO diu•ndy
.,.,,.t,d to ,nai, u,fh ..., oncth<,-r """"",J•lly.
fl I Hnbah i....t blact-l>atl«t gull. um., fo,aa g,a,llm, (Z) Sc:titidmtMAo ""'1
br..:k-hor.bci !l"tl. ,...... "'"'" '"''·"' 131 lliJcnao ''<&O ...,n. 1.,,,., .,,....Ju, ....,...
t•1 AtnffJCIID hanaa guU. /.At'\U Olg,t'!Jlat~ ""11~MVJ, ($) Br1wh bcmng gull
l4nt. .,,,.nlldw c')mt1Uw

5 Btl~oh
herring gull

eating farms with hca")I b,lla and a form that ate btirrowmg grubo
winkled out wnh cactuS spines. The large number of "1SUlnng
spec,es reflected the large number of ecological nidies available on
the ,slaoos,
Buds. with their paw,:, of fhgbt, are U5Ually lhe fust vencbraieg
to reach a new ,sl.md and amsequcntly far-flung islands can 115ual]y
be counted upon t0 produoe an inw-e,rtmg bird fauna, Typi<:al are
the heavy flightl1!$$ birds. 8UCh as the maa, Dinom11, of N,ew
Zealand, the dodo. Raphw, of Mauritius and the tlepbant bird.
A,p_)-omis, of Malagasy, all of which c,volved in the abeeoce of
ground-living prednton. The intervening eea wu an dlective
barrier preventing mterbn,eding between the fu,tmvelled individ-
ual$ that reached the island and the origin.,J stock bade home. Such
barnas to mteibreedmg are ne=sary ,n the cvolunon of new
~
Rbc:es or suf>.sp,,c1eo often ro-exi.t m the "8flle BI<".., explomng
slightly different environmenu or food raowces but remining th<
ability to ioterbrced They may C\-en exist a,, 1 chain of sub-species
reaching from one ~ion io another, each &Ub-sp,,ci,?,i able to
-io!ffbreed with the next one to iL When the species al the ends of
the chain are quite different the chain is c:;,11,d o cline. Occrunonally
a cline may form a ring, fur example round a mountnio range,
CACTUS where the two end members, although next to one another and
Fmm thr ""~""' fineh that amn,d al the 0../apap Lil4nrl, J- So,,th refaced, ru-e so difl'erent that no in1erbl"\'eding is po6(ible ond ore,
A , - around {ifU!tt1 ltpa'ldft ,p,,an NllmJ to fill the, Wand~ t<k"<mt techmca.lly spealnng, different species, This p,:lOeS problems in
t<Olog,eal ntcha - ""h ,po:,a 11,lh lpr<l<lh::td t h,nac1msho:1 iuit«I to ,t, '""" tru<OnOmy since. as incerbr<eding LS poesil,Je dsewl,en, throughout
indit~ual di,<. Tli. fincha faU lnoddly '"'°
tlr= du~nct groups am,,ding to the nag, the moember$ must strictly be considered as '1.lb-specie,i of
,.,,..,, -==• '"" and g,,,.,,d
dw,11,n - and ,bff,r mainly m Iii< ,hap, oftltt the .ame species.
biU. Ji is tnought rMr to btgtn 11.'ith binis 1t'ttTlt .JClffU on the island dlbmng tht!

Ill> Pfoty,pf"' """""""" (BJ

c.....,J,y,,dtw - · (El -
ft,rti,, lllJ C'""'J""' -
C..-
findicl ro noltit fomu iuitaW. /<,!' oH ,i., <rtmomnenr,,/ 1lo11 auailabll.
lldm1"", (CJ Omna,.r..-,.dtv, pon.~lw, (Dl
'""""'"- !Fl Cmlua .r"-. (G)
m Gto,p,m foll...,... 0) c_..,
"m'"""'' CK) °"""""'
Once a group bewmes isola1'd from Its cmgmal populaoon it
may develop on its own IO sucb 1111 cxtc,nt that, if the ,ootatiog
barrier law d""'ppean, 11.nd the twU populations ooce more
intermingle. interbreeding is no longi:r po5&ible. They are now, by
(;.op,:u ......i... definition, t1>'0 difl'erent ,pecics. The d1fferenoes are aocentuared if
the new klcation the isolated group finds i!lelf in is 1-icaUy
l'l."lCIW"Ces and living spoc:co. i\n anurutl l!pCCtel emenng this unsuitable. Th<: group will very quid.ly cfuappear except f01' maybt
eowomnent may well e\ olve dilfe.rcnt furms that are $pecificall)•
0
n few individuala at the extremes of the species range lhat show
adapted io each of these living space$. ot ecological niches, 1n the some •light affinity for the environment The species that thi!n
abs= ci competmg arurnnls theise diffierent forms will eventually <b,e!ops waJ be clesocnded from those few individuals that "'\!re
develop mio completely new spocies. Tha LS the kind of thing that genctically dilferent from the mam population m the fim place and
happens when ru, IBWld, c,r a group of island$, LS thrown up by contained by cba.oce genetic trait,; whiclJ made them lllll&tely more
v<>ICUlic activity Ul the open <.>ecan. The unpopulal«I ..tand i• likely 10 survh-e.
.Jowly colooiud by arumals wbicb grudually dhw•ify int0 clifftrcnt &ca...., orgarnams are capable of infinite variability and have an
species io i,,q,lo11 th< who.I., area effectively. The clauic exwnple c,f inbereot tendency to change when set in an unstable environment,
evoluuo"3f)' di,·mificauoo is seer, u, the CalapagtMS Waods of the new species appear more rapidly when th., en,·iroruncnt is changing
Pacifu, Ocean. Early in their hisw,y a •mall finch arri\"ed thM quickly. EvolutlOl:l is "° efficient that no ecological niche is left
$ubst,quendy es-olwd into tree-living. insect....ring farms. seed- vacant for long. Something will always d"""lop to fill it

15
 EVOLLJTION

ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

Evolution doe. not imtilw th< cunsoous w!U of thc orgnrum,. Nor :\s well .. bemg respon5ibte ror structuntl and moqlhok,g1cal
does ,t happ,.-n r.htQU!(h any odaptnt1on that ,s £om,d on i1 by it< traits m an animal the geneoc make-up of a ceU also 1(1\'0S ru;e to
swroundmg,;. or any srr.m,gy il?IU'l>OO by th• o,gamsm dun~ iis bclutv,owal trnitS that ~llow an arumal to mrernct with ,._
lifetime being passed on by it 10 ,ts oflspnng It hllppens. s,mply. neighbou.rs nnd W1th 1ts en\'U'OUll'ltmt to a v;'lly tbat ensures its
be<-ausc certnill cbarnctcnsrus man orgamsm's g~tic make-up ac, survival
enher selecu.-d for or &el«tl!d "!laJ"81 by the parucular charactms- It om be argued thlll the funcoon of an org-dllism is merely to
ucs of cn\'1ronmen1 in "·luch 11 liuds ,t>cll The envuonment, m this p;L"" on us gene. to the next gcnennion Evidence w oupport th,s
context. LS the physical surroundings ci( th• organ,=, ouch .. tbe view tan be drawn from pattEm• or
behaviour oeen m animal,;.
topography, the t<,rtrp<:rnture or the rainfull, aod the ou,er orgru,- Behaviour io. •rrnpty. an animal's actJ\/1! r ~ to ill """n,nment,
...,,. that <'Qi!lt!.'it witl, it, J:,c,th those that II feeds on and tho,,, th.it ru,d along with growth and reproduc11on i, one of the lilcun that
(eed on iL dclines • living th,ng
Birds crowd together whcl\ a hawk appears. thua malunct ,t more
g.:,,eti<: mutntion =-
The rate of evolutmn hall linle w do with thc mte at which
thc impornmt facu:,r is thc environ!Th."tlf1
rate of change; th• speed at which """' pathways open up inro
drllkull for the hawlc to seize (U1 miliV>dual. Runowg berbr.'Ores
dodge about to deaJ)C a 5\\01\er predator so that it b<cQmc,.
which new fonna may •volvc •nd &.'\'Clop. cxhnu..<red before c,,1r.hing noy of th..,m. Young birds ..,., c!os,:_ to

A B

Th, '"""' a,u,i,1.,p d"P"JJ of b,,J., u "" ompoflant pat1 of a b,1,o,,ournl ""l'lendm1 plumage Jrrr di,play. In """' ,:.ua tht ma/a m "'""'"'""""Y
puunn rl,ar a&o ,ndud., ,o,,g; malt lmd ...,g"
dnig,w ro 01rt<1<,t fert,ol<, a, frathmd, whe,...., rht frmolu "" dmb by"""""""' Tht m..-u und
u,,JI a, Ind,,..,. mvl ""'1cs. Vis1J<JI d,,play "'"' 14/o: pfutt jnJ.,pr,,J,ndy u.,rh k'(:'.lturn 1~ ,:uuruhrp duf)Wy ar(' tm...JUJ lhc1X' (ttll)CIOltd 1rlth a ~ " o,
t.N u,_tntb);1 of dlttaenr1g a ,rid.le-. An mdrt!idual, .un;ally o nia.lt, pu.t:tu,t.t ol'W · ~ · · fn - · <pmtS prmttng 411<1 •m ,J,,p JrF all j>lrl cf dupl,:,y
rigndb umJ 11 ha, ....,,,,...; tlie ou,nt10ns of o !"""""' ""'"Tiii! I'""
thtn l!\) Gint1t'l, 1\/ofw a:wJtUs, tBI So,c-r ~ . Cn1trt0ffl.ll 11~nut. (C)
du.play 111 wn«rr, rorh ,t'f(inJ1ng, ro rltr orlwT', ,\tffl&ml u1rh 1/lt obJf(1 of Q.,rmorunt. P ~ cc1D(l, !DI 8ro&!f11 ,:ant. ("',na, n,b,ro,di, IP.> li1\'iit cm:r«d
duanl!'n.ng rhr nthn~, u_'lllt,i,1tnat t•T" ftddrratti :o ni,Hc .A.Ian~ J'(Wtd rtly 0,1 ">~
~rb.a. PnJ1ctpJ mJtillll.t. «F) i\ddi,, P"1lf(UU\& U.Ul-..11

16
 1111l'!m,8<'tlnru tnlO 1h, .-mq of the cltaffin<I,, f·nJl!!ill• ,-ockba, h.,w p,,,.,.,J,.i a
/.uetn.Jting 1n.ugJ11 1nw d~ n,(t <Jj IMm,ng 1rt brh.JINIUr It u.w J('IWid. /U
lnd<r<>l<d on tht !OUnd ,peclt!l(l.tph ilioo.>n oppo«it<, !Ml >''""R cho,ffi••·h.,
rtar~ 1n uola.t:ici11 U.'«!Tt capable ofMly a n,dimentary, song and that to pnxl1tCt
tlr. fully droolopod frmn tl,ey had JirJI ro /.,,,, ,1., , ·,ng uf uti.,, m rht u,Jd

Song ot young chaffinch rearwd In isolation

Chtffinch
Frlnglll• co.le!>$
,.._~~~~~~~~~~~~--'

!heir nwth= unul they are nlllture enough to fend for tbemselve:s.
Tbcse. Wco all aspects of behaviour, bavo evolved to md survl\'al. ... Uasmordax
*
gene tlra1 muoduccs beha111our panem tba1 does not contribuie to
th., •urvival Of the 6JX'CIC8 IS iOOO eJirmmued
Couru,b,p ntuali ""' a very rompkx aspect of beliavrour TI,e
,-..m motion of a bird tn a displ•y dance or the movemen1 of a
lizard'• head as II •PJll't16Cbe8 a pr05p<'Ctlve mate ind,cata to il.S
furun, parmer tb.tt fl IS lD brecdtng ooru:Ltion and UUII II t$ a
1nember of th,, correct opecies. The latter point ill 1mponan1. for
olthough mating be1ween lW<l rulated but Rpnmt• species may UCB IIJf»K
produce offspring. they will ahnost certtunly be ,terile. Such
numn!1' are a toml wast< of ume ••,cl cffon lrom the pomt of v,ew of
,wlution, a& they do not suc"CeSSfully propogtm• tbe creature's gern,s
•nd aro then-fore to be avou:kd
n...,., OCtMties are all rtlStlDctlve her.ditacy beha\'10Ur patterns.
Other beba,,our patterns are learned and lll'C also ult,mately derrwd
from the arumal', genetic make-up The ahility to C$mbl,sh the Mal, fvid/Jtr CTO!os, Uca rpp., atm1<1 '"'21tt by rannng Cl,.., l'"I!" f,,J,JJ, r/au,.
•pprqmotc actJun by tnal and error, or by the ex,unplc of others Ti., 8""""' iJ,ey ni.w bo,h'" ih, shape of th,......,,..,.,
and m 1b ,p,,,J """"'
around 1t, i• an ilhil1ty con!erral on an animal by '"' !!"""" brt:LIJl!:c.'n spn.its lit,ng 111 tht f<lmt a.r~ and mtul'l" tltaJ o,u., Jrmala t{ tht
i\ggres.srun is ,n cl,,ment uf bchiwrour thAt 1$ pcrh,tp,s more !Xm'l'Ct .spe;ra am atmlt"1twi Al orily ,natifl.C) brn~ 1nd11"ic/uals of iht ,amr
crimphcatoo dun ll fim app,<ar.,. One might ask why. if the object
of aggre,;5100 is to"'°""" ooo,'• t'Ompentors, do not animals fight to
JP'<1" arr hl,,d_v ., pmd= /mil, offsrrnng, ,,- "'4i<I ,.,,
thnt pmduto ,,.,. Cl?""'1 ...,,;ng pat"""""'
"°""""'
lrMly to duopp,,or
,Ir< i;r,..,

the death each lune there is • ccnllJct? Apon frQm the obvious risk
,m:olv,.'ll, the an.,wcr is probably tlm, wi an arumal bn.s no chance behavioural \nlit calculated to promote the SWVJval of m. own 8""""'·
of lullUll{ all "" potentml nvat.. by lulling an i.<Olat:A?d one ,tis J"'t n.s /Is the gems of the mother bird nre prest.'tlt in the brood and the
likely to ASSISt ,u coropttJtors as to benefit itself In mn.t cu..<es several members of the brood ha,.., a betw chance of reproduemg
c,,mbat m 1ho ommal "'orld wea the fonn of mod< battles nnd and spreading their genes than ha& the su,gle parent brrd it ts oo the
aggressrve rfupbys which do httle pbys,ail damnge t:0 the crearureo ndvanrage of her own geDe$ w preser\'e the Ii= of her chick~ ow,,
U'IVOl,'lld, but do establish the dominance of one 0 1 ot.b.r of the at the expense of he, own l.c$s CJllll10U$ .. the gene-&urvl\·al
porticipants Thus the anunal that wm, a OODtest aclueves what ,t beha,iour of ,;oc1al insects, such as bees and ants. A =her of
ha, aet out to do, tha1 is to gain or ret&D the resource in rfupu1e such a group will fight to the clroth indw.:r1miruttely 10 tho ==
wnboot sulli,nog 111Jury ,131!1J, The loser al,,o dcn\'et1 benefit m that ,urvMll of tht colony. In thi• case momben, of the colony are much
~ •scapes ,ienous inJuty and nmuna the poMibility of contesting more clooely rclawd IXl one another m geru,t,c mAk<>-up than an,
furure i.smu,o, where he may l!\'fflwally be succo?Aaful l t i• cWlicult to ot.ru?r animal$ within a <ingle broeding population. The •urvh·al of
""' how thl$ stnu"l!Y could be learned und it II more liltcly wt II is the colony therefore CDSUre!I th• rrurvival of the tnd,wfoafs genes
th< product of evolutionary de<·elopmont, thos., arumnls adopting despite the death of the mdividual.
the stnlt<gy ore more likely to reproduce lllld th<:refore we g<,llllS Manv mating ploys, panicul~rly those= tn bird!, may "-'=l
responsrble fot the behalllOur are p.uoed on m preference to othe.. actually to reduce the tndividual's chauoe of survival rather than IXl
that result LD less successful behav1ouml pancnu mcrea&> <hem. 1be b,eeding ptumag,, of mnny male btr<k ns well
Throughout the anrmal lungd,,m behaviour p,mems are desrgned as being nnracu,.., to a mare. makes ~ visible tO predatot$. Buds
to ensure the survival of the ,ncLvidU31's genes rather than the £>0SS<!$$'"8 pe.rocularly long and 5f><'Ctaeulnr tail feathers must tied
sum,.J of the mdivxfual Loy,iliy IS shown to the cl=t relab,-es. them • great cfu..d\'anll!ge wh~n escaping from • predator. 1t "'
'1lltt the elmer th., relauvc the Luger w ournbe, of similar genes m poosrble such rumdicapg to .urvivnJ may be dt.'VK'es to &how Just bow
,i. makc,-up. ,ucccssful the mal• i.s- if it can sUMve with all that workiug fl!!l!lOSl
Th~ protectl\" m.<unct which cau.i,s a mother bird to put nsclf in It, !hen it mll"1 be good' licnct' the fOJmle ,s irm1ncuvely aura~ted
,Jangcr or e\'en sacr,fu:e in life ,n urtkr to uv~ its broocl is a to the male tlu11 puts on the mCJ!lt exlnl\""l'11)t chsptay.

l7
 l:.VllLLITION

FORM AND DEVELOPMENT

Natural sel<,cuon l•YB down rulea abour pm:u;ely wluoh form ol life One <"'™"JU= uf pimcuL,r arumal &hapes 6nmg paruculnr
IS UXA» 5Ult:nbk fOt c.-olornz1ng a Jl6nu...i:J!;\r l.O,.,'lronmrnt Trui crolog,cal niche~ ,, trust w.ddy .,,p;u-,ta:l p!M~ with th.- Mm<'
C\"1Utiomuy feature c,m give rise ID 1 large amnber of dillerent rhm.iuc and cn,,ronm<"nial C'OOdition.. moy .uppon ""'Y 5imibrr
WlUlW> w1th ti.. same supnfu:1.J •!Jf""'>=- \Vb.,,, the .llUllhlb fnw,._ <!\'ell tho!J!jh they ba,v e--olved from ddfereu1 stoclca. The
cooi<,cm<d hal,c e,<1h«I from th,· """'" ,rnct:lltor and h1we <ht lnpc<l rrc,pial ~ t,I :S.,,,,th Amcricn, Afuc:a .u,d :\U>triUUI all IL cm,
mdepend<ntly al<>nl! •imtlar ,,wlutrooary '"""- rb.."Y ,m, Mid to M\'< 111110 •11JJl"'fl'd animals with mnilar phyaic&l cbarncterlSt1CS- long·
C11Dls-oo in p,millel. Whrn the mr""'""' ar,• dtlfen:nt irnd the l ~ . nmwng !!fllZ"Th, ,win Clllllivon,s, 1,wro..;,,g UlSKUvara
animal$ have ~oh:Lid :llung llUlh: <filfcretJL lin\·S to 11rz ,chll't! tJv., t..i1n11: and sJ,:,w-mov~ bem.,1 browsers. In J\ustrnlto they wen, ffllll'OUptai,
final shop.,. their cvoluu,,n " c-.i!W rorwen.'t:Ot .'\n cxrunple of m AG,cn plnc,·nml and ,n South A.morico of both typo."' °""PH•
parnUel cvolut\On enn bC: r.een 1n the .li.'\t!:lop:'n4.-nt uf 'f;quu-', tht.~ th,~u difft.:'l'ing ttneet;try mru'ly ol th,~ oearures Wl.'.rr DUt\\'ardt)·
horse. which .ppean;d at the end ot the Tc.rtlllry in North llmerica. "1tnti•r Such ,,ituations aruc not only ,,n di/kn,n1 ploee,; at the oamc
ood Thooth,,num, a =rkabl)' sunilar ungul•te ,vlur.h "'"'l"ed :u tune, but al.,o m different place. at c:lif!emtt tanes
w &ame tim~ \D the then 180la,ttl oontmt'llt of$<,u(h /\m..,.ica Tno The influ,:nce of la tirude on anunru shape and fonn has ti>"
two fi,m,s de-,-eloped mdependrntly .Jong surular Imes trom , unJ,r «ldly mntra.1.lng rlti'Ctl!. One known M Bergman's rule predicts
ungulate onceston in re&JlC'O!t"' to the s.11.IDe si:1 1-rf en\·1motlll!nra.l that. ""tlun related groups. arumals living ne,,rer the poles will be
larger Tot other, .'\Jim's ruk, !itlltiOJ that, lU18J1l in relau:d groups.
thu« living n,-..n,r th., p:>k.....;u M\'C tn\rukr cxtretniLK'$. Both
dlOCl!I are bo:at-ronsa:vation rru,a,rurcs designod on the oae hand tu
pre,,01w body n,mpornrure and nn the otlv!r to prevent frostbite.
'1""'
Gcrwtic chimg,.-. m,iy I,., m,nor •nd impem,ptible or th")'
may m:ult m ~ that altl'r the op=e,; dramatically. The land
r.nnil C/rptJM n1r.mMill11. live,, 1n 1t "'arn:cy of h::ibitat:s In tht
1"'1lfl"'rat..- wtnU.nd and c::on haw••w of aevernl different ,hell
markllll!'< \Vb.or, uu, !!Touncl " open and gro,,sy a plain ycllow
Dolphin cole>rumn ~ ~ aru,il bc$t and snails with other mark!~ =
=•ly """" by predatnu 1llld quickly tle-.=ed. Where the ground ,s
, covered by lea.I hn.er, brown scnped fmms are better ~
' and otlu!r fonm< '1!c ;elected against TI,is !!'""" rise to popuJ,uiom
of p1,.Jomin.mtly yellow ,n•il> in open grassy ams and brown
,ttir,..-d ,nail,, tn " " ' ~ .4, 1imJar efi'L'Ct was ab&<rved in !ht
peppered mc,th. 8uwn ti.r.ul.iM, dur,O!! w early day> of man'•
indumi,J mmlution. Up until tmn lhe sp,,cie-, had ron•istal l"'S"lY
of gt"),' and whit• tp«ldcd individuala 11,luch were perfi.'Ct!y
cumoullngecl against U><' lichen-<:O\'ered tr... trunks whero they
lived t, bL1ck fonu als<, found m the popul•aon was easily &een an<l
Ofrh, '1=11,fal,-lu,:ud an.J dulp/1111, ••dy IM j)i.m, /•11 •••·lkJ.fn,,n • •un,.. eaten by hin:ls and was therefore unooaunon. Wnh tho, orrwnl o£
muhm!. Tht.foh·I"""' and tlolplun '""" <t~l,«lfrom • ld..I In,"~ rrplil<c,sl h<:avy indusuy lh<- trees became cakccl with ooot and turnccl b!acl<.
...,,....,/ "'Jl"Cl'"'ly. /)np,"' 1"'1r ro,Jic.,lly d,fT,,_ """"'-")I Uw;, 1,m, all
affording • pc.d'ec-1 e&rn1Juflag,> backgrOWl!l for the black furm. 11,e
adopt.l!d thr. lll1I'¥ .rtffl11Pll1n~Jrmn to ittlt rlwrr q,1;.UJt 1t11:41.· cf lif,, ond ti,grrhr-t
/mm a iinlnnJC emmplto t{ ns,11l!Tw1n (1..Jub1•11 wlute form Wo1S then selected against by preclatma and the moth
p<>pul,1t1on h<~·ame p«"-v,minnntlr black. Later . .,oith tht o:nning m
rond1t10M i\n •"'"1mplt- ul cuov"')!cnt <\'O [Ut,, >t'I i, l<>und tn tl11· clean a,r law., the atmO!lphere and the """' trunlar became less 8001·
deYelopment of th..- ..bar!., C.ml,an>d,,n , th.! fuh-lillrd. lchthy· L,d,·n w,d the moth population •wung back tO g,v,: • biu IO\>'llftl.
QS<!un.,, and the dolphin, V.lf'hmw - thrw ,rurr.al, lrotll t00tlly ...h,r,, and grey ,ndi,·idua!J oner, mon, n..,.,., changes inwl\'ed only
wffen.nt rlass<l' l,ut lJ.\'ID!l t«lnpt" l thr """''' -tnmmlm,,u •h,1pe \'flll<!tb.'S withm the """'" breoo,~ papulanon and there was :n all
s u r ( ~ fins and ld.il .U'I OfiR1 to cxplui.t u~ ta.tru: nu:be in th.: tm"" a curur~mt <X<h.ang" of gen•tic mat<rial .. they to<,k plllC<!. JI,
same ~Vin"lnrncnt, tl1,tt <1fai;tt\·11 ti11h ...~tcn ln 1h1~ ~...,, hc,v."''"" the efl\'IJ'ODJllClltal thang,,s h.rd be= pcnnanmt ond the

J/j
 In fookttfi1¢ at lhr lif~ -0n 11', f'USJl.ands ufi\(ni:u allll A1dtralkl uruund tlw tim~
uJ 1nan ,1n1J compcanng 11 Q;!h lhr- (ifr ')ldt t!XUr«l on IM platt1$ of So&1,th
A.....-.., """' ltmt ,arl,,,., dunng w middk T<rtiary, ••con"" that animal,
lifr sty!Q dppta-r &o m)n~ nm,lar 1ha.pn and n.LZS m A'Jrnl~ng
1..1·1th llfJ'l1"1,
lJJI! ,epara.ted
t'lllimnWIC'ttU. Jt tni.1111!11 ,x, d,jft'mlCI' u.1f1,rlhtT lltdt rntmunmtnts
h.v timec'. JPrltl" nr boih, tlw:t •rff by for ti~ mo.st ,mpcrr~nt 1irtglt, 1t<>lut.mary
/acrm go,.,,n,11\!l ,1,. lhopf and fmm of bvmg m,oturts. lA')ll! l1ttb"""'"'
ammal.<, lff\ 11mtlm •• Q!'l"'"a""' ro tht r!nnoc•M. ond /o,,g·l.tib...t. ..,.p.
ninn:n;( gmun_g .intl"l4ls opptt1ml 1n oll tlirtt. tmitnm,mnt.L Cami1orn1
1ns«t1tutts and c.,m,u~ all su{JtffiritJfly 11miidr td Of'W IJMthtr-'1.JOh«L Tht
..,., m,lo,v:ly ITinWT J!MlP' """ tlr t.m,,u_..,,g ,ns.a-oor,n and 1/w ft,ghtl,.s,
bi nu, whrh !,«,,,,..,
o/ the,r hii/Jy '7'<'1afo-..d mo.fa ef fif• dr,,r/optd olong
l,,oodly .,.. """" lir.n.

SOIJTH AMERICA I AFRICA AUSTRALIA

~~
~i a,
~ viii
Allr-"8num AN""""""
C1Enge1 ,,, tlw fffl'IW11ninrt dUI In tN tndt41T\lll rtWluhnn got.¥ CM Nod,

I ~ ~
fflt.j.ft,1nlfon,uIB ond Cl of thf J<P? red moth, Uu;.ioa betul.tllil., 4Jn adt,o,nt.ogc
1n UTh.in art..rJJ. uhc_,rr lliey lar~ly t ~ t1vt p"'1'lfJt.1,dy pndon11ndnl gr,y and
u./ni, ,pa:lii<d frmn IA). &,r~,,... ••••lfl)hrric
of 11,, ..., 1..,,1 ,,[ J1<lUution, rht
_p,pula.bon en ri.ral <1mis um for dw r,JQ!Jt pcrrt nrwff«r.t!d.. Cl

dill'cttnt ,-aneues had become oo!ared Imm one, anotM, tl1~v ~m Zebra Kangaroo
woukf ha\'e u, IU"D< bea>m£ dilli:ren, sp,c,.s. ·

~ ~
~~
?i.f.inuay t& a ~ ~ t l " 1.m1tat1ve phcnomenoo m whtch a crcarure.
usually for ""'"''" of defence, takes on llu, physical "l'I""= of
~
,mothet ruiim•I orofa plMtor indeed ofa totally in•nimateobject like a
btrd d...,pping. In th1< cu,e t,( ammab mimicking other anicrutls then, ~
~
are two importnnt fonru,. The first, koown aA Mullcruin m,m,cry.
OCCunl .,,.hen•
number of dmgeroll! or unpalambk Jl!l""i.. C\t>IW
f'Toll>)1acynUI Hunting oog T..,..illtl.,_
the same oolorauon or pan;,rni.og to gum prctecnon by ...,,,.,iation.
i\nlll1llb exhibmng this fonn rend to hove vivid colours wkick makr
them stand out ~ t the backj!round ru,d art as a warrung. The

-
sccond form. Bat.<S,an mimicry. JO\'Olves totally barrnlesa crearum;
odoptmg the coloraoon or appea1111'lr:e a/' m,,r,bble or dtngerous
· ~ in uider io tak,, advnnmgc af their waming oolorarion Ind
so esctpe p,edauon. Other fomtll of nurrucry exist r.bo1 enable
pr<ditoB to opproach prey which they thermcl.'e< mimic. The
inso:cts and in pan,cular the butterflies with tlwr strikmg wing
pot-..s are the ma.m.-. of mimicry, but it is also found amocg the
,'Cl'1L'brates and """'llll the plants.
tu we have"'"° the 111lt' of evolution is Jarg-dy d..-,:,endC1,l on the Numbat
rai,, of clw,ge of the envimriment rather than on ,my lrllit po,sessro
by the lUlll1la! u.eJf E,•cn ,o 11 k.'elllS that the bigb.r a croarurc ii u,

I! ~~~
situated on the evolutionary lndder the mott 111pidly !, cvol,-el! For
e:wnpl~. lm'lllve genera """'' for. on Q\'>lragC. ;.bout 80 million
yeon. ftth genera for 30 million years and ungulur,: and camll'ore
genera for six ID c,gbt milhou years The &honor the lifu..span ·o f B
genua the more qutddy nnothe, cvo!wi IO take ,c, place. Tlus
Ii~ Neal-
1--~ ~ ~ ~ - . . . - ~ ~ ~~ - 1 , ~ ~ ~ ~--1
Golden mole Mmo,plal -
results m n 1:ugcr turnover of genera m Jaod-b..,.,J habitata, where
lifu on the "'"'* "more lughly ovolv....! cl.m ,n the ..,.
Plants «ncl to c--ol,,: much more slowly than animals and the
flora existing dunng the .'\ge ofMan consb1,'CI m:unly of planL, that
;,valw,:l at the bc'!linning of the Cn:ta=u• period whili, tho
dino,aurs v.·ere still the dommant form of lnnd ani,nal. Phorothaaos

19
 EV()LLITION

FOOD CHAINS

11,e food chain is a fundnmcnml concept m ecology and ,a i.bt- the base of a rood cha,n ,..Juel, extencfod upwards through fish and
sequenre m wluc:h o r ~ eat. one another h ,s more appropr,. -ts and agmn tO the polar bear. Nothmg ht.Uliro li,-e polar bear,
•te to reg1m,l the process as a pyramid rat.her than a cham. aince in although once dead. scav""!l\"8 and n u c i · - ~ lrom lower
""Y en,=cnt. ihere are many mare anunals lying at the k,wcr clown the (ocxl chain fed on th~ ca~ase. reducing 11 ultU11ately to
end. of t.he chain. than at tbe mp the iDorganlc •ubstances cm which the plmi,; ot the !,a.., of ih•
The base mmb,r. of the pyrnm,d are the pl:inta, the primary pyramid f"'!d. Except in the world of parasites, where the number of
prod=. which """ the sun's <nergy to oynthesize aw f<>Od &om o,ganimis supporied at each 1,age u • = rothor tlw, decn!ali"",
carbon d1axiclc m the rur and m,ncn,J,; 1n the sod From the rn)'Tiad food pyramids like ~ can he COl\$tnscted for O\'ery l)'J>e of habttat
ITU!lnben of thi, broad 1,..,. All food cl.lim -.,,,ave "P"'""cls m"iuds on earth. with in e.ich case • •Ul!lte predator or 1mall group of
the crunivorous animnls m the apex. For example, m the fur nonh. predators lying At tru: !Op
during the Agr of M,m, the plntilO thnt grew 10 the bnef •wnmcrs 1be general layers in tho pyramids are the pnmury producer,,
were fed upon bi• inans. which were eaten by ms,ll birds, v..Jucb alre>dy ment.ion,>d Lhc hcrl,ivores and u,e carmvores. Thmughout
were m rum omen by •mall carn,von,s •urn as IOl<i:S. which ..-ere the pyramid both tca,""1g\lrs and m ~ deoompoeer1< opw,tc.
ulumately earen by larg,, carnMlrns such as polar bears. Sm,ilarly lf one of tht key rncmbers of a food pyramid layer were removed by
the 1TUCrosoop1C plant plimbon ex,su"!! tn the sea at that ome lay 01 cLsease or Ct>Vll'O!lmental change the slJ'\JCt\lre would l,ecom,

POI.AR

TEMPERATE TAO!'ICIJ.

.a\t tht top of f"I~· {tlOO, ~.,.~n1td hi rJw c..;imrt(>ro, thtt J.ut t,nh fn Q'l tnmgv Som,r,,,,,., a p,,d,,t11T, n:p,a,,nrol hm by 1/v, pou, bt.l,, may l1t al 11t; top<{•
tr,neftr chain 1hJ1 btg,.., wuh ,1.. pjanu - ,,.. 1na1wl food f)l!•lllt'3l....,, Thu pyr,unid 1ho1 .,,,,b,am boih lo11J. and WO~·bcued O'![Oill,fflU, Th, a,mpk.,c
for,.J 111 1/v, furm of''""" 011d /n111 IS pa,,,d on •• 1/tc ~ . lymg hig!,,r up f«Jmg ,.,,1out1n,h,p, wlurh ""'' /,,tu,e,m pl.,ou and ommals ln,111[ wg,,,/.., 111
,,., p_yw..,,,1111 UM ulr11n4c,,J_y t11mugh ellt'n1 ltl d~ camttOtff.. Sr"tdaT pyrcJttt1dJ o.,. $o11Tk' emtiTtlffltlt'nl trr1w,un1 w r;1 ,q/'·tufficvnt orWJnW11()M kn;CL-n as at1
rnrt Ulrougllf;ur riv irorJd 1n uU rn1'tn•t1•ntttu fw,m th, cropit:I tn rJv. p;iln.. «m)".11.tm. C/:Ojyttt!ffU IM tmp4co/ (J1t'd.r nkl\' P'JMSC t{ flousa.nJ, of ipt'4VJ.

20
IJJ o fitld f>fdotll'T (t\J, IC u 111U'fflh11,i. tf) ipc:rulatt u1hu1 mi~hr "'2PJ¥f11(nnr fl('f'
of ih, food P>·ran1•I ""'' n•n10t...t, If 1/,, wifJ"""" larr,,ly u,ptd out by dist<lle
IB), th, ou,ls uould oe dfpntt'd of prey and :mn l,,u., (CJ, caum,g ,hr m,tt;I
i»I'"''""'" to apond un,,,,nrml/abl,v ID/. Thu""'"'""' " unhJirly r.o wt and
thii tccanl n.k-'1t- u.ould r"rJlY brt-omt rtOCCbpitd ,n fMt of thttt uio_ya; ~ r.:1tall)
,w, 1nse:t-t.aiinJ? (Mltu'l'f: Mil as a bud u..)Ulcf amr.ie. bnnl¢itt.R "11th u 1tJ ou•n
pn,dat<,r !e). Pl'•""'""' IP<""' of ,ot,, wotJd 1nt"'1t, lm"l[l"II bock tit, ouo/s (Fl,
or d M11110t1l of tht rmganal wlc ;q,ufaht>11, Tl'JUI.Jnl to tht dum.sr, 1.u;x,ld
"''"'"'" ,.,,!{ ICTJ.

