Chapter 2 : Protective Relaying

Introduction :
• The capital investment involved in a power system for the generation, transmission and
distribution of electrical power is so great that proper precautions must be taken to ensure
that the equipment not only operates at nearly as possible to peak efficiencies, but also that
it is protected from accidents.
• The purpose of the protective relays and protective relaying system is to operate the correct
circuit breakers so as to disconnect only the faulty part from the system as quickly as
possible, thus minimising the trouble and damage caused by faults when they do occur.
• The modern power system is very complex and even though protective equipments from 4 to
5% of the total cost involved in the system, they play a very important role in the system
design for good quality of reliable supply.
• Faults cannot be avoided completely. They can be minimised. Protective relaying plays an
important role in minimising the faults, also in minimising the damage in the event of
faults.
Functions of Protective Relaying :
• To sound an alarm or to close the trip circuit of circuit breaker so as to disconnect a
component during an abnormal condition in the component, which include over load, under
voltage, temperature rise, unbalanced load, reverse power, under-frequency, short circuits
etc.
• To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to prevent the subsequent faults,
e.g. overload protection of a machine protects the machine and prevents insulation failure.
• To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to minimise the damage to the faulty part, e.g. If
a machine is disconnected immediately after a winding fault, only a few coils may need
replacement. If the fault is sustained entire winding may get damaged and the machines
may be beyond repairs.
• To localise the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part from the healthy part, causing
least disturbance to the healthy system.
• To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve the system stability, service continuity
and system performance. Transient stability can be improved by means of improved
protective relaying.
Basic Connection of Trip Circuit :
• Fig. 2.2.1 shows the simple arrangement of trip circuit.
The connection of trip circuit is divided into three parts.
• First part is the primary winding of a current
transformer (C.T.), which is connected in series with
the line to be protected.
• Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and
the relay-operating coil.
• Finally the third part is the tripping circuit and it may
be operated either on a.c. supply or d.c. supply. It
consists of a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit
breaker and the relay stationary contacts.
• Under normal operating condition the current flowing through the C.T. secondary and hence
through relay coil is not sufficient to attract the plunger. Hence the trip circuit remains
open.
• As soon as fault (say short circuit) occurs at point f on the transmission line as shown in
Fig. 2.2.1, the current flowing in the line increases to a high value.
• This causes the flow of heavy current through the relay coil, and relay to operate by closing
its contacts.
• This in turn closes the trip circuit of the breaker, making the circuit breaker open. Thus it
isolates the faulty section from the rest of the healthy system.
• In this way relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from damage and avoids the
disturbance to normal working of the healthy portion of the system.

Primary and Back up Protection :

• Primary protection is the essential protection provided for protecting equipment.
• As a precautionary measure, an additional protection is generally provided and is called
“Back up” protection.
• If primary protection fails, the back up protection comes into action and removes the faulty
part from the healthy system.
• Back up protection is provided for the following reasons :
1. If due to some reasons; the main protection fails, back up protection serves the
purpose of protection.
2. Main protection can fail due to failure of one of the components in the protective
system such as relay, auxiliary relay, CT, PT, CB etc.
• If the primary protection fails, there must be an additional protection; otherwise the fault
may remain uncleared, resulting in a disaster.
• As a measure of economy, back up protection is given against short circuit protection and
generally not for other abnormal conditions. The extent to which back up protection is
provided, depends upon economic and technical considerations.

Methods of Back up Protection :

(1) Relay back up : Same breaker is used by both main and back up protection, but the
protective systems are different. Separate trip coils may be provided for the same breaker.
(2) Breaker back up : Different breakers are provided for main and back up protection, both
the breakers being in the same station.
(3) Remote back up : The main and back up protections are provided at different stations and
are completely independent.
(4) Centrally co-ordinated back up :
• The system having central control can be provided with centrally controlled back up.
Central control continuously supervises the load flow and frequency in the system.
• The information about load flow and frequency is assessed continuously. If one of the
components in any part of the system fails, the load flow in the system is affected.
• The central coordinating station receives information about the abnormal condition
through high frequency carrier signals.
• The stored programme in the digital computer determines the correct switching
operation, as regards severity of fault, system stability etc.
• Main protection is at various stations and back up protection for all stations is at central
control center. The centrally co-ordinated back up is a team work of protective relaying
equipment, high frequency carrier current equipment and digital computer.
(5) Back up protection by time - grading principle :
• The current is measured at various points along the current path, e.g. at source,
intermediate locations, consumer end.
 • The tripping time of these locations are graded in such a way that the circuit breaker,
nearest the faulty part operate first, giving primary protection.
• The circuit breakers at the previous station operate only as back up.
• In the Fig. 2.4.1 if the fault occurs on any feeder, then circuit breaker B on that feeder
will give primary protection and circuit breaker A will give back up protection.

