polymers

Article
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Novel Multilayer
Bamboo Laminated Composites Derived from Bamboo Veneer
Xuelian Li 1 , Weizhong Zhang 1 , Wencheng Lei 2 , Yaohui Ji 2 , Zhenhua Zhang 1 , Yifan Yin 1 and Fei Rao 1, *

1 School of Art and Design, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
2 Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Xiangshan Road, Haidian District,
Beijing 100091, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Highlights:
What are the main findings?
• laminated structure and fiber volume significantly influenced the BLC properties.
What is the implication of the main finding?
• A reference for selecting an appropriate BLC structure and fiber volume based on ap-plication
was provided.
• The realization of rational allocation of bamboo resources.

Abstract: Compared with wood, bamboo has a special fiber gradient structure. Bamboo fibers
have attracted attention as reinforced polymer composites. This study investigated the effects
of lamination and fiber volume on the physical and mechanical properties of bamboo laminated
composites (BLCs). Six types of BLC were derived by parallel and cross laminating bamboo veneers
with high, middle, and low fiber volumes. The results indicated that the laminated structure and
Citation: Li, X.; Zhang, W.; Lei, W.; Ji, fiber volume significantly influenced the BLC properties. Microstructural analysis showed that
Y.; Zhang, Z.; Yin, Y.; Rao, F. Physical parallel lamination and low fiber volume were more conducive to resin penetration and enhanced
and Mechanical Properties of Novel the bonding strength. Both the bending and tensile strengths of the cross lamination were lower
Multilayer Bamboo Laminated than those of the parallel lamination. BLCs made of veneers with high and middle fiber volumes
Composites Derived from Bamboo and parallel lamination had the maximum bending and tensile strengths (145.1 and 101.53 MPa,
Veneer. Polymers 2022, 14, 4820. respectively). When tested for water resistance, parallel and cross lamination inhibited expansion in
https://doi.org/10.3390/
the thickness (TSR, 0.56–2.14%) and width (WSR, 0.07–1.61%) directions, respectively. Laminated
polym14224820
structures and veneers with varying fiber volume contents should be chosen according to the specific
Academic Editor: L’uboš Krišt’ák application scenarios. This study provides a reference for selecting an appropriate BLC structure and
fiber volume based on application.
Received: 14 October 2022
Accepted: 3 November 2022
Keywords: bamboo laminated composite; laminated structure; fiber volume; mechanical properties;
Published: 9 November 2022
water resistance
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations. 1. Introduction
With increasing environmental awareness, the manufacturing industry is paying
increasing attention to sustainable, recyclable, low-cost materials [1,2]. In this scenario,
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
bamboo has great advantages because of its fast growth cycle, sustainability, biodegradabil-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. ity, and cultural attributes. China has the highest abundance of bamboo in the world, with
This article is an open access article more than 500 species and 6.4 million hectares of pure bamboo forests. Bamboo can be used
distributed under the terms and as fiber feedstock for pulp and paper [3]. In the form of eco-friendly sugarcane bagasse
conditions of the Creative Commons fiber and bamboo fiber, it could replace plastics through a scalable pulp-molding method
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// to develop all-natural biodegradable and low-cost tableware [4]. Bamboo also has great
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ potential as an alternative to wood, as usable bamboo can be harvested in 3–4 years from
4.0/). the time of planting as opposed to timber, which takes decades to mature [5]. However,

Polymers 2022, 14, 4820. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14224820 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers

Polymers 2022, 14, 4820 2 of 14

despite bamboo being an excellent resource for developing a low-carbon economy because
of its abundance, wide distribution, rapid growth, high yield, and wide use [6], its sharp
taper, thin-walled hollow diameter, uneven structure, and high anisotropy considerably
limit its application in engineering structures [7–9].
There are various types of composites, such as glass or carbon fiber reinforced poly-
mers and natural fibers [10–12]. Bamboo fibers have attracted extensive attention as
reinforced polymer composites because of their environmental sustainability, mechanical
properties, and recyclability, which are comparable to those of glass fibers [13]. At present,
bamboo is widely used to produce bamboo laminated composites (BLCs) such as laminated
bamboo lumber (LBL) made from bamboo strips after lengthening with joints [14–16], bam-
boo fiber reinforced epoxy composites derived from bulk natural bamboo [17], and bamboo
scrimber composite (BSC), which consists of crushed bamboo fiber bundles saturated in
resin and pressed into a dense block [18,19]. The physical and mechanical properties of the
composites were significantly improved by impregnation with an appropriate resin and
hot pressing. A study on LBL with a density of 0.78 g/cm3 exhibited a bending strength
or modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), and tensile strength (TS) of
126.3 MPa, 11.19 GPa, and 125.9 MPa, respectively [8], demonstrating that LBL is suit-
able for use in decoration and construction. A bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy composite
demonstrated a TS of 168.87 MPa, more than twice that of corresponding values for natural
bamboo (68.55 MPa), indicating that it is highly desirable for structural material applica-
tions [17]. In addition, a bamboo-fiber reinforced composite (BFRC, a new type of BSC)
had a bending strength and MOR of up to 253.23 MPa and 26.35 GPa, respectively [20],
indicating a remarkable potential for application in outdoor flooring, building materials,
and transportation. Advanced processing technology has increased the use of bamboo as a
composite material.
Developments in bamboo utilization would allow wood to be replaced with bamboo.
Previously, bamboo composites were mainly made of bamboo bundles and strips, with few
varieties and low added value. Rotary-cut bamboo veneers from raw bamboo can promote
the diversification of bamboo composites, in addition to requiring less labor, producing
less dust, having good plasticity, and being more ornamental. They are more widely used
for surface decoration than bamboo bundles and strips [21], for example, after dyeing to
imitate black walnut [22].
However, there are few studies on BLCs derived from bamboo veneers. Previous
research has mainly focused on the preparation of laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and
plywood derived from parallel and cross laminated wood veneers, respectively. Several
studies have shown that the physical and mechanical properties of LVL and plywood are
influenced by the quality of the veneer, wood species, number and order of layers, and the
adhesive used for bonding [23–26]. Moreover, a study on the fiber gradient distribution of
bamboo [27] showed that composites made of bamboo veneer were different from those
made of wood veneer, with fiber volume content decreasing along the radial direction from
the outer to the inner layer [28]. To the best of our knowledge, current research on the
influence of fiber volume on the properties of laminated composites is limited. A rational
utilization of the special fiber gradient structure of bamboo will achieve better resource
allocation than using wood. Therefore, further discussion on the effect of the preparation
process on the properties of BLCs is necessary.
In this study, six types of BLC were derived by parallel and cross lamination of phenol
formaldehyde (PF) resin-impregnated bamboo veneers with high, middle, and low fiber
volumes. The aim of the study was to investigate the influence of laminated structure
and fiber volume on the physical and mechanical properties (bending strength and TS)
of BLCs and to evaluate the water resistance under rigorous conditions. We explored the
possibility of using laminated bamboo in structural and decorative applications, with the
goal of expanding the applicability of BLCs for the design of products and structures.
 Polymers 2022, 14, x 3 of 14

Polymers 2022, 14, 4820 possibility of using laminated bamboo in structural and decorative applications, with the
3 of 14
goal of expanding the applicability of BLCs for the design of products and structures.

2. Materials and Methods

2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Raw Materials
2.1. Raw Materials
Bamboo veneers cut to 300 × 300 × 0.50 mm (length × width × thickness) with a mois-
Bamboo veneers cut to 300 × 300 × 0.50 mm (length × width × thickness) with a
ture content of 7% were purchased from Dongguan Haofeng Decoration Material Co., Ltd,
moisture content of 7% were purchased from Dongguan Haofeng Decoration Material
(Dongguan, China). Low-molecular-weight PF resin with 46.0 wt% solid content, 35 cps
Co., Ltd, (Dongguan, China). Low-molecular-weight PF resin with 46.0 wt% solid content,
viscosity, and a pH of 10–11 was supplied by Beijing Dynea Chemical Industry Co., Ltd,
35 cps viscosity, and a pH of 10–11 was supplied by Beijing Dynea Chemical Industry Co.,
(Beijing, China).
Ltd. (Beijing, China).
2.2. Preparation of Bamboo Laminated Composites (BLCs)
2.2. Preparation of Bamboo Laminated Composites (BLCs)
Bamboo veneers were made of raw bamboo culms produced by rotary cutting and
Bamboo veneers were made of raw bamboo culms produced by rotary cutting and
naturally drying to a moisture content of approximately 7%. They were divided into high,
naturally drying to a moisture content of approximately 7%. They were divided into high,
middle, and low fiber volumes (Figure 1). Then, the PF resin was diluted to a 30 wt%
middle,
solutionandby low fiberpurified
adding volumes (Figure
water. 1). the
Next, Then, the PFveneers
bamboo resin was diluted
were to a 30inwt%
immersed solution
the resin
bysolution◦for 1 h at 25 °C. Subsequently, they were drip-dried for 7–8 min to remove excess for
adding purified water. Next, the bamboo veneers were immersed in the resin solution
1 resin
h at 25
andC.then
Subsequently,
weighed. The they were drip-dried for
resin-impregnated 7–8 min
bamboo to remove
veneers were excess
naturally resin andtothen
dried
weighed. The resin-impregnated bamboo veneers were naturally dried
obtain a moisture content of approximately 12 wt%. To form the BLCs, 11 veneers were to obtain a moisture
content
laminatedof approximately
together either in12parallel
wt%. To orform
cross the BLCs, 11
lamination veneers
patterns were laminated
according to the graintogether
of
either
the veneers. The parallel laminated BLC was defined as type I and the cross laminatedThe
in parallel or cross lamination patterns according to the grain of the veneers.
parallel
form aslaminated
type II. OnBLCthiswas defined
basis, as type
the BLCs madeI and thespecific
from cross laminated form aswere
bamboo layers typedefined
II. On this
basis, the BLCs made from specific bamboo layers were defined as type
as type I high fiber volume (I-H), middle fiber volume (I-M), and low fiber volume (I-L)I high fiber volume
(I-H), middle fiber volume (I-M), and low fiber volume (I-L) and type II high
and type II high fiber volume (II-H), middle fiber volume (II-M), and low fiber volume (II- fiber volume
(II-H), middle
L; Figure 1). fiber volume (II-M), and low fiber volume (II-L; Figure 1).