W11tablc Th, speoes lymg below th, vacant slot would increase as It 1s 10 phy11cs. J\n ewlog,cal mche is never Jell \'llC8Ill for loll!i
w1d><.'Cked 10 a point where they ourran their food 6upply and their and sometlung w,ll evolve to occupy i1 11$ sooo as one appears.
numbers would be C<>ntroOed by 5tar"~ti= In reality th1> ,;eldcm Withm each Sfl"Cl"$, howC\·er. oompenll!ln is strong and each
happens and ano<her predator soon appears capable o( filling the pliruculnr niche will lupport only so mru,y mdi\'iduak s. . .
unoccupi,'Cl niche. between memben of the""""' hpecie& are usually formal!U'd into
Plants can nnly use so much of the mergy they aboorb from the ,1yli1.ed displays in which little real damnge i.< ckme Territory i,.
,un. ll •• cWlicult to """"""'· but ""1'tainly no more than ru, Clj(hth preserv«I and mn~ are ch= vnthout r.u,1n-. to any ocrual
of one per """' of the sunligh, falling en, 1 plant can be siorl!d by
being oon,..nt!<l into suga,. The chemical energy in the sugar i,
used by tbe plant to build up thl! eomplicntoo organic t'ompounds
tblit go to form i~ wucu;re. It is ibis •ugnr, and I.he energy
coma,ned m ti. that • beitm,ornus ammnl ootains when Lt eats grass.
However. It Cll!lOOt convert oll UH! pw11'• stored energy U\to 11" own
requ,rementll - the maxunwn efficiency of an n.rurru,J is about ten
11er cent. This ,.,, per ceru foco:,r is prcsent at oil stagea of the tood
ch.tin and ,neans th."\& 10 mlY en\'lf()r'Ull£tll n hund.rcd hetbivo,ea can
support only ten camMJ«.'-5, and thes,c ten at:nJ\'ore5 can m tum
wppon only one ·~nd-stage" carnt\'Ore. These figures are
"""""mpl1fu,d and refoc to onimalt. of w""""' u?L The important
factor i• U,,O 111,.;gh, o( ute animal,; mther than the number-a or
wiitodual,. The ten per cent ractor huld> true for every stage in the
compltCatA!d pattern of food ehnll\$ and ts an importa,11 factor
leading to the otnble &hap,: of the food pymrud
The dependency of feeding ellicnmcy on sunlrgl,1 UI the reason
"•hy different pans of the eanl, suppon qutte durerem numbers ot
Ofl[,llllSlllS In tho tropics. where the sunlight is mt.<'08<!, much more
t;0lar energy 1J available 10 be aboorlx'Cl by pl11D115. Hence, where
other factors rruch as rainfall allow. there rs more vegetation per unit
area than m temperate or polir cltma~ This large amount of plant
material tS able to rupport A large number ol berbworous ananab,
wluch m wm s11ppon • wge number of carm\'ores. ln th<? An:ttc,
on the other hand. the low J.,...,J of solar energy produces a much A, u rougl, "'"' of rhun,h u P,<'G!Jletr ,.qumng °""
uni I of""'8,V for sub.n11m:,
-1, ro tdOtt j,. "" tyunxdml """' of •""'ll.l' fmm 1ht ht,,btw.., on i,,/\teh 11
more IJ'll"" vegetlllion. and hmce ti,,,,,, are G.,wi,r h..-biv<m,s ond p,ry~ Su,ukJ,ly oadt ht,b1u,1r n""1J ro ttmt" "'" un111 ffflm tltt _..,,.,n.
cwn fewer pralau,n;, TAI' 1ieg,rlaJ:10ni ('rlo1!7&.\' u <knte:l 1f*'/y /,or,1 rltr .\'UII, -ind ngau,. of trn urnb
Tb., varre,y of ~es ot ucb level m thtc pynu:rud do.-pends on abr,urbttl by d pwrtr, m '"°"" ,hdrt c-1n, t.inn u u.k'd tifcr:t,utly.
the wrtety o( plnnm at the base. On tropical grus.,land. for example.
where there a.re shon grasses. hrub,, tall grasses. bushes ond "'""'· comboL Ths •PP....,.
ro be the struiqo• that leach 10 greatest
each of tbe htrge number oJ indigenous arumal species .,.,. a ,uca,ss in mamtainmg a creature's po«moo m the eo,sy,tem.
rhlferem collecuon of plan<5. Therefore che anunal that cats roots '°
The predauOllS of C8J111\'0re5 de hule upset che balance of the
000,, not oompete w,th the Rrumal that eats the low berbo or the food pyramid By preytng only upon the weak. sick and elderly-•
anunal that eats the tall gra,,.e,;. Even IM!I< that do have a broadly practic,., fom,d upon them by th,· faet that ., bt,altby adult can
,unilar diet are sufficiendy durereot in some way so "' not to usually outnm or fight off an attack - Lt ensures that only the fituest
compctt· directly - for =pie, one may ""L m the dayume and th~ 1UM\" If the fit., healthy adults af A "peel"" canruJL outrun or fight
other at oigbL In 1hia w11y the ecologicnl mch.. are multiplied and off ~n assault their specit11 Will ,.,·,ftly become exttllCt and the niche
the processes of evolution ensure they are all 611.."CI. will be mlcm by 1111other creature. In ,h.,. respec1 predaro111 con be
The prrnciple that "noture ..bhor.1 "\lilCU\Jm" is•• tnie in biology Lhaught of a., no mDn! Lh.1n imp.1ticnl sciv~tig,l;l'nt.

21
Era Period Age lnvertebra1·e Ash Amphlblan Repdle M,mmat Bird

POSTHOMIC
u Second nowwtog of
the memm•I•
0
N
0 AG• ot M,n 0
zw
u TERTIARY
Mamm11, ptollftrat1

66

~~
CRETACEOUS
Rowtnno p&ent1
lgpNr

u
0 135 17 18
N
0
"':E
w JURASSIC
.......
WldNpni.a oonifaruua ~·• e 20 21 23 24
95
TIIIASSIC
OeW1 i:ol'ld•bOl'I•
condrtue ~ 2
~
t ~
PERMIAN ~
Ll,v. 1r1cu ot dnen • ~

30 32 •
80

CARBONIF£ROUS THE PANOPLY OF EVOLUTION

AQ• of 1co•I" forna

The chart shows e selection of 1nim1!1 typf.cll

at oarti~l,r periods in the e•rth'1 goologle1I
pe~ The period$ are d1tod l.n mUHona: of
year,: before the Age of Man.

38 1. t.murh,nSw•llow-
tall bun•rflV
2. hol1.11eor•l fl.ti
3 0t,1e1f ,olld
4. F1rt11111U
S. Homheect
e. s-.m
1, Honoy-
OROO\/lCIAN a. S.lmon
UJ• remt4na conftntd • . Tlw
10 '""'
ftftt11MHIU
to 1Mw1;1, 11, M1mmmh
1~- Atmir,go
13-- II) C.lfldulutib)
S.lwnhl
14, Porrh.w
15 N..., loo ...i1.
,om'l,J

-
J)htlt~
CAMBR)AN 16. T'ynt1~1Jtu•
Ut. tovnd Gniv In 1tt. ~OiflCAUf,
17, 0..Jtt,~hflffll1um
18. fchthycttnl•

··~
19. -
!C.C,h•loj>odl
20 Asptdorh'(l)dru.
PRECAMBRIAN 21 Stl•mand« fno wret~
prnc:irvtd forms)
NohAtd~lod
tnlmtla
43

22
 '"~ .~
I \ '
• I "
' I '\
J ~
• \
'

Tu nt.Jp ,11ou., cN aiJt(~atiClf\ oJ tk runtv,nits ,Jt tht, lirJ!'H,niri,: 1.f t&t ~tt'Un1dt1. ,111:
point ltl lffllf jrf,,ti u,~uch a~
huwry t{ li/f' am br noud 1,11fh ,r>rr1,• .~ency. Tn
f~a.iml:-nan 11"Jr'J lfQI llnlfflllh U'l'Tr Jif1Jt·bodw \Jlld. lJ~ OO/}' fllTtlj' pttKTlC,d._

The earth bas eX1Sted for alx>ut 5000 nullion vean and has been
populated by orgarusm.~ of one sort or another for tx·rwccn 3500-·1000 million years of that time.
However. an accurate fo..'iSil record of the r.anh's
life can only he tr.teed hack some 620 million year.; - to the lime when hard skelewns
lin;t came into extStence. At that time life was present only in the sea and the land was barren.
The dtstrihution of land and sea ll.'!IS riot as it 1s todav. The configuration
of the conunents and oceans tS constantly changing due to. a mecbarusm called plate,
tectonics. The earth's Cruh-t IS made up of a number of plAt..!s, like the panels of a football.
These plates are formed continually along one edg.-, when? material wells up from the earth's interior,
and are destroyed at another, wbere one plate slidc,s hene,tth t1 neighbouring one and is Inst
The upwelling takes place along crud-oceanic ridges <1nd the destruct1ou occurs along deep-sea
Lroughs. The material involved consists of' oceanic crust, rich m silica and magnesia.
The continooLs are made or a difforent son of crust, rich in Silica and :tlumiruum, which, being
Iigbtl!T, remains on top so that the continents are carried here and there over the
globe by plate-tectonic activity. Tb.is process has continued throughout geological ume and
will cootmue until the end of the world The 1mp(lrtanc.e of plate tectontes to the
hiiirory of life on earth IS nol just one of !l\?Ogrnphy.
Plate tectorucs in part atfoct.s the pattern of global dima~. which in geolog1L'al terms fluctuates
over a comparatively ~hon space of lim~. and h.L~ undoubtedly
contributed ,o the rdauvely sudden changes that have occurroo m the predominant life form on earth
The juxtaposition of continents at cn,ci.J stages in the de\·dopm~t of tht>se ,inimals has at
'certam times been unportant 10 their spread throughout the \\'orld
and has produced markL-d difterenccs between forms found on c:l.i.tforcnt land masses.

23
 HISTOR.VOF LIFE

THE ORIGINS OF LIFE

The aun and the ll<llar system were fomuid from a vast shapeless It •• possible tha1 the eartli's fir:st nano,;phere was nch m
clood of mrermllar gas, spanning slowly in sp<U:e at a rare of about hydrogen. methane and ammonm, similar m composruan a, the
once ,n 1en million years. l\s II rouu«I 1t began ro contract under atmosphen'5 of the ourer plane.a A• t,rnc W<.'nt on Wllt<T Vll.pt>W'
the mDueocc 9[ 1ts own gr,v1ty and. in oonsequence, ro rotate mol\" and carbon cboxide would have l,c..,... added to these gases by
rap,dly The forces mvolved flattened the gs> cloud mto a disc- in oui:gass,ng from the newly formed rocks. The w111er at fust .,.,,.,Id
which rna1itrial became coocentn11ro at the centre ro form the = rui\'e remained as a v-~pour SltlC."e the lwat of the ~ •t this
/\crosa the d,,;c, eddie6 appeared ~,at began to aa:rete materiaL tirM would not ha"" allowed it to condense. On tlw other hand. it "'
foaning the foundations c,{ what later became the planc13. Dust oquruly possible 1bJ11 the prim.....i nunospru,re of h},-drog;:n,
particle. con.<Jsting mainly of droplets of iron and particle.. of silica rnetllllne and ammooia WM mootly down oway by the lu,at of the
oompow,ds began to soliclifj, ~ droplets ro•l•sc«l into lumps sun ,;oon ofter formation and that the eanh'a 6m ,llable atmO!iphan,
and collec,oo uigerher in the ed<li.,. und.,. th• influence of gravity. WM oompn•ed chiefly r,{ carbon clioxide and 1111lt.:l vapow v-"'1red
The iron, being heavier, sank to the auddlt and the oilica remainoo from the tntenor through fumnmles and ,o]canoes In cithcr case
on the outaidt ID gM! thi, protoplan<.'ts an iron core surrounded by a the water thnt cond.."1lSed and foll as ram when the ..rth became
sl0'1y mantle. The mner plancta-Mcrcury, Venus. Earth and Mara cnol undoubtedly contained moleculeli o{ nmmon,a. methane and
- were formed m this way. The other plo.nms aggregated from hydrogen clissolvecl m n. If tlus solu11on was aub~ to h,gh-
lighter matenal such as carbon d,ox,de and ammoni.,, wluch ei,ergy mllu.xes such as lighmmy boll.ll or ultrn,•KJlet radumon from
cx;,ndemro from the!-."" .. the temperature c:onun""1:I to fall /\t <ha the sun. chcm«:nl re,,cuon.< would ba,"e occurred that \l'OUfd ha,,,,
nme the companion of mot>onnls in the early sun tnggmxl off the synthesized complex orgnnic moleculea such as ;uruno oods - thr
proc,,sa of nuclear fu,uon am! the sun began to radrate enetil}' - • m=tWli from which living tbmgs are bwlt.
proc"'!< rliat has continued for the li1$1 5000 million year'$ and will On th~ other band there may be a totally diff=t ,:xplo.nanon tor
oontll'lue for SOOO million yeans to come. the origin of complex organie molecul... Simple organic oom-
pounds au<:h u fonn11lclehyde are pr,..,,nt in rr,temcllar dll!1. -
pnrucles of carbon producw m otcllar ~xplosic,na. Molecules of
these organic substances may have accumulated m the pw,:icles and
have sub.equently united in10 the long chemical chaina of complex
orgaruc molecules that repres"'1t the first Step 111 the chemistry of
life. Gns emitted from stalS may conmm oxygen, carbon and
nn.rogen 1f tho. gas contains mQte oxygen than carbon or ruuogm,
<>rgaruc molt,cules "1.lch as polysa<:ehande6 (s,mple sug:us) m.,~
form. U nitr~ 11 the most abundant element the proc!ucuon of
nucleic 3<1d. and chloropbyll - the ~log subst.-mt:c of growing
plantx - is more likely. llltef!ltdlar dust can, under the mfluoooe ol
gra,•1tational (oire,, clump together, and w ccnaw circummances
6ill into orbit around a 1W1 •• a comeL If 1Uch • c:v,mi ,tn1c:k the
eanb in the early dny1 of the planet's furmntion, os l< more than
likely, intonitdlar organic moleculJ!,; would have reached the surfncr
of our plarieL
\Vhatever the ca.,e, 11 is certain that tbe bot ..,.. on the steammg
surfnce of the eanh 4500 mill,on years ago rontallled the complex
organ~ molecules that are n ~ for the butld,ng and d.."'elop-
ment of l,vmg tlungs.
In th< day, !<Jurt P"'Jl"T '°""q/w ,.,,.,t,gancm, '""" bc/,c,ed that rht ca,tl, cu
ht knrw ,r und all J~ IMng ('l'tldhna utit.h u:h:;ch lat umfamihat u~ thr. TtAlll The 6rst tlung on earth that could prvpotly be wnncd 'a!M:' was
i(d :nn.gftt 1uptm.ttuml dC1 of Cff'tlh()n Ulo.lt had btt,\ camt.t! out at a partin.Jar • molecule wuh the umque property of' reproduemg 11&<U To do
da"' 111 tlic -..1.Jllt<ly """"' posL Fom/"" ma tum found far in land, which this 1t must have been able ID breal< down complex molecuJ.. such
u...,. lat,,, tn pn,vul,r. e,,i,lma for fllflP, <hanf,<1- m th, dutnbul1011 of land and as poly.acc:hatides and u60 th.,u- conrutuent J"'fl,PI ID bu,lcl a mirmr
>tu, U.fff dmnml.'d ,u brtng u~ rnuJt of 1.1 punihu, flood. 1rnoge of itsclf i\ny cbarac:t:£nmc of the basic nwlecule tha.t helped

24
 (tl"'11 .t1J1lt.Ibfio atmosp~· anJ ,uefiJU (l1,tdt1w,1,1 It tf pautbl,,, fur bj, ti) mt lift
,, pL:rnt!t rhdt..fo.lb imtlun ..i bell uround da... Suri Jtnr:,u,o a1 rlw4'WJ('~ 1·1v, l,t,li
.,.lfflll Jmrr• JUJI ,ns,Jt rh, orhtl rf \ ·,nw ro J1"1 ""lstdr thr orb,r •1 Man.
Pluta 5900 0 .\rrrr.vry, "'''" a ma.nm.um nrrfaa k:mp-NiUT'C' of 17t!C, I.I: tnl.lC'li cw Ml co
Average distance from the Sun ruppr,,1 lift, and rh,; ouJm pt,,r,11, """'"'"R 1"''8'"""'1-'' a,ld,, tlm,ugh "'
in millions or kifometr-es Nrpu,nc1 and /1/ula, 1,1hfn,.. rht! 11ldXln1um lt:rflpt'l'Uttlf'fl IS uttU btlou.t -2QO°C. Un'
mi,,(h CD) ~)/d.

-
Nep1vne 4496 6

,t in thl!J taSk woukl haVl! cnb,,nn,d •tS chance, of •urv1vnl and tlut1
cillractenstrc would ha,e been peq,,,tuaterl 10 the "'f'lJCllllOO
pr<JC\',;S. Any foa1Urc that hindenx.l it would hov~ led to tha1
molecule's extincuon Evoluuon had begun.
---- ~- -- - - ...=- The, OCU\1ty oontinued unul all the onginal polyriaccl,ande.
pre.em Ill the primeval '=p' had been used 11p. Tht proto-
org,uusms wwld 1,a,;.., tbm run out of fw<l had they no! evol\'ed the
ab1l1ty to ayntbesin, their own from lllOJ1,1ll!U< suhstnnces U&ing the
sun's energy. 1bi. proecss, known .. photos}11them, was made
possible br the preseact of the chlorophyll m.ol~
Ev•ntually mrue thnn one complex molecule became rnvol,,,.,d 10
ead, rcplrcatin~ body and there OJ'?'M<'Ci the comp,,ct organic unll
known•• the a-Jl Some of the most prrrnuwc e<>lls lacked a cenrral
Saturn 1427 o nucleus, the SJte of the celbi' reproducuw rnachmery. a.nd this
function WilS mst..d spret1d throughout the cytoplasm. It ...-. . the
cells with nuclei, however, that were to go <>n ta greater tbtng,i. and
u1 the course nf evolution smaller cells became inoorporau,d lOlO
lruger ones, remaining there to perform cert.alll mal rntercellular
!unctions. Eventwilly complac "1Ucturea amoe conmtmg of more
than on< cell. each cdJ having its own panicular role to play in
J«,eping the whole unit alive. The organism bad ,'VOlvotl.
Thi, cvolunon of the first multi-ccllcd ~ mlly haw oomt
abnut m one of two pt>•sihle "'"Y"· Either hy 11""·living cell• of
*"
different types COlllln!l oogether a 5U'lgle unit, or bv cells foiling to
= &-par,:lte compktcly du~ ,rubdi\lWOD and remammg togetbct as a
0011,plcx enuty. Regardless of their fom;auoo, these muluple-celled
orgaru,w,s must as whole uru1B ba,.,,
been more succ...ful than the
sum of their pans ar they wauld DQt haw swvived
Th.: c:clls uf multi-Oill..:1 creatures ....., not idenucal and haw
qwte different fw,ction, d,;,ending on the UJiSUeS or o,g,u,.,, they
constitut.! ln the lughcr tt111m of lili,. 'lOJD~ arc st:rur:tuml clements
•uch a& hone ccllll, oth= sud, "" blood ccllA provrd<, Moru:e agaum
d,sc:w, and uansport food, whereas others such as nerw cclls form
lhe orgnnism's "'-"'<OIY and rommunicati<,ns system. Cell di!Tcrent1-
uclon Ill most cases oc:curs ,1t the embnoruc stage To ~ with an
embryo'• <;ells are all identical. The initial fenihzed cell divides into
two c:Llu~hter cells wrucb cl.wide into four c:ell$ and IO on untJ
&eV<'tal hundreds. ofidenncal c,,U1 bave bem produced Rowel'er u
a paruc:ula.r p,int rn thr ~o's development tlus stage c - and
!ljlCC1Jic cells are produ<:cd that ore d.)signed to fulfil definflc roles. It
,s unclear how tlus ccU cliffcrcntiauon accun AU ,;ell micl<:l t<tnllilll
the ,:amc genetic rnformat.ion, hut only part of u 1• wttl 1n the
f ECOSP. prod~cll<>n r,( 4 new cell Some agent wilhin the cell. mOlit lil«:ly
I
I Wt!hin the mJdeus itRlf. mu.st dei..rmine which piece of Lh< genetic
I
cock '" u.<1.-d to produce th• neu• c-cll so that it = fulJ\J the funcuon
.Jlonecl m it

25
 HISTORYC)F Llrf.

EARLY LIVING FORMS

Thtau!(hoot tho: early oceans Jingle-ceJJed aod multi-cell.,d organ· ECHINODERMS

ism8, both planta and animals. floumhed. The plants were able to
ab.orb l!llCJl!>' &om tht sun nnd to photooyntru.'tlize food from
morgamc matenll! The anunals unabl,o to prod= du,a own food
chrectly from sunLgbt obtained energy by caung plant$. Tu!S
CXW\trltllt m feeclmg methods II the buic diffi:reooe 1,.,t.,.,.,., plants
and atumiil•. imd "' rdlec~ m the strueture 1111d physiology Qf ih~
two types of organism. Plants. needing only sunlight and lnorgank Jollyflsh s.. urohln
T1lilt.<nah,, haw no nttd to move if &Jtuated in fawurable position;;,
rul<i their oelJ,, are therefore stiff walled and rigid. They bave flat,
<""'tg)'-i'b,om1ng wt£.,., (lca\'es) wluch onentall! tTJWaroJ the sun, Corti
A
and 11ttthr.inng ,wcrurea (rooll) through whteh they absorb
nutrknts and which also prevent them from being bluwn ,,. wnsM:l
away. Arumal.\ on the oih.,,. haru.l, n..-.d in moot"""""' to move ii-om
one plant to another and haw t.heNl"ore C\'Olved mol'I! Oexibtc cell
walls and mwcular •}'lllemS to make mo,..,,nent f'06$ibl<'. They haw
d"''l!!oped sensory organs and O<'l'\'OUS fiY'WXl! through wluc:h they
<'V8luate their surroundmgs and by whiob they nansm,t mossagcs ro
ch!!tr m!Jllcles.
Associated with its power of mo>'e!Ilellt ts an arumal's "'"'rall
geometry. Tho$e th.it .,. not JUSI oh.1peloss ..,Jenu,.ry IUll'lp$
filtumg food from pastnt,g wawr rurrenta have a $)1llllI>etry that is
either radial or bwlto:ral.
AL !he begmning t>f the OunhriRn pencd hard-shelled anunals
~ed for th,, fim rime in lnrgc numbeni. Aa nonnally on!)' a
Two forms ,,J >)m""'rry mrt ,n ti11J 1....,..1,1m,1, umld, rua11JI J)'lffmttry r,\~ 111
craturi, shell h<!comrs fosmliud. lM history of life is only well u.Jnch a111mal• O!I" .rymmt&f'kal ubc..11 4t1 a.ri.t runnmg thmu11,h di,,n frr,,n t.op to
known from tlwJ time onv.11rdo. By the Cumbrian .U major gtO\JP" bott,,rn, and f n ~ symlTl"'U')' (BJ, u1 wlurh oJutrwlt O:rP l)ffllMtl'lrul 0,b!,1,r a
(phyla) of an,mrus. both radiallr and bil•temlly ayrnm..'lricil. had plun. t11nnmg 1/w lmgtl, of ,1,..., boJiG.
;,,:olved Tho anunals w1th raduil •ymmetry cx,nsisu,d ol the
c.-c,el1m1ra1e,i Gdlylish and corals) and the echl.OOderms (IUIJ'fuh and
seu urcluns). Tbooe with b1laru.u syrnmeuy fell min four ID&lll
groups; the brachmpods - an almost e:moct group ()( shclllish; the
rnollu.o, - bwahed sheU6:sh. ..., 8ll8ils and oauulus-like
c:<.'f'bnlopods: the ,n.luopodl - repr=tal pritnltl'ily hy tho
t.rilob,= and !CVCnll class.,s o( "'Orms and v.wm-1.ke c:reenuca
From""" grwpof t.hese wonn-likf' animal,, the chllrd.ltes, came
the lint oockboned wID:nab in the Silurinn - a class of prirrutive
Jawl""" fish and tM w,costors of all vcrwbraras. AL this tun<, ioo.
the plontll lint aun. on to land From •hallow coastal u.>atera
erJ1et!?C(I a group of plants that could sun,,.., without bei~ tOt:lllv
c immersed in ...-.ier.
1112y "'"'lved
sulf •=·
to give them o:mre
r,,..""""
rw;:,
""""'t1v,c:,.
Ir"""'• u. """"''""""'· ••
a..1,,nog1....... ""'· ,.........i.,..
.,,,m,&mt.. und th, c/vmla.., - a ll""'P that ,ndu.'.o ,,..
support. and an internal plumbing '}"tern to transport w•ter and
d,<SOJvcd minenm up from the ground and carry m:inufru:tur«l
...,,,b,...,, Tilt .01rnbnty b,ru;..,. rh, i,.,,.,,,. of II,, c,a,rn uonn and tlrat •f food down from the lea,..,._
r1n,fish IA/ <1nd""' n.-u.,l,m (Bl, ,,.1,u:h arw both «h1nadmru, moy 1nd1<•" As a side effect of photc,,yntbesa free ox,-geo ..... liberated into
rht <lwmkiu-1 fl1lY!,r,brutit .Jll«Ttr\ the atmoopb<re; the pl0p011ion .,f a:,xygcn incwu;.:d wh,le !hot of

26
 Tht ""'"""IJ b<ru- lulr-finn«I fi,h ruch .., Eu,thenop"""1 a,.J ..mJ
umpham.'.lru 1td. aJ kh.thyc.U!gt Jttct a dt.J, tnchcutvn ofampiubtJ.tn ariart,y.
In lcbth~ rht fishi ur,i[<mn IJ>1n<2/ a,lum luu ,..,.n itp/ar,d by a much
hta,....-and ,m,r.g,r sll'ucn,i• and a fully dm.•lop,d rib CLJ[!!, capobk of
1upporttn4 tht ""''""' "" dry land. l lJ lunb,, alt/w,ugh nnch lon,e,,r than a feh '•
fou, 011' s:1mWJ 1:n JumL

carbon d,oXJde dccrea,,ed, mahng the comp<lftuon of 111r more outgrow.Morr.he pbaryn<. Vertebrate life on land had b(,gun, e\'Cll
c:ongmml to anunal hfe. The arthropods wen the lirst animals t0
r,uce $Clvanmge of the unproved armo•phcric wodibona and botb
tooU1o?h it = only as • u,mporary me.a.sure to .Uow the
conunU11t.10n ol ru, aquati< l.'!OStcna, By the cnd of t.h.c O..,unuu, the
&eo!pl<>M .nd millipedes """!00 =11!! th.: early planu;. amphibiaru. •ble to spend moot Qf thcu adult livt'S on lru,d, hod
·ri,., succeeding Devonian period II known a., the Age of Fishes ,1ppeared. One of the earliest, lc!tthyosr,,g,, showed the l}l'•cal
fi111t to evolve lrom rhe primitive Jawl<?SS type,; were plaoodcllll.'i amwgement ol ~,-e-toed Limbs suppoii.'CI on strong gircll~ of bones
such .. Dinicltth)'• - the armtlur:ed fishea. 1<·hich had ,a.... e,'Ol,-.d follllll in land animala. It newrth.:less retained lish-lik.: f.atureo ,n
ftom the 1,o...,. of rhc gill archa. llcfure the •od of the Devoman the ,bape of the mil and mill.
ti'")' w,m, largely rq,laa.'<i by cartilag!DOO& fish ruch as Cladas,J,,cht,, Tt,., Carl,oru&:rou. period tllllt followed was d,e ume or the great
tlr forerunner.of the sharks and mys. Bony fish. more l.'l?l'Satile and coo.I forests It was also the Age of Amphib,am: the lush swamps
widely dittributcd, exisll!d alongside these carnlagmous specres. that characteri1,ed the lowlands cf tho pmod won, ,deal for their
They formed two main groups - th• ray-finMd fish. whieh wero to development and oonscquontly a large number of new fonns
prove mosr succe,;gfuj, an<l lobe-linned Ii.sh such as Eus1ltmopte11>11 app,ared. Some w,,re small and eel-like. such :is Dolschosomo, others
The last named u the most Sl!llltficanr of the tWQ from an such as Bogynnus assumoo nn nlhgawr-Wce form and exislA!Jlce. Still
evolunonary prnnt or view Living in shallow freshwat,r JXX>l. others, oud, os Drplocaulus, becwru, broad w,d llattmcd and lived
which periodically dri«i out gave them the ewluoooary stimulus to entirely in mud The skulls ol tb.se creatures were mare ad,11oced
sumvt au• or water Wt..,,, the paoJ. cb.appeared Ewt.hcnopkmn tbru1 the fish-hl:e 1crucwr, of !r.hrhyo,tzg• The na>al pas,sages were
dragged ,,self overland to the next am c.C water by means of a pair well defined tndicaw,g that they belonged to sophisticated all'-
cl m"""""' Jim "'"lved from atabtlizing mgans. At t.h.ese times 1t brcathtng animab. n,,,.., animal• g,ive ,,,.. to boib the latEr more
was able to broar.he air through primitive IUfi!s$ developed from highly advanced runphsbr""" and to d,e reptiles.

L09£· ANNED
FISH
JAWED FISH

-~
PiACODERMS
Oi nkhth't'f

JAWLESS FISH

Th, N?l1<1t fuh """)"II...., (agnathonrl, rJinr """'tlu being ,., • ..,. !Iran fish, t/1< ..,.,"""""5/uJ group, •&a ~ fn,,n '"' aJV141ha,u, ""' lor
.,,.,,,ng, "' th, d,p,~ mi'* Tiu, Jau-..1 fi,J, first ap,.,.r«I in th. °"'"""n. dJ,.wd '"'" '"'" """"'· u,, loor-fin..-d fulr. ~·hid, 1.-.d fo,,hy fim, and tlw ,ay·
Tht ...,, pnnnbt~. tht, ~ =• a higl,Jy di,..,,. gmup •/ annauml fi,.,.. juh. wh.-h /,ad fi,u ""'P<"ffl
uf .ir,n s,,pport,d by l"""y fen, . M..1Juh
11- with JllU"' and ~,,, fo,..,.J, ftr:,m bonJ lr<ad plow. C.mwg<-swl,r,,n,d ,pm<• pYa,n, dun•Qt rhr A,;, of Wan lorlonR..J 11> tit, ,._,.finn,u cl,u,. Thi-
[uh, 1/w "'""""' of tlk sl•irks and "'1'· ow •Pl"4roJ "' 1/d, """ Tht bon) lo«-jinn<J fo.h Ulm' "1'""<''1«1 by onl)' fr= gcnna ,

27
 HISTORY OF LIFE

THE AGE OF REPTILES

Th•· n:ptil~ ..,.,.... the first oomp!l?lely JruxJ.Jiving ,"'1l!brate animals 11ie reptilian devclopma,t that exu,nde:I thi• rang,, wa., the
on earth. The amphibians from which they bad l!'IIOlved were development of the hard-shelled egg. wluch, b)' mean$ of unpem,e-
r"a.onabl)· well adapi..'CI Ill liG, on land but alwa)"' bnd ,o n,tum ID .tbl~ m.,mhrw,.,.., cnahlod th,, emhryo arumal to da..,Jop in itll ""'D
the waw 11:; breed. and the ,mmawn, mges always, of neceuity, privaw armourtd pool away from w.t"'1', In addtt:IO<l the repulcs also
had to lend • romplewy aquatic radpol.- e.xi111ence- Thi• nwant, in had tough slcins that n'!!is~ dcsic.cation to a much greater e,tt«nt
.!feet, that omphibia.n colomz.aoon of the land was confined ID than tho<e of the amphibians,
J.Wamp)\ 1u·eax ntnr coa.su., lakes and rhe bnnb of riven Although the fil'St reptiles •pP<,anxl omong the cml forests of the

liurd-hippod
dinouur
Ill
:,

I Blrd-1,lpped
1nouur

Stem roPtJlea

Th,, a:trlitsc fl'phft.J1 knotin a, rlw ''lr.tm nrphhe!". 1t1ol1.edfrom rhe a;1.mrlu"ta,u da.wfi,d m tuo g,vup, ....-rnhng to th, structuffl 'If thm htpo. OrlJly, th, birds
'" t/w, r.<1rho,r,if,,.,.., ond det•lo!'<'d lnl<l u ""'''' of form, that fill«I IJ)J ,,., .lfl' ~ (tum tl1c bzanl-hippttl gmup, nof UJ o,w m1gh1 aptct fro,n IN«
mllJI" tm,fflt'1,!')('Mtal 'ft'4'lltU - cut, lanJ <1nd lWtl!T, Thr idtth)'QSilUfJ1 plt'.SIOSilu" 11-,d1 brtd·!JW Jup.t, As t{tci tlCt'Un in ,11.1lUT1!!'1 u.illtrr futk of JOphisticaOon
a,.J mascum,n ll'lf'I" OQ'UoJh,, IJw. p~un l«flf a.mn/ and rhf' dttltl1(lU'1 and rmrt,a ad.ipt•bth1y, th, .,....Jil, •"'rt, c,nc of tltc ..,,liat rrpu/iun firmu ro
.,ldmmJl-0,... "'J'hM!S "'"" fl'n'9tnal 1·11r ainosaun (tlw c,mh(,. f1:.al'W/ i.TTt ..,.1,~. ulhm4ti.J_v pnn."" mnst iua=fuL
28
Tu.o """' gn,up, oi ""'"""'' ,q,nla a,,l,..I from fl'l'Ol<-1,i., omplu~rons, r:A~•;P1~il;a-J;l~ko~•~m~ph;i;lb;lo~n;---=:;;iiii;;:;::::~~l
nat h ,u S....J'fOOUrl.i - ch, d1\·hcdaun and thr mammal-1,J«, fl'f'tlfn Emi) I~eymourla ·~
at<h."""n ruch "' OrnuJlOOJdiu., '''"' 1n,..i.~ bur many t.,,., """'b,m of rho·
x,wp ..Jop"'I • fou,-frx,"'1 trant,. ,\1mmnal l,w Tl'J'h/n ""'" "' Thtiorucodoa.
olr,.,.ih •Pl>'•nng """Y ""''"'""""JI
tn rlt. hurory of ch< ,.,,nl.s. n,r,;..-d co
lfflmv lite """"""' ,,( tlr mammal,

M1mm1Hll<o reptile
Thrir,axodon

Cnrboaiforoua penrxl. •t was no1 until the Permmn and T nlll!SIC th.u
the reptiles really c-ame mu, toor own. As large pans of the earth
became ,·ery much dner nt th" ruru, there 'l\"1$ a dmmct B<Mllllllgl?
in being able to live nway frQ[ll wnter; pn,cl6cly lM C<mditi()Ol< Altho,;eur
n,'Cded to ==ge the repules to expand and diversify
1ne lim really su=ful group 11/\lJY the mammal-ltke repoles.
OrntthCH1uchU$

These hod a !oath potwn that was a great improvement over the
,nmple fi<h-trap la'th of the amphibians. They had loag killing
te,:th GI ~" front of thcir mouths and shorter shearing teeth 111 the,
bad; ill! adaptation to o. Ol!lllvorous mode of lifr that antic,pawd ilICbosaurs the looges1-hvmg member was the early crocodile form.
the ,pec,alw,....i tooth patteros of the mrururmls. The limbs mo,·e.d to which outlasted the more 'f"'C1'1cular clinQSaul'!I by rnr,rc th.,o "
a mammAl-lilu, p<l6lllon bea<ath the body so that 1t wns oow hunched million years. surviving with modmait.u:m until well aiter
6Upponed at the top ol th-, legs rather t.han slul'I!! between tMln, as the Age of Man.
Willi the case with the amphibians and the earliest reptiles At the ln rune the archneauis even donunatoo the $k1es The ead,e&t
end of the TnllSl!IC penod the nwmmul-lik~ rc1><ale,, du,d out m• .,. were tbe pt""""'urs, creatures thar glidoo through the (Uf on
b1viag, as thca d,,sc,,ndanta. the true mammals ilia, ..,,..., to real....- wmg• of akin stretcbe,;I between d,e elongated fourth finger of lhctt
th.:lf full potcntul tn a,tother 100 million y...,.., Th£ dommant for.Jimbo """ tbeu had leg. and wl Thct< --· small creatures
reptile nm was meanwlule talten by a group lcno\1111 as the sud, BSPtmod,u;-ty/us and Rhamphorhyrn:J,us, which may ba\l\! fed on
nrchosaurs. to "',t,icl, the later tlmo..un. bl:long,,d. u,sa't>, lruyer fom15 sucb a, Prrrariod/,n and N)-cto,aurw. ~·hid,
Tht archoe;,uns (the ruling reptiles) first nppc.m,d in Pcrmw, nnd were fu.bcamrs, and huge crearurea <UCh as Qu<'tzolcoatlw th;tt "'""
Tria,sir tun¢! ng tiemi-aquatic creatures rather like crocadtles m almost c..'l'talnly 11Ca,eng,,ts.
form w11h J'Ol'l"l'hll hind legs and stroog w.ilii - charac1eristacs that In the Jun,s,.ic llll<lther flying niche was tnkcn by the de.oc..'ndant>
luted throughout tht h,s,ory of the whole group. When dunng the r,f t)Oe partin,br grovp c,f S11lJlil, 0,,;;h~tiog <ltnosa.ur,, 5imilar to
Pcrrruan the;ie scmt-aquatte repuJ~ became readapt<d to life on Comp,ogMtlna, wluch had feathers instead ol BC&let1
lru,d, the)• found chat their long wls g,,ve sufficient boJance to least parts of thetr bodies (almost corwnly the,r ltrnba und tails!.
=~ "'
pcnrut them to walk oo their hind legs - the oos,c bipedal stance of These were the IIJlOOIIOra of the true birds wluch donunatod the
the drnooaur had evolved. ~. . ,n the later Ccoozotc era
!ly th" bcglll!Ung of the Jurass,c penod, the clioooaur had become Dunng the period of dl!lOSaw evolutioo, other repule grO<l()fl
the dominant form of v•nebnuc we. and had evolved into a widt dcwloped fonm that were 3l>lc lO explmt tlu- gr,:nt fu.xt "'"'"'"""'
varlL't)I of fumu that bad spread across the earth'& entire habitable that e,usted in the sea. To return to the realm of thoir runoi.:
l•nd area 1bcrr W\!l'• llll'g<! hetbh'l:>res such as Diplodoi:w, lightly ,u,cestUl'l they had to h.'1.'\'tllw many of th., ph)'Slcal feat= that
built, fu<t ·mmfog au:nivorou• forms 5UCh as D<monychus and much had b.'en Ion durins cheer adaptauon t<> • land-based aistmee
t.lower moving m.. t-eating scaveng•r,i rueh as Allos.rurus (t is • The 1,=p that conw.ined the snnlu,,, and bzards of the . ~ oj
rnistalcc w b.l""< that all d,nosaurs were massi,.,, 1:ieasa. Compsog· Man gave nSII!, Al thi~ tune, u, Tyltl$Jluru,, i ma.sive-jnw«l, ..,...
oothw, which preyed mainly on smrtll repttlll! and egg,. .,... no living predator wluch propelled u.elf by sinuous movcmerus of its
liugt'< than the <.k,rru,sncat.d ehido,n. The lightly built herbivatOUS long body and Oanened tail and Ul<l>d 11$ paddle-like limb,, fo<
din<l$8urs, of v.-luch wmprosaurw was• iyp,caJ represent:ottll<', were sM<lting P~sauTU$. a slow-movmg creature with a loo~ &lllke-like
a parucularly 1mportnnt group ond wer-e the ancestors of several a,,ck wlu<:h 1t u!Cd to lash out a.1 ond captwe fish. lts main food. has
l'llJIJOt fonns. most nolllhly the armow-.d \'l11'1Ctid of the l•tm no survtvlng ancestors The evoluuooary pl1lll3l:le ci( the aqunnc
Cr~tace.,u.'I. O,nosaur nrmow: took a number of sbupes and 117.eo n,pules v.~ perhaP3 Ichthy<>,auru$, a 1cpule th.,1 look.,d mow like •
dependmg on it> Functldll; "'-'Ttical pbu.es JU w St,g<,S<llJ,w. flat bony fi.h It bad a otrwnlined body, fins and • lish's lllll
tubcrc-ul"" a, rm Ankylasaunir and head !!luelds w, m Tncrnirop, Despite all these mazvellou., ndaptaoons the l ~ rcpulco ch«I
Non,.. of these previously mentioned ard,osaur groups """' t)Ut c'tluttly •• the end o( tl,c Cn,t:aceous period The reason •• still
ult111111tely to prove to be the lll06t succes.ful. M Ulnd$ to be the unclear, but their extinctmn roincided with dr.utic c:lmngc. in the
,:a.., with ony group of animals, the most primitJve und un· marine ,nvcrtcl>niu> fuuna and with c.llfllJltic chang,.,. that resulted m
l!pOCilllized m<mben on, the ,noot erulunog and in the case of the • dmnge of ""!!"'Btion types 0<>er most of the earth.