Fig. 2.4.1 : Back up protection by time graded principle

• When the fault occurs, the relays at ‘A’ also start operating but are provided with
enough time lag so that the circuit breaker ‘A’ operates only if the circuit breaker ‘B’
does not.

Fundamental Requirements of Protective Relaying :

• Selectivity : It is the ability of protective system to select correctly that part of the system
in trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.
• Speed : The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible to prevent
the electrical apparatus from damage and for system stability.
• Sensitivity : It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating
quantity.
• Reliability : It is the ability of the relay system to operate under predetermined conditions.
Without reliability, the protection would be rendered largely ineffective.
• Simplicity : The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained.
Simpler the protection scheme, the greater will be its reliability.
• Economy : The most important factor in the choice of particular protection scheme is the
economic aspect. The protective gear should not cost more than 5% of the total cost of
equipment to be protected.

3.1 Relay Timings :

• Relay time : It is the time interval between the occurrence of fault and closure of relay
contact or it is the time between the instant when the operating quantity reaches the pick
up value and the instant of clouser of relay contact.
• Breaker time : The time interval between clouser
of trip circuit and final arc interruption. Or the
circuit breaker time is the total of time taken by
operating mechanism to open to circuit breaker
contacts and the arcing time. It is also called total
break time.
• Fault clearing time : The time elapsed between the
instant of occurrence of fault and instant of final
arc extinction in circuit breaker. It is expressed in
 milliseconds (ms) or cycles, 1 cycle in 50 Hz system
is equivalent to 1/50 second i.e. 0.02 second.

Important Terms :
• Pick-up : The pick up value or level is the value of operating quantity which is on border
above which the relay operates and closes its contacts.
Consider an over current relay, suppose the current is gradually increased. At a certain
value of current, the relay contacts are on the verge of moving such that increase in current
causes contact movement. This value of current is known as Pick-up value.
• Reset – (drop out) : The value of current/voltage etc. below which the relay resets and
comes back to original position.
Consider the relay which has already operated, and the actuating current is still flowing in
the relay coil. As the operating quantity is gradually reduced, at some value, the relay
contacts, which have closed, start opening. This condition is called Reset or drop out or drop
off.
• Drop off / Pick-up ratio : The ratio of Drop off value to pick up value is important in, self
reset type electromagnetic relays. It is also called “Holding Ratio”. Since pick up value is
more than drop off value, the holding ratio is always less than one. Holding ratio is of the
order of 0.6 to 0.99 for most electromagnetic relays.

Instantaneous relays :

An instantaneous relay is one in which no intentional time delay is provided.

• In this case, the relay contacts are closed immediately after current in the relay coil reaches
to pick up value.
• The instantaneous relays have operating time less than 0.1 seconds or it is expressed in
cycles i.e. one cycle would be 1/50 second in a 50 cycle system.
• For example : Electromagnetic attraction type relays.
Inverse time relay :

An inverse time relay is one in which the operating

time is approximately inversely proportional to the
magnitude of the actuating quantity. The time of operation
of the relay decreases steadily with the increase of current.
From Fig. 2.7.1 it is clearly observed that for high fault
current (I2) operating time is low (T2) and for low value of
fault current (I1) operating time is high (T1). Fig. 2.7.1 : Time current characteristic of
inverse time relay

Definite time lag relay :

• In this type of relay, there is a definite time elapse between the instant of pick up and the
closing of relay contacts.
• This particular time setting is independent of the amount of current through the relay coil,
being the same for all the values of current in excess of the pick up value.
Current setting :

• It is often desirable to adjust the pick up current to any required value. This is known as
current setting.
• Current setting is achieved by the use of tappings on the relay operating coil. The taps are
brought out to a plug bridge.
• The plug bridge permits to alter the number of turns on the relay coil. This changes the
torque on the disc and hence the time of operation of the relay.
• The pick up current is given as :
Pick up current = Rated secondary current of C.T.  Current setting
• For example, suppose an over current relay having current setting of 130% is connected to a
supply circuit through a current transformer of 400/5.
Pick up value = 5  1.3 = 6.5 A