Figure 1. Experimental laminated structure: (A) type I: parallel lamination with varying fiber vol-
Figure 1. Experimental
ume; (B) laminated with
type II: cross lamination structure: (A)fiber
varying typevolume.
I: parallel lamination
Arrows with
indicate thevarying fiber
direction volume;
of grain
(B) type II: cross lamination with varying fiber volume. Arrows indicate the direction of grain in
the veneer layers; T, thickness; L, length; and R, width. I-H, parallel lamination with high fiber
volume content composites; I-M, parallel lamination with middle fiber volume content composites;
I-I, parallel lamination with low fiber volume content composites; II-H, cross lamination with high
fiber volume content composites; II-M, cross lamination with middle fiber volume content composites;
II-I, cross lamination with low fiber volume content composites.
Polymers 2022, 14, 4820 4 of 14

Before hot pressing, thickness gauges of 5 mm were placed on both sides of the veneers.
The veneers were hot pressed (Carver Inc, Wabash, IN, USA) at a hot-plate temperature
of 150 ◦ C for a holding time of 5 min/mm and unloaded at a hot-plate temperature of
30–40 ◦ C. They were then stored indoors at 20 ◦ C and relative humidity of 65%. After two
weeks, test samples of varying dimensions were prepared by sanding and cutting the slabs.

2.3. Characterization
2.3.1. Microstructure Evaluation
Samples (20 mm × 20 mm × 5 mm) cut from the BLCs were soaked in purified water
at 63 ◦ C for 8 h. Then, 20 µm transverse sections of these samples were obtained using
a slicer (RM224, LEICA, Wetzlar, Germany), following the methods of Ling [29]. The
microstructure of the samples was observed using a digital microscopic system (VHX-6000,
KEYENCE, Osaka, Japan) in transmission mode.

2.3.2. Density
Six samples (20 mm × 20 mm × 5 mm) were cut from each type of BLC to test
their density according to standard GB/T 17657-2013 [30]. Density was calculated using
Equation (1).
m
ρ= × 1000, (1)
l×b×t
where m is the quality of the samples, and l, b, and t are the length, width, and thickness of
the samples, respectively.

2.3.3. Bending Strength and Modulus

Bending strength and modulus parameters were tested in eight to nine samples
(140 mm × 10.50 mm × 5 mm) of each type of BLC. The bending strength and modulus
of the BLCs were measured using a universal testing machine (MDW-W50, Jinan Time,
Jinan, China). MOR and MOE were measured parallel to the face grains using the standard
GB/T 17657-2013 system in three-point bending mode. The samples were tested at a
crosshead speed of 5 mm min−1 and a span of 80 mm. MOR and MOE were calculated
using Equations (2) and (3).
3Fmax l1
MOR = , (2)
2bt2
l1 3 ( F2 − F1 )
MOE = , (3)
4bt3 ( a2 − a1 )
where l1 is the span between two supports; b and t are the width and thickness of the
samples, respectively; Fmax is the maximum load on the sample at failure; F2 − F1 is the
load increase of the straight-line section of the load-deflection curve; and a2 − a1 is the
deformation increase in the middle of the sample.

2.3.4. Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of the BLCs was measured using a universal testing machine
(MDW-W50, Jinan Time, China). Six samples (260 mm × 5 mm × 5 mm) of each type
of BLC were used for testing TS according to GB/T 17657-2013, using the equipment for
the tensile test. The samples were tested at a crosshead speed of 5 mm min−1 . TS was
calculated using Equation (4).
Fmax
TS = , (4)
bt
where Fmax is the maximum load on the sample at failure, and b and t are the width and
thickness of the sample, respectively.
Polymers 2022, 14, 4820 5 of 14

2.3.5. Water Resistance

Six samples (20 mm × 20 mm × 5 mm) of each type of BLC were immersed in water for
8 h in a tank at a constant temperature of 63 ± 1 ◦ C and a pH of 7 ± 1, following the GB/T
17657-2013 standard. Length, width, and thickness were measured every 2 h. The width
(WSR) and thickness swelling rates (TSR) were calculated using Equations (5) and (6).