29
 HISTOR.YOF LIFE

THEAGE OF MAMMALS

.'\lthough the mammah l!\•ol~ frotn tho CDlllllllW·likt reptiles jaw is a oomplicnted l!tJ'U<:tUlt! ronsisung of 5'!V<!11ll bones In a
during the Tnnssic period they remnrnetl • mi.111 1nsignilicant P"l'l mamm.a), however. the lower Jaw It constructed from a tingle bone.
or the vern,brau, faunn for the next 100 million yea<$. while the The addillOD.11 bones present ,n a n,ptile ,are U'lCOrporated ,n the
rcptilc?s bcld .-y over lund, sea aod aJr. mnmmal's ""' This development took pl= independently at least
The charat=tic physrcal features of mommals - the $llllplicity four umea towards the rod of the reign of the marrunal-like repnles.
of tht JBW, tbr cvo!ut,ou of the car from tbr JBW bones, $p!Cl&lizt.d Se,.'Wll physiological festureS indialllve of the mrunmaa aha
drnuti<m ord the posi1ron of the Jimbo ben..th the body, rather occum,d m the mammal-like reptile$. The polaue v.tiicb cnnbles
than out co the side - bnd all been evolved in the lllllffltlllU·lik• mammal, co bl'l"llhe and eaI at the ..me time, essential for the
reptile>. 11,c feature that ,n parmular sepirat4!$ the mammal-Hke constant supply of oxyg,,n ru,o:!,d io support th• warm-blooded
reptile, from the mammals ii the llftlcul.ibo11 of the jaw. A , cptile'$ condmon, fu.1 nppean,d m the CllllllUnal-lil« reptiles P,ts in I.he
•kull Md jawbones. indicumg the prcsmce of wbiJkcrs ~
th31 som,, mammal-like n:ptile. were Bt laut partly hairy and "!!"in
provid... evidimce of IWJlll-blocxledn-. 1be dcvelopme.nt of their
teeth sugg,?SIA that the young wt!N? toothle.,s and hence mW<t hnvo
been sudded by their mothen.
Throughout the Age of Rq:mles mammals were confined to
smnll, m()USe· hkc creatures Gvm!I ou UlBeCtB, seeds and al""
probably repnle egg,,. Although "' JUJ11sa1c llll1e$ ..,,,,era! d11tlJlCt
or
orders exuned, distingul5hed by cbfferent kinds of t.?eth, few tbe.c
Cfflltura outl1v..'CI the dinO!IOurs. The ultimately ID05l succes.ti.tl
surm•c,rs were the plac,mtalo. those mammal, that llOUrisbed their
d..'\'Cli,ping young witlun their bodies until they were at an ad1,11nced
stage of development. The placcnt.1la fim appeared dunng the
Cretaceous along with a 1ide branch. thr. mamipial, - mammal,
that nurtured their developu,g yow,g in an external pouch. Be,ween
them the placcnrals and rrw,,upial! !IC('()Unted for al.most ,he enure
mammal fauna o( the world during the Ag• of Min. although a
prunitive egg·laymg group, the moootmn... w.. ,ep,....,t«l by a
mer~ handful of sp<cies which mcluded the 1>la1JPU$-
1be Age of Mammals dawned at the lx_-ginning of the Teruary
with the possrng of tbe large n,pulct. Witlun the first ten million
)'lllm '" ,o all niches formerly ,xcupi,'<l by reptiles hod beet, lillcd
by tllllliltnals and all the mammalian cxder. that were around at the
A Meg,,osirodon E.. Gh1n1 an1aa1.1 r
,'lg,, or Man had been esimll4hecl.
8 Ut1otu• F Tft!rtllophodon On land the herbiV(lres were represented by hoofed ungulatea
C U1ntath•rium G , Sabre-toothed dger auch os horses and the pigs. po,sessing plant<roppiog one! grinding
O. Andrswsttrr;hu.s H Prodo/1chorl# t..'<!th, by largo clcpbart!B w[th pick-like ww and by small roclmta
w,d lngom0<pb. "Ueh ,u the mlS and r.hbits w,th gnawing froot
reeth and cru!<hing baek teeth. These herb.-'Ol'OU! onima.ls were
AU mamm.ili ar, dcu:mt1td fwm ,m..,Jl ~ialta" ln:l«'h1flfflW n-ta.tU1"4 n.,ch pl\.'}'iXI upon by 6cn:c members of the camJYore frun~y lnS<?<:tB and
cu ~ 1-\ r 1/uo md of tht. Mao:oit:, map mt1to1u11t11tal cNJ,wn
other mven.!brares were eaten by pnrruc,ve UllleCUvores 8'ICh "'
rc,ulr«l mii,,"'~"'""" ofth,, du!Ofaun and !ht onamn,al, <Wlml ro t.,ftt Ultl•
shr- w,th mong r;eeth ab!~ to tear through the tough outer
plau os rh< """''"""' '"""'""'" I:""'?· r,.,. ,,.,(y T"'1lary ""'""""" ....,. co-,·enng,; of beetles and millipedes. and cdcntaw a\lCh u nou,at>?n
,nmnly J-st-dw,./1,n, c::..m,wm ,,r,1~ pm:,J, ru,:h "' Anr:lrN,...,.rciniJ. """'
pmmlnlf •nd had r«th "'"'"" to 11- of l'tJ"iln II.'h<n c,,nd,tw,,o °""""" and arma<;lillos with.no Leeth at all Prunates, the monkeys and apes,
=lwd in W ro,.....,, and lived 00 H wide \'ll!'lel)' of foods, ~ ..
dn..,.dunng '"" "'" TrrtfO,y, th, fi,rau rmd«J and""""'""/, .tund,i, ro rhcu,
(m,ntJ dunng tllf Agr <J{ Man .,,,,...,...,J. reflected by the versotile nature c,f their dcnttt10n. All tJ,e..,

.w
 !vtammul• urr gmurrd ,n111 1hrtt m.'l;l'1t' c:r:utg-mo - rr.wnatrtmt11 ma.mqnats and
p!,anr.,l,, ,\I"""''""" fA/ rxh"' tht plat.)1'1u fa:,,~ T/w, f""""''
li.w."'
16Jlt end wl1r11 a,.)'>Ullg arr hai.l,.J they fap lhttr ,,,,,,,.,,,., md~ frr,m th,
,u,fa.>t of hfT •"'""""" IBJ Manul""~ (CJ J!'"' b,nh ID im,..,ru,. >Wnir.
"~lt.h tn "'°'' ""*" o,. llrp, andft<l ,n •• abdom111DI po,ich (D). P/"""1Ual, 1EJ,
"'Ihm ..,..,,mp/io, liato a p"'°"1"1, thmugh w/ut;h tJw min)<> uftd untd II
" """P"Tltl'"'ly ....U ikldopni A/11< d"' .J'N•1g ar, bom they aro frJ by 1lir,,
mt,lhrit thmUJ!h "'"""'" ,,..,, (F~

nwrunaJ• were plaronmh, but in some lSQ)at,.-d ''"'""'""" ,;uch ll& and the grasslands, providing more c,pen bubimtli, ""f"'Dde:I in both
Australia and South Amroca many of the niches- were occupied by the temperate and crop,cal latil:ud.!s. The was- that compri.,ed chi,
marsupials imtead ,,egctallOD represented a ru:h untapped food l!OU!CI!. but before it
ln the 111r !hi! reptJ1110 pteroeaur niche was occupied by the ba1,,, rould be explorted new. ridged !!rinclirlfl teeth had to evolve to top<'
.,,th wmgs d,.....,loped on =ended forelu:nbs and lingers. As they wnh 11S high a,lica content. The q:,on VISW.> alllde ronC<?almmt
!kw mauily during the C\>erung and 11 mgh1 they did no, compete cWlicuh and compelle,:I the herl>JVOtOu.s mammals occupying ~
dmnly with the bin:ls. wh,ch were much better •dap<ed for thia to seu refuge in lbgb1 and. to rcmi,m eln!ct,v,:, the predatory
"°" of life. cam,voro, a® had 10 ~ < fi-r
The watery nid,a or the plcsiosa=. pli08i<Ut$ and u:hthyooaun Th.- pnmat<a, which evolved in the treq of the forl?SIB, also
were takt!D, tl'j,pl'CtJ\i'!ly, b~ the seals. whales and dolphins. which \'\!lltuted on to the gtll!Jlly plains. One particular group lldaptlld an
evol""'1 sucanilincd 6...h-llkt! bod,.. ru,d podcllc-shllpoo limbs. upright stance - a aatund cb-elc,pment of the,r mode of locomotion
The =ly pan of th, Tertiary period wn cbaractcrm:d by on in the trees and enabled lhe,n to """ °''"' the tDp of tall gr:,."'" and
tncr<Me in the number of difftrmt •pec,es of maminala. h was as if have ..."11ling of nppl'D<>Chlng pn:Qatora. Anothtt leglley or their
ontun, wen, trying out nll &orts of new fornu to ""' whii:h fitted the arlloreal life was a keen co-ordination between hand and eye. This
v,1C8r>! niches hest. Later the mArmnnl! settled down to a much dextenty en.mled them ID use sticks and """"" "' t«>I• to ,,ploit
smaller number of woU-adapted spec,cs. This ,s lllllllogous 10 Lhe Lho a,'Bilablc food more eff«:tivdy. l\ prima,~ trait that particulady
snuauon Jollowu,g the O<!JlUse of mnn and the extmctions cawed bclpcd in food ~throng was thou high degree of social organ12A·
directly by h,m There ag;un a ,,as,: number of new species evol\'ta, aon. Run.tmg u, pacb they could surround •tnmals that .,'OIJJd
olmo.1 ,mmediately, wh,cb were larer wb1ttled down to a 111naller Qthorw,se be too alert cuid 6\\'lft ro be caprured The IDCrel&' m
number af ~ u l forms. wtelug~or,, that enobll!d dx,m to ,..,...,rd,oate tbc,e attnbuu,s and to
Th- early Tertiary uu,d mrunmah were tt=t-dwdlen. How- n:gu.Jate their complex oooa1 structure pnwcl the way for man'•
ever, about hrul-way through ,he period the global climate changed evohnion in the future.
A r-~~~~~~~~~~~~-. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~

a·

J11w h.lnge Jaw hin g e ~

In tA, ,,,...,.. of '1<'lu1wn frr,m np«lt o, mam,nal 1hit Jar• r,,,,. !toe,,..,, """" hl11R< lw l>«mte 1nc:mpcm1W ..ihm tht middlt "'' ond oho """""'"" hiot•
"'1'1t,..nruttJ; w jaw hm8f 1..,, ,mnotdfariht,,fo,u'"nl ii> p,mnt """"'"'"'""" ,t,,.,lr,p<d a """'" ., 1/iar !My""" brtdol" u..J "'' al th, ""'"' '"""
chrit.'lng, 1Jv brlh ltiJT,11' lit!come \Pf(.'l(ll.u,,ed crnd hc,i:c rn~rt on dtjJ(fflntform,. to A. l!Atly ouunmal-til.. rq,til, ~ ) II i...., mm,maJ.w,. "'!'"It
tuJI P17rtu:uLJr J"'l'fJW":SCS such IJ.'I hlt1ne,. ,:lttu11nst and srabbinR,, Tlw ,,pntaan p .u (CH<,cJc.vrl,u,) c Mammal (C.,nuJ

31
 HbTORVOF LIFI:

THE AGE OF MAN

Th,, fu:st men """" plant gatherera and orumnl hun!Ct"I ond differed ll'Ql,nbility of stlll'\'8tloo, as there was no longer the JX)IIIDllity of
1,,~e w lift ,tylt from other be,biwrous nnd the C'llm1voroos returmog empt}~bandc>d lium a foragwg CJlpoo!UOn. It ,..,., the
woiroal• around them. They bad sufficient iou,Ua..-i to de.'llK? cooi,, beginning of :cgriculrure.
and "'°''fXllll> and • =ial nrgMWIUO" that rrw.1e hunting and food A1 lir~t lh• areas unc.lcr cultivnoon were ,;,nail .od reLinvdy
gathering mr.ire efficient. Neither of these thingg, however, made ,nsigniliatnL rlOIIM'er, the improvl?nl<11ts 10 eatly man'• "'•Y tiflife
any l!efioua impact on the envimnmenL were so clnunmie tba1 his population.s iocreas.,d marla?d)y and more
ibe 6nt great chang<, 1n th"ir lilt 11yle cnme when, instead of a11d mor< Llncl bad l<I be cleared of"" natural '"lii•0tt1on ID malte
hunting n11d g,uhenng anii:n,tls and planr.. they brought them roocn for crops ond gm1.ing nnunal,.
tO!<Cthtt and lool<ro alter them in a ,ingle location. Tua eliminated As man's ingenuity and tool-malang ab~ity grew, h~ mvenl£d
the e)wu,nt of dan!!"f pn.'SCl!t in hunung and reduced the tndusrnal p r ~ tha1 could produce IOOls wnh greater speed and
less trouble than before. This mevitab)y in'i'Cllved hea~ am! forcsta
were cur down to supply wood nod mountainsides were dug away
tu rc.ich CC6l to provide fuel. Withll'l " ~w thousand years th.,
land.scape of the earth ......,. changed NU! of all recogrulJOn
Man'• koowlodge grew. ,nan &igni6cantly tn th" field of m,-dical
bCicna? Acc,dcnu. and di.cas,-. that hdp I•> l:<cp oururn) popula-
tii:>os m cbeck were overcome or r«luced in their elfecta by man'l
endeavours Genetic dcfen. tmt. in th~ wild, would have proved
final and wqukl haw been eliminatal by ru>t'WtU ..-l..-.:tion were
perpetuated because lh•tr p()5Sl'SS01' W\.'l'e allow«! to Live .wtl
"-'Produce World population increasru exponentinlly and h,rdlv a
ft'i11on of the earth's surface remruned untouched bv man.
The ulttmate effect was that. whereas other ruumala c:banl(e and
adapt throl!S!h the slow prOCC88 of evoluct0n to fu into. th.,,r
A.,,..,. envir<>nrneot, man \\'U able to dwige bis en\'ironmt'nt w !iWt hJS
a A<lttt'#lophfrhocu,
C. Homo ctNJGtU• current nc,:,cls. renpmg o sban-c:erm advantage m the PftlCCSI!. Livmg
O. Cto·megnon t>u1$idc <Wlution tlJch suige m hia rapid cultur.~ ,Je,..,)cpncnt WOll
E. Homo up/.,..
~ on ro the next gene.raunn. no1 through h a ~ but by
leanung Althougb be avoidc-d the unpleasant effect. of namral
Relectioa. he also did without '"' long-wrm benefits and in ,hon
CltUl-d a bah ro .,,..olutioo 'l-11t applied to hiumelf, 1bc result wru. •
worlt.1 overbun'.k,,,ed by a populanon of beings unabl+, to SUMVI!
without their <•wn COMCious int<.>r>>enuon. n world given O\'Cr t0 u,.,
cs.=tinl needs of mnn, a world poooned by Im wast!?.
Ulltn'l•tcly the earth could no lnng,,r S\Jpply lhc raw mat"'1i\lJ
needed for row,'• ogriculture. industry or rrwdicme, and 111 e;h~
of •upply caused the collapse of one scrucwre ofter noother, his
whole complex nnd i:nt.erlocktng ,;occnl ood t1:chnolog,cal oodice
munbh.>d. Man. no )ooger able t'> adapt. rushed unconuollably ro
his inevitable extinction.
Ti.. ,wlullOn qf"'"" wn bt r,...,Jf,om an apt·l1k, a"""'°' thT01Jgl, hom,mds \Vith the domcn.tnt We form gooe thc onuml world l?Dlttcd a
.n.ith cU Au,n·1k.ipithm.111 .1,ld ,ur(v n1t111btr,,: CJj hiJ OU"I gtt1w such dJ Hc:mo
...,.,_ c.........g..,o """'· an ea«y [om, ~, Iii, IP,,:,,, Homo "'P""" ,is.if. pmod or evoluuonary chaos that wted tens of thousonds nE years.
opp«1t<d in Eun,pc """'"" clur <rid uf ,i.. P ~ ia o~ Man, si...11 HUW<\.'l?r, man'• cxiinctioo provided the impcrus for the fonnntion
dnwlnptd from a ~''-' trrnctuTc <.'Wlt<11nu1g o SYl'laU lrr,un 111w (Ind' of l,ghie, ()( m;my new species <>f animals and hlS di.snppearonce wa~ of
/,(~ rncan11g ti ti.J.w C.m'l,ruJ c:ut11t:v 1\fa,1't ~rgt bm.tn gu1ti lum tlw pow,Tq/ fuodamencul onportllDO? en shaping the wodt.l that has em"'RC(i 50
""""""' t/lOU,l(hl and l<'pITTJc.d lwn from ,i,,, '"" of rJo. animal la,vtJ<,... 1n11lion years lattr_

..\2
 Fifty.01dbon }'''"' ef~ Ult< Ag,, of Man Ult< <Lorid~ ...,...,..,,. ""1nnG!ltl of Afrloo,
E:u,OM and Notth A"""""' ho« join,:J w,rh Ausrrulia wfim,, • singl, uniL South
AITI<'ficu u ..,.,...,,..,, f,,,,n Nortii Ammai "' II ..... In ,,,. Tomlary.

The world 50 million years after man is one he would still

recognize; the climate and vegetation are broadly similar, only the geography has changed.
Plate tectonics, the force responsible for continental drift, has driven the continents of Eurasia,
Australia and North America together and turned South America into an island
The animals on the other hand, although still fulling into the familiar
classes of fish, mammals, reptiles and so on are remarkably different even though there are, in most cases,
underlying similarities between them and the species that man would have known.
The most profound differences are in the higher fon:ns of life,
the birds and mammals, which, because of their adaptability, respond rapidly
to chail!,>ing environmental conditions by evolving and producing new species quickly.
As the earth's major habitats are broadly unchanged they cannot be
responsible for the changes that have occurred in the earth's fauna since the rime of man.
The answer must lie more with the infinite variability of nature and the large number of solutions
that exist in terms of form and shape for any one animal in a given environment.
Which solution is ultimately adopted bears strongly on the animal's ancestry. lf a creature
has a particular feature that, in the short term. can be modified to suit a certain role,
then that feature will develop in the course of evolution
to suit the purpose in preference to one that is
hypothetically better but which would have to evolve from scratch.
The vacuum created by the demise of man provided the stimulus
that led to the creation of this new fauna and it is their solutions to the successful
exploitation of the earth's vast variety of habitats that is
described on the following pages.

33
34
 g •-• .mm.••
.. _,, ......_o _,,
...........
"""'--~ - ...
~ ~

35
36
 TEMPERATE
WOODLANDS AND
GRASSLANDS

11.cro« the N<wtkm Hemupl,e,, the tonperau uoodkmds and gr...,-Jand, form a !nwd
l,dJ ,nn,chng th, glob., ml,m,pt,d Oflly l,y high m""nlauu and ""-'· &.,ti, of 1/w,
tqua!Dr ltmp,"'11< habolatJ = found only In 1'°'1Jwd poc/,tb,

Temperate woodlands and grasslands are cbaracte.p!ltic of middle Tbey react to this in many way~ including hib<imation and
latitude areas, where warm Rub-tropical and oool !i\Jb.-polar air migration. The discard<id leaf matter forms a thick, rich soil and
ma= rneet. Thi, boundary is not fixed but moves oorth and south contains three ilOW'CeS of plant nutrieots - rotting plAnt material.
with the tJ<?asons and ,mies a great deal acrording to the geography humus and clay minerals. The humus slowly releases nutrients into
and reltef of Lhe regron. In the lower wnperaoo latitudes. the the sot! aod al!lO trops essential mrnerals such ns nitrates and
- . , edg.-:s of the oonunentx tend 10 have hoL dry summers and phoophates. The clay muierals •tore potassium, sodium and
mdd. d3mp wu:m,r,, while the eastern edges are warm and bumid calcium - important raw materials necessary for photoSyntha1&.
all the year rouad with fro.'JU<mt summer thui>(~torms. ln higher In areas of seaso,,aJ rainfaU where the total pm:ipttation ;.
latitude,, the cool sub-polar air mas,;es are the more dominant between 25 and 75 cenumetrea, gntSll Conn& the domin,rn1
ioflueoce ond the general eastward movement of the air !;,rings rain vegetation. t\lthQUgh all grassland areas have an annual period r;,(
to the wesoom margins. giving damp, humid conditioos in bc)th drought hu!ting (l(.'llel'!ll wcwo or month., when the •urface soil does
summer and winter. out C'Clmpletely, their fundamental charncwi,,tic is the tOlal absence
1lie typical vegetation in humid areas is deciduous fo~ but. in of mqisum, at depth in the so~. The luck orw;iter at this level does
places where the rain1itlJ is high and I.here is little dilferern:e bet11,-een nol impede the growth of gr.,ss. whioh is shallow rooted, but
summer and winter tompcrarures, evergreen fon:sts of both prevents trees, which have deep roots, from establixlung tbcmseh.u.
coniferous and broadlea"'!d !Tees are foond. Moot of Lhe tree speci,,s The temperote woodlands and grasslands probohly represent the
present are influenced by wJ type ar>d local relief. Pines are found habitats that suffered most duru,g the Age of Man some 50 million
on gmvclly so,Js nnd rock ouu:ropa. and aide.rs and willows oo years ago. Man c,i1 down the forests to •upply fuel and to provtdc
waterlogged soil by rivers and streams - but the ma.in Cyp<?S of tree space for agriculture and senlemeoL He ploughed ~ tracts of
are oak, ash, maple aod beech. The charaaenstic feat"re of grassland to plant cereals and created wide expa.,..,. of pasture land
di.'Clduous woodland io the diff'erence between iis ,rummer and for grazing anunrus. These disturbed areas did not revert to their
winter aspects. In the summer the leaves form an al010$t continuous natuotl state until a long time after man's disapperunru:e. Thi,
amopy and little direct wnlighl rtad1'lS the ground Afcct the interference caused the extinctic1n of • great number of ltllimal
annual shedding of 1"uves the trees strnd stnrk and oaked against genera native m the original bab1tats. However, some creatures did
the wintry skies and the inhabilllflts are faced with new conditions SU1'~'1:. and it was from th<!se that the animals of today's t~mpernt•
of ligbting and C:OVl!r as well a., of temperature and precipitation. wooclliuxl areas are d ~.

37
 MOLINTAIN RABBLICK
Ungulag"' sa,nd,ms

COMMON RABBUCK
DESERT RABBlfCK Ungula~ flluicultnx
Ungulagus flovus

AR! TIC RABBLfCK

U11Rulagu• h,m,tus

38
 THE RABBUCI(S
The evolution of the major group of herb1IIOl'ous animals

During the penod unmediately before and during the Age of Man th•
principal large-scale graz,n and browsen; were the ungulates, the hoofed
mammnls. They were generally lightly built running wiimals. able to escape
qulCkly from predators and "'th teeth particularly swted to cropping leaves
and gras.ses. The ungulatll!I were widely u!ICd by m.'Ul for bis own putpOM!$,
Cows and goats =e domesticated fur milk and meat, sheep were bred for
0.'001 and the skins of many were used for leather Horses and o= were
bames,;ed to work for man and became the classic beastS ofburclert. By the
time man became extinet these animals had oo:ome so dependent cm him
that they could no long,,r survive.
'Il>e deer, the wild ungulntes of the IX!ftlperate latitw:les, fared little better
l
Vast tracts of temperate woodlands bad been destroyed to make room for
man's cities and to provide agrkulrural land This interference with their
habit:tt was so int0ltrable and put such pressure on the deer that their
number, fell IO a level from which they never recovered. What then could
take their place? A whcle ecolog,cal niche was vacant with nothing to
exploit iL Which creature lll3S bent pi.coo to talte the initiative?
During the Age of Man a sm.alJ.sa.Je grazer wss P""""t that WM so
~ u l it was considered to be o pest The rabbit Wllll so seriously
destru<:t.ive of man's crops. that man made numerous attempts to control it
and ~a attempred co exterminate it. Yet no matter what act.ions he took
~ never suttced«I in getting nd of it complctcly. /\fu,r man's disappear-
=, the rabbit's vtrsatility and short breeding cycle enabled it tO devclop
successfuUy into a nwnber of separate [Grm$. The most successful, the
rabbuck. Ungulagw spp., now occupies the mche left by the ungulates.
To begin with the rabbuck changed l,ttle from illS rabbit ancestors
excep,ing ror si>.e. In an env,rorunent to<ally dev01d of large. hoofed grazmg
arumals tbe rabbit was left with no maJOr grazing cornpemors lltld quickly
evolved to occupy the posit.ion tht.'Y ooce bcld. TI,e early l'llhbuck$,
Macn,lagra spp., retained the bq,ping gait of their forebears and cleveloped
strong bind legs for leaping. f l = , ah:bougb iwnping w;,.o ideal for
moving around the open grasslands, their traditional habits~ it """' OOL 1l ie
best method for the confined spaces of the forest, and a more fwxlnmeotal
c;:hange had tu tnke pince. Several spec,es of this enrlK?t line still exis~ but
their place has hugely been tskcn by the running forms of rabbud that
more closely resemble the deer of earlier cimes.
Tite second major devclopnient lOOk place sonie ten rrullioo years a.lier
the Age of Man. At! well as de\.-elopmg rapidly into tbe-11ize of a deer the

ff{5_ l'1tbbucks also began to evolw the cypical deer leg and gait The jumping
bind linibs and the generalized forclunbs of the robbit grew into long-
shnoked running legs and the feet ch,tnged radicully. The outer digillS
atrq;hied and the second and third toes grew into hoofs, &trong enough to

- : ~ _<jL bear the animal's weighL This was • highly satisf'nctory arrangcn=t and
this line Im now hugely replaced the leaping form as the daminaot group.
The rabbuck lms been so successful that it is found in a wide variety of
forms throughout the world -from the tundra llUd coniferous forests of the
~,'117~ far north to'the deserts and ruin foresm of the tropics.

39
 THE PREDATORS
The~ of tM predafQr rats - !he earth's principal carnivore group

In the mammal world the predators were uadn,onally carnivores (member.,

of the order carnivora)-specialized meat-<?ating anunals with teeth
modified for atabbing, lulling and tearing l1esh Their legs were desigi>ed for
leaping and producing a tum of speed that could quickly bnng their chosen
prey within killing dislllllce. Wolves. liom, sabre-tooths, stoats- these were
the creatures that fed on the docile berb,von,s and kept their number,; in
c:beck both during and before the /\ge of !l'lan. Howe\'er, being \'l!f)'
gpecinlizcd. these species tended not to have a great life •pan. They w,,re so
scnsitiV't to changes in the nature and d1e populations of their prey that the
a,,erage life of a carnivore genus was only six nnd a half million years. They
reached their acme ju.st before the 1\gc of Man, but have since de<:renscd in
importance and are now al=t extinct except for a number of aberrant and
specialized fonns found in the coniferous forest of the fur oonhand ,u the
South American Jsland Conancnt.
The place of the camivoreo, os the principel mamm.J predators, JS now
occupied by a variety of mammal g,oupa in ddfereot pans of the world. ln
temperate regiom the descendants of the rodents cccupy this niche.
When the carnivores llll!re at their peaJc, the rodents, pe.nicularly tbe rats,
began to acquire a taste for meat and animal waste. The spread of man to all
pans of the world encouraged their proliferation and aim man'• d<!fflise
they continued to flourish in the refuse created by the disruption and d<!cay
of humnn dvilizJrtion. It is this adaptability that bas ensured tbcir s\11'\'Ml.
Despite the specialiZ<!d narure of thrir twh, rats were able to live on a
wide range of food& /1.t the front of their mouths they had two sharp
gnawing incisors, wrucb oontinued to grow throughout life to oompensate
for wear and which were separated by a gap from the back weth. These
wtire equipped with flat eurfaces for gnoding ,-egetable maner. ThJS is very
diil'erent from the typi<:al carnivore dentition, wlucl, bad cutting incisors at
the l\oot follo"''ed by a pair of stabbing canines and a row of sheanng u,eth
at the back.
11.s the rats expanded to occupy the niches lefi by the dwindling
carnivores their teeth evolved to fulfil their new tole. The gnawing in<:iscn
developed loog, stabbing point& and were equipped with blades tba1 could
cut into Md grip their prey. The gap helWC'ffl the incinors and the back
teeth became s=ller and the grinding molars became shenring tooth that
worked with a a:issor action. To make the dentition effective the jaw
articulation changed from a rotaiy grindmg moaon into a more powerful
u1:>-and-<k>wn action. This dcntiaon was crucial u1 tbe development of the
predator ratS and allowoo them to radiate into the numerou. form. and
varieties seen throughout the world today.
1n temperm:e latitudes the larger herbivores, the graurs and browser$ of
the plains and forests that were one time prey to the wolf, have now become
the prey of the fi:ilanx, Amphunorp/,odm cynommphw, • very large dog-like
rat which huntS ia pack$. The evolution of this form Involved the
modifianion of the limbe from the faizly ge,eralized ..:ampering legs of the
rat to wry sophisticated running orgnns with &m11U, thickly pndded £.,,...,, and
long &han!u, powered by strong mu,cles and tendons.

40
 FALANX
Amphimmphotlu, cynomo,phui

~l
 CREATURES
OF THE UNDERGROWTH
Life beneath the trro.s of the l'lroad-leavd fur1!$ts

The undergrowth of a temperate wood, thick with humus ond leaf-~tteund

added t.o annually by the autumnal Rhedding of deciduous leaves, provides-a
ncb sPUrCe of nourishment and shelter for all 50rlS ofanimals. Tue primary
COlliumei-. of tbi,, material an> bacteria and im,-ern,brates, such as worms
and slugs, wluch in wm provide food far mony mamma4 and birds. The
insectiwm, are therefore well repre5ented in chis habitat, not only in their
primitive role of small-in...,, ea"'r but also in a number of varieties that
have adopted • pn,dntory. camtvorous IIl()O? of life.
Amo"g , ~ that have kept to their original lifo style is I.be tcstadon.
A-rmor.chill<l.t impenttTabi/i,, a clescendant of the_ pnm,ti,.., hedgehog. The
spine,, or its anMtor have been replaced by a WteS of hinge,:(. armoured
plarea wtuch can be drawn together u>to an unpregnablc sphere wbeo the
animal ts threatened. When rolled up tightly 1t is almost impo6sible 10 grip
or penem11c and even the most determined predat.or rat finds a meal from
this little animal more trouble than it ts worth.
The tusked mole, Scalpnxkns r,,Jp,Jorrne, comes somewhere between the
olrl order of UlS<CtM)rtlWI animals and the ru,wer <=U\'Of'OUS ones. Lookittg
very much lilce a mole of50 million yw,; ago, it leads a burrowing existence
and bas adopted the 111:reamlined shape. velvety fur and ,pode-lilce feet ofia,
di&tant rowan. Ho""'""'. here any resemblance stops. It has two huge tusks
extending from its jaws, ntid • puddle-shaped tail. As it burrows, the animal
pusbes forward with its feet in a rolling motion so that its rusks rerun out the
5IW in fiont of it. Tiic Joo,;e soil is pushed oocl< by the f<?et and compacted to
the tUilll<'l Wllila by 1ts nul l\s well as eatmg worn,s and burrowing
mvenebmtes, 11 also preys rn, small wrfoce-hVlng animals. espec,ally m,ce,
vol~ and li=ds.
The lll061 ioteretitmg elCalTTple of a previously msecnvornus creature
turned lll£3t eater is the oakleaf toad, Gnma ftr,llllifmm,, . lt gets its name
Imm • peculillr llaihy OWJ!ll)W1h OD im back that looks exactly like a fullen
oak ieaJ: The toad ~ pGtUy burioo ID Ule leaf litter, totnJly camouflaged
and quite motiQnless except fur its round, pink a,ngue which protrudes and
wriggles al,c,ut ju.st like an oanbwonn. Arry small enimal that approoclies to
iove.tigatc fulh victim to the to.d's powerful jows: The lllllDllli's only real
enemy is the pred•tor rat
Thell! IWO creatures, the oakleaf t.oad and the predator mt. have a
cunous relabonshtp. Witlun their blood streams b,..,,. a fluke that ,pends
the JU\'enile stage in the IIOOld and the adult stage tn the predawr rat. When
the fluke approaches adulthood 11 produces a dye that turns the leaf-like
outgrowth on the toad's back bright emerald green. l\s this bappeos in
winter the toad ba.omes highly conspicuous and is quickly eaten. L, thi,,
wuy the fluke is 1r.1nsfcrred into rho body of the predator rat, where il
ba:om<!S t>eXUnlly mature and breeds. Thi! fluke's eggs return to the toad
through the predawr rat', faeces, which are eaten by beeues that are preyed
on by the toad /\$ the fluke n,-eds to spend a period of nt lea.st three years
growu>g in the l00d'11 body before it 11 ready to pnras:itize the predator rat,
and•• th0 toad i~ """ually mature ot eigh1een months. all toads ha~ ihc
opportunity of reproduci~ before being expooed to predaaon.