Plug setting multiplier :

• It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pick up current i.e.
Fault current in relay coil
P.S.M. =
Pick up current
Fault current in relay coil
=
Rated secondary current of CT  Current setting
• For example, suppose a relay coil is connected to a 400/5 current transformer and set at
130% with a primary fault current of 2000 A.
 Pick up value = 5  1.3
= 6.5 Amp
5
Fault current in relay coil = 2000 
400

= 25 Amp
25
 P.S.M. = = 2.846
6.5

Time setting multiplier :

• A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of operation. This adjustment is
known as time setting multiplier.

Fig. 2.7.2 : Time setting multiplier Fig. 2.7.3 : Time/P.S.M. curve

• The time setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec. These figures are
multipliers to be used to convert the time derived from time/P.S.M. curve into the actual
operating time.
• Thus if the time setting is 0.2 and the time obtained from the time/P.S.M. curve is 4 seconds,
then actual relay operating time is :
0.2  4 = 0.8 seconds.
 3.2 Types of Relay :

The relays are broadly classified as :

(1) Electrodynamic relays :
(a) Electromagnetic attraction type relays
(b) Induction type relays
(2) Static relays.

2.8.1 Electromagnetic Attraction Type Relays :

• These are simplest type of relays. These relays have coil or an electromagnet energized by
coil.
• The coil is energized by operating quantity which may be proportional to circuit current or
voltage; due to which an armature being attracted to the poles of an electromagnets.
• It is basically a single actuating quantity relay; which may be a.c. or d.c.
• These relays are fast operating or instantaneous types. They have operating time from 0.5
milliseconds to as slow as 0.5 seconds.
• These relays do not have directional feature unless they are provided with additional
polarized coils.
• The V.A. burden depends on construction, setting etc. For a typical relay it is of the order of
0.2 to 0.6 VA for current range 0.1 to 0.4 A.
Types of construction :
Attracted armature type relay :
• Fig. 2.8.1 shows the schematic arrangement of an attracted armature type relay.
• It consists of a laminated electromagnet carrying a coil and a pivoted laminated armature.
• The armature is balanced by a counter weight and carries a pair of spring contact fingers at
its free end.
• Under normal operating conditions, the current
through the relay coil is such that counter weight
holds the armature in the position shown.
• When a short circuit occurs, the current through
the relay coil increases sufficiently and the relay
armature is attracted upwards.
• This completes the trip circuit which results in
the opening of the circuit breaker. Fig. 2.8.1 : Attracted armature type relay
Solenoid type relay :

• Fig. 2.8.2 shows the schematic arrangement of solenoid

type relay. It consists of a solenoid and movable iron
plunger.
• Under normal operating condition, the current through
the relay coil in such that it holds the plunger by gravity
or spring in the position shown. Fig. 2.8.2 : Solenoid type relay
• When the fault occurs on the system, the current through the relay coil increases and
becomes more than the pick up value. This attracts the plunger towards the solenoid.
• The upward movement of the plunger closes the trip circuit, thus opening the circuit breaker
and disconnects the faulty circuit from the healthy section.
Balanced beam type relay :
• Fig. 2.8.3 shows the schematic arrangement
of balanced beam type relay. It consists of
an iron armature fastened to a balance
beam.
• Under normal operating conditions the
current through the relay coil is such that
the beam is held in the horizontal position
by the spring. Fig. 2.8.3 : Balanced beam relay
• When fault occurs on the system, the current through the relay coil increases and becomes
greater than the pick up value and the beam is attracted to close the trip circuit.
• This causes the opening of the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty circuit.
Force produced on electromagnetic attraction relay on moving plunger is
F = kI2
Where F = force of attraction
k = constant
I = current in operating coil.
Applications of attracted armature type relays :
Attracted armature type relays are mainly used for :
• Definite time lag over current and earth fault protection.
• Over current protection the time lag is obtained by using instantaneous attracted armature
relays in conjunction with a definite time lag relay or inverse time lag relays.
• Differential protection the instantaneous attracted armature type relay is used for
differential protection.