b1 − b0
WSR(%) = × 100, (5)
b0
t1 − t0
TSR(%) = × 100, (6)
t0
where b0 and t0 are the width and thickness of the pristine samples, respectively; b1 and t1
are the width and thickness of the samples after treatment for 2 h, respectively.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Microstructure of the Bamboo Laminated Composites (BLCs)
Figures 2 and 3 show the differences in the microstructure of the BLCs at various
magnifications, depicting the bonding interfaces formed by resin and bamboo cells. The
bamboo column mainly consisted of vascular bundles surrounded by parenchymatous
ground tissue. Parenchyma cells and fiber cells remained substantially intact owing to the
relatively low hot-pressing pressure.
The bondline refers to the striped area where the two parts of the bamboo matrix were
bonded by resin [31]. In type I-H, the bondline lacked resin, especially the parts containing
vascular bundles. Only a small amount of resin was observed in the broken parenchyma,
intercellular layers, and cell corners (Figure 2A). The vascular bundles were composed of
metaxylem vessels and sheaths of sclerenchyma fibers, which made them dense, and the
relatively low hot-pressing pressure was not conducive to resin penetration. The bondline
between the parenchyma cells was slightly improved by filling the broken cells and cell
corners with resin. Type I-M was comparable to I-H in the amount of resin impregnated
into the veneer (Figure 2B). A relatively large amount of resin was observed along the
bondline in type I-L because of the few vascular bundles (Figure 2C). These results may be
explained by the fact that PF resin permeated, was redistributed, and solidified during the
thermo-hydro-mechanical densification of BLCs during the hot-pressing process [32–34].
As the penetration of resin in BLCs depends on the diameter of the pit aperture on the
bamboo cell wall and the molecular weight distribution of the resin [35,36], the gradient
distribution of vascular bundles resulted in varying probabilities of resin filling and/or
formation of a covering layer in the cell cavity of the parenchyma cells to form a cell wall
polymer. The middle bonding interface of type II-H (Figure 3A), in which most vascular
bundles had a severe lack of resin, also indicated that excessive fiber cells negatively affect
resin penetration. Moreover, in the cross lamination, the fibers in the profile maintained a
long distance along the bonding interface, resulting in a severe lack of resin compared to the
other types. For the same reason, there was minimal resin in the middle bonding interface
of type II-M (Figure 3B). The inner layer was improved because of the low vascular bundle
distribution of II-L (Figure 3C). Therefore, cross lamination magnified the disadvantages of
excessive fiber cells that inhibit resin penetration.
PolymersPolymers
2022, 14, 4820
2022, 14, x 6 of 14
6 of 14

Figure 2. Photomicrographs of transverse sections of bamboo laminated composites of parallel lam-

Figure 2. Photomicrographs of transverse sections of bamboo laminated composites of parallel lami-
ination (type I). Resin penetration status of composites with varying fiber volumes. A, B, and C
nation (type
denote I). Resin
types penetration
with high status of
(I-H), medium composites
(I-M), and lowwith
(I-L)varying fiber volumes.
fiber volumes, (A–C)
respectively; denote
×100 and types
with high
×300 (I-H), medium
represent (I-M),scale
magnifications; and bar
low= (I-L) fiber
100 μm. volumes,
A-100, parallelrespectively; ×100
lamination with highand ×volume
fiber 300 represent
content composites
magnifications; scaleatbar
×100=represent
100 µm.magnifications; A-300,
A-100, parallel parallel lamination
lamination with
with high highvolume
fiber fiber vol-content
ume content composites at ×300 represent magnifications; B-100, parallel lamination with middle
composites at ×100 represent magnifications; A-300, parallel lamination with high fiber volume
fiber volume content composites at ×100 represent magnifications; B-300, parallel lamination with
content composites
high fiber volume at ×300composites
content represent at
magnifications; B-100, parallelC-100,
×300 represent magnifications; lamination
parallelwith middle fiber
lamination
volume content composites at ×100 represent magnifications; B-300, parallel lamination with high
fiber volume content composites at ×300 represent magnifications; C-100, parallel lamination with
low fiber volume content composites at ×100 represent magnifications; C-300, parallel lamination
with low fiber volume content composites at ×300 represent magnifications.
 Polymers 2022, 14, x 7 of 14

Polymers 2022, 14, 4820 7 of 14

with low fiber volume content composites at ×100 represent magnifications; C-300, parallel lamina-
tion with low fiber volume content composites at ×300 represent magnifications.

Figure 3. Photomicrographs of transverse sections of bamboo laminated composites of cross lami-

Figure 3. Photomicrographs of transverse sections of bamboo laminated composites of cross lamina-
nation (type II). Resin penetration status of composites with varying fiber volumes. A, B, and C
tiondenote
(type types
II). Resin
with penetration status of(II-M),
high (II-H), medium composites
and lowwith varying
(II-L) fiber volumes.
fiber volumes, (A–C)
respectively; denote
×100 and types
with high (II-H), medium (II-M), and low (II-L) fiber volumes, respectively; × 100 and
×300 represent magnifications; scale bar = 100 μm. A-100, cross lamination with high fiber volume× 300 represent
content composites
magnifications; scaleatbar
×100=represent
100 µm. magnifications; A-300, cross lamination
A-100, cross lamination with highwith
fiberhigh fiber volume
volume content com-
posites at ×100 represent magnifications; A-300, cross lamination with high fiber volume content
composites at ×300 represent magnifications; B-100, cross lamination with middle fiber volume
content composites at ×100 represent magnifications; B-300, cross lamination with high fiber volume
content composites at ×300 represent magnifications; C-100, cross lamination with low fiber volume
content composites at ×100 represent magnifications; C-300, cross lamination with low fiber volume
content composites at ×300 represent magnifications.
 volume content composites at ×300 represent magnifications; C-100, cross lamination with low fi
volume content composites at ×100 represent magnifications; C-300, cross lamination with low fi
volume content composites at ×300 represent magnifications.