42
 .)
'Y

TESTADON
Annarechinos impenerrabilu

OAKLEAF TOAD
Grima frondifomie
,A

CHIR.lT
TcrrJesc;IJTUS n,fes
THE TREE DWELLERS Mammo/$ ,ind birds ,>J the tre,,.tops

Pinnt-eating mammnls abound in lhe trees of the decirluous fo"'8ttl, oatmg

shoots ll!ld leaf buds in the spnng and fru,is and nuts 10 th• autumn. The
long-bodied squirrel, known as tbo c:luri~ Tende$d,,ms rufus. is a typical
plant.eatmg mammal lta peculiar shape 14 a legacy from an lllllllCdi<ue
oocestor- the tree-bwrowing rodent of the oonbern coniferous furC$tS. As
it spread south into the temperate woodlands it found thAt it no longer
needed to make deep tun.m,I, in the treos IQ escape the bnrsh WIDter, and as
• result the arumaf's specialized chisellmg and !!D•wiog teeth bl,come
miallet, its denllrioo Jl!\oertIDg to be more like thnt of its distnot anccstor the
grey squirrel. Tu hodil)' ~hape. howe\'et, •11,s sdll penectly adapt.1<1 to life in
the trees and remained uochang,,d.
Now tbnt the arumal no longer led a burrowing exi5tence, ,ts l<!gs and fo,n
had to evolve to suit ill! new environment. Its hind feet, although 6Il1llll and
&hart. became very powerful ttnd dc..-eloped strong, gr,pping claws. TI..,
uotJcr,,ide or ,ts short tail grew bard and scaly and with its hmd feet fomk'd
a strong three-point anchor that couki ,ecure the animal 10 the tree while it
reached out to colloot food.
N; 11& 8qll,rrcl 11~tol~ jumping ability has ooinpk·tely d!iappeared, the
en1u.l can only maw &om one tree It> another by reaching out and
grasping an e1<1ended branch. for thl!I rell$<m the cbint,. found moot afieo
in dcme thickeu;, where the trees ,,re dose a,getber la only coemics an,
birds of prey, and ,t os really only vulnerable to these when fe<?ding in the
topmost branches. It retnins the predilection of the burrowing squirrel for
making ne&t& in holes in "'"""' and aftm occu,,ics hol,>s and hollows
excavated by wood-boring birds.
Wood bonng ,s the speciality of a group of ,nsoctivorc,; known •s tnle
drummere. Prob=isunrus spp. These. anunals. b,,sically shrew-like in foon.
subsist on a diet of grubs and ,nsecu. which they gouge out tinrn crevices m
0
the bark. They ha1,-., masses of ,;enoory bn,tles on thetr feet and very lnrge
cars, which help them to detect the mov,:mont of grubs burruwmg m the If"- .J,.,!J. • Ui "' J/r Is,¢ ..al.
wood. W""'1 a tree drum=-r find& a grub 1t dri,~ ii. chisel-like reetb mto """"" At'M,JA,a..d.-.........
the bark. to make a bole big enough to enable 1L to remove the grub with its th.,.w,"""' @pd,.,t'fl"",-,.-
i:runk-like pl'00()5C]5. Sometimes the grub ~meo t11c,,....,nx1 on 11• chi.cl
t....i.h. and needs to be c:ar.fulJy plucked off befure being eaten.
IL ui really the bird< that ore the masters af the ~ After the great
reptiles becnrnc t!Xunct, b\J\lr a hunclnid million Y•= ago, the birds
expanded mto an eoonnous number of •pecies Beu,g primanly dffilgncd
ror flying. birds h.id"""""" to the tree·t"f"' ma wny ,hat few other animals
had, nod find•"!( tha1 they wen? llafct there than on the ground they won
became j)<.>noctly adapted ro this ,_. bahitat. As o result many woodland
birds have developoo feet with curved opposable toes tbn, are idi!aJ fur
grippitig hr-.tnches. Jr, one (l))eCics. the trCf! !!008" or hangmg bu-cl, Pendai.s
l,,cl,,~tyh«, these toes haw been nxluCl.'<I to tw<>. Tbey are pc:m:umeotly
curved and enable the bird to hang upoide down without dfon Becm.J.'IC of
ih<, biro's siu and weight, this atnt\ldo is much easil!r to maintain 0\-u long
periods than ao upright <tilOCe, and it ha., !iilren to ~ing long periods
roosbng in this position.
45
NOCTURNAL ANIMALS The night-life of the temperate forest

A!& night fall;; in the remperrue woodland, the sleq,1ng ani1nals of the- day
are replaced by a completely new set of creatures. Noctwnal birds, bat,; and
insects - • whole array of creatures is found thru arc os di,= and
numerous as thuse of the daytime. N du.,k falls and the moths and night-
active flies uixe to the air the insecm"Orous bats appear to feed cm lhem. Bats
ba\le proved so successful in their shape and life style that in most parts of
the world they have remained remarkably s!llble in shape and form ever
sin(.'e they first appeared over a hundroo miUion years ago. Saw for the
dewlopment of• more sophistlcared echolocation system, positioned at the
front of the race, and the ab5ence of eyes, little else bas changed.
The purrip bat Caeroprm,, ,;p., so called because of its curious voice, is
fouod throughout n,,nperate latitudes. Unlike the earlier bats which
generaUy navigat«! using high-pu:ched sounds. the pump bat use.s a mucb
wider range of fr~enci11a extending well into the audible level, givmg it a
much n,oni sophistw:nt,;,d picture of the term1n.
Great birds oC prey. which combine the charncu:risticsof the fcrrncr eaglea
and owls, wing their w-•y sileruly through the branches. ever watching for an
unwary movement on the ground that would <knoll? the pl'i?80llcc of a small
animal. Their large fooward-f.icing eyes, acting like wide-aperture lenses to
increase the amount of light reaching the retioa, give a three-climeosional
image ovu their entire field of vision and enable them to accurately gauge
distanca. and hunt in almost pitch darl<ness. Their prey includes the lutie.
Mion,1,J&''" mw,nps, a descendant of the robbit
The luties live in direct compeuoon with the ancitnt groups of small
rodents - the mice and voles. In some areas the lut1es have replaced the
rooonts completely, whereas in other parts of the woodlnod,;, where the
conJillC>11S pamcularly fa,'OUr them, the rodenta have rem.,ined s ~ u l.
The lubes =hie the small rodents in many respects, particularly i.u size,
but their rabbit ancestry ls obviously displayed in the shape of the head and
tail. They feed mostly at night, ~ during the day U\ crevices among
tree rool8 or in boles in the ground.
Another small animal thnt provides fuxl for birds of prey is the truteal.
Ter,lrrad,ms tubauris, an i=ivore related to tJ,e chioel-c:oothed shrews of
the trees. The incisors of both the upper and lower jawa of thi:. animal are
extended forward to form a structure. like a bird's beak, which actS as a
probe to catch worms and burrowing insects ,n 80ft earth and leaf litter.
The trureal is completely bhnd and retains oo ves11ges of eyes. It 1s,
howew.r, equipped with a large number of sensory wliiswJ and extremely
acute IM)aring. llS ears. which are enormous for the size of its body. can be
roUed mto trumpets by a unique &el of muscl.. located at their base and
then preased to the ground to listen for sound. of burrowing.
The shrock, Mele,v= sylwtrus, is a much larger ammal l'.>escended
&om in_setti110tt stock, it has a size and shape comparable to that of the
eirr.inct badger. h makes nightly forays through the U11dergrowth and will
uixe any prey that it chances upon. It has a long snout and brood forepaws
with whic.h it digsafruburrowinganimals and excavates its own family MSt
in soft soil under tree roots.

46
PLIRRIPBAT
Caeoop1<:11JJ •P·

TRLITF.AL
Trn,!,mdms tuba11ns

lt1
 REE.05f11I
//onmdcpe,; virgatus

PFRIT
Aquam l,u/us lrm:u !US

41:1
 THE WETLANDS ufe in the fens <IJ1d marshes

In <emper,uc lanrudcs wetlnnd areas are compe,allvely isolated pockets of

land found scatt~red wid.,Jy across the Northern C:.Ontmeru. t\s well as
stnctly water habi~ts •"ch as ponds, la.kes and ri,'ers, they also mclude
w,:1ches of oaltmarsh and fenland found near the oea, mires and pea< bogs
found in poorly drained mland regions and areas of regular inundation
~ conditions found throughout this r.ng,i of habimts ts so di,-erse in
terms of' lllllinny, oxygenation, light penetration and water currents that very
nearly every lndivlduul locntion has its own little ecosystem and associan,d
faunn. and almost e,•cry animal group is represented.
One of the most uousu~J ,vater-living mammals is tl1e pfri1, Aquambulus
hfrsutm. a tiny insectivore descended from the primitive shreu.'S. Its length,
excludmg tts aul, is 1... than 6," centin,oues, wluch puts it among tho
smallcsi mammal$ tn existence. Alihough its bod)• ,s thin, its fe,,t and truJ
nre brood and are =wed with water-rcpellant hairs. which spread its
weight over such a Jari!e area that it can skate ncross the waw without
br<ak,i,g the mirface tcns,on It lives n:\ilinly on cl,e Jan,ac of !TIO&jWIOOS and
midges that are found just under the water surfuce. It feeds on them by
piercing their tlU!Pr cuticles ""th its long. hAirlcss snout and draining them
of their vital JUi<-ea while they ~re still in tlu, "'"'"'· In this way the pfrit
avoid< di$t1.1rbing ti,., waler surf.re, which W<l\>ld both upset the &urlitce
tl.'tlSion and frighten owu.y i1S prey
A maimnal (requeotly found near ri- banlcs and lal<e si<kes is the
reedstih. Harund,,pes ~alus. Tis long. slender leg,; and neck and venical
s1npos render It almost cotally invisible among reeds, where n is frequently
found fishing. '"' h;,ad and nod< ore moot unu~. i'rnctically all mammals
bnve seven neck vertebrae, but the ,e,,dsnlt hos fifteen, In evolutionary
terms the c.<tra ,=ebme ha,oe nf'P""l"l'.l qurtc recently and result from the
fact Lha~ iu 6.hiug, longl?T·n<!Cked indMdual.~ ha,~ nn ach'llllll\g<: over die
other$. The tooth pattern IS ~ne11JIA! - the ,ncisors. canines and molan;
having aJI revcru,d to on almost r,:pcilian condition in which they a,e all of
the same shape. The r<>.•chnilt """" this oombinacion of n«:k and 1ooth
featuret< "' cateh fish by darting ou, i"' loog oed and 6nOppiag shut its
oeedle-pointed teeth.
Fishing skills ha'V\l also been developed to a high degree by the nnglor
heron, Bu1ori<i,, piscar.,,,w. This bird, an inhabiran1 of the North American
suboontincnt, cn.>ates shallow ponds •t !he water's edge m the shade of
overha0!(1ng tr""8 by ocrap,ng at the ri,-er bouom ftnd OOn>U'\lcting shallow
dams On the shore o,,urby it accumulates a ooip of droppings and 6sh re-
mains to aurnct beetles and O,es. 1nese it then picks up and drofS into the
shallow water to entice the fish intQ its pond, where they nre easily caught.
Although tliere llnl many examples of Alghtles. bitds. the long·necked
dipper, ApreTOCindus hmgi11ucl,us, a rivcr bird of the European ,uh-continent,
is the only bird that spends p,,rt ofi1S life ,..;l.b the capacity for !light and the
rest flightli:s•. During its early life th!! bird develops wing,, in the normal
way. but once lt has migrated away from its natal nesting site it becomes
totnUy earth-bound and pursues a purely terrestrinl - aquatic existence. Its
wu,gs now no longer necessary, lose thcir power and gradually aliophy.
49
50
 CONIFEROUS FORESTS

Thrwgl,,,.., the u'C>rld ,x,n;Jnowforrstt amfowul in•- htn.,ng the low,,,t ""1f"""lu'"s
pe,,,,wibltJo,- tho gn,u,,.h of lrea. Tlwt la,ge,t ,apo= "" fwnd at th. fa, north of th.
Nonht:m Conri""'t, bonlenng th< rundro.

The comfetous forests of the Northern Continent represent the The coniferous tree's typical tall, pointed shape is ideal for
greatest expanse of uninterrupted forest in the world. Coniferous bearing the weight of the winta snowfall and allows the snow to be
trnes do well at high latitudes because they are ewrgreen, and shed quickly when i, melts in spring. 'Their surfao,.gpreading root
phol06ynthesis can take place immediately conditions are right for systems are pttfectly adapted to the shallow aoils that are
growth without having fim to produce leaves, as is the case with characteristic of the babitaL
deciduous trees. In this way the conifers compensate fur the short In the north of the regioo, wheN the underlying soil is fi.w.en all
!l70wing teas0n, which is .bout SO ro 80 daya depending on the year and is therefore imp;:rviowi 10 water, there are many lakes,
latitude. Fruiting and reproduction are also in tune with the climate. streams and bogs with their own localized Oora of mosses and
Conifers, unlike deciduous trees, do not produce fruiting bodies sedg,,s. The forest is more open and bleoda into the neighbouring
that are pollinated and ripen within • &iogle year. The fertilization tundta. Larger patches of tundra ln068elJ and lichens appear on high
of a female cone rnay take more lhaJl a year ro tomplete, and BS ground Near rivera in this transitiooal area the forest remains thick
many a& three more years may elap&e before the cooe matures and and extends fur northwards aloog sheltered valleys into the tundra.
the seeds are ripe for dispersal. At the southern edge of the ooniferows belt, the conifers grade
The lack of leaf litttt and the prevailing cold conditions which imperceptibly into deciduous woodland
inhibit the natural decay of the forest's pine needle C&lpCt - material Throughout the world, smaller areas of coniferou, forest are
that is slow ro decompose in any case - results in only a thin found outside their normal latitudinal extent, particularly on the
underlying layer of topoOil and tittle or no undergrowth. The slopes or mounmina, where the altitude produces climatic con-
indigenowi mammals are largely herbivorous and exist mainly on ditions S1miL1r to thooe experienced near the poles.
diets comprising mogseg, pine needles, bark and seed cones. During the ~ of Man the coniferous forests experienced
Insectivorous birds are rare compared with thooe that feed on cone- coosiderdble environmental damage, due mainly ro clearance for
seeds and buds. agriculture and also in the course of COl1llll=ial forestry, This
Throughout the region forest fires are not uncommoo. usually effectively exposed large area& of land to the ero&iooal effects of
occurring in spcing. when the trees are low in sap. Large areas can wind and rain, destroying the soil structure and cocsequently
be dewstttecl at a time. Recolonization is firstly by de,:iduous trees reducing its water-retention capacity. The coniferous foreats took
such as birches, alders and rowan.s that are only later replaced by some time ID reoover from this damage, for the nmmaJ sua:essive
the climAti<: vegetation of spruce, larch, cedar or pine. recolonization could no, take plate immediately.

51
THE B~OWSING MAMMALS Tiu, euolution of the homheads

The browsers are du, largest animals livmg in the coniferous forest regions.
They fl!l!d mainly oo young twigs 3nd needle,, in the summer and subsist on
bari, mosses and lichens during the rest of the year.
Across the northern continent the m<l!lt prolific speciea are those t.bru ore
derived from the gig1mtelope,, of the African sub-contincnt. These northern
animals, although rn.uch heavier than thcir diS1ant antelope aru:£Stol'!I, are
still not nearly u huge as the African g,g-,ntelopes. Only the shaggy tundra.
dwelling fonn• of the mr north can compare in size with these.
Th,~ difference in si7.e between the t-..'O dtlferent northern forms is due to
tw0 separate penoos of m,granon The_ 6rst to0k place about forty miUUlll
years ~go. before the great mountain ba,.;,,,,. between Africa and Europe
were thrown up and at about the tune that the rabbuck W1ll; ousting the
entelope from its traditional home on the Afcicen plains. The g,gantclopcs,
tbm at an early stage of evolution, we_re forced to spread uorthwntds into
the coniferous forest, where they later flourished and developed int0 the
homhencl,,, Comudmu spp.
11,e second migration took plaoe more recently, about ten million years
ago, \Vben the African gjgantelopes had reached their present elephantine
propon:io111. The erosion of the mountain chain that once separated the
Indian sub-continent from the rest of Asia opened up new pmhs ao the north
and led ao their gradual ooloruzation of the Tundra and the e>'Olution of the
woolly g,gantelopes, Me8alodurcas sp.
Soon after their arrival in Lhe coniferous forest th• =•Ir.II bomheads'
JUWB and homo beg-dfl to evolve in response to thear new eavirollDll'11t. In
common with all tb,c oow almost extioct nuniaaa1", ~ of these creatures
po6Sl!SSOO no upper inOIIQI' teeth They cropped grass by working their
lower incisors again,,~ a bon¥ pad on tlll! roof of the mouth. However. this
system is not pnrticulatly dlective for browsing from forest trees. Tiil? first
clmnge .thnt took plaoe WBll thnt the horny head plate b.!carne extended
forward to funn a son of beak. The lower lip became muscular and grew
forward to meet it. thus extending the mouth some distance beyond th<,
front 10eth. 'Thi& tiiirly prianiti,.., arrang,?meot is still found in 5eVl,ra]
species, for example the helmeted homhead, Comud,,ru lromdus. In more
ad•aru;ed forms, however. the lower Jaw is also extended so that the low1>r
front t;e<nh meet the horny b.:alc instead. These adaptations are the result of
e,olutioruuy pressure that enabled 0<lly those frams that could feed
successfully on the twigs, bork and licbens of the onoiforous trees to 8\IM\'e.
The elaborate born formnuon above the eyes is nl$O used for dcl'cncc.
'I1u, born struc;tuA? has be,:n a,rru:d one Stage further in ~,e water
homhc:.td, Comuckns rastmttnw, that iobabits lakeside& and Lht banks of
rivers. In this CN?ature the homy plat< extends forward into n brood rake-
like structure, with which the animal grazes on soft water u>eed<! that it finds
on the ho<ls of ponds and •t:reams. It has two broad hooves oa each fuot. set
widely apart and con,,ect.,d by a web of skin, which p""'ent3 the nnimnl
from sinking into aoll mud and sand. The water hornMad. in ,ts way ofli!c,
must surely resemble the bacimsaurs - the ducl:billed dinosaurs of the latter
part of the Age of Rq,tiles.

52
 HELMITED
HORNHf.AL)
C<miudens
hom,iu,

COMMON
HORNHE.AD
Comudcns wlgaris

WATER HORNHEAD
Cmnudrnr rustmrtnm

53
 THE HUNTERS
AND THE HUNTED The relationship between pred,,tor and prey

l\s in all other habitats the animals of the coniferous forest foll into the
ramiliar food..:hain pattern of predator and prey with the carnivorous
animals forming the 1inaJ link. Here, as in the temperate woodlands, the
fiercest and commonest hunters are the predawr rats. They hunt beneath
the treos in smaJJ packs, tracl<ing down the rabbuck and the bornhead,
&ingli.og oui the weak and elderly individuals and running them to
ei<liaust:ion. The predator rats take it in tum to attack, savaging their prey
with powerful iront teeth. Hornbeads have such powerful borru, that, when
they are the quarry, it is nlmast as dangerous for the hunter as it is for the
hunted.
A predator unique to the conlferous forest is the parnthret. Vulpemusteki
arer, a large weasel-like creature and one of the few true carnivor08 still in
existence.. Tts size - up to two metres in length- makes it by far the largest
predatory animal found in the region and it probably owes its survi\'al to its
low, powerful build and its ability to run through the sparse undergrowth
easily, bursting out suddenly upon its prey. Pamthrets live in small family
groups and normally hunt in pair.,.
Not all the predators are mammals; birds also kill their share of the small
animal populatm The bro.tdbeak, Pseudofraga sp., one of the larger birds
of prey, has a wing spon of over a metre and lives in the western forests of
the Northern Continent. It is desoltxlcd &om the starlings. which expanded
- ' cr,Jx,,d ""' bJ,, """.fAI!( lk to fill the gap left when many of the ancient predatory birth. became extioct
....dHt&Jltl< f,,c ... ""-'. 4rtalitc during the /lge of Man. It bas a rounded tail~ broad blunt wings, which
"'l"lf"1 •,- r,,,; '"'I'h.,lt. enable it to fly swiftly and manoeuvre in the tight spaces between the tree&
It bas a straight, powerful bill and strong talons, which it uses to grip its
prey. The broadbealc's do6est living relative. Pa,ops lepid=s11u:. is a totally
different creature. [t is ooly ten centimetres long and lives mainly on insects
that it extracts from tbe bark of <recs with its thin beak.
With so many predators in the coniferous forest it is not surprising that
the smaller mammal• should have evolved such a variety of defensive ploy,
to ensure their •urvival 'The spine-tailed squirrel, Humilduru,
spiMcaudatus, ia an ,:xcellent example of their ingenuity. It hu a Jong.
brood, flat tail with quills developed oo its underside, which when at rest lie
11at <Wet the ground However, wiwl the animal is alarmed it thlOws its taiJ
over its back and the sudden increase in skin tension erects the quills. This
presents an almost impenetrable barrier and can be turned to deflect an
attack from eitlw side.
One large rodent that became adapted to a remi-aquatic way of life
during tbe Age of Mammals, partly as a defeooe against predators, was the
beaver. Afrer man the beaver, Ca.,tor spp., became even better adapted to
life in water. Its tail and bind feet have become fused •ther into oae large
paddle, which. when powered by its backbone, produa,s a powerful up-
and.«>wn swimming strolce. Its cars, eye,; and nose are placed high up on
its bead and remain above water when the rest of the animal is subme,ged.
Surprisingly the paddle does not impwr the creature's mcwement oo land
and is used as a grasping limb, enabling it to climb partway up trees,
increasing its potential supply of food and buildmg materials.
54
IAMTHRET SPINE-TAILED SQUIRREL
Vu/pemustd<l acn Hum"ciu"" ,pinocaudatm

55
 COMMON PINE CHUCK
Pamloxus ta,ga

jl',.,,A....,. ,t,
TREV EL ~t..klh
Soondemys lo11goca1.1data .~,,,
,,,,.,J.. .,.,,._,.

.11,.-/d.--.,,;.,o!-,rJ,
•-"'dlflu-1:-"
,, ~ at!t4-c¢ d~
",~tb
~~

CHISELHEAD
r....1,r. vcnnifamll!
56
 TREE LIFE
Birds and mammals that feed on and 1n the !Tees of the co11ifen,us fore,SIS

Throughout the Age of Mammals the rodents were one of the most
su=ful Mimal groups in the Cllllifurous forests. Tbetr powerful Leeth
enobled them to cope with the wugb vegetable matter found there and their
warm, furry COJII,; bclped them to retrun body heat during hibernation.
The chiselhead. Tcntbra ,.,.,,,ifcmn,,, a rodent and a relation of the
temperate woodland chirits, is highly adapted IO life in the roruferous forest.
Its huge incisor teeth and woanlike body ennbl<> it to burrow d~ into the
living wood, where it can remain prorecri?d from the cold in winter.
l\lthougb ii, some ways the animal is at an advanced •tnge of devclopment,
Jts p«rasitic way of life is really quite primitive. Its staple diet is the bark of
ttees, which it strips off completely, le-•v,ng the tree iotally denuded. This,
rombmed with the massi,-e damage it does by burtowing, kills the tree
within a few years.
As the chisell1eads only colonize Ii~ trees they must be continually on
the move ond every spring, after hibernation, the young of the new
gcncrntion migrate IQ find new territories. During tnigration they are v...-y
vulnerable and many are tol<cn by pred.1tors before they can complete the
journey The balance between burrower and predator is highly critical ond it
l'IC<!ds only a slight n,ducri<ln in the number of' predator,; 10 produce an
increase in the population of burrowers that would kad to the total
destruction of vast areas of coniferous f=-
No other small rodent found in the coniferous forest is quite so
destructive. Most liVI? on shoots, bark and the seoos found in cones. Many
nre ground dwellers and feed from the cones where they fall. Others are
lightly built and agile enough to scmmble along cbe branches to where the
coues are actually growing.
One la,ge vole-like rodent. the trevel, Scandemys longicaudata, is unusual
in having a prehensile tnil. Too beavy lb reach the cones growing on the
slenderest brd.llChea, it feeds on them instead by hl)nging by its tail Crom a
sturdy neighbouring brnnch and reaching out with itA front paws. Like other
rodcnl!J of' this ga,ernl size it gathers more tbnn is ru=ry for its
immediate needs and stores the reat for the lean winter months. Its
hibernation nest is a long, drooping stnicture woven together from grsss,
strips of bark a.od pine ne«lla Built hangmg from the end of a branc.h it is
large enough to accommooate the animal ~ r with sufficient food to
see it through the V.'lDter.
Of tbe ma,,y soed-<!<lnng birds found in the coniferous fon,st, the largest
by far is the common pine chuck, P(1ra/oxu, largo. The two sexes of this
SJX!CIOS are quite different, both m appeurance and in their mode of life. lbe
male Ill much more powexfully built and is equipped with a =ive beak,
which 11 uses for bw;lr.ing open pmc cones to feed on the s."eds. The female,
much sm:iller and drabber, totally lacks the male'! heavy beok and is really a
scav,,nger supplementing her diet with carrion, insects, grubs and birds'
eg!l$, Most probably the common pine clu.,ck's anc<'$tnr \\•as a l)ird similar in
appearance to the present-day fetnale and the male bas evol"'",d ii,; own
d.istincti~ features prtm.vily for display a.od its eating habits are a
secoodary development.

57
 TUNDRA AND
THE POLAR REGIONS

T•ndro and Ar<t,c habil4t< an foontJ at boll, polar oxtmmw:s of rh. g/oJ,e '1JlJ at the
tops if lngh moutd.airu. Condidans in these localdw.s an-: broadly simtlaT and tht hi1bda11
dijf<r ooly in rhat ""' u an ,J!tt:t of lat,wd. and th< other of altltudL

The bleakest places on the surface of the eanh are found around tho The generally low-lying areas fringing the polar ice sheer.s
Nonh and South Poles - regions of oonstant ice and snow where no comprise the tundra. During winier they are as cold and bleak as
plants grow. Because or the tilt of the earth, at certain times of the the Arctic wasms. but in summer the tempernrure nses abo,._
year no sunlight whats\iever reaches these regions and nigbt lasu fur freezing and may reach an average dai.ly tcmpernu,rc of l0°C. ln
months at a time. E= during summer, when daylight " •ununer the snow melts, but because of th• permafrost - the layer
continuous. the sun's rays hit the ground at such a sh:lllow ongle of perpetually frozen ooli beneath the surf.ice - the water cannot
that very little warmth is relL These c:oncfaions pnM111 bod, on the drain uway ond Ooods the numerous bollov.'> and dcpm;oions.
Soulhern Ccotinent of l\ntatetica and on the ice-mass that covers Spring on the tundrn is a time of spectacular change. II. sudden
the northern Polar Ocean. bloom of vcgenuion bWlits forth to take odvantll!J'! of the brief
The extent of the ice on the Polar Ocean is dependent on the low growing season. Much of the vegetation reproduces ase,rually rather
salinity ofthe Arctic waters-a saltier sea would not freeze over to such than by producing seeds, aa is the ca:;e in wormer regions.
a degree. The Polar Ocean i.s separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a Vegetative reprocluc.tion is much faster and therefore, because of the
barrier of islands diat inhibito their inten:ircuLnioo. This island chain $Orl summers, much more llliOOOS.'lful. Thooe planl!J thnt do
is formed from what wu ooce a single island known as Iceland It reproduce sexually produce seeds that are highly resistant to frooL
c:oosisted of lav-.is that erupted from the mid-Atlantic ridge as the Mooscs, lichens and low busby hems are typical of tundra plants.
crustal plat211 of Europe and Nonh Amerrca moved away from one The tundra vegetation's SUA:iden summer llounsh ,s aceompan.,,J
another. As this movement continued, enlarging the Atlantic Ocean, by a bloom of insects and in ,apnng • V\'.tltable plague of fiymg
lcelaod, straddling the mid-o:eanic ridge, split into <WO parts, each creatures emerge& to m.kc advantage of the short period or warmth
ma.>ing in cppooire directions. The continuing volcaruc activity and •'\llllighL The sea,,onality of plant and insect life on the tundra
spawned a string of new island, b, the growing gap between the two means that for most mammals and birds food is only available
part>. A1moot 180° away, attheoppt16it2sideof the ArcticOcean, the during part of the year and lil<l6t of the larger aninmls are
same crustal movements were r~ible forclC6ingthe BecingSlr.li~ consequently mignlnt, •,:>ending the harsh \\11nter11 to the sc,uth.
thegapbetweenNorthAmericaandi\sia, andfusingthetwoareasinto In the Southern Hemisphere there are no equivalent 1nrge
ooe va,n Northern ConrinenL As a result the Polar Ocean is now landmasSC$ at latitudes that would produce a cow:nng of u,ndm
practically landlocked. and is fed by the rive:rs of the surrounding vegetation. The tundra that exisis is found scattered on the islands
supercontinent. of the Southern Ocean ru,d on OlOWltau\$ jum below the snow line.

59
 THE MIGR_ANTS Tiu, wandering herds and their prcdat1m

[n compansoo with other pans of the world, the anunal and plnnt life of the
tundra consists of~ rather small number of species. each of which contiUJlli
a relatively large numbeT of ind1v,duals - a situation which ia d1nm10tnq,lly
opposite to that fuund in the tropics. The low Sfl<'C•CO oount i,; entirely due
to the region's inho.spimble c:ondiuoos. AU tundra animals haw evolved
from creatures found in more temperate areas; t.bcir aru:est.0rs probably
colonized the rundn, only because they were driven to do 60 by fierce
territorial comp..--cltion. Life h.'\S to be unusually unpleasant elsewhere for a
group of animals to ,..,.,ture illto the tundra in the lim place.
During the summer months the tundra ,s literally infested with llying
1noocts and has a largl! populat,on of msect-eating birds. Many, like the
pilo6k-, Phalurus phalorus. have bnscled beaks- a ring of srifi" hair-like
feathers surrounding the beak that fi:irms a cone and deileco; msecta uuo ,ta
mouth. The bristles in effect widen the bird's potcot:ml capture area and
increase ita fuocl supply.
For manv large anlmals the tundra is only habitable during the ouTT11ner
mon~,s and in wu,u,r they migrate soulhwatds into the coniferous furesta,
where oooditioos are less ausrere. The largest of these anunitls is the woolly
gigan~. M"ll"iodarraJ /xm,ilis, • clo.e relation of the tropical gigan-
telope. Jt differs mainly in size and in the p()llse<sion of a large. fatty hump,
which provides it with nourishment during the hungry winter months. lt
has a long, shaggy winter coat and brood boo,:es. which provent it tiom
sinking into soft snow. lt uses its enormous borns as snow ploughs to
eiq,ose the mosses, lichens and berboceous plants on which it feeds. [ts eyes
are small to ala)id being frQSt-bitw, and its nostrils are bordered by blood
vessels that wnrm the air before it readies the lungs.
In earJy summer, the woolly gigantclope I= iu, shaggy coat and JAAeS
on a much sleeker appearance. The hump which $UStaioed it th!UUgh the
winter months IS now entircly deplcwd and it spends much of the time
eating to rebuild its energy stnre for tbe long trel<baclt;outh in the autumn.
!k,;ause of the woolly gigantelope's siz.:- three metres at the shoulder
withqut the hump- there ore very few predators powerful enough to
threaten iL Its only real enemy, the bardelot, Sinilomyt auo,,, is a <:rl?ature
tbat would haw bee,, very much at home back in the-fim hnJ£ of the Age of
Mammals. l\t that time elephants, animals of comparnblo size to the
g,gantelopcs, were preyt,d on by sabre t00ths. These creatures, members o{
the cat family, had long, snibbing cnrune teeth with which they mllieted
deep, stllbbmg wounds on the.u- quarry. After an attack the li3bre tooths
would wait until tbe elephants bled to death before moving in 10 feed Thill
suc:ce,sful a r r ~ t was even emlved i,>dopendently among the
marsupials. However. during the Age of Man the elephants declined and
the sabre tooths, being entirely ck,pend,,nt on them, dit-d out completely.
W11h the edvent of the giganrelop,!$ the t1abre moth pc,ttem reappeared,
but this time amoog the predatnr rJllJ. The bo.rdelot, unlike other =bets
of the !!""up, exhibits sexual cllmorphism in tbat only the female is
equipped with sabre teeth and hunts the gigantelcpes. The male. having
none, reiembles more the polur bears that once inhabited these latitudes.

60
 BARDELOT
Smiltnnyi otmx"

- ..