Induction Relays :
• Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of mutual induction.
• They are always used with a.c. quantities and not on d.c. quantities owing to their principle
of operation.
• An induction relay consists of a pivoted aluminium disc placed in two alternating magnetic
fields of the same frequency but displaced in time and space.
• The torque is produced in the disc by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the
currents induced in the disc by the other.
Torque equation :

• Two a.c. fluxes 2 and 1 differing in phase by an

angle ‘’ induces emf in the disc and cause the
circulation of eddy currents i2 and i1 respectively.
These currents lag behind their respective fluxes
by 90.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.8.4

Referring to Fig. 2.8.4 where the two a.c. fluxes and induced currents are shown separately
for clarity.
Let,
1 = 1 max sin t
  = max sin (t + )
Where 1 and 2 are the instantaneous values of fluxes and 2 leads 1 by an angle .
• Induced currents are
d1
i1 
dt
d
 ( sin t)
dt 1max
 1max cos t

d2
and i2 
dt
d
 [ sin (t + )]
dt 2max
 1max cos (t + )
• Force F1  1 i2 and F2  2 i1
• Fig. 2.8.4(b) shows that two forces are in opposition.
 Net force F at the instant is considered as :
F  F2 – F1
 2 i1 – 1 i2
 2max sin (t + ) 1max cos t – 1max sin t 2max cos (t + )
 1max 2max [sin (t + )  cos t – sin t  cos (t + )]
 1max 2max sin 
F  1 2 sin 
Where 1 and 2 are the r.m.s. values of the fluxes.

Types of induction relays :

There are basically three types of induction relays viz :

(1) Shaded pole structure
(2) Watt-hour-meter or double winding structure
(3) Induction cup structure.
(1) Shaded pole structure :

Fig. 2.8.5 : Shaded pole structure

• It consists of a pivoted aluminium disc free to rotate in the air gap of an electromagnet.
• One half of each pole of the magnet is surrounded by a copper band known as shading
ring.
 • The alternating flux s in the shaded portion of the poles will, owing to the reaction of
the current induced in the ring, lag behind the flux u in the unshaded portion by an
angle .
• These two a.c. fluxes differing in phase will produce the necessary torque to rotate the
disc.
• The driving torque is given as T  1 2 sin .
• Assuming the fluxes 1 and 2 are proportional to
current ‘I’ in the relay coil,
 T  I2 sin 
• Thus the driving torque is proportional to the square of
current through the coil.
• Vector diagram of fluxes and current, for shaded pole
induction disc relay is as shown in Fig. 2.8.6. If
Fig. 2.8.6 : Vector diagram of flux
and current
(2) Watt-hour-meter structure :
• The construction of this relay is similar to the watt-hour-meter commonly used
everywhere.
• It consists of E shaped electromagnet and a U shaped electromagnet with an aluminium
disc free to rotate in between.
• The upper electromagnet (E shaped) carries two windings, the primary and the
secondary.
• Referring to Fig. 2.8.7 the primary winding carries relay current I1 (also known as C.T.
secondary current) while secondary winding is connected to the winding of the lower
magnet.

Fig. 2.8.7 : Watt-hour-meter structure

• The primary current induces e.m.f. in the secondary winding and circulates current I2 in
it.
• The flux 2 induced in the lower magnet by the current in the secondary winding of the
upper magnet will lag behind 1 by an angle .
 • The two fluxes 1 and 2 differing in phase by  will produce a driving torque on the disc
proportional to 1 2 sin .
• The operation of this type of relay can be controlled by opening or closing the secondary
winding circuit. If this circuit is opened, no flux can be set by the lower magnet,
consequently no torque will be produced. Therefore, the relay can be made inoperative
by opening its secondary winding circuit.
(3) Induction cup structure :

• These relays have two, four or more

electromagnets in stator and are energized by the
relay coils.
• A stationary iron core is placed as shown in
Fig. 2.8.8.
• The rotor consists of a hollow metallic cylindrical
cup. The rotor is free to rotate in the gap between
the stationary iron and the electromagnets.
Fig. 2.8.8 : Induction cup structure

• In this type of relay, eddy currents are produced in the metallic cup. These currents
interact with the flux produced by the other electromagnet and torque is produced. The
theory is similar to the disc type of induction relay.
• If 1 and 2 represents the fluxes produced by the respective pairs of the poles, then
torque produced is proportional to 1 2 sin . Where  is the phase difference between
two fluxes.
• The control spring and the back stop for closing of the contacts carries on an arm are
attached to the spindle of the cup to prevent the continuous rotation.
• The modern induction cup relay may have an operating time of the order of 0.01 second.