Polymers 2022, 14, 4820 3.2. Density 8 of 14

The average density of the samples is shown in Figure 4 and ranged from 0.66 (I
to 0.77 g/cm3 (II-H). For type I, the densities of I-H and I-M were not significantly differe
3.2. Density
but were both higher than that of I-L. Density determines the mechanical properties
The average density of the samples is shown in Figure 4 and ranged from 0.66 (I-L) to
bamboo to a great extent and mainly depends on the fiber content, fiber diameter, and c
0.77 g/cm3 (II-H). For type I, the densities of I-H and I-M were not significantly different
wall but
thickness.
were bothThe density
higher than of
thatbamboo increased
of I-L. Density with the
determines increase inproperties
the mechanical fiber content.
of Ba
boo fiber
bamboovolume fractions
to a great decrease
extent and along the
mainly depends radial
on the fiberdirection from
content, fiber the outer
diameter, to the inn
and cell
wall thickness. The density of bamboo increased with the increase in fiber content.
layer of the culm wall [27], resulting in bamboo layers of varying densities. This differen Bamboo
fiber volume fractions decrease along the radial direction from the outer to the inner layer
was improved by resin impregnation and hot pressing, as the densities of types I-H a
of the culm wall [27], resulting in bamboo layers of varying densities. This difference was
I-M demonstrated
improved by resin noimpregnation
significant anddifference. Among
hot pressing, as thethe type II
densities of BLCs, theand
types I-H density
I-M of ty
II-H was
demonstrated no significant difference. Among the type II BLCs, the density of type II-H betwe
higher than those of II-M and II-L, with no significant density difference
typeswas higher
II-M andthan those of II-M and II-L, with no significant density difference between types
II-L.
II-M and II-L.

A B
0.8 0.8 a
a a b b
b
Density (g/cm³)

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
I-H I-M I-L II-H II-M II-L

Figure 4. Average density of bamboo laminated composites: (A) parallel lamination (type I); and
Figure 4. Average density of bamboo laminated composites: (A) parallel lamination (type I); and
(B) cross lamination (type II). H, M, and L represent high, medium, and low fiber volumes, respec-
cross lamination (type II). H, M, and L represent high, medium, and low fiber volumes, respective
tively, in the two types. Different letters within a column indicate significant differences as determined
in theby
two types. Different letters within a column indicate significant differences as determined
Duncan’s multiple range test (p < 0.05).
Duncan’s multiple range test (p < 0.05).
3.3. Bending Strength and Modulus
The Strength
3.3. Bending results obtained from the sample bending tests are shown in Figure 5, with a MOR
and Modulus
ranging from 61.68 (II-M) to 145.1 MPa (I-H) and an MOE from 4.33 (II-M) to 10.97 GPa
The
(I-H).results
Figure 5A,Bobtained
shows from
that in the
bothsample bending
types I and II, the MORtestsofare
highshown in Figure
fiber volume BLC 5, with
MORwas ranging fromgreater
significantly 61.68 than
(II-M)thattoof145.1
middleMPa (I-H)
and low fiberand an MOE
volume from 4.33
BLC, whereas (II-M) to 10
the MOR
did not vary significantly between the middle and low fiber volume
GPa (I-H). Figure 5A,B shows that in both types I and II, the MOR of high fiber volum BLC.
BLC was Mechanical
significantly properties
greater arethan
generally
thatdetermined
of middlebyand the low
fiber fiber
volume fraction BLC,
volume [37]. The
whereas t
uneven distribution of fiber volume in bamboo makes the strength of bamboo stems vary in
MORdistinct
did not varyAsignificantly
layers. previous studybetween the middle
found a significant positiveandcorrelation
low fiberbetween
volume theBLC.
fiber
Mechanical
volume fraction and bamboo fiber strength [38]. The distribution of the vascular bundlefraction
properties are generally determined by the fiber volume on [3
The uneven
the outer distribution
layer of the bambooof fiber
stalkvolume
was largerinthan
bamboo
that onmakes
the innerthe strength
layer (Figures of bamboo
2 and 3), ste
indicating that the fiber volume content of the former was higher than
vary in distinct layers. A previous study found a significant positive correlation betwe that of the latter. The
higher the fiber volume, the higher the density (Figure 4) and resulting strength of the BLC.
the fiber volume fraction and bamboo fiber strength [38]. The distribution of the vascu
Therefore, the bending strength of the outer bamboo layer is significantly higher than that of
bundlethe on
innerthelayer.
outer layer ofthe
In addition, thestrength
bamboo stalk
of the BLCwas
is notlarger than that
only affected by theonfiber
the volume
inner layer (F
ures 2butand 3), related
is also indicating
to the that thestrength
bonding fiber volume content
of the layer of the
interface. former
In types I-M was higher
and II-M, the than th
of thebondline
latter. was
Therelatively
higher the lacking in resin
fiber (Figures
volume, the2Bhigher
and 3B).the Thedensity
bondlines(Figure
of types 4)
I-Land
and resulti
II-L were observed to have relatively substantial amounts of resin (Figures 2C and 3C). The
strength of the BLC. Therefore, the bending strength of the outer bamboo layer is sign
bonding with resin reduces the difference in strength caused by the varying fiber volumes.
cantly higher than that of the inner layer. In addition, the strength of the BLC is not on
affected by the fiber volume but is also related to the bonding strength of the lay
Polymers 2022, 14, x 9 of 14

interface. In types I-M and II-M, the bondline was relatively lacking in resin (Figures 2B
Polymers 2022, 14, 4820 and 3B). The bondlines of types I-L and II-L were observed to have relatively9 substantial
of 14

amounts of resin (Figures 2C and 3C). The bonding with resin reduces the difference in
strength caused by the varying fiber volumes. Therefore, no significant difference was
Therefore,
seen betweenno significant
the MORdifference was seen
of the middle andbetween MOR of the
thevolume
low fiber middle and low fiber
BLCs.
volume BLCs.