'

\XtOOLLY GIGANTELOPE
M,gob)dt}Tcas """"1lis

1
l

61
 GANDIMOT
Bustivapus septmtreonalis

MEACHING BOOTIEBIRD
Nixncricetus u,mmomorphus Con,a,dea mger

62
 THE MEACHING
AND ITS ENEMIES A compact erosy~tem

As the constantly frmen ground of the tundra makes digging through the
earth impossible, all small burrowing rodents found in the tundra are snow-
tunne!Jers. One tunneller in particular, the meaching. Nixocru:,,tu,r km-
niomo,phU$, similar to the ancient lemming from which it may be
descended, has a very considuable effect on the ecology of the area.
I\ colony of """'things may be started by as few a., three or four
individuo.ls. They bn.'<?d profusely, ond as thcir numbers grow they build a
fortms of matted ~ l e rnaa.,rlal to prou,c, r.bem from the froets and
snows. The inettior of the fortress is very oornplex and consists of a network
of possages and ciny ehambers - one for each individual During tl,e winter
- each rodent is fully insulated and kept w•rm by the rest of the colony.
As the population of the fortrol8$ increases each year. so does the local
populatlon of predato"'- The meacbing's pnncipal predator is the polar
ravene, Vulpe,n.)IS a/bulus. a beast about the size of the extinct fox and very
different from its ,emperate woodland touslD, V. Jerox. [t has a small head
wi!.h uny eyes and={an adaptation that prevents frostbite) and long, dull
brown fur thal turns white in the winrer to call10ufiage it ag-,iost the &now.
It attacl<s the meaching by digging inm the furness wi!.h its front paws.
The meacbing's other enemies are mainly birds. The largest is the bootic
bird, eo,,.,,d,,o nig<T, a desa:ndant of the crow. It h.. a long neck and bill
and long legs, and in this re,spec:t looks rather like a heron. Indeed, in
summer il """"behaves like a heron, wading into shallow pools and streams
tO dip for fish. In the winter it cle\lclops insulat'tog feathers along its legs to
prorect1:bem from the cold and becomes a land predator, hunting any small
animals that are active at the rime. lt probes for the meadungs th.rough the
snow and, with its long beak, ,s able to penetrate de,,p inside their fortress.
The other notable avian predator of the mcaching, the gandimot,
Bwtioopw sepltntroonahs, is descendedfrom the rnagp,e. It retaUlS much of
its origioal body .shape and coloration, but bas • hooked beak and pointed
wing,, like a skua. In summer it feeda on rodenl!I and small birds in the
tundra, but spe11ds the win= in the coniferous fores"' to the south as a
llCaveoge<, Tts SWV1val in the cold nonh is due in no small part tu the &ct
that it is a brood parasite, laying its egg in the oesta o£ other birds to be
iacuhatecl and batched by them. In Lru$ ""'Y i t ~ the energy it would
otherwise use in llllSt-building and brood rearing, at the expense, however,
of the ducks and waden on whose nestll the esgs .are laid.
Even I.hough the mcachlngs have many predators the,r birth rate is so
high that under normal conditions the coloni"" thrive, Eventually, arrer
11bout four or five years of continual growth. the local food supply of herbs,
seeds, mos.,es and lichens becomes depleted and can no longer suppon the
colony. /\1 this llme the mc•cbiog,i migrate, and unpt'Ol«'led by thitir
fortress full easy prey to their predators. Up to forty per cent of the
migratory population may be wiped out bclore finding a new habitat.
The old fortresses provide homes for seven! of the tundra's iohabilllnts.
The I = ptnrmigan, Lagopa minulus, nests exclusively in old meacbiog
burrows and is sometimes fou.id cohabiting with the meachings themselV«$,
wrually in caStt where part of the population bas ruready migraled. r~-
63
THE POLAR OCEAN Life ;n the rwrtherr, seas

1l'l: northern polar sea is alf'IIOOll landJoclccd and conuuns a J)'lmUlll<nt ,ce-
cnp. which has a coos1derable mllueoce oa tbe eowon=t of !he
surroW1ding continent and contnbutc$ subsmnually <t> the stab,lity or th•
n,gion's cold climate. Tho i=p is m.,i,u:ainoo only bec:auac th" Polar
Ocean is fed by enoanous quantities of &..h water by the rivers of the
surtounding contineat This gives tho sea an unusually low salinity and
therefore a atrong wndonc.")' to 'freezc over.
In winter the Pol11r Ocean is 1111'gely oorren. In spring, howev"1', the
swilight produces • bloom of uaiceUular alga,, neor the surface, which
provides food for the micro6COpic animal life that forms the oosis of the
oceanic food chain. In spring, shoals of pelagic 6sb come northwards
through the northern is.land barrier tD feed on the 1.ooplankton, bringing
with them oountl= numbers of ..:ahircb.
11,e first species to amve ,s the fligbtlesa auk, Nataralre, mantimus, •
tomlly aquatic crearum v:ith paddlelike wings. In this respect they resemble
the penguins, which were SQ suo:essf'uJ in the southern oceans 10 earlier
times. Except during winter the Oightles,; auks rarely oome ashore or climb
,m 10 the ice, where they are quite defenceless. They ·rotoin thcir eggs until
they are a)m()St n,ady to han:h and lay them in the open warer.
The llightless aulol lirst evoh'l:d at the northmunoet tip of the Northern
Continent and, as they became established, spread both cast and west,
forming a chain ci subspecies in ~ ring around the Polnr Ocean.
Throughout most of the ring eoch subspecies is able to breed with the
ocighbounng ones, but where the ends of the chain overlap the difl'erenccs
are oo great that no intetbrecding ,s p<ldl!ible and th£se populations must be
regarded as separate apecieo.
Preying oo the flightless auks, and also c;m the fish, are the pytherons,
Thalassomu, p,sdvoru.r, a group of aquatic carnivorous mammals related tO
predator rats. They occupy the same ecological nic:he that the seals
occupied earlier in the Age of Mammals aod like them have d,,.•11clopcd
&treSmlincd blubbery bod~ and fin-shaped limbs.
Amoag the organic detritus on shallower areas of the oceon bed are
found banks of shellfish. Living on these shellfish is the diswterops,
&'i""""'1.tms so/ung11lus, by fur the most massive aquatic relative of the
predator rats. It reach£s a length of about four metres and has an insulating
coat of matted hair made up of• mooiac of soGd plates, giw,g it a lumpy
rather than streamlined appearance.
Tts most unusual feature ,sits teeth; the upper incisors form long, pointed
tusks - the left-band one projecta forward, wheren.a the nght-hnnd one
point:s straight down and is used as a pick for removing she!~ from the oe.,
bouom. This asymmetry is also found in the limbs; the left forellipper only
is cquippxl wit!, a itrong claw. which it use. to dislodge particularly
stubborn shells. Because the disi:aru:rop's evolutioaary line aeparated from
the predntnr rnfs when they were both still comparatively small rodent-like
creatures. it would appear therefore that the predator rat's doubl<>-pointcd
iocisot teeth, from which the distartt,rops tusks (and also the barde!ot'1
sabre teeth) have evolved, were a comparatively early development.
DISTARTEROPS
•
So~IOW~lw

FIJGHTLESS AUK
Nararo.lces mmilimus

65
 VORTEX
&lenornis vitripera

PORPIN
S1<>1101ns pl5d,,om

66
THE SOUTHERN OCEAN The origins and ance.nry of the vortex

In tootraSt with the vast Southern Continent, which supports life only
around the edges. the surrounding ocean teems with life. Among its ID<Mlt
notehle inhabitantll is the vortex, &l.enomls viviptTa, the largest animal
found anywhere in the world Resembling many of the sea crearures of the
pas~ it has a long, tapering, ned<less body. a powerful paddle-shaped tail
and long aiabifuing fins - an ideal arrangement for efficient movement
through watEr. Similar shapes can be seen in the great arthrodires of the
Age of P'osbes, in the pliosa.uns of the Age of Rq,ciles and in the whales of
the first half of the llge of Mammals - the laat c:rearures to occupy this
ecological niche before the vonu
The vortex is in met descended from the penguins, which, although they
were bin:13. had long since lost the power of flight and were totally adapted
to an aquatic life excepting for one thing - they always had to come on
shore to lay eggs. This remained so until, shortly after the extinction of the
whales. ooe species of pmguin developed the ability to reuun its single egg
internally until it was ready co hatch and gave birth to live young in the
open ooeao. Freed of the necessity to oome ashore, this species became
completely marine and ultimately gave rise to a completely new order of
marine birds, the Pelagornids, of which the porpin, S""1mlis piscit,oro, is the
oommonest swviving example.
The Pclagomids are unique in the aquatic world in that, like their
ancestors, they are both warm-blooded and egglayen, albeit that their eggs
are retairuid within the body until the moment of halclling. In I.bis ,espect
they resemble the mammals and some reptiks. However, it is intportant to
oore that Pelagomicls do not poosess mammary glands with which to feed
their young, as oo mammals, and are warm-blooded as reptiles are not.
The porpin, like moot of its clasa, is • fish-eater. Ill! distinguishing feature
is a long, serrated beak that enables it to catch larger fish than would
otherwise be possible. So successful has it been that it has remained
virtually wichanged for the last 40 million yea<•.
,\!though a plankam-earer and very much larger, the vorrex is also a
=bet of the order Pelegomid. Its beal: has cle\>eloped into a la,ge
plankton sieve, which coosista of a very fine mesh of bone plates instead of
coalesced hair, as in the case of the whales' baleen pla!i?S.
Around the volcank ialaods of the Southern Ocean are found the skem, a
species of flightless seabirds that have evolved a unique behavioural quirk in
response to the problem of incubating eggs in this hostile envlrooment. 11$
well as being a hazardous time for the embryo chicks the parent birds also
run the risk of "'Jl06UTe, The skern bas solved the problem by laying its
eggs in the warm volamic sands of the islands and dcsertlng them
immediately afterwaros, It is able to delay the time of laying 11Dtil the
temperature of the sand is exactly righL When a volcano shows signs of
activity it immediately bcoomes the scene of frenzied activity. The birda
scn.mble ashore, and with the aid of their reroperanire-.ensitivc beaks
probe the sand for areas with the right condition for incubation. Mer laying
their eggs ten to twenty centimetres deep and covering them with ,and they
rewm to the sea. seeing neither their eggs nor their offiopring again.

67
 THE MOUNTAINS Tl,e effect of altitude on amrnal wrnmunities

The Oora of the mountains has much in common with th.it of omdrn
rl'f!I0115 because of the similanty tn clunauc conditions found there - low
temperature. high prc,;,piunion and short growing season in both hob,tllls.
Although tll(! mountaio nrca,; of tll(! world A,.., so JSOlatcd and wi~ly
distributed that UlAe)' can largely be regarded as separate fuunal pn.w,nccs,
the fauna of the fold-mountain lx:lt between Africa and Eurllpe show
cl=acwristics tbot are typ,cal of mountain Jifu thi, world over The ruflJ.,,
R11ptt1Jltor 1,i/iupdS, a cleacendl,nt C>f the rabbi~ exhibits many of tb=
features. k bas a rounded bead nnd body, and disc-like ears- ndaptioos that
gll!l!O it against cold. It has lor,g hair under the neck and body tn proteet its
legs from the cold and it,; teeth are well adn1,ted for gmzing D>O$$C$ anti
lichens. The uppc'1' incisors arc set at an angle and are used for scraping the
p:uchy vegetation from the surfaces of rocks and boulders.
The groatli. H,b«.phnlus montttnm, a \'llnety of small bomhead
frequeudy foundgrazmg on gra!S}', south-facmg slopes, lives in smnll herds
of four or five femares, guotded jealously by • male. The most appnrent
difTer,:m'C between males and females it in thcir born structur<L 'The mrtk&
ha~ flat, bc,ny plate-like horns which they use re buffet one another in thcir
f.n,qul!nt figbtll for herd dominance The females' pointed pyrnmldol horns
arc much ll\Ore deadly Mid Ar~ wed to del'end t.hcrru;elves and their young
against predainrs, Wlulo thc herd gr= the male nonnally $tan<I.. on a
~ prolll(>ntory watching for aigns of danger. When it....,. an intruder the male
~k,.. ... d,..u,J, ,-1.,1,a+ signals by erecting its long lbig-likc tail and the betd makes for the shelter of
n nearby crag or cave.
"""' ,416,tr~,t.a lxr!IM..,,,.._,. One of cl,e deadliest pnxlaror.i found "' the Africnn-furopt.-an ,nountJUri•
ts the shurrack, Oro,nustela altlfm. n carrurore related ro the weascl-like
pru:ntbrct, Vulprn,ustela, of the nortbem coniforous fote,;ts. Sure,footcd over
dillicult rocky 1erraln and ,,,ell camouflaged by ita mottled grey fur it is the
grooth'• principw enemy. The shurn,cb hunt io p,cb. surrounding thciJ.
prey. or eornering them in ravines, sharing the kill runong tbenuelves.
PerNJlS !hr strangt,st mamm.,J found ,n these n,gtMS is the pru:ashrew.
P<nnatacaudw 1<>1,tarlu; The adults are unremarkable $mall shrew-Hl<e
creatures, but the juvmilea possess one of the strnngest devict>S fouod in the
animal kingdom. At I.he end of their blils, they have a fantttstie parachute
structure fonned of intttwoven hair, which UlAe)' normally use only once
before di9carding. When the ume comes to lea"e the parental nest. they
launch themselves into tbe air. relj·,ng on the thermal cum,nts that OSE'
from the$e bare ro<!ky .Jopes m summer to carry them 10 o fresh hal>ttat, ,n
wme cases several kilometres ""'"Y As n means of disP"nsal tbts u; a b,t h,t-
and-mis&. but the mevitnhle high death rote tbnt this behaviour produce•
aft1<lng young p:tr.i,;hrew. i. m,,..., th•n etl<llpcn.~•ted (or by the largt
numbers of offspring produced by each adult bra-ding pair
or
The Lwlut,on the parnshr,.-w's prunehute tall 1$ prinmrily dur to tho
creature'• insectivomua ancestry. lt i• thought that these early creiaturet
used tbcir tails as balancing orgnm when lreping ID catch insects in mid-air
The parachute ronsioua uf sof~ curled hair11 hnoked tOfiethcr to form • mat
and held in shape by • 8'!Ties of bn,'tles growing from the (ip of the tnil
68
 d"""""'
.:fir
"1,.,A~
"'..f"<"'""'-
r<Xk,""4

GROATH 1~
Ht:bt'Ccphalu.f fTl(IU td.UW

SHURR.ACK
On,,nuswla a/tif('ffl

69
apo ..
 DESERTS:
THE ARID LANDS

Th, 11<>r/dJ /rot de-; /y,n~ a""u{ tJ., l""fllCS are O pmduct 'If thu e>fflh', Ol. .ap/,m&
,·1rodar10rr, The wld ckr.rru ocaitTing in the. :'Vorthan Hemisplwrre ou.'I! Vwrrr origJ11 mort
to lht.'tt pontit,n in tltt ttntrr> of large land lnil.Ue.!,

'The principal ,Jesen ll!CaS of the world are fouod in the two surfaces, but in deserts only tee per c-ent of the total radiation is
subtropical belm between latitudes 10° and 35° north and 50uth of rcllecred in this way. On the other band, due to the lack of
the equator. Very little land in the Southern Hemisphere liC$ insulating cloud oover, up to 90 per cent of the accumulated beat of
betwoon these latitude., with the exception of the southemmoet tip the day is lost at night through r•diation. The result is an extrcrnely
of the African sub-continent arid the nanow ra,I of the South large temperature djjference between day and night, which may be
Ammcan island com,ncn~ and therefore the ml\JOr deserts of the as great as 40°C.
world ue ID the Nor1hem H~mi•pbere. Desert conditlOOS are The worldwide extent of deoens is oow much mialler than was
cbaracten,al by extreme dryness; annuaJ precipitanon is less than the case dunng the Age of Man_ For one thing there is a smaller
25 cencim,:ltcS, and the sun l!W(J(l111tes all water that £,Us •~ rain. area of land lyu,g within the desert belts than there was then - due
The lack of moisture reaching de,ien areas is due to a oumber of largely ID the movement of the Australian oootlnent northwards out
fuctors. 11,e prindp-.J one is the descent of dry air from the upper of the de=t bek ALio in man's time, i,,dfuieot agricultural
atJDO<phen:, a featun, of the glooal circulation partem wtis typical u,chniques and widespread grazing of domestic animals oo poor
of these fatitu&.s. Air is dsawn ID the low-preswre woes in land artificially l!nlarged the de$ert regions and was one of the
,:quatorial tqtio,,s, where it i• heated and forced ro rise. ln the upper factors that led to man's ultimate decline; with the desert becoming
reaches of the atmOOphere the air spreadll out from the equalDr, more exll1DSive year by year, the area of the earth's rudace auitable
cools gradually and desoonds, reaching the ground in desert areas. for cultivarioo decreased. Mier man's disappearance the earth'.s
wh= tt has a very low water oooteot lo some cases a desert may natural habitats re-establish«! themselves and the deserts resumed
owe 1ts existence to bemg situatro m the heart of a continent, far tbeu natural proportion&
from any marine uilluence or moist wind. Allied oo this is the rain- Li£e in the desert bas oo cope with many bo,;tlle 6tctors, such as
sbadow phenamermn, found in areas where au currenl8 from the lack ofwaw and extremes of temperature. Even so a large cumber
sea Ct06$ higb mounuiirus, dropping their rain on the lSllllward.sidc as cif anin,als and plants have evolved to cope with tluim successfully.
they rise. On the other side of the mountain the air de.cends, Similar compensating adaptations- such es highly efficient kidneys
completely dry. giving rise tn a desert area. producing particularly coru:enrnrted urine, large ears to cfusipate
The intensity of solar radiation in the dJ:sen is wry great in heat and the ability to burrow to depths at which conditions are less
comparison with other areas. lo moist regions up to 60 per cent severe - lmve been ck.'Velopecl independently in many widely
may be rulleeted nway by cloud$, atmtwipheric dust, water and plant sepurated groups of animals in different areas of dcs<:n.

71
THE SAND DWELLERS Surmool "' a tL<J&er/ess sea

The physiology of desert animals must tread • Mrrow poth bet= water
cooserv.nion a.nd heat regulation. The l.a<-k of suoeat glands- a water·$8V11lg
measure - means that less coovenrioaal wn}'ll mu.st be u,;ed to cool the
animal in the heaq,f the cL-.y, Uounlly this is aclueved by large ears or s,milnr
ouigrowth, which, etiss<ross,,d by blood ,""""1.,, n<;! aa llldiators to remo\'l:
the animal's body beaL
A structutt of thi., kind is found on the tail of the sand flapjack.
PiaJymudarus structor, a fairly lnrge rodent found in sandy areas, Its """"""
body ht>.at is carried away by rhc blood to the mil, where it is dissipated into
the atmosphere. \1,/h;,n pursued the onimal can move at speed. runmng
with it$ lengthy tail bcld \lalll wt behiod •• a couottihalanee in the ma.t)J)<r
of its IUJO<stot. th.! jerboa.
To conserve water the !lapJllCk "'""' constructs a coodcn.<;ate trnp. As part
of their oourrsb,p afUlli esicb prur of ilapiacks places a pile ofstones 0\1!l' the
•ite of the family burrow These stones "" we.II as protecting the burrow
from the sun'$ direct rays dunng the day provide a large nwnber of cold
surfaces on which rnoisturc can condense lit uighL
Tbe spitting f:eatherfoot. Permapw salwn;, is a rodent of n type that bas
existed in this environment"'"' ,iru:e mammals first colonized the hm. dry
areas of the eanh's surface. It bas small forcrunb6 and long hind legs, for
jumping. The toes ar~ fringed by $hart, stiff hairs. Its kidney., are highly
efficient, m:yclong the animnl's waste water t0 the point that itS urine LS
more thiln twice as concentrated as that of a rodent ofsimilar stze living in n
h.umid environmenL
Tbc fead,erfoor never dnnks water but obtains all d,2 moisture It needs
from, plants. Jt can even cat plants that are poisonous to other ammals. and
bas the ability ,o excrete ooxic substnru:es without their h:l\'mg taken part 10
any metabolic process. lt is a nocrumal animal, but if chsplaced frQm iu
deq> burrow by n predator duting Lhe beat of the day. i1 Qin oool itsclfby
producing copious qunntrties o( sali,•a and conting the fraot of its body with
foom. It also spits at ,cs foe with deadly aq:wacy. As the salnr• oonl3"'5
moot of the rJ<creted poisons from the plants it is an dlicient weapo,,
Needless to say this dekoc-e mechanism dehydrau,s the animal vory quicl<ly
and is therefore used only in dire emergency and ieven tMn only for short
periods a1 any one time.
The leaping devil, Dll""'°""!" Mundw, an insectivore with cami,'O('()uS
habits. is one of the featherfoo,'s chic( predators ,nd bas a morphol"!lY and
physiology surular to the featbeifoot and to the other small desen rodentS
on whlch it preys.
A torally dilferent predator, but one also descended from msecmore
stock, is the desert shark, PS<lmITTOT1anu spp It i• sa....age-shaped with 11
blunt. •trong hwd and powerful gl,ovel-like feet It swimB through the sand
rather than burrowmg. bursting rnro the rodentS' nesting cbambcn,, which it
lncates using ilic sensory pits ot the end of its DO&e. h is almost complewly
hairll!lls and avoids the extrom<ll of u,mpernrure by remaining underground
for moot of the time. \Vhen it is at n,;1 ii tieo just below the surfur.., ,vith
only it6 eyes and nostrils protruding.

72
 DE.SE.RT SHARK
Psammonaru, spp.

SAND FLAPIACK
Plat)'CIJJJdatus structar

~b,-,&,
,V,0 /()(J-.a
fx4.J1':•.t
...,j,,.,

73
 ~ ~
,;t,•.,,J.;,..,,d ~
#,·.( :A itJ4d i,_'f'I: , _..
. ......, l ...,,.. "''.ca~
I ,, ,,.,.,.,1u;;,i$c i i i ~f.._,t,.,.,.,,. ..
- ·
'" l;r' W,.,
. t,...._ -
~ DESERT LEArER
Aquator adepskau~,s

I~

•
74
LARGE DESERTANIMALS The problem of siz,, and its solution

The extincuon of the camel a1 about the same tune as man died out left a
niche that was distinctly unattractive to any other animal. For a largearumal
to exist indesen cooditioos a quite remarkable physiology is required. The
camel, for instance, was able to lose abciut 30 per cent of its body weight
lhrougb dehydra.tioo without ill-elJ'ectJS, and it stored all tbe subcut:i.neow,
fut of its body in one lump, leaving the rest of the body free to mdiate heat.
It oould tolerare Ourtuations in its body temperarurc ro some extent and
bad thick oootril rovers and eyelids that effectiwly kept dun and sand out o(
its nooe and eyes.
After some 50 millioo years of evolution these features have all dcsoclopt,d
again in one animal - the desert leaper, Aquator ~icautus. The leaper is
descended from the rodents. po6$ibly one of the jerlx>as or sand rats, and
bas grown large- adult males may reach more than 3 metres from nooe to
tail. The tail is the most unusual feature of tlus animal; 1t is here that all its
subcutaneous fat is stored. The fat is not a water store, but a store of food
that enablea the lesper to go for long periods without eating when foqd is
unavailable. When the fat store is full the animal's body is wcll ba1,nced and
it can leap quickly along on its bind limbs. !n this conchtion it can undertake
journeys of 100 l<llomeues or more between waterholes and oases. It has
broad, horny pads on the toes of its bind feet which prevent it from sinking
into the sand and giw: it a good grip on naked rod.
The rocky areas of the desert are the habitat prefem,d by the grcl,bit.
U11gulllmy, am,ifmm,. This rodent is about 60 oontimetres long, excluding
the tail, and bas hooves developed on its third and founh digits enabling it
to run about the craggy laodscape of the rocky desen. The second and fifth
digits of its front feet bave small claws that almost touch the hooves when
the foot is bent, allowing the grobbit to grasp and pull down branches and
feed on them. The grobbit lives in packs aU over the rocky desert zone of the
African and Asian sub-continents.
In the deserts, large predators are not common and very few meat-eating
mammals of any description are found The kbilla, Comoruru:w pilopodw,
however, descended from the insecti,wes, is one ofthe few. Standing about
60 cm high at tl,e shoulder, it is largely nocturnal and ,ipencls most of the
day hiclcleri in a retworlc ofburrows excavated in soft sand. At night it hunts
smaU mammals and obtains most of tho water it needs frotn the moisture
COCltained in the,r flesh.
Moo desert animals are saody yellow in colour to blend in with the
surroundings and have white undersurfaces that oounte= the effects of
shade and give them a two-dimensional appearance. That this colour
scheme is the result of =lutionary pressure is a belief .upported by the
darker appearance of animals found on black-grey lava areas and the almost
white forms of the same nnirnals found in salt-pan region.s.
Animals that are not camouJlagcd are predominantly black. Predatory
birds, reptiles and the IJl06t po~oous and unpalatable arthropods fall into
this category. The colour resemblance may be due to a form of mimicry in
which for some reason black is an advantageous colour for certain predators,
and all others adopt the same colour to derive some similar beocliL
THE NORTH AMERICAN
DESERTS
LIVing rn li1e !!hadow of IM mountain.!

The North American deserts nre rain-shadow deserts. The wee westerly
winds that blow towards the connnem across the Pacific Oo.,an first meet
the great western mountn111 barrillr and are forced co rise. dropping their
rain on the seaward stcl._ Past the peak~ the Winds are dry and desert
conditions prevail on the en:nsiw plains beyond
The de;;e,ts ate not completely barren. but contain an mremu,ttent
vegetatioo oonaistiag of cacti and other succulent plants, oonnnlly growing
as single •pecmu!ll!, each widely separnted from one auotw. The barren
soil surfaee ~ the plant.s conceals a va.t network of roots spreading
out to collect <:n<>Ugh water for each plant to wrvive.
Among the roots liv<!S the rootsucker, Pn"11ap< spp.. an animal heavily
a.rmoored to protect it from desiccation rather than m defend it from atuick.
lts head ia shielded by a broad spade-like plate and its hack is covered hy •
sh.iny nut-Wee shell composed of compacted hair. Its mil and feet are al,o
armoured but with articulated plates that permit total mobilicy. The
r<>ou.-ucker m"""5 through the sand usmg "' broad feet like peddles aod it.s
head shield (IS • shovel m read, the roots of succulents on which II f'-"!ds,
gnawiag them with the edge of it.s head shieJd and lower incisors.
AmoD!ftbe thorns found in the vertical grooves of cacrus stems lives the
little desert spickle, Fi.rtulanwm .1<tarum, its narrow body IXlllercd by 1pin05
that are partly for defence and panly for can,ouflage among the cactus
thorns. It bas no tc£th Md subsist,, entirely Qn the nectar of cactus llow1'rs
which it drink., through its long snout. When collecting nectaT it orton picks
up pollen on it.s head. The pollen is eveol\111lly deposited on the stigmas of
other flowers. thus ellecting the cro,;g.pollination of the cacti. Living almost
solcly on nectar, the spicl<le's •bvc sysU?m is• very pmrutiw affair. since
nectar is ,oery easily broken down.
Lazards and other reptiles do not bave the soplus1Jeated mecbnmsms that
mru:nmals and birds have for regulating body temperature. Their tempera-
ture is entirely dependent oo the ourrouoding8' Several desert reptiles ba\oe,
bowe\'er, devclc,ped rudimenll!I)' device, for keeping themselves cool The
fin li,:an:l, Velwonis l,ip<)d, for in.stanc:e. a small bipedal n.-ptilc, has a system 1:!1)/j~~~... l,,,L
of erectile fins and dewlaps on i\ll neck and tail wbich it raises into the wmd ...(k ..,.,,...i:
when ita body be<;Qmes too hot. The heat is transferred through the fim vi•
the blood stteam inro the air. When CQOiing it.Self. the lizard typi('llly
bahmces on one leg while keeping the other off the bot desert surface to get
"""'
maximum benefit from the system.
Small mamrnat. of the desert. like the desert spicl<le and the fin lizard,
are preyoo on by grQUnd-dwclliog birds sud, 11S the long-legged quail.
0.-,,. cathol,ta_ Its eggs, which are laid in sand scrapes m shelten..:I spots
beneath bushes or overhanging rocks. ore sat on CQntmuously to prot<'Cl
them from the extremes of heat and cold that are typ1cnl of the desert
climate's daily temperature rnage.
The breeding cycle of this and many other descn birds is dependent on
the rainy season, !he birds nesting as soon as the first "J'Oll!l rains appear
;md oonl.inuir,g "" long a,1 the wet seaJ!Of1 la•t.s. [n W'lUJIUJlily dry yi,nro no
breeding takes place.
 FIN LIZAR IJ
\!elusamt b,pod

J>alnwps "PP
 TROPICAL
GRASSLANDS

IIIIJ"''1al, g«uslandfonru a trJJl!itional !,,Ir "'"""".,..,of du<rt ond.fomt. ThcJ ""'

regiOfU of intenntdiaurnnd hithf1 Jiet.JJV'nOI rai,{aU u•ht~ tlirnt is su.ffl&la'.nr tt!Oishlft'I to
suppot1 l.l drought-rerutant w.gdatrort of gro.s:su.. shrub, artd fn '°""'°
ca.w.s trtt.s.

Between the liffl:e aridity of the desert belt and the construu The rapid retm'er)' of~ a n d ~ fium wmage P""'"" tl•c
humidity of the U'opical for,:st regions lies an area where the minfiill grasslands co support large nuniber> of grasHatma animnla ll,'!'pilc
Is intermittent and emitic. 1be dorrunnnl plants ore grasses and the the frequent fires. Only the upper paru of the Jca,..s und ,l<'nu ar•
babitat is one of open plains with scatt,,red SC1'11J)6 of brush. and eaten, leaving the growing b.ises and the undon:rroun<l run, ,n ,
woodland. As the rcgiot, lies wholly withln the tropics. the sun is ll'ltact. Another feature of the grasslands that hil!I nn rmp,..rfiu ,
therefore directly overhead at any on• place on t"'O == each anfluence on the fauna •• the sparseness of cm•er. I\ gn,zmg .mm, J
year. M06t of the rainf.tll comes n< ~ times because the tropical
con=gence of global wiods and the wet conditions B880ciated w,th
can therefore be = by a predator from a groat du.tJtnL"<. w...!
converscly the gr37;ng animal can ""'dnnger commg. lii-11,·c hmh
them move nonb. and south with the sun twice every year The grazen; and pn,dator,; in Lhe&e regions are bigbly arl.pt..'<I for 'l K·rd
interw,ning dry seasonil arc due CO the dry high-pressure belt and pur,su.it, and hav~ long legs nnd quick te&CUl."1S s,,,,,., I,,rcl1,
assocuu.cd with the descru DlOIM!l over the grassland area. coo. hav.t found that they can SUM\"-' on !.he gr....,.l•nd, u;iw ""')
Tiie dominance of grasses over trees bas more ID do with the t.bcir legs to tai:e them out of trouble without ,.,..,w.., tu Oigk
level of ooil moi!l!W'e than it has co do with the cow amount of Another learure of tropical grassland lifu ia miqratiun fk<.au1,, of
rainfall. Typieally only the upper soil layers contain wau,r, whereas the seasoo-,lity of rainJiill, di£l'innt area,, of the gnissl;md:, pmvi k
the lower strata, where trre roots would be found, remain dry all food at drfferent times of the year and bcru:e gn.'llt migrnhc,i• ,•l
year. Some areas of grnssland receive $Ubst3Dtial amounts of min, grazing herds occur throughout the yea, Migmt.ion aim u,k,,. pl,,.,.
but because tt OCCUl1l only at certain times of the year trees are tO the grasslands from other parts of the world. Many buds sw,,.,.._.,
unable ID eslllblish throiselves. tn d,e tcmperatl! woodland'!, for to the north. and lly IIOUtlr tu the
llecause of the general dryness of the region it is tughly grasslands to escape die wmters.
~tible co lite ~)deed it is repealed desuuction by frequent As with the desert belts, the tom! land area of the rJ«b,: lyn•g
grassland fire. that has procloo,cl the plarus tlmt are characteristic of within the ttopical gra,;slaod climattc belt bns dunimsbed swn? tlw
==rnt
1
the babiu,t, The trees are p,rticuhlrly bard and fire.resistant and the Ag;: r:,f Mao due co th!! COt\$tmt northw.ltC.I <>f :h<
grasses grow from their bases rather than from the tips of thcir Australian oontinenL Nthough the laigest extm\ ,~ '"'!'' "'
leaves and •lllills. They also spread by means of underground gi:assland is on the African sub-continent, coo,ider..b!,• o,qx1n.,..,
run""'15, which allOWII their instant recxmry after fire bas •wept the also exi~t on the South American iilland c:ontioenl south , ·t t:1··
area and desuoyoo the exposed pana. equatorial min furcsts.
FLIGHTLESS GUINEA FOWL
Psewlortn,thio guwru

I
•
THE GRASS-EATERS
Grourrd-dwdling lnrtls and MTbiwmu$ herd.,

The ~rasslands. both croptcal nod temperate, are the home of the runn,ng
1IJllillals. The long visms and the gener-.u lack of coru make concealment
dlJW, and sp<.,'Cl is the moot pracucal menna of dcfencc.
The grassland~ fin.t appeared ru, a large ocale about 80 miUion )""""' ago.
when • general reduction of global temperatures, causmg a drop in average
rainfall. produced a reduction in the arro of fores, fOW1d C1n the eanh. /\t
this lime Lhe mammals that h.ld b.:cn in c~is= for about 20 millioa years
develo?-"<l runmng (onn,s in la~ numbers for the fim time. The grasses,
repreieoting • v.m untapped food source, had however a high silica oontent, <4.t,·'1flllj~;.'-~
which inade them much wugher than the leaves of trees 10 which the
browsing m.-unmals were accust0med. Tt> d.:al with this more fibrous :!!, ~ "''f""fl""- • +4-
material now tooth structures appeared that had hard enamel ridges and .,,_ /-•rl4la..
cu.sps to ~rind down the ~ before II was ""-allowed. New, elaborate
d,getmve systems were also evolved to deal clfecti!le!y with 11.
By thr ~ of Man. the long-legged gm,.- the ungulateS such as the
zebra, £qm,s, and the gazelle, Go:iel/a, were the most successful animals of
the uopical grasslands. However the rabbuch, which originated in the
temperate wooc!L,nds. after man's ""tinction, spread southwards, round the
mountain bamen; into the i\fr,can and Indian sub-<:ont111er11,i, where 1.bey
flourished and competed 50 dTectively with the ungulates that in time they
largely replaced them.
/\lrbough many forms of rabbuck inhabit the same region, becauSo! of
theu dlfforent feedtng habits they do not compete directly with one another.
The little picktooth. Dtilabn,dnn Jossor, fe<.'<is on 10111-gro,ving herb.I ond
roots. which it digs up with ,ts rusks and spurs. Its second mcisor teeth nre
developed into strong lawally clirectod rusks and it b•s long spur-like claws
on the fourth dq.t11. of each forefoot. As ,t runs only on 1hc &<'COnd and third
toe,; of each foot, the spurs do 001 hmder iL
The tallcrgnwes aregrazedbyvasiherdsoOw,:.er rnbbucks. Ungulagw spp.
They tend tohesimifar to their temperateoou.,ints, but.are on Lh• whole lighter
in build and ha,·e longer legs and ean.. Their colorotion is very dillerent,
=isting- mostly of pale brown and white arranged in strip,s or spots
d.'P""ding on the species. The strank. U. ,•i,gau,s, has a dazzling pattotn of
stripes Im- the extinct zebra, while the lorgllr watoo, U. anta, carries large
anguhtr bk11ch.,. similar to those once possess,,d hy the gin,lli,. Such paru,rns
mal<e indwiduals rnerg,• inro <>nc nnother so I.hat• distant predator gets only a
contused impression ofthe herd as a whole. Itis pru-ticularly effective in thorn
thick.is and an,ns ofscrubby woodland /\U rabbucks. whether temperate or
tropical, rctllm the dazzling white tail of tb<:ir rabbit ancestors. It ,s usecl as •
w,irruag signal wheo the hc.'fd •• auucl<cd
The tropical grasslands are the home of a spec,es of lo,ge flighdes,i guinea
fowl, P.wudostruth,;, gulnru, Standing ab<>ut 1.7 metrt-,; bigh, it sports a
startlmg selection o[ erectile wattles and inflatable lhroat pooches, which
ore used in thrrot. displays when dommance or pecking order is tbreau,noo.
11 is an c,mn\vorous bird and rw:is oa secdis, ~ . insecta and small
reptile.. Altl1ough it can deal • l"thnl blow with its broad fo,'t. in common

.,
with most plains-dwelling anitnaa it runs off when real dangtr th==
GIANTS OF THE PLAINS
The place of large herbivore$ in a tropical e11vironme111

The elephants flourished throughout the first half of the i\ge of Mammala,
but with man's appearance tbeir numbers fell until they had almost become
extincL Two genera only, Ekphas ru,d Loxodcmra, were latterly cont.,m·
poraries of man and both of these died out shortly before man's
disapp.,arance, leaving no dCSCl!lldilnlS. The eoologu:nl niche wbic;h they
vacated was eventually filled by the del!Cendants of a surviving group o(
anr.elope,,, the gig-•ntclopes. These enormous creatures with tree-trunk legs
and weighing up ro ten = l:>ecaJlle the giant herbi,"<Jres of tbe tropical
plains, a group of animals feeding on trees. gras~• or roots dependiog on
the specie.. They had long $ince ab:1ndoned the antelope's running gait and
bad instead taken up a plodding exi$t"'1Ce - the iwo-toi:d fee, of their
ancestors having become broad-hooved p.,ds.
The typical gmssland-dwclling type, Mell"IDdorcas giganrnus, has four
horns- one p,ur curving down behind its ears llild another pair pointmg out
in front of its snout. Each horn ha., a pick--111:e pmnt, enabling tbe animal tO
=pe soil away from the plant roots and bulbs on whwh it feeds.
The animal's basic ,I.ope was highly sucC<lSeful (Uld in the course of tune
the gigontelopes spread northwards &om tropical Africa. croMing tbe
H.imalayat> Uphin~ in two separate wa\'es of migration; one spreading into
the coaifiirous forests and giving rise to the homhcads. Comudens spp., Md
the other, much later, reaclung the tundra and providing the ancestors of
the woolly gigaaoolope. MegallJ<Wt'M$ borealt<.
Once the massive body of the gig-.1ntelope hn<l been ,stoblish~'<l • number
of ,'al'ialions appeared. The earliest was the long-necked gigantelope,
Grandidorc,u roe,,lmivi, a gigan1elope able U) browse on twigs and branches
7 met.res above the ground, well out of reach of the smaller herbivores and
ev,in of itll own ma'iSi\'e cousins. As well as a long neck th,s arumnl also has
a long. ru,.n-ow head, enabling it to push its thick muscular lips bctv.""'1 the
brancbes of tbe ttees to reach the IJISttest morsels. The horns of its MCe$t01'8
are reduced to loog, low, bony pru:la at the lop of the skull Anytbiog more
elaborate would become eniangled in the branches.
At Erst glance these massive beasts seem to contradict the general rule
that nnimoa of hotter climateS tend to be smiller than their equi\'Olcnlll in
cooler oreos. The laq,= an animal is. the smaller its sw:liice area is in
relation to its body mass, and the more difficult it is for it to lose excess
heat. In the cose of gigantclopes, bolllt!Ver, this problem is m•en:ome by the
possession of a large dewlap bone.1th the neck, whicl> is well serwd with
blood vessels and cl!ecci,...Jy increases the creature's body area by about a
fifth, thus providii,g an efficient heat radiator,
11,e rhinoceros, another of the ma.ss,vc uopical grassland annuals that
became extinct during the i\ge of Man, has un alm06t direct eq111vo.lent in
the giguntelopes- the rundihom. Tol1'a<eros africanus. It has adopted a body
size and a horn amu,gecoont not unlike it> predccesoor's and is a groi.ing
animal, a fact that is reflected by its broad mow and mu,.zle. lts alarming
horn array is used for detcnce, ahl,ough the animnl has few enemies likcly I.Cl
risk a frQntal attack. For the males, however, its 11eOOadary function - for
sexual display - is now more imponant
RLINDIHOR.N GIGANTELOPE
Tetr<Uttas afril:anus Megalodorcas gigantew
THE MEAT-EATER.S Predators arid 5t:attengen of the plains