Static Relays :
• The term static relay refers to a relay which incorporates solid-state components like
transistors, diodes etc. for measurement or comparison of electrical quantities.
• The static network is so designed that it gives an output signal in the tripping direction
whenever a threshold condition is reached.
• The output signal in turn operates a tripping device, which may be electronic or
electromagnetic.
• The need for the static relays arose because of the requirement of fast and reliable protective
schemes for modern power system, which is growing both in complexity and fault levels.
• The scheme should be fast so as to preserve dynamic stability of the system.
• Transistors are most widely used in static relays. In fact when we talk of static relays we
generally mean transistor relays.
• As transistors can be used both as an amplifying device and as a switching device, makes
this component suitable for achieving any functional characteristics.
• The transistors circuits cannot only perform the essential functions of a relay such as
comparison of inputs, summation and integrating them; but they also provide necessary
flexibility to suit the various relay requirements.
• Fig. 2.8.9 illustrates the essential components in static relays.
• The output of CT’s of PT’s or transducers is rectified in rectifier.
• The rectified output is fed to the measuring unit; the measuring unit comprises
comparators, level detectors, filters, and logic circuits.
Long life and accuracy
the work on static components such as electrical or mechanical
 Then it goes to amplifier where it increases the i/p signal ka amplitude and this signal goes to o/p device
o/p device read the i/p signal and gives the o/p under abnormal condition and gives command to CB to break the ckt

• The output is initiated when input reaches the threshold value.

rectifier converts ac to dc signals

rectifying current goes to relay measuring
where pre-defined value is saved for
current
relay output current ka value tb deta hain jab
Fig. 2.8.9 : Block diagram of static relay
input current ka value ore-defined value se ajyada rhta hain
• Amplifier amplifies the output of measuring unit.
• The amplifier output is given to the output unit, which energizes the trip coil only when
relay operates.
Advantages of static relays :
1. Low power consumption :
Static relays provide less burden on CT’s and PT’s as compared to conventional relays. The
consumption of 1 milli watt is quite common in static over current relay. Whereas, an equivalent
electromechanical relay can have consumption of about two watts. This reduced consumption has
following merits :
a. CT’s and PT’s of less VA rating.
b. The accuracy of CT’s and PT’s increased.
c. Air gapped CT’s can be used.
d. Saturation problem of CT’s are avoided.
e. Over all reduction in cost of CT’s and PT’s.
2. Resetting time and overshoot :
By using special circuits, the resetting times and overshoot time can be reduced thereby the
selectivity can be improved.

2. No moving contacts :
As there are no moving contacts, associated problems of arcing, contact bouncing, erosion,
replacement of contacts are avoided.
4. Gravity effect :
There is no effect of gravity on operation of static relays. The relay can be installed at any
location and at any position.
5. Single relays for several functions :
By combining various functional circuits, a single static relay can replace several
conventional relays. A single static relay can provide over current, under voltage, single phasing,
short circuit protection by incorporating respective functional block. This is not possible in
electromechanical relays.
6. Compactness :
The space required for installing protective relay and control relays etc. is reduced. A single
panel can incorporate a protection and control system for several functions.
gives quick response
do not have any thermal storage problems
it amplifies the signal hence sensitivity of the device increases
no unwanted tripping

7. Superior characteristics and accuracy :

The characteristics of static relays are accurate and superior. They can be altered within
certain range as per requirement of protection. Static relays of superior speed (1/2 cycle, 1 cycle)
are available.
8. Static relays can think :
Complex protection schemes employ logic circuits. Logic means the process of reasoning,
induction or deduction. Suppose several conditions are imposed on a protective system such that
for certain conditions, the relay should operate, and for some other condition, the relay should
remain stable, in such cases logic gates can be operated.
9. Programmable operation :
The characteristic of programmable relays can be altered by changing the programme.
Programme means sequential instructions that direct the microprocessor in the relay to perform
specific functions.
10. On line computation and functions :
The characteristics and functions of programmable relays can be altered on the basis of on-
line computation of various variables. E.g. which back up breaker to operate with minimum
outage can be decided prevailing network configuration and on-line relay time data.
11. Repeated operations possible :
Static relays can be designed for repeated operations, as there are no moving parts in
measuring circuit.
12. Effect of vibration and shocks :
Most of the components in the static relays, including the auxiliary relays in the output
stage are relatively unaffected by vibrations and shocks. The risk of unwanted tripping is less
with static relays as compared to electromagnetic relays.
12. Self supervision and monitoring of the relay :
Complex static relays have a facility of continuous and comprehensive self monitoring by a
special hardware called ‘watch dog’ and test software. Any fault, which occurs within the relay, is
detected at once. Thus, periodic testing of the relay can be minimized.
14. Simplified testing and servicing :