Figure
Figure5.5.Bending responses
Bending of of
responses thethe
various types
various of bamboo
types of bamboolaminated composites
laminated composites(BLCs):
(BLCs):(A) MOR;
(B)
(A)MOE;
MOR;(C)(B)bending load–displacement
MOE; (C) curves; and
bending load–displacement (D) observed
curves; modes of
and (D) observed failure
modes of and their com-
failure
ponents.
and theirUpper- and lower-case
components. Upper- andletters within
lower-case the within
letters columnsthe indicate
columns significant differences
indicate significant differ-as deter-
mined by Duncan’s multiple range test (p < 0.05).
ences as determined by Duncan’s multiple range test (p < 0.05).

Differing laminated
Differing laminated structures also influenced
structures the MOR the
also influenced MOE ofand
and MOR the BLCs
MOE(Figure
of the5A,B).
BLCs (Fig-
The MOR and MOE of type I were significantly higher than those of type
ure 5A,B). The MOR and MOE of type I were significantly higher than those of type II in II in the corresponding
parts. As bamboo has no radial transfer structure [39], it grows in height but not in diameter.
the corresponding parts. As bamboo has no radial transfer structure [39], it grows in
Thus, bamboo veneers only have longitudinal fiber distribution. When the type I samples,
height but not
which were in diameter.
composed of parallelThus, bamboo
veneers veneers
along the grain, only have longitudinal
were subjected fiber
to a transverse distribu-
load
tion.
during the bending test, all the fibers were subjected to stress, whereas in type II, composed of grain,
When the type I samples, which were composed of parallel veneers along the
were
cross subjected
veneers, only tohalf
a transverse
of the fibersload
wereduring
subjectedtheto bending test, allthethe
stress. Therefore, fibersproperties
bending were subjected
toofstress, whereas
type I were in typehigher
significantly II, composed
than those of crossII veneers,
of type only half of
in the corresponding the fibers were sub-
parts.
jectedThe load–displacement
to stress. Therefore, curve (Figure 5C)
the bending shows that
properties ofatype
largeIdisplacement was achieved
were significantly higher than
in the samples before failure. Significant
those of type II in the corresponding parts. variations in the ultimate load and displacement
wereThe
observed for the specific types
load–displacement curve of (Figure
samples. 5C)The ultimate
shows thatload ofa type
largeI was stronger
displacement was
than that of type II in the corresponding parts. Moreover, compared with type II, the
achieved in the samples before failure. Significant variations in the ultimate load and dis-
ultimate bearing capacity and deformability of type I was clearly improved. The typical
placement were observed for the specific types of samples. The ultimate load of type I was
failure modes in the bending test are illustrated in Figure 5D, where cracks were observed
stronger than
in the transversethat of type
layers and II insamples
the the corresponding
failed abruptly parts.
when Moreover, compared
one or multiple crackswith
were type II,
the ultimate
developed bearing
through thecapacity
thicknessand deformability
of the transverse layers of type
and Ipropagated
was clearly to improved. The typ-
the bondlines.
ical failure
Evident modes
cracks wereinobserved
the bending in thetest are illustrated
bonding interface inintypeFigure 5D, where
I-H, which cracks
indicated were ob-
poor
bondinginstrength
served between the
the transverse veneers
layers andand thethe resin. failed abruptly when one or multiple
samples
cracks were developed through the thickness of the transverse layers and propagated to
3.4. Tensile Strength
the bondlines. Evident cracks were observed in the bonding interface in type I-H, which
The tensile test results are shown in Figure 6, with TS ranging from 32.54 (II-H) to
indicated poor bonding strength between the veneers and the resin.
101.53 MPa (I-M). In type I, the TS of I-M and I-H was significantly higher than that of I-L,
and there was no significant difference between types I-M and I-H (Figure 6A). The degree
3.4. Tensile Strength
of bonding strength with resin varied because of the different fiber volumes (Figure 2). The
The culm
bamboo tensile
hastest resultsheterogeneous
a unique, are shown instructure
Figure that
6, with
lacksTS rangingray
horizontal from 32.54
cells, (II-H) to
while
pits actMPa
101.53 as the only transverse
(I-M). conduits
In type I, the TS ofinI-M
the and
internode [40].significantly
I-H was For a lower fiber volume,
higher than as
that of I-
L, and there was no significant difference between types I-M and I-H (Figure 6A). The
degree of bonding strength with resin varied because of the different fiber volumes
Polymers 2022, 14, x 10 of 14

Polymers 2022, 14, 4820 10 of 14

(Figure 2). The bamboo culm has a unique, heterogeneous structure that lacks horizontal
ray cells, while pits act as the only transverse conduits in the internode [40]. For a lower
fiberthe
per volume, as per
mechanical the mechanical
interlocking theory, interlocking
the resin was theory,
likely tothe resin was
infiltrate likelyand
the voids to form
infiltrate
the voids and form spiky structures on
spiky structures on the transverse conduits.the transverse conduits.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. (A,B)
(A,B)Tensile
Tensile properties
properties of
ofbamboo
bamboolaminated
laminatedcomposites (BLCs)by
composites(BLCs) bytype;
type;(C)
(C)tensile
tensileload–
displacement curves of the distinct types of BLC; and (D) observed modes of failure and their com-
load–displacement curves of the distinct types of BLC; and (D) observed modes of failure and their
ponents. Different letters within a column indicate significant differences as determined by Dun-
components. Different letters within a column indicate significant differences as determined by
can’s multiple range test (p < 0.05).
Duncan’s multiple range test (p < 0.05).