Although the two pciocipal predators of tbe tropical grassland. of the

African ,ub-rontinent are both primate,;, they have evolved along ,,:ry
different lines nnd bunt cliJTeront prey,
The horrane, f>hn~lru$ hamtmgulus. IS dCSQCr>ded from the tree·
d....mog ape$ of the troplcAl furesta, a race indicated by the way that the
o.nimaJ walks on the knucldes o( its forefeeL It leads a totally ground-
dwelling carnivorous mode of life. Lying in the long ~ where it is
~tnouflaged by i"' stripe< nnd 11U1ne. it waitl! for its chief prey, the
gigamclopes. At, they pass b)'. the horrane leaps out on to the back or neck
of its qu.1rry. using its sickle-like claw11 to np deep wounds around the neck
and throat. Scv<:rcly wounded. the gigantelope soon di\?$, pro,;ding a meal
((>r the whole borrane fiuruly group.
The other mrun predntor is the roboon, Carnopapw spp. ~ e d from
the baboons that Jlourwied on the grasslands during the Age ofMan, their
diet changed from omni,'Orous to carnivorous doring the period that the big
cat., of the grasslands, died ouL At the srune rune they increased their
spdd by mking to their hind limbs and adopting • totally bipedal
looomot.ioo. The forelimbs beoune reduced and the bead wa, carried
further fOl:Wll!d. balaoc..--d by a thick, heavy tail In physical fnrm the raboon
be:,n, a distinct rc,icmbian,:e to the carrm=us dinosaur,; that died QUI
more than a hundred million years ago.
A number of species of raboon, each living on a different Sp<lCleS of prey.
exist ID fo.m.ily-btued tnbcs, like the ano,strnl baboons. Camopap,o lorrgrp,,$
,s a very small, lightly buill speci.?s about 1.8 metres high that hunts smnller
anunuls. C. wlggri.r rs the mo,;t widely rangmg specie. and preys on the
rabbuck herds. C. grantlu i.s the most massive mcrnbc.r of the genus. It
stands about 2.3 metreli high at the hip nnd lives purely us a sca,-enger. /\,;
predators such as tbe hormne eat ooly the solier tissues and muscle.& of the
l{lgantelopc's belly and anal regions there is alv.-a)'!I plenty of meat lefi for
chi! scavengers. The giant rnboon concentr.1teS on the meat of the limbs and
neck, leaving the rest to •maJla-, less powerful camoo 6.....:k!rs.
The most efficient scavenger of the i\Jiican gras<laods is the ghole.
PaUidogal, nudirollun~ a ~tun: that resttnbles a large mongoose. It, bead
and aeck are almost totally de.aid of hair. nllowing it to reach iruride the
body covit,es of carcase,; without its coa.t becoming fouled Its canine teeth
are perucularly huge and ~ capable of crushing most hones u, get at cbe
marrow. Oholes hve in pods of ;ibout a do:ien and ha,1! devcloped ,.n
almost symbiotic rdotion.ship with o species of termite. This termite builds
its mound with 1, hori,,o,,tal 'lhelf projecting out nil round, o metre or so
above the ground The shelf provides sheltec from the fierce midday 1>un
where the ghole can bring bones nnd other tough parl3 of ita meal IO chew
at leil.'Ure. The termites feed on the scrape of carrion that the gbole
Invariably le,1'"5 scattered rrround tbe IIIOWld, thus benefiting from the
rclat1onsh1p. It usually mm about tbn,,, days for the predators nnd
sc:19\':ngcrt 9" the grasslands to reduce a gigallielope to no more th.in a few
pieces of bone and hide and a patch of slained, trampled ground. The final
remrnrna, ore consumed by insects and micro-organisms.
 HOR RANI:
PhulxJ<;,bu, /,amtJngulu.s

RABC:X:)NS
Camopaplt• spp.
OJ
 ""

TROPICAL FORESTS

T"'Pwl [.,.,.,, it found m <qUllllmlJJ l,itituJ,,,, wlo.r. ""'"""!!'"& "" rumnu ltring 1,i,g,
qua:n1it1t•sof min (r) ~ ......,., af au J«UOl'IS. ·rms. oombfnt'd wllh the constant hfgh
rmP'"'fJtut?, ptQduces rN/oreJli r.hiordcier'Utic lw:unanc L¥getation-

The ll'Opical roresu ate (ound in • brood bcl1 encircling the 11."0rld at dense wall of vegeration reaching to the ground, to talu? advanQ!ge
the equator, broken only by oceans and mounrains. Their distribu- of light coming in from the side. Less lwrurian1 mooaoon foresta
tion ooincidcs with the band of low-pressure areas !hat occurs exist in regions where there is a distinct dry 5Ca!On. They are fowxl
where rising tropicnl air is replacoo by moist air Dewing in from the at the edgll of continental areas, where the prw.tiling winds blow
north and south tt> form a >}'Stem of converi:mg winds. from the dry interior at one particular time of year, and are typical
The rain forest is the lloral product of grea1 heat and copious of the Indian peninsula and pans of the Australian sub-continen~
moisture. At all times the average temperatu.re must be between Mangrove forest is found in saline owamp areas along muddy
about 21°C and 32°C and the annual rainfall u, excess of 150 shorelines and the mouths of rivers.
cmtime!l'"'I. A, the sun II roughly c;,vorhead througnQUt the year. 'T'here are no dominant species of trees in the tropical forest as
the clu:nacic condit,ons have a constancy fuund in no other babitaL there are in other forest habitats. TIU$ is because there are no
Tropical roresta ate often ..&lciated with great rivers, which seasons and therefore the insect population does not fluctuate; the
carry away the cq:,iOU$ rainfall Such rilllll'S are found in the South insects that feed on n particular species of tree are al~ present
American island continent. the African aub-amtinent and the sub- and will destroy the seeds nnd seedlings of that tree if they are sown
continent of Australia. nearby. Therefore the only seeds that flourish are those that are
Deopite the oonstan1 fall of cliOCIU'dcd leaves the soils of the rain tranSpOrred ,10me distance away from their parenl and its perma-
fotests are vccy thin. The cooditioas are so favourable for nent insect population. In this way 8tllnds of particular tree species
decomposition that humus doea not have a chance to form. The are prevented from forming.
tropical ram washa the clay minerals out of the soil, preventmg The area of tropical forest has increased consickrably since the
importnnt nutrients such as nitrates, phosphate8, potassium. Age of Man. In the ~ t a great deal of dam<\ge was done to the
sodium and calcium from bemg remined ... they are in temperate habitat by man'• agricultur.il practi<Je6. Primitive societies cut down
soil$. The only nmricn~ found in tropical soils are ooniained in the areas of trees and farmed the clearings for a few }>earl! until the thin
dewmposing plants tbemsel-. 6"il became exhausted, compelling them to move on to another
Tt,,,,e are many variations oo the basic furm of tropiC(ll forest area. lo the cleated areas the original forest did not immediatdy re·
resulting both from clim.,tic and local environmental differences. C$1ablisb ilSclf and it was many tlv-•saods of years after man's
Gallery forest is found where the forest comes tt> an abrupt halt, as extinction before the tropical forest bell returned to anything like ita
at the edge of a broad river. Here the branches and leaves form a natural oonditicn.
 ",

THE TREE-TOP CANOPYA world of gliders, dir,1/,en and perchers

Tiw rrop,cal fOt'eSI is one of the most luxunanr habitat'! on earth The !ugh
rainfall und ,"table cli=te mean that there is a perpetual WOWUJ!l seatOO and
thcfl' rue th•refon, no periods III which there ·~ noth,ny to eat Tb(, wp1uw;
,-.,getatiun, thrusting upwards to reach the light. although oonunuous, "
&rnlngi!d very roughly in horl7.ontal layers. Most phowsyntbesi~ oakes place
at the v;ery top. in the canopy la}\lr, wbere the topS of the trees branch 001
LO form an almo111 oontinuou,, blanket of greenery 1l<Jd Row•'"· Beneath this
the sunlight ;.. more diffu&,d and the habitat consists of the trunk. of the
taller trees and the crowns of those !l,at do not quii., reach the canopy. The
forest floor is the gloomy dbinain of shrubs and herbs. which sprawl out LO
make the best use of the little light that lilt<.'Cll down.
Although the tremc'lldouo varu:ty of plant ,ipec..s supportS an oXJU,11
diversity of ammal spece, the numb..>r oC md1v1duals m each 1s
comparatively small. This siluarion 18 exact11• the oppo<J"1 of that found 1n
harsh envirOntnCI>lS S\lch as the tuix.lr4, whae. bee•"'"' frw life form3 can
odapt 10 the conditiOll5 of the region, there are many fewer spec... of either
plants or animals but correspondingly mole individuals in i,ach. As a result
the animru population of the tropical forests remauis stable and thcte are no
cyclical plagues of either predator or prey ap<'C1es.
Birds of prey ,ud, 85 eagles nnd hawks are the important predators of the
tree tops. na they are in any other habitat. 11,e rn,,,-Jiving animal$ of thetie
regions must be swift enough to elude th,,m nnd also to ~pe from rree-
clirnbing predators coming up ,mm bdow. The rnammnls that w:compli•h
this best arc the pnmates - the monkeys, apes and lemurs. The long-armed
,~dc:lah. A raneoprthecus ma11Utoudail,, of the Afncan sub-conaneor bas taken
th,,,ie spedalizatioos to the extreme, and has cle,.,doped long arms and legs.
fingers nnd toes, 60 that it can brochiaw, or swing, lls tmy glooulll.r body
through the brooches of the tree& at high speed, It has also cvo)\'ed a
prehensile tail, Just as its South American cousins did in the iirst balf of the
i\gl' 1>f Mammals. Its taal, howev.?r, ts not used for looomooon but anly for
hanging ftam when restmg or asleep
The. iluokey, Alt,imia lapsw, a vtr')' &mall marmO"Ct-like monkey. bas
bocome adapted to a gliding mode of locomoli<ln. In this tlev,:Jopment it
parallels the ievolutJOn of many other mammals that ha,•c "'olved gliding
wings, or patagia, from folds of skin between the limbs •nd tail. To suppon
the p.1tagia and cli,al with the stresses involved 10 flight the bacl<bonc and
the Umb bones have become remarkably strong foe ru, ruumal of thlS saze.
Steered by ,ts ruddcr-lilce ta,! tl,e Ounkcy makes great g~o:Lnq leaps ~en
the crowns of the highest I.C\.'<S to feed on fruit nod 1em111es
Among the tree-living reptiles of the i\frir.un ram forest perbaJJ" the most
•pecialized is the ancbmwbip, Flag,Uang,m mridu - an e.memely loog and
thin tr~ snake. Its broad, grasping tail, ,be most muscular part af 11• body.
is used to anchor it to n tre., while it lies coil;,d nnd C'.unouflaged .unong the
leaves of tho talli:s, crowns in wait for an unwary pa,1$ing bird The snake iJs
capable of darting ()Ut three metre$. equivu!ent lo about four. films c,f its
body length. and BelZUlJ! its prey wlule still retaining a tight hold on the
branch with its miL
FLLINKEV
J\lr'1mi4 wpru,
 119

KHIFFAH
Anna."'""' oedificatDT

STR.IGE.R.
Soe!:itia f•liforme
 90

LIVING IN THE TREES T~ eoolutwn of life under threat

During most of the Age of Mammals the apes and monkeys enioyed a
degree of security among the cree tops. For even though there were oome
predawr$, none \llllS adapted to prey on them specifically - but that was
before the striger
This fierce 1.ittle creature, &u.vitia felif<mM, developed from the l•st of the
true cats about 30 million years ago and spread rhroughout the rain fures!S
of Africa and Asia, its success hinging on the I:= t.bru it WM"" wcll aclapmd
ro life in the trees as it$ prey. 11,c •Diger even adopred the bodily sbap<! of
the rnonl<e}'S on which it fed; a long, slenckt body, forelimbs that could
swing apan to an angle of 18C>°, a prehensile tail and opposable lingers and
toes that allowed it to grasp the brancheo.
\Vith the coming of tbe striger the arbore-,,1 mammal fauna of the tropical
forest underwent considerable change. Som,e of the slow-moving leaf- and
fru11-<iating anim.al.s were wiped out completely. Others. however, were able
to adapt in the faoe of this new menace As usual, wben an environmental
Cacrot as ra4icnl as this is introduced, evolution takl'S pince in a rap,d leap,
because now quite different physical 11ttributCS are advantageou.,.
The clatta, Te.studit.audtotus tanlw. a lemur-like prosimian with B heavily
armoured tail prot<Ct«I by a series of overlapping horny plates, demon-
strat0$ this principle. Before the arrival of the tree-living predators, such •
tail W<JUld have been a disadv•ntage, interfering with the efficiency of food
gawing. Any tendency for such a cumbersome structure to l'\'Olve would
have bl.en quashed rapidly by narural s,,lectiQn. But f.iced with constant
danger the efficiency of food gathenng would ha,·e taken on an in'iportanee
secondary lO defence and would have therefore created the correct
condit;ons for u to evolve,
The animal itself is a leaf-eater and moves slowly, upside down, along the
boughs. When a striger attnd<s, it drops dawn and hangs from a branch by
its 13il. The clarta i• now safe - the only P"n "'ithm reru:h or the predator is
too bea,ily annoured to be vulnerable.
Tiu, khifl'nh, Annas•""-" aedificaror, is a monkey wh~ delenoe is based
on its social organization. It lives in tribes of up to twenty individuals and
build, defcnsiw citadels in the boughs of irecs. Thi.'Se large. hollow OO$ts,
W()Ven from branches and creepers and roofed with a rainproof thatch of
leaves. have aeveral entro.nces, usually situated wh6e the main branches of
the tree thrust through the structure. M0«t of the Uc'Ork of food gatberuig
and building is carried out by females and young males. The adult males
remain behind to defend the ciwJel and ha,.., devdoped a unique ""t of
features to carry out tlu,ir highly specialized role; homi• armour over the
fna, and chest and vicious claws on the thumb and forefinger.
It i• not unknown far a female to taunt a pas$ing striger and allow herself
w be put$ued ba(:k to the citadel, dashing IO safety while the striger 6nds its
way barred by a powwful male capable of disembowelling it with a swipe
from its rerrible claws. This apparently senseless behaviour, l,o,.,.'CVcr,
provides the colony with fresh meat, a welcome supplement lO tbcir basic
vegetarian diet of roots and berries. Only young and inexperie,iced atrigero
are caught thiB way.
 91

THE FOREST FLOOR Tl1,• twilight wna of woocllllnd life

Compared w,th Lhe canopy layer the Ooot of the t.rup1cal r•m forest ,s a
dark, humid place Little light penetrdtes through from ,he tree "'!:MS, and
although there .are rnimy shrubs and herb,; tho, DQwhtte present a th,c,k,
impenetrable barrier. De.pate a steady fall of dead lea,,,. from abm·e, the
&0il cover is very shallow. The vegetable material m the ground 15 under
coru.1ant amck from micro-«ganisms .wd frorn th<, uhiqutwu,; 1crm,uoo
that perform .t broodly similar fwiction w that of the <3rthworm& in
u:mperate latitudes by keeping the ddm,, arculating.
TMSe ,,,,mites an, me pnndpal food source of the turml, Formicwkrus
pallldent, one of the few Iorgo mammals found on the African min for-em
floor lt is tle,condro from the pigs that ~""" once common in ti,;.
environmenL In th<' rurmi the ,usb of the u~ jnw are projected
forwards. elongatu,g the ,.,,out still further, one! ha,.,, turned outwards IO
produce Strong pick-like mstruments wnh wluch Jt digs into tcrm,tt,
mounds. Th,., lower 1a~· ha$ loo.all ,cs ~th and muscularun: and the mQu\h
hAs dunmished lo " t,ny hole lhrnugh which s!JCks uu1 ,ts ribbon-lol<e
tongue to gather termites.
Prom the same ~nccstral pig $uxl,-. o., the turmi comes 1he iar-,ndi,r,
Pro,,.-,..,.... elepharldsus. This much larger vegetarian annlllll liv,:,, on the
spar,j! herbs ond shrubs found in 111$$ dense areas of I.he fore51 floor. Its long
trunk, cl..""'oped fmm • snout &imilar 10 ,he trWlk or the ancient dcphant,
enabk>s the zarnnder to reach leaf)• branches 4 metres above the ground.
where. 1l can snip branch"" and v,oos &om the trees by the scissor ru:tion of
its upper and lower tmks. D<,spir,· ;.,, lcmg nose, the ,amn&,r hn, liule-
of smell. Like other mammals of the ron,,t floor. the lack of "1nd and
general cuculaoau amo"ll the dense tree,, means that s<:enlS do not tr.,....,J
far. Rdyiqg on ,ts keen bearing 10 wnm tt of the approoch o£ an cnL.,,,)', 11
"'~ olT in.to the thicl<e.r P'"" c~ the forest •• Lhe arnval of a predator,
squee".dng its nam,w body betwem Lhe tree tnmks. and remmmng
mouwlcss, crunoull,11100 by ito •trip,,s an<J Jar~ b<idy colour.
One or the »maller mammals or tlw African tn:,pical forest ,~ t.he
trovamp, Hin•Jothmum ,alran,. J parasite whi<:h sucks the blood of larger
mammals The t.rOVamp i• built mthcr like an inscct,VQ1e 01· Ol"IC of the
smullcr pr0<1imiarut. Ji is ,..,ry agile, climbing about, u!UUlly in packs, alll<lng
the trWlk& nnd thi, brdllches of Lhe shrubs. ·n,.. trovomp ,s a prodigiowi
jumper and can lcnp 3 metres from n branch LO hwy its needle-like jaw, into
the h,dc of a p.,ss~ anunal. k, pmtruding canuw wcth aet M baib.i a,\d
prewnt II from being dislodged from us boot until 11 i• fimsh<d f~,ng. N
many as ten uovamps mn)' 1:,o,as,u,,e one hmt and w,11 remrun fei.,d,og until
the nnunal ,s oevetely w~alc.ened.
/1. large number of birds mhab1t these regions. The most rem.1rkable from
th~ pomt of view of """ial l,ehu,·inw- is u,e gmn1 pitta, Collopitw polygyna
The male pttta, unusually for • bird. is about three tunes th<- size of Lbe
fema!., and each ye.., lllk'1S a harem of three or four female,,. ~ female
builds a ..,pirate nest ,n tl,e i;ame vicirul)• •nd ~fk!II on the male to pr0111de
her with food during the breeding !t'aSOn. The mnl~ nl50 pro"idc,
protect.ion from predaiora as 1\-cll as dclcnding the harem against ri,'llls.
 92

ZARANIJl:-.R
Pn""m"d tl,:p/,anaiw

TLIRMI
formruJerw J"'ladcru

I
 93

SWIMMING MONl<.EV
Naropit!u,cus rimapes

Mllr) -Gl ILPER

PIIOC<!potamU-• lurup/J"l(Us SWIMMING
ANT-EATER.
Mynnroenanus amphibtw
 94

LIVING WITH WATER Crea tures of 1he trop1c,i/ tv('t/ands

The largest aquatic mammal of the Afncan swamplands 1s the mud-gulper.

Phocapotamw lutuphagw Although 11 IS derivoo from a warer-dwelhng
rodent it shows adaptations that d05ely parallel those of the extinct
ungulate hippopotamus. Jm head is bn;,od and im eyes, ears and nostnls are
located on bump,, Qtl the top to tb,1t they c,n still opcrnrc ,..,..., wben the
animal is totally submerged 1be IIUJd-gulper eat, only water plants, wbicb
it scoops up in it15 wid~ mouth or scrapes up from the mud with its tusks. Its
body "' long and ita hind r~ an, fused to form• flipper, giving n a seal-like
appearance. Even though it i.< WI')' dutnS)I out of the ""''"" Jt •JX'tlds much
of its time on mudxinks. when! it breeds and reani its young in noisy
cofonies at the. wnte:r's edge.
Less well adapted but ile\"ertheless clficient in the water IS the swimmmg
monkey, Natopithecus ra,:ape,. Desoeock'<l from the ,-wamp monkey.
Alle110p111-s nigY0111ndis, of the Age of Man, th,s creature has developed a
frcg. Jike body with webbed hmd feet, long, clawed fingers for catching fish
and o ndge down illl back to give it smbility m the water Like the mud-
gulpc,r, itll """""Y O<llatlll are pl:acro high up on its beod. It lM!$ in riverside
t:ret>S, from which it dives to catch the fish that are 1t:a staple dieL
L.wcl-dwelling animal• that have taken to an aquatic mode of life ba,·e
usually doru, so initinlly to escape land-dwelling predntors. Thi• is probably
why the 111ater ant has mk,,n to builcling ill! hug~ =• on rafts in swamps
and quiet backwaters. Each n<!St is mllde of twigs and fihrous ""!retnble
matl!ri.11, w•terrroofed by • pl~ter of rnud and bodily excretions. T, iJl
con.oected to the banks and to Jloating foodstores by a octwork of bridges
and ramps. However. m their new mode of life the ants are still wlnerable
to the swimming ant-eater. M y m - amphibius. wlueh has evolved m
parallel •nth 11. The onr•enter lives solely on the water ant.<, nnd to reach
them undetecu,d n anncks the nest from below, ripping througb the
waterprool' shell with itt clawed paddles. Since below the waterline the nest
is made of discrete cbambets that can ,aptdly be made watertight in an
emergency, lmle damage is done m the rolc,ny a> a whole. The ann;
drowne:l in an amck, however. are enough to foed the nru-eawr.
fi.sh .... ting birds, like the t<lOthed kingn,her, Hal,;yo001." aqt,atiM, are
frequently found along the water courses of the tropK'al swamps. The bill of
the kingfisher is str0ngly serrauid with. to0th.Jike pointll that help it to spear
fish. Although it oannot Oy os u.oell a& 118 -rors, nor can it ho"er or dive
as <hey clid. it bas become oclept at "underwater flight", pursuing n,i prey m
the.,r own medium. Mer catching a 6sh. the lcing&her brings 1t to the
surface •nd gulps it mto its throet p(IU('.h before takiag ,t back to the nest.
The tree cluck, Deridrocyg"" rolub,ms, ,. a water-lmng creature that
almost seems to bave changed its mind about im preferred habitat ;ind
Rppears to be in the prooe,,s of undergoing a change bock to the more
arlx,real lifestyle of its remote ancestors, Although it is still clucl<-like, the
webs on ,ts feet are DOW clcgeru,mre and ill! rounckd beak more suitable for
feeding on insecu,, liiards and fruit than on water organ•=· ~ true duck
still tal<cs to th,, \l.'llter to Cllalpe predators and its young do not ventutt on
to land until they a.re nearly adu!L
 95

SLOBBER

HIRl·HIRI
Camophi/iu.s oph,c,,,idobJ$
 96

AUSTRALIAN FORESTSi\ifarsupial climbers and marsupuu predators

Bci,i>ru:I the mountams of the Far East- the mo5t r.xwiS1ve and the highest
chain in the world. greater !!\'ell than the Himalay.is at thetr ienith 50
million }"""" ago - J1es the great Australian 4ub-mnt10enc
The condu:ions in this area today - lush m,pical forest,, oceupying vast
rivw basin. - make i1 difficult 10 beli"'°"' that a mere 100 million years ago
this landmass was pan of the Antarctic oootinenc Whe:n at this time
Au.,tnlia split off and began drifting northwurdll, the J\ge of Mammals wu
wcll under "'"Y and the oontinenr already had its own mammal population.
These mammals were nearly oil marsupials - mammals that DUJ'$."CI thcir
young in a pooch on their abdomen - and bocause of Ausualia's long
hi<tory of isolation have latgi:ly remained so. lo the rest of the world,
hov..'(?\•er. tho morwpials were gradually superseded by the placentals -
mammals not gsv,ng bsnh until thcir young are more fully developed.
By the J\ge ofMan, Austrnl,a had reached the desen ll1ld tropical grassland
latitudes, where the oondmons provided the e-"Oluuonary impetus for the
dewlopmem of runnuig and bu1TOwu,g an,mals such as the kangaroo,
Mal:70pl4 spp.. and the woml.>11t, Vombatidae. Mer man the continent
continued its dnft northwards wml. sometime in th" last ten million years, lt
collided with the mainland, throwing up the great barrier mountains that exist
today. Although some diffusion of animals has taken place between Austrnlia
and the rost of the Nonhem C'_,c,ntinent, the mounlllins bave kept this cross-
traffic to a min iinum and tho suh-oonti n""t still has a predominantly IIUQ'l!Uj)ial
fuuntl -albeit one adapted to the tropical forest&
/\s m previous ages the Australian marsup,als have de\'eloped fol'll\S that
are superfic,ally ""'Y wnilar to those of placental creatures existing in
•irrulnr rn,'lTOrunents in other pans of the world. A prune example of this is
the chuckaboo, Thylnpitls«w rufu; - essmtiolly a rnarsup.sal monkey with
gr&-"Pmg arms and legs, opposable digit.• nnd a prehensile 1ail ILs lxxlily
form. •irnifor to many oJ the true monkey. in other pans of the world, is
well su,tc-d to life in the trees.
A less energetic tr.:e-dwcllcr, the •lobber. Ret,osrum, Ctlrteptllium, can be
thought of as a kind of marsupial sloth that spends nearly all of its life
hanging upside down from trees and creepers. It is totally blind and subsists
•ntirely on in.sects th.it it catches in the 0"""'1'S of its home creeper by
cn111ngling them in long strands of muC\15 dangled from its mouth. Its large
downtumed ears and sensory whiskers alen it to an insed• arrival and oolJ it
when to drop the mucus. wh,ch ir ~ at the flower's scent. As the
slobbers hair grows in spiml tufts and IS pervaded by a parasitic algae. it ss
completely camouOaged against the background of er~. and when
tomUy mouonless can escape the aneotion of predators.
A marsupial precla~lf that the slobber takes pains to a\'oicl is the lurl-hiri,
C<Smop/1il1w ophicaudatur, which, despite the fact that it IS a l:l'el;-dweller, is
also lughly efficient in preying on ground-living animals. Lying in wait on a
low bmrich, it dangles its <troog prehem~e tail down Woo an innocent vine.
\Vben SODlf' unsuspecting animal trots by, the hiri-hiri seizes it swiftly with
11s u,il and $tr.mgles it. The hiri-hiri is descended from she Tasroaoiao devil,
Saroophilus lumisii.
 97

THE AUSTRALIAN FOREST

UNDERGROWTH Life on the forest fa,or

The flooc of the great rain forest ofthe A1atralian sub-continent i.s hom.e for
a oumber of marsupial mammals. Ooe of the lll06t generaliud and
successful of these i.s the omnivorous posset, Thyla,w virg<1rus, the
man;upiAI equivalent of the tapir. Lllce its plao,ntal couniupan, it wanders
through the gloomy undergrowth in small herds. lSCluffiing and saaping for
.food io the thio ~il with its flexible, semitive soout and protruding tusks.
Cryptic coloration helps to conceal it from ,ts enemies.
The largest animal of the Ausua.lian forest. and in fact the largest aoimal
found in any of the world's tropical forests, is the giantala, Silfrangm,s
gigantm.1. This animal has evol~ from the plains-dwelling kangaroos and
wallabies that were common when much of the continent was semi-arid
gmsland, and betrays its ancestry by its upright stllnce end peculiar loping
motion. The giantala is so~ that it seems at first sight ill-adapted to life
in the confined conditions of the tropical forest floor. However, its great
height does give it the advantage that it can feed on leaves and shoo<s that
are well out of reach of the other forest inluibitants and its bulk ma.ns that
shrubs and small trees do not impede iL I\$ the giantala c:ra.she$ through the
thickets, it leaves behind well-marked trails, which, until they are reclaimed
by the natural growth of forest, are used as tracn•ays by smaller animals
such as the posseL
Convergent evolution on the Australian sub<ootinent is not solely
characteristic of the marsupials. The fatsnake, Ping&phis viperafcmnt,
descended from one of the many elapid snakes that have always been a
feature of Australian fauna, bas adopted many of the character,.cics offorest
ground-dwelling viper snakes such as the gaboon viper and puff adder of the
long-lived genus Bili, that are found in other p<ITtS of the Northern
Continent. These include a fat, slow-moving body and a coloration that
renders it totally invisible in the leaf litter of the forest floor. The fatsnake'•
ned< is very long and •lender and allows its head almost to forage
independently of its body. Its main method of catching prey i.s to deal it a
poisonous bite from where it lies hidden. Only later, when its venom bas
finally killed it and begun its digestive fuoctioo, does the f,u:snal<e finally
catch up with it and eat iL
Australian bower birds have always been noted for the fantastic structures
built by the male- for the purpose of wooing a female. The bawkbower,
Dimorphopti/omu iniquitw, is no exception. The bower itselfio quite a modest
affair, housing the permanent nest and a smaU altar-like strueture at the
entrance. While the female incubates the eggs, the male, a rather hawk-like
bird, catches a small mammal or reptile and sets it on the altar. The ofl'eri,,g is
never eaten but serves u bait to attract flies. which are then caught by the
feroale and fed to the male to ensure his ccntiouing attention during the long
incubation period. Once the eggs have hatched the chicks are fed on the fly
larvae that have developed io the rotting carrion.
Another curious bird is the termite burrower, Neoporddlotus .rublnTet!ris. I
This mole-like bird lives entirely underground in wmite nests, where it
digs nesting cbamben with its huge feet and feeds on the tennites with its
long and sticky tongue. -
 98

GIANTALA
Silfrangerw g,gan-

POSSET
Thylasus virgatw
99
 ISLANDS AND
ISLAND CONTINENTS

The nl<dt bnporta.nt uolat«I environments 011 eatth IW. on &IJt. Sou.ch .4mt'ricon cont.frtmt
p...,.,.,
• nd on th, oc,o •ric uland.r ofLemu,i<>, & 141Ji<I """ Th. aaid.m< oft"'11"'Pl1tool
fCPOTUr.ion has gtWTI 1he,e cm!OS quite dimnct arnmal mnmi.nittts.

Isolation mone of the moot important mechanisms of evolution. repla<>:s that of the ouicr. 'Ibis happened when the small continent
When a group of creatures becomes separated from the main that is now the Indian Peninsula collided with mainland l\sia.
breeding population,. the sepw-ated group evolves independently of The """°ad form of biological isolation occur.s when a compleuily
the parent group because there. is no longer any possibility of new group ofvolcanic islancb- i.s formed. 1n plate tectonics much of
interbreed.ng. The new group i n - wrt.b its environment, the activity between adjacent crustal plates takes place in the open
changing mto new forms o.nd evolving along lines that would be ocean. New plateS are created along the mid- « = ridges and ,ire
totally closed to it ,f it were lwing among its Qflginal enemies a1>d clestl'Q}'ed as they slide beneath one another In the deep oceanic
competitors. This phl:no,nenru, L'I particwarly nw-ked where tre<>ches. Such violent octi,,ty produces earthquakes noel volcanic
animals become isolated in sparsely or hithert0 unpopulared areas eruptions, creating new islands from the «:ean bed.
and is n()wl,ere b<,ttu= trum on the islands of the oceans.
T!,,m, an: cwo main varieties of isolation in \his conce:xt, each
The volcanic islands, quit.e b&mn to begm with. arc BOOQ
ooloru>.ed by livlllj[ orgunism.'L Plants. germinated from windblown
producing im own environmmtal pressures and giving rise to its seeds. are usually the first m arrive and take bold foUowoo by the
own forms of evolution. insects. The first vertrorate inhabitants are usually flying creatureo
The fim takes pince when one continentaLmass splits away from such as birds or bats Only later do the other vertebrates, usually
anotl1£'1'. What then happens to their fauna io largely dependent on reptileo and small mammals, arrive, sometimes on floating branches
the subsequent movement!! of the two cootinent!!, One land mass and tree trunks - the result of l!OO,e riv-er flood bundreds of
may drift northwards or .southwards with respect to the other, kilometnlS away. l\ll these creatures then evolve md(,pendently of
sub,ccting im &una to new climatic and environmental co,xlitiono their ancestral conlioentlil stock to JiU all the ecological niches of the
which could affect their evolution and ultimately !,:ad to the island The classic example of this sequence is the colonizsltion of
productioo of totally new gmota and species. El<act.ly this happened the Galapagos Jslands off the we6l COOS\ of Sou1.b America during
during the Age of Reptiles, when the Soulb American continenL the enrly P"rt of I.be Age ofMrunmals. Tlwse islancls were mitially
which had shared the same alnooaur fauna as A6ica. split away, populated by a ,-mall number of spooeg, which ga\'e rise ewntually
n:sulu.og in the ewlul.ion of totally different animitls i.Q each area. to a vast array of new creatures, includi.og four~yed fuih, marlne
When n drifting contini!nt collltles with another, very often a lizatd8 and giant tortoises. The islands fauoa, particularly the inter-
considerable interchange offaunas takes place between the two l;u,cl iilland clif!erences between related species, was thoroughly investi-
lt1"elm. It may happen that the fauna from ooe co.t1tinent completdy gated and stimulated the development of evolutionary theory.
 101

SOUTH AMERICAN
FORESTS
Till! off.a of contiMntal drift on anin'U11 communities

Although during the Jim half of the Age of Mammals South America did
have a small population of primitive placenw mammals. it was, like
Australia, a bastion of the maniupials. However, just before the Age of Man,
a land bridge was esrablished betw,,en South America and North America
which led to an exchange of faunas between the tv.'O areas. The result was
that the placental mammals &om the aotth. being more V1!l'Sattle, almost
entirely replaced the marsupials and the primitive plattntals of the south.
The northern fauna were more versatile because they had been subjected to
greater selective pre8$utes in the preceding 50 million years; they had been
compelred tO adapt radically in the face of changing environmental
conditions bi:wght about by such fact0rs as ice ages and fauna! exchanges
with Asia. The result at the time of the coW.ion with South America was a
very hardy and adaptable stock of animals. The mammah of South
America, on the other band, bad experienced a stable unchanging
environment during the same period and therefore lacked this =tial
adaptability. A similar line did not befall the marsupials ofAustralia, .since
that continent, in drifting northwards. presented its fuuna with C008tllntly
changing oooditions, resulting in a population of hardy species that were
able to survive the fauna! exrbaoges that occurred during the period &hortly
after Australia impacted with Asia.
Twenty million years after the Age of Man the land connection with
North America was again broken and South America became an island
continent once more. Since the split, climatic coodiiioos an the South
American continent have remained wicbanged and the faw:ia has therefore
changed very linle. This conwvaiism i$ well seen among the mammalian
predators - a niche that has continued to be occupied by meml;,ers of the
otder Camivora de.spill? the fact that this group lw declined elsewhere.
The forerooot predator of the South ~can tropical forest is the
gurrath. Onclrerpesw fodrhami, a giant hunting mongoose. Its anrestor,
He,,ptjW, was introcluced by man to the then offshore islands at the north
of the continent, where it became a pest and overran them. When the
islands became fused to the mainland the mongoose spread southward& and
developed into its presen.t jaguar-like form. Its chief prey is the rapimus,
Tapimw maximus, a long-tusked rodent that feeds i.n open areas of the forest.
A much smalJer carnivore, the nightglider, Hast4tus oolan,, is derived from
tree-dwelling mU4tel6d s!Oclt. During the day it hang,; on trCe$ di$guised
against the bark, floating down to feed upon nocturnal insects, frogs and small
mammalsatnight. ltamethodofhuntingiaioempale itspreyonthe~that
project from its chest. One of the SIBnge$\ birds of these regions is the
matriarch tinamou, Gynomo,pha parasitic,,. The female of the species is a
ground-living bird, very much larger than the male whom sbecarria around
on her baclr.. The male's wings and digestive system are degenerate and he is
entirely parasitic an the female, sucking her blood lbrough bis needle-shaped
beak. The male's only biological function is to provide sperm during mating.
This relationship arises from the species' low popula.tion density, which malees
it an advantage for each female to have a mate constantly available rather than
tO search for one each bre<?ding season.
 102