Static relays are provided with integrated features for self-monitoring, easy testing and
servicing. Defective modules can be replaced quickly.
Limitations of static relays :
1. Auxiliary voltage requirement :
Static relays required d.c. supply for their operations. But this disadvantage is now not of
any importance as auxiliary voltage can be obtained from station battery supply.
2. Electro static discharges (ESD) :
Semiconductor components are sensitive to electro static discharges. Even small discharge
can damage the components, which would normally withstand 100V. Precautions are necessary in
manufacturing of static relays to avoid ESD caused component failure.
2. Voltage transients :
The static relays are sensitive to voltage spikes or voltage transients. Such voltage
transients are caused by operation of breaker and isolator. Such voltage spikes of small duration
can damage semiconductor components and can also cause mal operation of relays. Special
measures are taken in static relays to overcome this difficulty. This includes use of filter circuits
in relays.
easily affected from high voltage surge
it only wokrs on electrcial components
overloading capacity is less
construction is affected by surrounding interference
4. Temperature dependence of static relays :
The characteristics of semiconductor are influenced by ambient temperature. Accurate
measurement of relay should not be affected by temperature (– 10C to + 50C).
5. Cost :
For simple, single function relays the price of static relays is higher than the equivalent
electromagnetic types.
Electromagnetic versus static relays :
Table 2.8.1
Function Conventional type Static relay
relay
Without With thyristor
thyristor
1. Input 1–3W 10 mW 20 mW
2. Switching capacity 30 W 10 W 100 W
2. Power gain 8 – 32 1000 500
4. Continuous current 5A 1A 1A
rating
5. Time 10 msec 20 sec 50 sec
6. Effect of vibration Bearing affected No effect No effect
7. Ambient temperature 5 to 70C Needs Needs
range compensation compensation
8. Operations Above 106 No limit No limit
9. Effect of pollution Yes No No
10. Testing Easier Difficult Difficult

2.9 Microprocessor Based Relay :

Fig. 2.9.1 : Microprocessor based static relay

• Functions of components in a digital protective relays :

Block Block Name Functions Description

No.
1 D.C. /D.C. Galvanic separation
converter between auxiliary D.C.
–
supply (station battery
system) and the static
relay.
2 Analog processing, 3 phase A.C. inputs include Include different processes required
compensating and secondary current of CT for relay measurement e.g.
setting circuits secondary voltage of VT. • Amplitude comparison
• Zero crossing detection
• Phase comparison in sequential
logic circuits.
• Measurements e.g. current,
voltage or impedance, direction
supervision and control
functions by amplitude
comparators – filtering.
3 Relay interface To receive external digital External digital inputs may include
with external inputs and feed to the signals from remote terminals,
digital signals digital processing block 7. signals regarding back up
protection etc.
4 A/D converter To convert analog signals These signals are subsequently fed
into digital square wave to the digital processing block 7.
signals.
5 Current and To control digital processes May be included in block 7 in a
voltage supervision in block 7. microprocessor
6 Time lag relay To determine operating
block time of backup relays
through block 7.
7 Digital processing To process the digital Comprises :
signals received from A/D • Logic circuits for relay
converter (4) and the operation
digital input interface (3)
• Multiplexes
as per required relay logic.
• Encoders, decoders
• Memory circuits and other
electronic circuits.
8 Tripping output The trip command to The tripping output is generally fed
circuit breakers is given by to appropriate auxiliary relay.
this block.
9 Indication and To indicate whether the In addition, the functions may
signaling relay has operated. include display, disturbance
To provide signals to recording, fault recording etc.
remote terminals.
Advantages and Special Features of Microprocessor Based Protective Relays :
• Ability to combine a large number of protective and monitoring functions in a single relay
unit.
• Measured values are processed digitally by microprocessor. The digital processing by
microprocessor gives several abilities to protective relay. These abilities includes :
• Combinational logic
• Use of online processing of variables
• Programmable features, etc.
• High level of flexibility : Various protective functions can be freely selected and allocated to
the various auxiliary relays by means of software tripping matrix. The same relay can give
tripping signals, blocking signals, starting signals, signals to fault recorders, etc.
• The memory of the relay enables the relay to retain the values of variables responsible for
tripping, time taken by relay to operate etc.
• The relay can digitally display values of the current, voltage etc. Thereby need of each
instrument is eliminated.
• The relay with self-monitoring feature can monitor its own circuits continuously and if any
internal component has failed, indication is obtained.
• Increased reliability due to self-checking.
• Data interface access : increased communication ability.
• User friendly : Microprocessor based relays are easy to apply, operate and use.
• High speed : High speed relays minimum tripping time of 12 milliseconds and maximum of
32 milliseconds are available for line protection.