Regardingthe
Regarding themicrostructures
microstructuresofof BLCs,
BLCs, compared
compared withwith
typetype
I-HI-H (Figure
(Figure 2A),2A),
moremore
resin penetrated the parenchyma and intercellular layers of I-M (Figure 2B), resulting in a in a
resin penetrated the parenchyma and intercellular layers of I-M (Figure 2B), resulting
differencein
slight difference inTS TSbetween
betweentypes
typesI-HI-Handand I-M.
I-M. ForFor type
type II (Figure
II (Figure 6B),6B), theof
the TS TSII-M
of II-M
was greater
was greaterthan thanthat
thatofoftypes
typesII-H
II-Handand II-L,
II-L, butbut
thethe differences
differences werewere not significant.
not significant.
The bondline
The bondlineofofII-H II-H(Figure
(Figure3A) 3A)hadhad almost
almost nono resin,
resin, indicating
indicating a lack
a lack of bonding
of bonding
strength
strength with withresin.
resin.InIncontrast,
contrast,a alarger
largeramount
amount of of
resin was
resin wasobserved
observed in the bondline
in the of of
bondline
types
types II-MII-Mand andII-LII-L
(Figure 3B,C).
(Figure The bonding
3B,C). with resin
The bonding reduces
with resinthe difference
reduces theindifference
strength in
caused
strength bycaused
the varying
by thefiber volumes.
varying fiber volumes.
The
The various laminatedstructures
various laminated structures significantly
significantly affected TS.TS.
affected As As
shown
shown in Figure 6A,B,
in Figure 6A,B,
the TS of type II sharply decreased compared with that of type I. In the tensile test of type I,
the TS of type II sharply decreased compared with that of type I. In the tensile test of type
the TS paralleled the direction of fiber distribution. The cross lamination in type II resulted
I, the TS paralleled the direction of fiber distribution. The cross lamination in type II re-
in a loss of almost half of its strength. Thus, the TS of type I was significantly higher than
sulted in a loss of almost half of its strength. Thus, the TS of type I was significantly higher
that of type II in the corresponding parts.
than After
that of thetype II inload
critical the corresponding
was reached, the parts.
load of the samples decreased in a phased
mannerAfter the critical
(Figure load was
6C), indicating reached,
that the load
the bonding of theofsamples
interface the BLC decreased
failed in each in alayer
phased
under the tensile load (Figure 6D). Distinct sample types exhibited significant variationslayer
manner (Figure 6C), indicating that the bonding interface of the BLC failed in each
under
in the tensile
ultimate load and load (Figure 6D).The
displacement. Distinct sample
ultimate loadtypes
of typeexhibited significant higher
I was significantly variations
in ultimate
than load IIand
that of type displacement.
in the corresponding The ultimate
parts. load of
The results type I was
indicated that,significantly
compared with higher
than that
cross of typeparallel
lamination, II in thelamination
corresponding
furtherparts. The results
strengthened the TSindicated that, compared
of the samples. Figure 6Dwith
shows that the failure
cross lamination, modeslamination
parallel of types I and II under
further tensile stress
strengthened thewere
TS parallel to the grain.
of the samples. Figure
The tensilethat
6D shows failure
theoffailure
type I-H resulted
modes fromI the
of types anddebonding of the composed
II under tensile stress werelaminae.
parallel Into the
contrast,
grain. The thetensile
fracture of theofother
failure typesamples was mainly
I-H resulted from theduedebonding
to crack propagation
of the composedtravelinglami-
from
nae. Inthecontrast,
point of fiber breakageoftothe
the fracture theother
bonding interface.
samples was mainly due to crack propagation
traveling from the point of fiber breakage to the bonding interface.
 imum values for type II, respectively. After 4 h, the WSR of II-H and II-L showed a dow
ward trend. This might be because cross lamination can reduce the deformation cau
by anisotropy in the width direction. The difference of WSR was reduced by cross la
nation which inhibited contraction and deformation in the width. In addition, by incre
Polymers 2022, 14, 4820 ing temperature and time of exposure, the phenomenon of absorption and 11 ofexpansion
14

bamboo can be reduced [41].

The WSR of type I was significantly higher than that of type II. As in wood, bam
3.5. Water Resistance
has the anisotropy of dry shrinkage and wet expansion, with dryness shrinkage be
Figure 7 shows the TSR and WSR of the BLCs after an 8 h water treatment. The final
greatest in the chord and radial directions, respectively. Dryness shrinkage in the a
TSR ranged from 0.56 (I-M) to 2.14% (II-H), and the final WSR ranged from 0.07 (II-L) to
direction is negligible.
1.61% (I-H). For type I,In the cross
a slight lamination
difference was foundof between
type II, the
theTSR
adjacent veneer
of the three force direct
samples.
was However,
vertical,for and
typeadjacent
II, the TSRforces
of II-Hcanceled one another,
was significantly reducing
higher than contraction
that of types II-M and expans
and deformation. In practical applications, cross lamination can reduce the by
II-L, but the difference between II-M and II-L was not significant. This might be caused deformat
the conspicuous lack of resin at the bondline of II-H (Figure 3A), as the weak bond strength
caused by the anisotropy of the BLCs.
resulted in decreased water resistance.