GURRATH
Oncherpostt:$ fodrlwni
 103

STRICK
Cuoomys longipes

WAKKA
Anabracchium struthio/tmne
 104

SOUTH AMERICAN
GRASSLANDS Evoluho,i on an island continent

Throughout its hi:;tory, the movement of I.he crustal plate carrying the
South American continent has been predominantly westwards, wxl hence
the landmass bas tended to remain within the same latitudes. Tlus accounts
for the constancy of the climatic regions and the conservatism of its fauna.
During the continent's early history the grssslands. or pampas. supported
their own launn of running ungulate animals, similar to, but totnlly isolated
&om, those in other pans of the world. These animals existed until the
continent became joined by a 131ld bridge to North America, when they and
lhe natiw marwpial populatioo """"swept away completely by the in.Owt
of animals &om the north. S1111Ilgcly enough the nonhcm uogulates did not
find a permanent foothold cm the p;,mp<I.S. but rather rodents such as the
marat, D<>liclv,ti.r, and the capyban,.', HydrocllDffll!, ,msent at th4' time of
man. were the more ~ I . In this respect the South /\merlcan
continent anticipated the nse of the aclvan<:ed running rodents and
lagomorpbs in the rest of the world.
0= the continent separated from the supercootinent of the north the
rodent fnuna developed along its own lines. 'The running animsls of the
pampas are dominated by strange bipedal graze,., which are descended
from the jumping rodents that evolved in the rain-ahadow deserts along the
western mountains. Although long hind legs evolved independently among
desert rodena in other continents only th= of South America changed
&om a jumping to a running mode in the course of their evolutionary
history. Along with this change of gait went an increase in size and a change
of denticiou that effected the final transition from lhe jumping, gnawing
rodent of the desert to the ,"tridmg grazer of the plains.
The ·= generaliud running rodent lS the &trick. Cursomys l,mg,pes.
which looks very much like the gra,.ing mar11up,al kangaroos that once
existed in Australia. They graze among the long gra,;ses ID tightly knit
group< that are large enough ID ensure that there are always a t le'4't two or
three individuals with their head$ up. looking around for danger while the
rest have their senseo buried in the gf3S$.
The most &pecialized creature in this famay of animals, and perhaps the
moot highly adapted running animal in the world, is the wakkn,
Anal,ram;hium struthiof=· Because of its bipedal stance its forclimbe have
become less 1mpormnt and are oow completely atrophied. Its gk>bular body
and Jung hind legs suppon an equaUy long neck and tail which balance one
another, maintaining the animal's centre of gravity over its hip<!. These
f<?At\m$ g,ve the creature a dear view of the surrounding oouotry&ide. Even
when the wall., is grazing ID long grass its e~ are placed high enough on
ita elongated be,-.d for it to see the approach of• prt>dator
The Dower-faced potoo, 0ry....,nyo1a ,wtrjflora, is the odde,;t bird found
on the grasi;lands. The interior of its beak is colour1.-d Md pnttermxl like the
petals o( a flower, so that when it has ita mouth open it looks .,...ctly like an
open bloom. This elaborate mimicry is designed to deceive insect,, and
provides the poto0 with a meal by merely opening its mouth. Because
tropical grruu;land flowersilppear only when there i.s adequate moisture. the
potoc, migrates seasonally with the rains.
- 105

THE ISLAND
r,,.
OF LEMURIA bastion of tlle lioofed animal,

TM movementS of the earth's crustal platl!S that carry the continentS and
account for continental drift are the result of convection currents deep in
the .arth's mantle. The currents can build up stres5es beneath the
continents which eventually tear them apart.
Normally an elongated rift valley, associated with considerable volcanic
activtty, forms first of all along the line of the evenwal spliL The land on
either side then separateS and moves apart, an ocean area growing steadily
to fill the gap. This hnppened when the small island cootinem of Malagasy
spUt away from mainland Africa 100 million years ago, and again more
recently when the whole of eastern Africa split away to form Lemuria.
In the case of Lemuria the sepamtion occurred before the unsulate herds
of Mnca had been replaced by the rabbw:ks from temperate latitudes. As a
result hcxl\'ed anunals nre as plentiful ou the grassy plains of Lemuria as
they ever were in Africa before the Age of Man.
The vnluphant, Valudorsum gmvtnn, ,s the i,.,gest ungulate. It is a
rnawvc ;tnimal some 5 metres long with a squat, rounded body and massi,..,
legs, resembling those af the gigantelope to which it is distandy related. hs
most distincuve feature is the t:all ridge running down its back and neck.
TI,., ridg., is supported by the neural ,pines of the vertebrae and may be of
use in regulating the animal's tempernture.
The valupbnnt feeds ooly on herbs and roots, which it gouges up with its
horm The gr.,sses themselves are eaten by more lightly built fleet-footed
ungulates such as the snorke, Lepidmia.ru., /emu"""'°'. 'The snorke has a v,,ry
long head with its eyes place:! near the top- an adaptation that enables it to
keep a w11tcb for predators while grazing. The upper layers ofvegetanon are
C><j>loited by the long-necked yippa, Altoaphalus !Mdi, which can i:eacl, the
lea,e., and young shOOtS of the .av,mna treCS.
The cleft-bad< aotelope, Cam,uragu, grandi=, a creature that is
superficially similar to the ancestral aotelope, bas a curious symbiotic
relationship with the tick bird. /nvigikitor oommensali.s. This relationship is
really no more than • ,1:rengthening of the symbiosis that had developed
between birds and grazing animals during the early pan of the Age of
Mammal~. Bird$ on the grassy plains often a=mpenied the larger
lllll1lUl\als, catching tbe insects disturbed by their hooves, or pecking ticks
and mites from d1e hides of the nnimala themselves. The grazing animals
tolerated thlS as tbe birds rid them of parasitea and aoo gave warning of
appn:>!lClung daogtt. In the case of the deft-bad antelope tbe relallOllShip
bas become more intimate and the arumal's baclt has ceased to be a mere
perch and has become• nesting site. Along the animal's oocl< is a pair of
ridges. supported by outgrowth. from the wtebrae. Between the ridg.,s is a
deep cleft lined by stiff hairs that provide an ideal nesting medium for the
tick bird. Several families may nes1 oo iis beck at one time. Superficial warts
on the animal's flank. produce pus at cerUlin times of the year. The pus
attrnclll flies, which lay eggs in the warta. The flias' maggots appear just as
the )")U11!l birds are hatching and provide them with a ready-made source of
food. In return the antelope is supplied with both a constant grooming
service and an early-wamirll! system thac alerts it to approaching predators.
 106

CLEfT- BACK ANTELOPE

Camat.,-a8"' grandicmos

-
 L07

FLOOER
Flmifari~ mirabila

NIGHT STALKER
Manambulw- perhomdw
 108

THE ISLANDS OF BATAVIA An i.,land world of bots

Although 110lcnnic mountains and islands usually form where two crust,!
plates meet end crush agrunst one another they also form over 'hot spots' on
the earth's crust - areas lying above mteosc octivity deep in the earth's
manLie. Oil'e(Ct]y over the hot spot • vok:ano is formed. When the crust
piLSSes away from the ctntre of activity the volcano beool11'.'5 extwet and a
fresh one then erupts alongside it. producing in time • chain or
progres&ivcly older vol<;anic Lsiands in the middle of the. ooean. Dunng the
11¥11 of Mao, • hot i;pot was rc,;ponsible. for producing the Hawaiian island
chain. and in the Pacific at the present time a hot spot is in the process of
gi?nerating the Batavian lslruxls.
Bird:, a.re usu;illy the first vembrates tO reach and settle on new i.,lands,
but in the case of Balllvia the first vertebrntes tt1 orrive were their
mammalian l!<]Uivalents, the bets. By 1he time thot the birds did arrive, the
bats were so well established that there were few unoccupied e\'Olutionazy
rucbcs left and the birds hn,oe never colonized the JBlands w any extent. The
presence of iruu:able fuod on the ground. and the aw.OO? of prooators
cn,,hled many batS to take up a t<:rrestrial existence und w fiU a large
number of ecological niches. '
The Oooer, FIJ:lfifapa miram/4, ha,, remained an insect-eau,r, but is now
hugely sedentary. Ita brightly colourncl ears ru1d nose flaps mimic a spocics of
Oow~ found on the islands ltsit1 among tbe.m with ita face turned upwards.
.aapping at MY insect that attempts to land Although it has nri5"'tl
il'ldcptndendy. the Hooer's feed~ mcxlll is remarkitbly similar to that of the
flower-fuce potoo. Gri""'~)'Cl<I TO<fTijloru. of South America and is on
interesting i11Stnnce of convc.rgt."l'lt evolution.
The flightless sb.alloth, Ar~ilio apt,,ryx, is on omnivorous tree-
dwelling bat wluch spends its life baagrng upside down h'ke cl,e ancimt
sloth. ft cats leaves and the occasional insect or small wrrebra<C caught by a
swift jab of its single claw.
The beaches are home for the plCks of S11dbe1s, Rema/a madipella, which
fish in the sb.,llow waters around the coral reefs. '("heir bind legs, wi"f,'8 and
tail flaps havt ~loped into ~imming i1nd s1ecr,ng org-Ms and their
b<xlics ha"" become sleek and stteamlmed. Their evolution from a flying.
through a terrestrial fonn. into an aquatic creature is very similar to the
evolutionary develaptnt'llt ,:,f the penguin.
Once other vertebrates had established themselves on the islands. a
family of ground-<lwelling predator batll ru'OSe. 'TI1ese creatu!'C$ walk on
I.Mir front legs- on what would, m the case cla flying bat. be ii,; wings. the
site of moot of ii,; locomotor muscles. Their hind legs and feet ore still used
for grasping, but now 6,11 forward to hang clown below thcir chm. As the
batS loo,tc their prey purely by echolocation, tMir ears and nose Oaps have
devek,pcd at the expense of their eyes, which are now atrophied.
Tbe largest and most fearsome of these creatures is the night Bllllker,
Manarnbulus perhm-ritlw. One and a half metres mil, it roams saeech,ng and
=mg through the Batavi.an furest at night in pocks. They prey
indiscriminately <.10 mammals and reptiles. attack~ them with thclr
- 109

THE ISLANDS OF PACAUS

Th.. evolution and versatility of the Pacauan whistlers

Several thousand kilometres east of the Australian sub-continent lies the

island chain of Pacaus. ft was formed during the last 40 million years by
friction between the northward-moving Australian tectonic plate and the
We$tward-moving Pacific plate. At the margin between the two pla,...,
volcanic islands were thrown up which gradually acquired accretions of
coral round their shorn.
Mw the ash MdJava slopes were oovered with vegetation and an insect
population had been e,itab!W,ed, the Wand began IO be colonivd by birds,
The first birds to arrive were the golden whistlers, Pachpphal4 pteto,,ilu,
which were blown 80'00$ the oc:,,an from Australia. Originally a faWy
unspecialized bird it bad, during the Age of Man, begun u, show some
differentiation. with distinct beak shapes ~ing oa the islands around
the AUStralian coast. However, it was only on the Pacaus Archipelago,
where all the ecological niches were thrown open to them. that the whistlers
really developed specu,cuJarly. producing both insectivorous and seed-
eating as well as predatory forms.
The descendant$ of the particular group of golden whistlers that
colonized these islands are now regarded as belonging IO a single genus,
lruulomis. All the species within this genus are now highly specializ.ed and
quill? different from Ori<' another excepting I. hart/, which is similar in form
to the original ancest:ral bird.
1. piciforrna hss cleveloped a atrang, chisel-like bill with which it tears into
the bark of treeS to get at burrowing insect$. !is feet are modified to allow it
to cling to the ,-ertical trunks and the bird cloeely resembles the extinct
woodpeckers of the Northern Continent whose mode of life it closely
follows in almost every respect.
Nuts and tough seeds are eaten by !. macrurhyncha, a parrot-lilce species
which hss developed a massive bill and the powerful musculature to operate
iL Th.ia bird has retained the perching feet of il8 ancestar and hss gmwo a
long tail to balance the weight of its la,ge. head
All the Pacauan whistlers are preyed upoo by their hawk-like relative 1.
mnphaga, wluch ahows tbe same adaptatiocs that are found in birds of prey
throughout the world. inespective of their ancestry - a hooked beak,
binocular vision th.rough forwarcl-6,cing eyu. and a high ~ee of man-
oeuvrability in pursuit
Apart from the hawk whiscler the only natural enemies faced by the
Pacauan whistlera are the snakes, wluch have been rafted to Pacaus from
Australia or the other islands in that comer of the Pacific at on• time or
another. The Pacauan wbiatlers' wariness of snakea is exploited by the
te.rratail, Ophiocaudatw ,nrulotw, a timid rodent and one of the few
mammals living on the island chain. The marking& on its tail mimic to a
remarkable clegre.e the amrkinga on the bead of the Pacaw, bird snake,
Avanguis pacauna, one of the most active aod vicious snakea of the
archipelago. When threatened by a bird, or indeed by any other creature,
the te.rratail throws its tail into the typical snake-threat pooture and utters a
realis:ic hiss. It maku iu escJlpe rapidly into the undergrowth while ita
 llO

WCAUAN WHISTLERS
1",ulomt< ,pp.

TER.R.ATAIL
Ophkaudatus in.rulatw
 111

l\purt from
LSOlated environmenu. s
ns ca-nod rocky uleta, about which it i&
impossible to goneraliu. • II the <0rth'•
~JQI' t<m<tmJ hobio," have been cl.s:rmed
1ne v11s-t area and volume of the occ,ul.!I
how..,.,. 1,a,,. tx..,. cle;alt with onl)• in passing, for although
"'"Lucion hu inde,;d taken pl•ce in the.,.,_ since
U1e Age of Man, u,e ,JTooure IWttipccta<;U],r and WOUid l,e of Ultere>l
onlywthe~
The habitats.~~ DOt neatly so dear~cut a1 they might at
fiM M:W1 lO be, They bl1'tlddlto 0 1,e anolher and cemin
awmaL,i, espc'Cl3lly du, less apecial...,.i ooa,
l'Ollm frocn - w IIDOtbet and cannot b< ll'Uly aaid to bcloag to "")'
panicular eovi.ronmenL
l'u,y """""' oflife Bl apamcular period ln time
g1ve:s only II t\J/0-d.ttnco.slCll\W. crose...
:;couon of a lhr""-tlimC11S10nal dynamic sy,"'m which i&
oonsllllllly changing and oootinuoUy l,eu,g
modifi,d Ewlution 1, an on-gQing process m
wlucb new creatures ure gr,iduolly
appearing aJJ the time whilt
oth_e n am becoming extloct.
 ~

... ... -
. -

Th< g«>gruphy of the ""'Id .... lwndmJ md/""1 >""" ojlff w Ag, ofMon "diffe:ult to
pttdict, but,,,,h
o lmou..j,,18" of pl<u, """'"'" ,t u po,.,11,1, 10 Nggo,t a dr,mhurinn of
la1'd and w 1haJ u mott l,qely then 40ffll! oft.ht! many poniNe p.,rltms.

Life will continue on the earth for as long as the earth remains in
existence, which will probably be for the next 5000 million years. How life will evolve over that period
there 1s no way of knowmg. but there is one ming of which we can be sure
and that is that the animals and plantS will not remain as they are.
The epoch following the one described on the previous pages will be characterized by a
continuing movement of the earth's crust. The Atlantic Ocean may reach its maximum
width within the next few tens of millions of years and begin to contract once more,
brmging North America and South America back towards the European and African sub-connnencs.
This may give rise to deep ocean troughs and new fold
mountain ranges along the western side of the Northern C'.onrinent and
the reopening of the Bering Strait. The result would be the isolation of North America once more and
the development of new animals on that continent It is just as likely that,
within the same period of time, new convection currents may arise deep in the mantle
beneath the vast Northern Continent, and a new rift system may appear on the continental mass.
Such a rift system may follow one of the old sutures that indicate
where earlier continents fused to form the supercontioent - such as the line of the old Ural Mountains
or the Himalayan Uplands to the north of the Indian peninsula - or it may ~plit the continent
apart along a totally new line. 1\ustralia may continue to move
northwards. sliding up the eastern edge of the Northern Continent, and may even
tear away from it completely, isolating its fauna once more. Antarctica may, at a much
later stage, also drift away from its long-established polar position.
Moving into more temperate climatic belts, it would offer itself as a vasL virgin cominent to be settled
and colonized in the normal manner
 113

FllTL IRE

THEDESTINY OF LIFE

The far-reaching b,ological changes thnt will 1t1evitahly mh place in d1strihut~ t.he !!l?IXI of the berri<ltl on wbicl, they feed by pas$iog
the dimnt futur,, will be hemlded by a change in the evolution of them through diru digeotwe l)"Wn
the plants. II& we bavt seen plants tA!nd to t\'olve at n much ,tower Whok ru,v.· arumal groups will appear inc.u,pendently of the l1oral
rate than arumai.,. but wbeD a new adwnce does take pl$!:,: it has l'\'Oluuoo SUt'h groujl6 will lllso rely on mor,, !!Oplustaeated
the most profound eff'est on aruma1 life. The emergence of plant» on rq,rodut.-uve S)"'t""'" to give them the edge over the other group,
to land Mt enabled the animals to leave the sea and to oolonize the still m ""ISt"""" l'unw d..-wlopme.nts in eensary sys= may be
CXlllWJentl. The emergence of the 0011,'aID!I pion!* l<ld tu the po..ihlr. giving nn animal more ....."""""° of II• &UJTOUndiog.. l\r,
ewluiion of the &Ocial iosed3. 'The extJncOOo of the dominant Utt Ulrt'ea9e in unelligencr to mterpret tlus enhanced, sensual inlonna·
fems attd cyeads. and thctr r,,placcment by broadJea...,d irres, Jed to tirm "'""Id also be nea.=iy and II may b<, that on inuilligcncc "'
the extinction o( the great repttle gmupo and allowed the mammals !ugh as man', may evolve on"" mon-. Such ~mmll may take
to llouri,h. place among th<! 1... q,eclllliud mcmbt..'fS nf too most advanced
lt is certain that lhe oe,ct step in the evolution of the work!'• Oora groul"' lh4t are around at th., moment, such .. the insectivorea in
will lead to another such revolutkm in the ck.'Velopment of animal llre case of mammal, or the crows m the tasc ofbirdt, or they ma)'
life. Such a step is uoliltely to be simple or obvtou• and "" it> \lri.st! from Ao1"ll¢t.hing that u, with U!I nt the mon,erit bu1 L'i r.o
prediction is something ofan impoosibihty. It will, however. mvulv,, uisi~ifi<.ant thot II is coru.11mtly overlooked - after all. the
an increase in the effioency of the plnnt's reproducuoo system. If mninmals ~re IICUrryu,g ohout the ree1 of dmo•aW11 for """"' IOil
that involves lhc replacemeDt o( seeds and frwts by another million years before they came to anything Jn any case many of the
ltnJ<:ture 11 will inevitably lead to the mmClion of mMy ettature6 crut;o, group,1 o( today ..,II conunue t.o aoldier on even tho..gh theu
such as the buds and rodents that rely upon them far thmr staple pmnuncnt poou.iao 15 usurped by Dewtmll<TS; the repules are suJJ
die!. Other c:rtat:urn will evolve in th<:ir place that will be able to around even lhough tl.eir day of glory has passed

=...
mu:b and eat the new ltl\lctutes and !lllW oymbiotic relalionship&
will &Mlop in which the rcproducti,.., in return fur
providing (DQ<l for the animals, ..,11 be el!<Ctively fertilJUCI or
Larg,:-scalc biological d!S&te.rs such as occurred at the end of the
Ago of Mill may """' plaoe "ll"in. If Lhat happcm thcrt will once
more be the wlv.,le.we d.,,.U'UctiQn of large groups o( animal&
dmtributed by them in a way analogous to that in which birds follr>W<d by th!,, rapid n:plocmi<!nt by creatures evol,-.d from the

In rJie pc,t rile ru,l,;tion of"""'jD<mJ r/ artunal ~[• h,u '°"upond,,J u,th 11,, l""ba'11y coi,lddr .,,th drudopm,,nts ,n th, pl.int mngJ,,n,. A r,i,./y ckwlopm,nl
dm.,,'°""""'t o[ ""'1 plant Ii/a; 11k, •PJ'<'4rana of pl<,ntt on land prt...,pttod tJt. u ont tl10t •<>""1 r,,J...., tho nwnb.t 11/ """ that • plant "'"'' prodUC< to
fir,1 land animal, (Al;the soc:i4I ,,.,..rs~lml at the""""'"'""" theflm,.mOJI proi'!d• a 11n~I, o/fipn"f, Jn tJu, o/lu.,1ta110n (E} t!u, tn!tl Sttds, a~h
planu (B) tlwdi,_tm c:irlstld u../io:n UW&Jnh 11r1tforeswd by xiantj....,. and Ji-ruhud ,nth< w•al uuy, do nPt drap fO ti.. gn,und u1hn1 ripe but mnam OL,th
cya,ds ,ci and'"'"" ...,,,i,.,,,,,J by v,• .....,..,1, onJ.y """" thefin• 1"ood-lM,..d tJ,.. """"'· whff, tll<y oc:.i,n to w,,u• The pj.Jnll Wit ""'' Mii mu.h ,..,unty
ITffl appcorr,d (Di TM"ef'1f< the fun,..., nolurion of""'' ammal fim,u u.,ll "'°'' anfy u1l1rrt rhr.v ttTt r1,na1~J b)' krbiumtJ dAi:J pwc.ai in drm:r runlitht.
 114

Tht. ,0,1/t ha, m,r,d In 1~ p.-1Jonn Jo, "'°"nd S000 mdoon .l"I'" and w,U
;xi.tr jM abou1 lht ,.,,.. kngth of 111!1< '""' IM ft,Wl'<. I.if• fin• of"'""' -
appmn,d br"""n 1000 and lSOO m11Non :,tan afi,-, ,,., eanh """ ft,nncd. ond
w,}J probably ""'''""" """' """1ly b,j(llt ,,.. ..,,,_,, " dttno,«J. Tht fi,n,,e of
lift it obscutt. Only OJI loolrini: al !ht '""'" of tit. po,t can"""' infmmu &t
mad< about how lift will ru,/ur dUMg the nm 5000 mill,on yea11

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 lU

A ""'" of phy~o:al ""'"ts cf ,..._.....,..g ""'ll""ud, fo11d of """"'°""&

,mprobabi/;ty/ o:,n I>< 1n,cg1nrd, eooh offc<.'«ng ,i., oorth~ dnncrJt and 1"'"1/IJft
us antrnal and plant hfe co to,:i,ng Ml('-. An """11, such "'a nmpr nwu,onc,c
oo,nbo,dm,111 (AJ. ...h,ch ..w~ l,url dwdluf dun into tht ormo,pi...•, bloc.long
OIII lltt ,un~ •d.l", would ca..,. !ht i<t-<4ps 10 odwnar ""1p0mnly. A ITI01'I'
,..,..,.,, "'"' •I offoiq uwJd """' if tht nm, "'.I""""" ltJ«i..t o,it""" ,..,.,.,
miJJ,mmo a., •nght hal'I"'" tfth,. .,,,,..h wm ,lrmu'1ed 111 ,..,.,.p4a...,ry
dw, (8)
- th, i«-«IJ>J would p,obobly O<n<lllU w .....,. most of W g!obt. In ,,..
rxtmndy unld11!h1-/ of a"°""" o,l/1.1ion larg, ,_gh o, clr.,tu,-b W toT!h)
rrrbitnl and anal af,wur,,mt fC). tN g}«t uoold ht pt'ffllanmt catastl'QJ)IUc and
rmposnb/, ID praf,a_

cxruld disrup, the romposltioo of the atmosphere would undoubt-

edly Cll1ll,O widespread extinctiorut ood lilllY even render the
cootincnts totaJly barren. HOIIA...,,er, no mam,r how great the
almOl!pbmic ~ is, there will still be some orgaoilsm some-
where that wtll survive, """" if such ao organism is nothing IMl't
thJln • •imple cell - the natu!e of life. as we have set11>. ,a such that tt
IS able 10 rcpJ.:aie 1!8elf and fill nil possible niehl!$. EvolutrQa will
bcgm agam, the -., will teem with life once more and eventually
the land will be n,coloniud..
What this new phase of earth's e>-olutioo will look like is
unpossmle !O predict, but we an be sure that the new animaJa will
look nothing lik~ mo,,e that we have known The poGSibiliue& of
genetic de-.-elopment an, infinite and the rurvrving aysrems could be
selec~ from innumerable po,,aible combination,. Convergont
C\'Olution will no, be able to rcin.stato the Jcjnds of animals and
plants with wluch we nre familinr 51DCC the bMIC evolutionary •toclc
will be liO different ond the niches ID be occupied will be notbiog
lilre those we know oow. An even bigger mete0rite could destroy
""en the crustal fabric of the earth. but the larger the disas1tr \\'t
JX)lltul.itc the more unltkely It is w happen during the next 5000
m,Uion years.
By that time the $Utl w,U have u...:l up aU of the hydrogen
available to rt. Its core will have shrunk and i!S ourface will ha""
become much cooler. The sun's helium will then begin to react and
the soo to M<p'lnd increasing its lumioo,my by many hundn,ds of
s\11'\'i\'OB. Oc.piu, th<, very grcnt temporary change co the environ- """"'· Th.. will mark the end of l.ife oo earth. /\$ the temperaru,•
ment and l?Oll)"'tem, such a disa&ter u, unlikely lO haw a IQ<lg·term rises the Oljf<Ulic reactlon• tba1 suppon life will be oo longer
detrimmtal dfect on life !IS a whole. possible. The """' will boil away ond the atmosphere will be
Phy.ical. non-biological disasteB aro pais,ble, such .. the IIIlpaci ,nripp«i oft A,, ti>\' suo, now a red giani. continue$ lO expend it will
of n 1Mg< mcteonte 'WJtb the enrth. If IUCh a roeaiorite were large engulf all of the mn~, pie~. including the earth. Mono long all
en""l!h the resultinsi expl06ion may releasr vast ,-olumes of dust the matenal capab~ of suppomng nuct.ar energy in the sun wtll be
Ulto the atmosphere and reduc,: the ,n,ens,ty of solar radumoo at used up nod, very rapu:IJy, to tttm5 of the geological tone scale. 11
the oanh's swfuce quite con!llderab!y for a nurnbe,- of years. The """ collap•e mto a fraction of rts former volume. The grav1tatl008l
result would be a dccreaae in plan, growth, wnb the acmmpanymg fore,, mvoh..d m thJS colbipr;e will make II shme as • wb,u, dwan
reduction Ul herbivorous onimals and drastic effeas on the until, with all its energy dissipated, tt fades mto a dark cold lump-•
populattons of the cami\'ofCII. black dwarl Tho planets, uthey physically ,urvrve, will be no more
An u1c:rcase of the volumA! of interplanetary dust in the solar than darlc crndcN cle\-oid of water and aunosphere and, mcapable of
sy•= will hiwe a wnilat effect in n,ducing the amount of ,w,!iglu s,Jpportmg life ever ngam.
rtaehing the earth. The climatic efTectS cl such oo:urrcnc:a will be Ho=ver, the chemical and physical reJlctlOD5 thAt llJOk place to
fur-reaching. The temperature of the earth's surface will full and die produce !if• on eanh will l3ke place, or may very well have wen
a-capo <>f the poles will grow and reach towards the equator. place. l!gillll on other planets, tn oth,r-.olor syswm. Such Jjfc forms
When rucb ,ce ages have happened. oo earth m tirn.. gol'tl' prurt tbey will be spec,flCblly C\'Olvoo !O match the condition., found tbtte,
have led to the evolution ofan,mals ond plnn"5 equipped to~tand up although. what these conditions w,11 be. and hence the formlJ of life
to luch rigours ratht.>, than ro any great damag>l ,o the basic that will evolve ro cope with them, aumot possibly be unngmed. h
structure of life 1....Jf ,s almost =•n that hie will al11o'll)'$ exurt eomewbere m the
Tiu, 1mpac, of• body bug<> enough lO produce sbocl< waves that un.1verac LO one form or another.
L

116

GLOSSARY
Ad..pu,.., nw!Jali<m Th.'. <""'""'°n of a <ingl• (front :c,,thl for C'UtllJ'!J And gra,piog,""""'°' 'fXC""' lO gain nlUt\l.ll l><:nefit c.f 6'it<:1i:tn
..,..,... Ulto • nwnbtt of ,.,.., fon:na that ""' for pie-ting .nd p,tmolan md molare (boclt. mimiay S... ""'-t pn,datur11 (p 75}.
'"'°"''
capoble of 6Jllfl!l a VIU"1<t)' cf =log,caJ tttthi tar goading and lhearing. Natural Scl<etion Th: pem,,cnc,, oi munall
rudia. S.. the bots nf &u,v1.1 (p.100) Dimorpbwn, 1t•ual A marlo:d dJff'mnce in best able l<> IUC\1~
Allen', rult In animal VCUP' ,..,th • ~ 1n.ructurt> or appe.arnnce betweffl the sexa of the Oppcoabllily (fing<rs) The .ability of -
oanh-<outh rang<, the ,pee;.. or 1ubep<ci<t ...,,. gperies. S... lhemBtmch tinruno,1 (p.102). fu,gmip to toooh the oth<r fingm oo tbt ..,,,.
,,.,.,..,. lhe poift have ,mnllc, ex1rem10... S.. &ologica.l niche ~ mtton OttUpied by on haod. S... th., l tf'!!"' (p.91).
the "''"po:nl"' "'""" Ip 40) and the po1a, manaJ man fflVJfOrlTDfflt. The «'('llog)caJ n>ehe Ommv<>"' .\n enunal that <au both plant
""""" (p.6J). de:tennines a t.Te&ture·, mode of Hr~ c.g, tn.'t'- and iuumal malffiill
&tcsian mimicry The ........mliun of a dwclkr. J!ra'""'·
etc. Panillcl evoludon Th(' l''Olut100 of 11trubr
hannleos ,peoes to a dangeroos or dimsteful Evolution The d,vrlopment of new t!pllO¢t BllilD>rmcnl or physool=1 fear:ure, by rdl!A!d
00. IO gain pr<><""'°" by ""'°"lilUOCI, <-f from cariH:< Joana. Evolution can ru,,o apply ID groupo of 8llunal1. S.. the g,ganiek>p,- (p 821
MuU<r.llUl mmucry S.. tlw <emlllil (p, 110) tbs dcwlapm,m of thr r........ of an tuumJtl'• and tho v;tJuplwtt lp,106)
Jlersmmn'• rulo In Wlimol 8""'1"' with a wiatomy. Tb.... r:an b. r~cd to H. p.,..,t.l,,n Th• to,,,dmg of one arg-•nmn di-
large non!Houth ~ · the apoc,eo or , ~ Analogous F..ture1 4JttUlar m fonn or rectly oo onoth,.,. wtthout the bo&t ll>•mng "")'
apeoes """'"' the po1.. will be ~ &t the fun<tion ID ..,. another bus wltich have '-'fit ui return, c.f CommcnaoLsru and Sym·
rabbucb (p.38). cvt>h'<d from ddl',rmt •= Stt uuls o( b,.,.., &, th• UO\..mp (p.92)
Brlchiatlon Swingi~ by <be hUld, and=•· th< mud~lpcr {p.95) and duutrteropo P•<agi• F14po of ,l.jn u,;ed u "''"!!"
in glidin(I
• mClllS or iocomo<H>ll 1YPIC10l o( m,e-dwellmg (p.64) arunicl'I.. SH the Ounl«y (p.88)
pamata Stt th• :tiddah (p.88). ~ Fcarwu wluch may be dJ'- Photocynth..lo The uumfonnauon witlun
Brood Parasite /\ cm1tuf!: that leaves 1ta fcrcnt LD function or 1pptal'al'lCt' bul hllw lhc plllnu of u,orgaruc numenn anto fuod m1nq
off.prmg w,th tho !,mod nf anoth.,r to bo can,d tl!llN ongin .. """ .,,other S.. poddl.. of aunl~ht.
for and tmd<d by th. pam,a of tbot bnx,d Stt the •unbot \p, 109) t.nd wolk,"1! Im*" of du, Ploccnu,J A mammal tho, ~ • p,IA·
tho g.md,mot lp.63). night ,talker (p.109). o,nta tbrou,.,t, wluch II Cc.:d. ¢1 a'Ml')-'O young
Browler /\rt .munal that ..,. 1....,. and ~ It. feuun, "' an organim, o( in the womb. cf. MusupoaL
shoou, cf. Gruel'. S.. th• >:armdc:, (p.921 lea sophistiamon thon i11 predeces.,on. S.. Plankton Animals aou planto. mtlatly nuo:ro-
Cami"°'• In gc.,,.raJ rerma. an arumal. l'itber denouon of the mrm, (p. 92). 8(0plC. that fl0tt1 plSSl\-dy m the ,,aw.
• prmtcor Of • ICOVeng,t. lhat .... meaL Mott l'l'imhiv,o /In umopbi.,ucau,d fe•Nre that Plau: tectonic, 1br study of. th• major goo-
pn,ciscly th., u,rm l, mttirud to mcmb.rs of luu rcmain«I w,th • creature throughout i11 l"!!)Clll plateo thn mnke up the earth, cnm.
~.. """" C..mivoni. s.. th• pamthrtt (p.5-1). <WluUOtlal)' hlltory Stt mil of the falans Predator /\n animal that U.CU\'t'Ly bunts, laU.,
Clin• A chain oh,Jba- S.. the Oightlesa (p.40) and ..,. othct Mtma1s.
aub (p64) Se<onclary It. lotun: wruch woo ontt po6- Prd,a,aU. It.hie u, gnup and bold things- •
Commomwm Living rogether Of ~ ses....d by an Ance510l' m,d l ~ U y loot u,rm normal!y 1ppticd to tad• St< tho ziddab
the IAme food 1upply to gain muwal l:t<n<fit "' bo r,&:veloped at • law evolutionory (p.88l.
Tim relation,hip aa not esscntml fur the 1.urvM1J •fll!!<. s... numbtra of run v,:ru1:,.,.., m the Pnmat.. Th, order of m&mmlb Wt UI·
of any of tbe portiea uwolwd, cf. l'aruumn tmd r-i 1t.Jt (p.49) <ludeo the ~pe, l!Dd n,oril<q~.
S)'lmow. S.. the ml!IIC!ung ...cl tbr 1....,. Genw: ~ blOlogic:al c1atti6catiM that tm~ P""'imiam The group of pnmalel iliat m-
p~n(p.63) b"""" • group of rclai«I sp<d,s. cludcs l<rnun; aod loruea. &:< the da..._ (p.91).
ConYC1'1l'nt t?\'Oluticm The. e\llluuc:,n of IJJlll- Gn""r AA animal tha, cats gras,, e.J. Scavenger /\n arumal that .... the daod
iAt phy,,oingioo I or """""ni""I feawn:s by i.lroMor. bodi.,, of OU>l:TL ~ the ghol< (p 84).
unrelaud grouptt of llrllllla!s. s.. ""' tlooer UIO<Cllvo"' /In onimaJ that eata inl.ccu. Mort s,,m.bloru Li~ doody IOl\"tru:r ior rtASOOJ
(p 109) and the fl=-r.c.d poto0 (p. l05). pt«'l'dy the ,.,,.,,, •• restrin<d to mcmbert of of tnutunl wtVl\o'AI, cf. c.omrncoaalism a,,d_
Counttnbadlng It. pilttem of colorat!Cft Ul the """'' 1nsectiV<lt11 S.. the pfot (p.49) Par..,bJm S.. the deft-bock orudcpe and the
wlucb the upper atdo of an '""""'1 " dar.k<r than lnvertebr•re A1, tuumaJ without a bBtkbont ud< bird (p. l ObJ
rll• 1o...., oa. Cow, tfflhadlJlg domoy, the
naNnJ patlffll of light and shade lf1d mam an
arumaJ i ~ S.. the poclnooth (p 811
~ m 10 unclc'l'eloped -ta~
Marsupial /\ m.imroaJ giving birth 10 ,to
Moot manup~
young are reared .m paucbe,; srtUiited an their
Ungula.te In ~""""! "'"1lli on wnmnl wnh
""°"""'·mare pt<CtOCly • rnernb..'f or th(, ordm
Aruodact)'la and Pensoodact)'lo S.. the Island
Dentition The nurnbtr, 1:),1'" and pott<m of tJlOlh<ni' a l ~ </. Plaa:ntal S.. the ronu,-, of l.m1una Ip II»)
tttth. l"oo, ompb.ib11m, Md """''"" lu"" teeth cbucl<ttboo {p.97). V•n•bcatc lt.n aniaw l""'"""ing • baclcbono.
ihot ore all of the ...,,. ohape a.nd """ Miillcrum mimicry The ,esembwnce
be- Wattle ... lleshy appendage on the throol al•
<wwn a group of dangeroua or d,,mt<ful bu-d. S.. the fl,ghtler.s gwru,a fowl (p.811
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 119

Ad.!lie _.in, 16 bobooo. &-I Carbooi!erout.,27, 29

J\rp.l""'u, IS bumia, 42 CIOU\'tlffll, 40, 54, 102, eot>lution, 19, 30, 31, U1
Afnc1. ,,,rn,-1 drift. 106. 113: &....,..., 71. &L,noglossuJ •pp.. 26 food ""'1in, :a>. 21, 20--J
75; _....,.i.,p... S2; gTIJIS!ond,, 18; IWimpi. &r.,......u ""'pm,. 67 Ca"'°""p,o opp, 84. 84, 85, C. g,andu. 84, 85:
95, tn,pical foresu. 87. 88 91, tmpk:ol bordeloL 60, 61, ~ C. lon&1P"', 8-1. BS. C. uulg,,ru, 84. 85
Qra!F8bnd-, 79, 81 82 a...,,., 109 Camoplulw ophl«IUdaJw, 97
ognatliaos. 27 Bamian ,ninucty. 19 Cam,runcu, piwpodur. 75
"!!fU....lture. <lo:,itru<;tJClll of tropical foru1a, 87: bno. 31. 46: on ll.Jlll\'I>. 109: predawr, 109; Qmur •Pl' . 5"1
.u,d C\'OOJlJDQ of ru.w. .12. incrc.ws desert pump. 46, 41.,, 47; wribaL IO'l, 109 Ca,fmttagw gm,w1.,.,.., 106
r<gions. 71 bear, p,lar, .zo, .ZO, 60 cot family, 60. 84. 91
alder """'· 37, 51 beav~. 54. 54 c.dar """'· 51
A.Imm'" L,psus. 88, 89 beed.., .lO ~It.,, e\'oluuon. 25: !l""ctrc,, L!-13. 12-13:
.Jgac,. Polar Ooou:. 64 bcl.'1.1.,iow, ml~ m evolUOOl'l, 16, J6-J7 &trucnm.-, J2
Alltnopull«W m ~ . 95 il<tgman'• ruk, 18, 117 Cennv,,c, 29
Allen', rule, 18, 117
AJlo.iaunu. 29
Bering StnUc 59. 113
b,pn:!a. South !unenain g......i.nd,. 105
Qpom """"°'"'"· (8
c:ephalopod,;, 26
Alu""'Ph,tlw ..,JJ,, I06 bird,,, .:ooife10U! (om,,a, 57; courtshrp ntulll11; chal!\nch, 17
""'"'° oc:ida, 12-13. 24 J?; dcfet11l\oe bcha...iourl 16-17: dt2IC.tt tt.. c:hirit. +I. 45, 57
amphib,,,,., 27, 28• .:!<.> gJOOI, 76: ••olut11,n, 15, 28, 29: fuih ... tioq. dtilclh<od. 56. S7. 57
Amplnmo')'hoclw ''Jl"""""Phus. 4-0: A long,j'.,e,, ,#J -19; ll,gbtlts., 15. 49: ,n food chaUI, 20; (urun, clxirdt!"'8, .!6
J\nalmi«lm,m srrutluef°""", 105 e\'tlluuoo, l H: i.o.wru1U<K1S. SJ, W; noc:tw- c1uo-.l2.IJ
•nohoowbip, 88, 88 nn.l. 46, on Poca.,., 110; &eabuda, M, 67; chucbboo, '11. 97
South i\menca. 102. 105: oompm,te wood Clodostlocht. 27
"""""""'""'"'· 30
Ankyloiaurus, 29 lands, 45. troplcal forc,1>, 92. 98; iropic;al c1.,... 91
1uu. w.11.et. 9S ~land:.. 79, 81; trop,cal ,w:unpo. 95; clm,a1r. d<ocrt <"!P""', 71; role ,n owluoon. 31.
Anwcici. 59. 'JI, 113 rundR. 63; oi.ru,J d.>pl>.ys. 16, 17, wood· t=p,,rnt< ..'OOdlanda, 37; cropicol forau, 87,
Mre.ll.'rl, 30; S\\Omtrung. ?4, 95 bo<en. -IS 88, uop,cul ~ands, '19: rundra, 59
mtclope, 52. 82. 106, clcli-baclc, 106, 107 bird, of l""Y• coruforou• forem, 5-1: ooaumol. cliael, lS
•I""· 30. !14. BS. 91 46, Pacaua Archiptlago. 110: '""'"'""" for. a>cl<IIWtlW,, 26
Aptncnnr.lu, lo0£inM<hu,, -19 es"', 4S: tmpi<ol forest,, 88 colour. desert lllliroal" 75: in <VOlunon. l ll-19:
Aquambulu, /urmha, 49 8uUJ11 J,i,tul,m,, 18-19, 19 munlCI}', 19: tropical gra..landa arumal,, 81
A,iwrar adqmcautus, 75 Brtu, 98 Compo,ognothw, 29
/J.rantctpith«ut m..:num1,dato, 88 bivlllves, 19 mnif<rous foresta. 39. 40. 51-7, 82
Aroot.-npmibo up!M)'X, 109 bootio hircl. 62, 63 toolinental drift. "" plot• toctoni<:s
~ur,.29,19 bcn,.,or bud, ?8 CORl3. 26
.'vt:t,c. 21 bnduopcxl.. 26 ""'1'!1()!11)1, 16

Amie °"""'· 59
1rm...clilloo. 30
broodbeak. 5-1, 54
hroWlliftt!" mn~k S2. 8 l
Qm,uw,,u spp., S2, 82: C. homdw. 52; C.
,..,,..,,..;..,, 52
lffllW<1leJt aahjic.,..... 91 bu"""", m,:acbins 63: '3nd llar!J,d, 72 O>rwwk4 "Ill""· 6.1
Amwt«Junm imptJittrabdu, 42, 43 8uslrt'1pta "l''"'"'""''"u. 61, 63 coumhip ritunls, 17
Bu!On<W poo,!Onw, 49 (OWi, 39
""""""""· b?
arthrapoJ,.. 26, 27 crnb, fiddler. 17
,'WI, 52, 101 CXJ<ltult:tl!nl dnJL 5\l; c:lese<t actu1, 76 crao•, Brolga. 16
Mimai>, 75; Utipi<lll fora!l, 91 Ca«apum.s •P., 46 ~ 19, 29, 30
A!Lmtic °"""1, 59, 113 C'....-nbnan, 26 cnxooil«. 28, 29
•uk. flightless. 64. 6f. 65 camel. 75 Cr-o-magnon mao, 12
1\u,tni.11A. UO, rootwmital drift. 71, 79, 110, camoolla!,"'- 10 c'\'<lluuon, 18-19, 19; ,lobber, crow, 63. Ll4
113. gra,sl1nd&. 18: tnaBIJp,aa. 31. tn;,pical 97; deoen llllJmll,, 15; troplCI! g,-a,alanda. 81 Cunum,s long,p<s, JOS
ro......, 87. 97. 9t! Qunp!OtJUIUS, 29
J\u,t,;1Jop,th«w, J2 Cnr,u, JI na-..,,,,. ,otuodw, n
L
120

deer 39 Flagdlanguu tomdu, 88 fe~""" behaviour. 16, C\-oh,1tion 30. Jl: U\

~ mechanism.,. apm:mg foatl11,rl'001, 72: lbpjllC<. w,d, 72, 72, 73 food clm,n,, :!O. 20, ll, 11, on Lemun,, 106:
I cm ,ail, 110 ilico, on cleft-bock ontdcpc, 106; noc:tum:al, % Swth Arncncan gra.,oloncl,;. !OS, crop,cal
o,.,,.,n1ch1U, 29 n.xi.,. 108, 109 grn10t.ntb. 79. 81. 82
Flarifam mrrabila, 108 109 hon1n. 63. ,nglcr, 49, 49
Dendmcygn., """"""'· 93
d.:oxynbc,nucl,:x; .cod Jtt UN... Ouk.., ~2 H,,pe,~,. 102
delert shark. 72. 73 £lunltoy, 88. 89 H:'unal•yu, 82. '17 113
°""""' tdlhol.,,. 76 food clwn.,, 20-1. 20--l
r,,,.....
con•erous. 39, 40. 50-7, 82: deoduoua.
hrFJF-, : tamus, 92
hiri·hiri, 96. 91
-
devU.·1..71-6
pmg. 71 37, 45: _..,.,, 37; galle,yfom,.87;South H1'lMWlntnum salw.iu, 92
IA,,-oroan, "1;l Amo:rican, 102-3; uq,nl. 39, 86-99 lioroo cr«tus, 1'2; H Vlpw!m, 32
Olm,.t,Qjnn, J l fomuo,iwlm,, paladao,, 92 hnmhmid. 52. 52, 53, 5" 68, 82, common. SJ:
Diimrplooptilrmns omquiM. 98 for!resM'S, mtachins, 63 helmCU!d. 52, lJ, wutcr, 52, 33
Dm,d,11,ys, 27 four-eyed fuh. 101 bo= g,gantclopc:. 82: groath, 68; bornhcad.
Dmamu, lS fo•ea. 20. 63 52: rundibom. 82
dinoauno, l9, 28, 29. 30, 8'1, lOI, 114, d\Jdc. horran,, 84, 85
fmgill,, """"'· l 7
bilu,l, 52 hn-. H, 14. 18 30, 39
Otploarulu,, 27 gaboanv,per, 98 Hu,ru.sourus Jptrl4C,'%Ud.:luu, 54
~ . 29 Gal8f'l!l'l" oliandl, 15, IOI humus, 37. 87
dipper, 1""!1-lllrl,d, 49, 49 Go!Jopttu, po/)-gno, 92 HydmcllOfflU, 105
di;tnrt2ropa, 64
gamms. 13
DNA, 12-13, JJ g,ndi""'L 62, 63 ice agca. U6
dodo, IS gannets. 16 k•lllnd. 59
DoWJ,odonf....,,. 81 ,c:hth)'OAIU'O. 31
Ga.:xlla. 81
Dolu;ho,,.,.,,, ?:/ g-,zdle, 81 k/1tloyo,oorrw, 18, 29
Do/,chou,, I 1),1
dolph,rvo, 18. 31
II"""'""'· 12-13, 12-LJ; oontr0l of bcl,aviour. T<l1thyo,1<'11P, 27. 27
Indian ponuuui.. s.2. 113: a:o11mon with mam-
17; mutations. 13, 16: aurvival of genes. 17
drummer, m,,,, 45, 45
duclu,, 63: tree. 9S.95
ghole, 84 i.nd ........ 101: """"""'°
forosu. 87; tropic,l
g,:mtal.i. 98, 99 grasolanm, 81; inaectl\<>m. btrd., 45, SI, 60:
!P!f'n<elope. S2 82, 82. 83, 84. 85, 106; long· wolution, 30, I H; noaumal, 46: in """I"'·
~'46 nockal. 82, 82; ..«Jly, 52, 60, 61, 82 ar• woodland11. 42. 45
<Ori, desert ammal,, 72. ttuteal. 46 g....ife. 81 lnle<ts, 30: "'"'"'- 114, J 14: in G,,,d chwn,
.,.n1,,._ +2. 92 goot, 39 20: msmiery, lQ; noctu~ 46; IW'\.°1\'11 of.
echinoderm&, 26. 26 -.cree. 45,45 &""'"· l 7; in tropical ,,,,..... 87; rundni, 59,
egg>. noproducnon. 13 Omndodo>t<>J N>Ud"'i"', 82 f,()
elapod Makes. 98 grassloods, role on esi,luuon, 31, South Amen· lruulomu, UO; I. o,,phall", UO, 110. 111: I
elephant bud, lS om, 104-5: tempente, 3H9. tropJ<al, 18. han, UO; I '""""'hyncho, 110, I !O: I
elq,han'", 30, 60. 82, 92 21, 78-85 piaf......,, 110. 110
E.1rp1.... 82 graz,ng 4lllllWI, in lA'OlUria. 106; Soulh tun.,,;. ,nYCJt<bnltc.o. 26. 26. 42
1
tif'(d. Ot'J, J2o role .tD e!YO-
CflVtl'QllmCllt Dlll0 II can gruslands. 105: tfOPical ~ 79, lni"P4.ltlf" Q>fl11ntruala.J1 106
lutl<JQ, 14-15, 16, 19 81 i!land!, role ., C\IOluuoa, 15, lOI, volanic. IS.
fogyrrnu.l. 27 great cn!Sred gr<l,o, 16 101. 109, uo
F.quou, 18. 81
.Ewth<""f'""""· 27, 27
°"""' f ...,.J.ofo-, 4 2
grooth, 68. 69
,.al.t-. rok in evolut,00, 101-10

"'"lu""'1, arumal bchav,out, 16-J7: bads, 28, grol,bit. 75, 75 I""""'~ 4/J
29, ""'1""'8""L 18. ll6, U 7: form and grow<.iagt,,16 jaw. evolution ~ 30, JI
davelopment. 18-19, 26; futun, of, IH-16; growth. DN/\ replication. 12 Jt?lly6&h, 26
f!l....UC mutalJOO\, 12-13, onwmlm"'"' 26- Gry,..,,.)'CIO 1'(1.fh'ylo,a, 105, 109 Jtrboa, 72, 75
7, 26-7; mammala, 29, ~l. J0-1. LJ4; guin<a fowl. fbghtl..., 80, 81 Jura.u,c:, 29, JO
nw,, 32. 32. QllUJ'Jll ..,ltcUon, 13. 14-IS, 18, gull. hcrnng, l 5: ,...... black-bawd, 15; "'ii.
pornlld, 18, 117. planta, 114.114, rote of. 19; 15 iumga,<JO. 97, 98, 105
rq,,il.., 27. 28-9, 28-9, 30; role of oaolewm gumth. 102, 103 lthillah. l)(), 91, 91
on, 101-10 Oynqmorplw ""'""""'• 102 khilla, 75, 75
kidocyo. do.lert animlll,, 71, 72
falanx. 40, 40, 4J bJ>dtao.ura. 52 kingful,ec. toothed. 95, 95
r...nw,. 98, 9" ffalcy,,,w,m aqua,....,, %
fcatbo,foot, 8jlltting, 72. 72 hanging bird. 45, 45 lagomorphs, 30, IOS
fttL chtriL O: grobbiL 75 Hanrndop<, "''lP"""• 49 L,gopa mmutw, 63
fiddler crab. l 7 Hastatus wtan.,, 102 land ,m,J, 18
6ncl>es, Galapegoo 1&1.ands. 15, 15 H.t..·•11. I09 latch """"· 51
lilll. cvoluboo, 19, 26-7, 27: u, food chain, 20: hawiboW<r, 98, 98 latitude, influence oo 1nimol shape and form, 18
four-q,ro. l()l lw,g. 27: pebog,c, 64 H,l,ea,ploolw '""" """"· 68 kap..-. desert. 74. 75
fu.h.lizard 18 ~42 logs. faJan._ 40, tl!bbuck. 39
 121

l.ffllUN, 106 pl•,."""""'°' IOI 106. IJO, JU

N<0panlalotus "'""""""'· 98
lemur-. 88 lleSt8, boll,.., birda, 98: i<lulf>h, 91; Wl!C 8111>. /ltat.)IC<l..datw ,imam 13
l.q,dondllJS kmu,...,,,.,, 106 95 platypus. JO
"""""· 51, 59, CJ0 Now Zealand. 15 Pl,:,,-, J2
life, origin, of. 2+-S, "" al» <YO!ution night •"'"""· 108, 109 plesiouuB, J 1
lion. 40 nifll,,gl,dc:r. 102, 102 Plt:1iouJ11rut, 28~ 29
l,zar,js, 29. 42. 76; fin. 76. 77; m,inne, 101 N"'°"""''"' !emmomo,phus, 63 pl,oeau.rs. 31, 67
14utdorita, 82 noctumal onimal<, 46 PclM Ocean, 59. 64
lut11::, ~,46 Nonh Amaica, cmuocntal drift. 59, 113, porpu,, 66, 67
cbc:tu. 76: ho<>es. 18: land,bridge ., Saudi ,,_... omnivorou.t, 98. !Ill
hmenca, 102. 105; ....,dand,, 49 JJO!<XI, flow,,r.r..c.d, 105, 105, 109
Macrol<>gu, ,pp.. 39, 39 predator rat, 40, 4-0. 41, 42, 54, 60, 64
North Pol•. 59, 64
M"""'P"' app.. 97
magpie. 63
Nonhm, Conunmt, 64, 97, 113, corufcrous predliu,n, rowfuow r.,..... 54, ~ rcgio,11.
(ore.t,, SI, 54. formation of, 59: snak.._ 98: 72. 75, ib, ,n food chain, 20, 21: manupial,
I , , ~ . 15, 106 . 97; roda\11, 40, Soudi Amaican, 102; aop,
wedoods. 49
mommals. /lusuul- 97; ~ng, 52; co-
rukrous tirc<m, Sl, dd'.no,, mcrbani-. 54.
N~""4unus, 29 ica1r""".., ss. 91; m,pical gm,.1,n S+.
tundn,, 60, 63
t,,oluuca, 29, 30-1, J0-1, JJ4: futune ......
prll1lll,.., =lullOn, 30, 31. cropal foresa. 88:
lutlOll. lH: cropJCll1 for..,., 88. 91, ..-.ilands. Oli/l')kypl,ur, 31 crop,cal gra..1.ni:1o. 84
49 Oncho,pt,w fodrha.t,, 102
man, d<titrucuon of tropical forem, 87; disap- ~ " " " "JlP,, 45
Opn100audarus uuulanu, 110
""""""'4 <k,pha........ 92
~ .,r 32: .trec1 on ""1iteroot Coresos. Omitl,oruc/u,s. 29
51; dTect on""""""'"' woodlando one! gms,;- °"""""'"' oltifao, 68
owls. 21, 46
p"""'1IL cell gonetia. 12-13
P...""""1ua<1U, ,?2
lands, 37. 39; "'"''"-· 32 32 Psommonanu spp.. 72
Mu"""lbulw J'<Tlwmwlw, 109 c;oom, l9
hudofra~. tip • 54 •
l11il ngrove £0<...., 87
Pi<vda<truthio gulan.1, 81
m.ipl• " .... 37 Pacous Archipelogo. 110 pwnugan, 1....,., 63, 6.1
=-105 PochJC!IJlhoia pect,,,,,li,, l l O Pl<lTOnoJon, 29
man.upiala. 18. 30. 31, Jl, 60. 97. 98. 102. 105 Paci6c Ocean, .15, 76. 109 no Pwmdoctylur, 29
M.,uritJu., 15
Palok,ps spp.. 76 prerosaur1, 28, ].<), 31
t'llelldung, 62, 63. 63 P(l(hdogol, nudia,/lum, 8'4 pull odder, 98
M~/odon;,u "I', 52; M. lmmlu, 60, 61, 82; M.
pampas. 105 pythm,n, 64, <14
g,gor,,-, 82
pamthm. 54, 5.5, 68
M~rtmdon, JO P<m1t,,ru, w,ga, 57
Mdaunrus """'""'· 46
quail, long-l"ll8od, 76, 76
_,,,,..116
llllr.1.•, 4-2, 46
"""'"'""'·
...-, ... 20, 68 42. g,uxlima<. 63, mat·
68. nu1o...,
,iarch tllUUnOU, 102; tick bin!. 106: uowmp.
.
Qu.t:,droaliw, 29

i r ~ '""""I"· 46 92 ..bb,... 30, J9, 46, 61!. 81

mul-AtlantJC ndge. 59 Pan,p, lepodoTVstrw, 54, .W rabl;,ucb, 3'l, 39, 39. sz. 54. 81, 81. 84, 106,
awJi.oa, 49 pam,ta, 110 /\n:tJC, 38, aimmc,n, 38, desm. 38: hq,pJns.
migration, uopiaJ gm:sslaods 79, tundra, 60 Pelagom,ds, t,7 39: rwuung, 39
millipeck 27. 30 P1mdoiu b"'4ctylw, 45 raboon, 84, 84, 85; g11u11. 84. 85
numlcry, l9
penguin. 64. 67, 109: l\d,/J~. 16 ram for""" 39, 87-98
"""'· 15 Pmnapus salllJn.t, 72 Raphu,, 15
mole, w,;bd, 42, 42 P,,,11111acoudw u,1,.,,;.,, 68 mp,dr, 4-0
molluoc., 26 permafioet, 59 ra1'. 30. 40; prodotor. s« pred,,tor rat; And. 75
-.84.102
inonk,y.. 30, 88, 91; m.m,pial, 97; IWllfflP, 95: l'cnnian. 29 '1M'lV. ,w, pow. 63, 63; 'l'mf'O'I'"'
63
pfrlt, 48. >19. 49 reatilt, 48, 49
swimnur,g. 94, 95 Phowrus p/talon,s, 60 R<ma1a mad,p<lla, 109
tra>otremc,I, 30. 31
Pbutolom.dae, 97 reproducuon. ..xu.t. 11. 13; v,:ge,auve, 59
UlOmoon r°""" 87 Phoboctbw homw,ll"lus, 84 reput.,,, deaert r,gjore, 76: e\'Dlution. 27, 28-9,
- - 28·!9 Phoc>1po11Jmw lutuplwgu.,, 95 28-9, 30; ll'q)IC3l fon,i~ 88
mcequ1.....,
-.s1. 59,60 photocynthail. 20. 21. 25, 26-7. 88
p,d,100th. 81, BJ
&r.o:am """""'°'""'·
R/iamphurl,ynclna, 29
97
moihl. 41>. pcpp,,ed, 18-19, 19 pigs. 30, 92 rhi.nocen)&, 82
l11QUllWllS, Atttic, 08, f;u E;.4 97
pilolil<, (,0, 60 ribooucleic ocd. ""' RNA
mud-gulper, 94, 95. 95 pine cliudc, cammon. 56, 51 rift ,..Ucy1, 106
Mullcnan murucry, 19 p,,,gr,p1,.. 1npm,ftmn<, 98 river>. uq,ioll fon:s1>, 87
muatelbcb. 102 pltta, giant, 92, 92 RNh, 12-13, lJ
mutations, scn<tX, 13, 16
pb<ental mammals. 18, 30-1, 3J, 97. 102 rodorus, 40, oonlftrDUJ '""'"· 57, dncrt ...
M)'""""'''°""' wnplub.u,, 95 piJ,oodcnns. 27, 27 g;an,, 72, 75 ""°luban, 30; iumpu,g. 105.
piAnboc,. 20, 67 &.,di Amencan gn,sslaod., l05, running.
Ndklrnkc.i manttmus, 64 plan,., 26; nclutioo, 19. 1n food cbau1. 20, 21 rn.;, t.emperat• foreru, lb, Nndr.i, 63
l\'a..,.thtc,u r<JJ1D1"', 95 future <\lolution, 114, lH, rolo in ,'VO!uuoo, JWtsueber, 76, 76
L
122

52
O'UUlJll.UllA, wh.. ..ncborwhip, 88; chmt. 45, clatm. 91, W11t00, 81, SJ
rundihom, 82, 83 dc5ert "'3ptr. 75; hiri·hin. 97, iong-arm,d wctlDndi. lcmp<rUU>, 48,-9; tropi<>l. 94-5
runrung arumala. 81 z,cid>h, 88. parashrew, 68: IIJld llapJock. 72 whalet. 31. 67
Rupo;,lto, 1,JJup<1. 68 taplT, 98 whistl<B, golden, 110, bowl<. UO, UO, 111 ,
T...,,..,,.n dcvJ. 97 l'llauan. 110, !JU. IJ l
tOl'tb. C1ll1U\IOl'tf, ~: chirit. 45. diotnrtffl>pO. 6'1, wombat, 97
aobre-<OOth. "°· 60
Sa.t,oo f•hf""""· 91
gru.ing arumals. 81. hom.h.cad. 52: p,doooth.
81: ram, 40: roed,;ul~ ·19
v.ood.bor:ing bm:t., 45
wr:xxflaod, temperate, Jt,.-49
San»phlfuJ h,,ms,,, 97 """P"R-" ~ . 36-49 ..~ r , l l O
~ IJJJP'fo-, 42 teruptnwre regulJllion. 18, gigantelOf)", 82; ,...,rma, 2.6. •-Z 92, orom worm. 26
Sa,""""y• to,,g,coudata, 57 rep<i!n, 76; valuplwn. 106
S a ~ tolongulu,, 64 Ttndtsourus "'"'· 45
SCOrp!OM. '/:I T,ntl,ra .....,,,~. 57
r.ea ~cumber. 26 ·rmbra4tu rubauru~ 46 ,aro,dor, 92. 9.l
... un:1un. 26 84, 92. 93
tffltnlr, zd,n. Ill
...i., 20, 31. &I tmmtt bunower. 98, 98 oodah, long-mntd. 88. 88
l<lMII rq,roduttJOa, 12, 13 temwl. 110. !10. JJ I 7.00planmn. Polu O...n. 64
$,ym,'lfflO, 29 ·rrm,ry, 30, 31
.i,. lloth, fi,gh\i,,u. IQ9, I09 ..-loo, 42. 43
,h.u-k, 18, desert. ,,,. " - ' ihark TorlutL<4udatus lardw, 91
&h«p, 39 o_fncuruu, 82
TttTOQ.11"DS
wilf111h, 26. 64 Tho/a.po,nu.s pudlmw, 64
lhrtwa. JO, ~5. 49. 68; chDld-toc>thed. 46 Tlmrhenum, 18
dmrl, ""'· 46 ThmlWIIWll,29
shumu:k, 68, 6ll Thylap,rh<aa nifus, 97
Si!(rangmu IVl!d""-""· 98 Thyl,uur 1irgnru1, 9l!
Silurwn. 26 w bud. 106, IU7
wn. 67 e1 tinamou, matti"'1:b_ 102. 102
.kuo. 63 u,od, onldeal 42, '11, 43
.tcbb<,,-, 96, 97 tortoue, g,ant. JOJ
,lotb. 97. 109 u,,wl, 56, 57, 57
J"!i, ~2 Tri,w;c. 29, 30
&i,,linnys ...... !,()
moil laod 18. - Z6
r""'"'"""· 29
trilobtti'.S, 26
IMk.., 29; Ptc.ua blJ"<l. I IQ, U'Opt<:.lJ form,,, wvamp. !12. 92
88, 9a wteal. i6, 47
=u. 106 tundra, 39, 51, 52. SS.-69, 82, 88
"'" comferou. t ~ 51; t0nperate wood· turmi. 92. 9]
uu,d.,. 37; unp>:ol lorest>. 87; troplQll fV1'5S- Tyto.oimu, 29
lwd,_ 79
!Ol.or sy,,=,, origins of W'• ,n, 24-5. 25
Swth Amenca. carruvoreo. •o. oancinental dnf~.
u.. app 17
IIJ; de,e,v.. 71: d,oooaun, 101; dfecu, of Ung•lagur ,pp .. 39, 81: U. """"· 81: U. jl,mJJ,
i,olatioo on"'"'"""" m.102; forest>, 87. 102: 38. u. "'""""· 38, u. """"""· .38; u.
rih1'Ulrrur. 38, U. virgorw. 81
grualm:hl, 18, i9, lOS, manupW., 31,
Vngubm."' crn,i/rmn<, 75
UO!IUIII.CS. 18
~ . fVUlu.tlt>n, 18, 19, 30; <XllOCIJ<l4' of,
South Pole. 59
39, 8l 105; tn Lemuna, l06
Southern Conunro~ 67
Southern 0c<an. 59, 67 Uno! MounlllinJ, U3
,perms. 13, 1.3 Va.h.lom,,n growm, 106
,pickle, desert. 76, 76 valuphant. 106, 106
"JUlfh'l loos-boditd. ... chui~ tp,ru,-oul<d, 5-1. V,luidnu bip(Xl, 76
SS
,tarlw>. 26, 26
,-.mix.., """1snlt. '19
,"'1l!brares. c·olution, 27, 23-9
lllllhng, 5-1 viper 98
Sl"!IUOIJruJ, 29 Vcl.lfflnw bmnprJ, 4()
s:tnaw puettn,J, 67 volcanoos. 106
..,.~ 40
\'Oles, 21, 42, 46
~ 81,/lf
,tnck.. 104. 105. 105 -67
Vulptm.UJtdo. 68, V. our, S~
m,g,,r, 91), 91 V,Jptmy, albtJ!w. 63; V. Jmx. 40, 63
sun. do,n,,,. or. 11h
,urlb.rt, ... !,,,.,
surmal. of the 6uat. 21, role o f ~ m, 17 ...akta, /04, 105, J05
 123

ACI<.NOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wauld loL! n, thank Malcolo1 Hare for hi.. hclp ,n pr-'Cii<tuig w SOURCES OF REPERENCE
buJ lifo fuw,d"" earth in fifty million i•w,' timt I.Od Dr Jolu:i 0.11 for Ilia &!:rbo.....,. JR.. &,,n;l1J..- the po,t. Pmitice,twl (Eng!N<>Od Clifli, N.J,
ICMc~ md cntJci5m in 1he prq,11n1.tiao ot the- t:at. 1968)
Benes, J l',rhuwn< Plonu rrntl An11rlU!s, l'la.:nlyn (l""'lOOO, 19791
lndcs P"'f'U ,'Cl by Hl1ury Bud Br.un.,•cll M. («t~ Tht \Von.J Al!,u <! Bl,w, ~ lhch<II ileHley (l..ondon.
1974)
B.IDUOGRAP~IY Carthy, J D., Th, Study of Bch,i,,.,u,, Edword Arnold (Londc,o, 1979)
lk,u,hen:, l' n,. N<1tu,0J IJ11u,ry cfMammalr, Ooo,ge O Rvrap fl..oodoo, Clatl<, D.L, F..,,J,, Pal"""uoiolt)· and F,...,lr,non, Wm. C Brown (Dubuque.
!955} Iowa. 1968)
Ck"'..Wcy··Tu>mp,cm. J.L "fm.,tnal Envim=1>. C:nx,m H,lm IM12 RS. & Holden J.G, Tho llrakrup of I ~ . Scientijic Ao"'1Can
(Loodoo. 1913) (Octtl,er 1970)
Cobu,_ P., \\fhy Big F,em Ammall Are Ra-tr, Allen & Unuin fl..<>ndon. l'cotoo & !'rnton, In P.th1Je<mc SM,, G""'ll" fh!Tllp (l.,,odon l'l64)
1978) G.Uic. 0, Tht I..,m,g C:.U. Tham<ll & Hudaan (London. 19711
J.Jowtw,s, 1t r,-.. &1Ju1, ar,..,, o,,..,_ida 1Loot1oo. 1978~ Mackean, D G. lntmdurtion "',_..""""'· John Mum,) IIJ,ndon. 1977)
GOICh. AF, Mammals - r,,.,,I.Ann N11- &platntd. Blandford (Pnolo, MOOO', R.. c1KJlu110,,, Time-Loe (l.ondan, I Q7J1
1979). Prenfcr. J , Tho CtlJ, Time,Lur (l..oadon, 19721
Gould. S.J , \Vh,.,·,Wrong \\'ith Miinrup"1L,1 N,w Scvnt,st Vol SS. No. Ph1lhfl"''"· J., F.,,o/ut,ona,y f'n<lJ:<OC,, Ed....ttl Arnold (London 19ti6}
1221 (1980) Ro=,-, A.$., Tl" V-br.ir.. Swry, Unl\,n,ty afCh,Cl!l" !Ch~. 1959)
Hai.,..d, LB, Th< l'aru,m of Vm,bmtt Ewlu,;,,,, Oh= lll1d Boyd Scott. J. Palneenrowgy, Klohn & A.,,..,.JI (London, 1973)
1Echnhur¢,. 1969) ~pmor, 2. V , 1.,fr &.fem Man, '1'lume,; and Hudson !Landor,, 1972)
Hoyle. P. & Wocl<nunui"IP'. NC.. Lif«loud, Tltr Orig,,, cf Loft 1n Int S11<1nneru,n, HH Outima of Pa,.,,.,ntolugy, Edward Arnold 11..oodoa,
Umt<nt. J.M. Dc:nt fto,,doo, 1978l 1947)
Koob, DD. & ~ W. E., Th, Nau'"' ofUf,. Addoo,.W..t.-y (Reachng. Wludield. P (ed.}, Tht Animal Family, tlamlyn (London, 1979)
Ma..,a,chu.rw,, 1972)
Kumn, 8 C<Jnunmtal Dnft and Evulubba, S...,,11/i< Amma1n, (March. The illu.maoon on page 24 w.,s n:clrawn from U>< Cambnd!\,: Bible of
1%q) 16<>3.
Lawn,nce, ~I.L lll1d llrown, ItW, MJnunal, of 8""''"' n,..., T10clo,
Trails and .SW,,, Blandford (Pool,-, 1Y74J a..LU!>'TRATO.RS
Muchcll, J. (eci.) n,. Nahnul U'mld volwm, of Tlw Mctdidl &mJ.y Joy of O,z W.U..., poga; 38-39: 40-41, ~2. 4+-'15, 4(1; 4&-49: 52; 5-1-5S, 56-
K-okdi~ Ubr.ny, Mitchell Berud,y {London, 1977) 57: 60-61: 63. 64; 61,--67, 68, 72-73; 75: 76-77: 80-
Pmy. R.. I..,fe ,n f...,,
ooJ}un~,., D1md & Clwlea (New.on .-\bbcn, 1976). 81: 82; 8--HIS: 88-89; 90-91; ~2-93: ?5: 96-97: 98;
R.ootmod. J., floolunon. l'Tmtn Hall {Loodon, I%0) 102-103; 105: 106, IOll-109. ll0-111
Simun. S & 8oruim, S., I..,ft on la,, Wata (Loodan. 1976~ John Bu~..-. p,gc,: 43: 47; 6-5, 69, 83, 94; ID-I
Si1npt011, G.G., Spl,nd,,l /,olotton. ri., CunotlS lfaiqry of South An"'""°" Brian Mclnt)'l\'. pages· 36; 5-0; 58: 70; 78; 86: 100: 111
Mam.,.i,, Vlk Uruvet11ty Press (New HA,·en and J..oadoo. 1980). l'lubp Hood. P"S'-""' 53; 62: 74: 99: 1(17
$t.c1,1,;.,., G.L, P!o<....., of 0'1§'"'' Et,tJlurlon. l'Tmoe<·Hall !New Jmey, Roy Woodiutl. pog,,,, 23: 33: 34-35; 37: 31. 59; 71, 79: 87; 107: 113
19nJ Gary Mnnh, pogos: 11; 12-13; 14-13; 16-17: 13-19: 20-21, Z!, 24-25,
You,111, ).Z.. Tht Lif• of V,rrttlmirc,. UnM.'11tt)' Pml (Oxford. l<J6ZJ. 'lb-27 28-29; 30-.11. 32; 11'1-115; ll6; 118-119
 124

>•:i.a. 'IS
As soon as I sow this book, I wished I had wrillen it myself. It is a marvellous idea,
beautifully presented ... Dougai Dixon has given himself the intriguing task ofconte,n-
plating a future evolution on our own planet, closely based on species that exist at
present. By waving a time-wand and eliminating today's do,ninant species, including
man, he has been able to watch, through his mind's eye, the lesser animals gradually
• taking over as the ntajor occupants of 1he earth '.r surface.
-From the Introduction
by Desmond Morris

"Exrrapolotingfrom currently existing species, Dixon looks to evolution in the distant

future-50 million years hence-when humankind and other dorninant species oftoday
are extinct. Stunning in execuiion and implication, this will be a decided treat for
futurist, biology student or enthusiast, science fiction fan, and general reader."
- Book list
"A delightful speculation on future animal forms, so,ne rather surprisingly inventive,
ochers peculiarly familiar, and all magnificently portrayed."
-Science '82
"Uncannily believable. Dixon's invented animals, some of them beautiful enough to
live, engender reflection about the mysterious forces at work beneath the skin of real
animals." ..,
- The New York Times Book Review
"A fascinating, elegant fantasy ... "
-Boston Globe
"An extraordinary book! There are wonders on every page. After Man is a,-,.
extrapolative tour de force. ff you get only one book for your coffee table this year, it
should be this one. "
- Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine
"Scientists and general readers alike will befascinated by this bestiary, an imaginative
view of a world we ourselves can never see."
-Library Journal
"After Man is grand fun and marvelously imaginative ... "
- LA Times Book Review
". . . an imaginative tour de force .... "
- Scientific American
"His brief explanation of the principles of evolution is so lucid, and the detailed
illustrations of futurist beasts are so channing, that After Man is bound 10 captivate
readers of off ages."
-Chicago Sun Times
"After Man can provide hours ofpure amusement as you riffle its pages, and ogle.its
inhabitants."
- Science