A I-H II-H B I-H II-H

2.5 I-M II-M 2.5 I-M II-M
I-L I-L I-L II-L

2.0 2.0

WSR (%)
1.5
TSR (%)

1.5

1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (h) Time (h)

Figure
Figure 7. Water
7. Water resistance of
resistance of bamboo
bamboo laminated composites
laminated (BLCs).(BLCs).
composites TSR of
(A), the (A), BLCs;
the TSR(B),
of the
BLCs; (B),
WSR of BLCs. Type I represents parallel laminated BLC, and type II represents cross laminated BLC.
WSR of BLCs. Type I represents parallel laminated BLC, and type II represents cross laminated B
H, M, and L represent high, medium, and low fiber volumes, respectively.
H, M, and L represent high, medium, and low fiber volumes, respectively.
The distinct laminated structure of the BLC significantly affected its water resistance.
The TSR
4. Conclusionsof type II was significantly higher than that of type I. Compared with type II, resin
distribution in the bond line of type I was more uniform (Figures 2 and 3). Type I was
Thepermeable
less aim of this study
to water, was because
possibly to investigate the physical
of the relatively compact and mechanical
internal propertie
structures, the
BLCs prepared using parallel (type I) and cross lamination (type II) of bamboo
smaller and more punctured pores, and the linear cracks blocked by the resin. In contrast, in vene
type II, the fibers in the profile were well separated along the bonding interface because of
cross lamination (Figure 3), resulting in a decrease in bonding strength and water resistance.
Therefore, the TSR of type II was significantly higher than that of type I.
Types I-H and I-L had the maximum and minimum values of WSR, respectively. With
an increase in the fiber volume content, the bonding strength becomes weaker, resulting in
a decrease in water resistance. Types II-M and II-L had the maximum and minimum values
for type II, respectively. After 4 h, the WSR of II-H and II-L showed a downward trend. This
might be because cross lamination can reduce the deformation caused by anisotropy in the
width direction. The difference of WSR was reduced by cross lamination which inhibited
contraction and deformation in the width. In addition, by increasing temperature and time
of exposure, the phenomenon of absorption and expansion of bamboo can be reduced [41].
The WSR of type I was significantly higher than that of type II. As in wood, bamboo
has the anisotropy of dry shrinkage and wet expansion, with dryness shrinkage being
greatest in the chord and radial directions, respectively. Dryness shrinkage in the axial
direction is negligible. In the cross lamination of type II, the adjacent veneer force direction
was vertical, and adjacent forces canceled one another, reducing contraction expansion and
deformation. In practical applications, cross lamination can reduce the deformation caused
by the anisotropy of the BLCs.

4. Conclusions
The aim of this study was to investigate the physical and mechanical properties of
BLCs prepared using parallel (type I) and cross lamination (type II) of bamboo veneers with
Polymers 2022, 14, 4820 12 of 14

high, middle, and low fiber volumes. The physical properties of the BLC samples were
significantly affected by the laminated structure and fiber volume. Both the bending and
tensile strengths of type I were significantly higher than those of type II in the corresponding
parts, indicating a correlation between the laminated structure and physical properties of
BLCs. The influence of the fiber volume on BLC performance was complex. An increase in
fiber volume enhanced the strength of the bamboo structure. Conversely, excessive fiber
volume weakened the strength of the microstructural bonds between the fibers and resin.
By combining high fiber volume and cross lamination, some physical properties of the
BLCs may be reduced, as shown in the tensile test of type II-H. Results showed that type
I-L had the highest bending strength (145.1 MPa). However, type I-M had the highest
tensile strength (101.53 MPa), which indicates that the effect of increasing fiber content
on mechanical properties is not always positive. Cross lamination effectively reduced the
anisotropy of the BLCs and improved water resistance, but the inhibition of thickness
expansion was minimal. In addition, varying the fiber volume also resulted in varying
water resistance values among the tested BLC samples by affecting bonding strength.
Types I-M and II-L showed the lowest TSR and WSR (0.56% and 0.07%, respectively). The
expansion of width and thickness can be relatively controlled by adjusting the lamination
method and fiber volume content. Therefore, we conclude that laminated structures and
veneers with varying fiber volume contents should be chosen according to the specific
application scenarios. Exploration of the novel multilayer BLC derived from bamboo
veneer is beneficial to the graded utilization of fiber gradient bamboo due to its great
potential for both structural and decorative applications.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, writing—original draft preparation, X.L.; formal analysis,

investigation, writing—original draft preparation, W.Z.; investigation, writing—review and editing,
W.L., Y.J., Z.Z., Y.Y., and F.R.; project administration, F.R. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Graduate Excellent dissertation Cultivation Fund of
Zhejiang Sci-Tech University (LW-YP2022102); the Key Research & Development Program of Zhejiang
Province (2021C02012); the Science Foundation of Zhejiang Provincial Department of Education
(113429A4F21070); and the Science Foundation of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University (11340031282014 &
11343132612052).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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