Over Current Protection :

Over current protection is that protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of
current reaches to the pickup level. The basic element in over current protection is an over current
relay.
The over current relays are connected to the system normally by means of CT’s Over current
relaying has following types :
1) High speed over current protection.
2) Definite time over current protection.
3) Inverse minimum time over current protection.
4) Directional over current protection (of above type)
• Over current protection includes the protection from overloads. This is most widely used
protection.
• Over loading of a machine or equipment means the machine is taking more current than it’s
rated current.
• Hence with overloading, there is an associated temperature rise. The permissible
temperature rise has limit based on insulation class and material problem. Over current
protection of overloads is generally provided by thermal relays.
• Over-current protection includes short-circuit protection shout circuit can be phase fault
earth fault or winding faults. Short circuit currents are generally several time (5 to 20
times) the full load current.
• Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short – circuits.
• Several protective devices are used for over – current protection.
These included :
– Fuses
 – Miniature circuit – breakers, moulded – case circuits breakers.
– Circuit – breakers fitted with overloaded coils or tripped by over current relay.
– Series connected trip coils operating switching devices.
– Over current relay in conjunction with current transformers.
• The primary requirements of over-current protection are :-
• The protection should not operate for starting currents permissible over current, current
surges. To achieve this, the time delay is provided (in case of inverse relays). If time delay
cannot be permitted, high set instantaneous relaying is used.
• The protection should be co-ordinated with neighbouring over current protection so as to
discriminate the faulty part and healthy part.

Applications of Over – Current Protection :

The over–current protection is provided for the following :

(1) Motor protection :

Over–current protection is the basic type of protection used against overloads and short
circuits in stator windings of motor. Inverse time and instantaneous phase and ground over-
current relays can be employed for motor above 1000 kw. For small / medium size motor where
cost of CT’s and protective relays is not economically justified, thermal relays and HRC fuse are
employed, thermal relays used for overload protection HRC fuses for short circuit protection
(2) Transformer protection :

Transformers are provided with over–current protection against faults only when the cost of
differential relaying cannot be justified. However over current relays are provided in addition to
differential relays to take care of through fault, temperature indicators and alarms are always
provided for large transformers.
(3) Line protection :

The lines (feeders) can be protected by :-

1) Instantaneous over–current relays.
2) Inverse time over–current relays.
3) Directional over–current relays.
Line can be protected by impedance, or carrier current protection also.
(4) Protection of Utility Equipment :

The furnaces industrial installations, commercial, industrial and domestic equipment are all
provided with over–current protection.

Relays used in Over Current Protection :

The choice of relay for over–current protection depends upon the time / current characteristic
and other feature desired.
The following relays are used.
1) For instantaneous over – current protection :
Attracted armature type, moving iron type, permanent magnet moving coil type, static.
2) For inverse time characteristic :
Electro magnetic induction type, permanent magnet moving coil type, static relays.
3) Directional over–current protection :
Double actuating quantity induction relay with directional feature.
4) Static over–current relay.
5) HRC fuses, drop out fuses etc. are used in low voltage, medium voltage and high voltage
distribution system, generally up to 11 kV.
6) Thermal relays are used widely for over–current protection.

Induction Type Over Current Relay :

• This type of relay works on the induction principle. Torque is exerted on the disc when
current in the circuit exceeds the predetermined value.
• These relays can work only on the a.c. circuit and they can generate the torque for fault
current in either direction.
• Fig. 2.12.1 shows the constructional details of a typical non-directional induction type over
current relay.

Fig. 2.12.1 : Induction type over current relay (non – directional)

• As shown in the figure, there are two electromagnets and in between them an aluminium
disc is placed to the spindle. Aluminium disc is free to rotate.
• The upper electromagnet, which is E shaped and is wound with primary and a secondary
winding. Both the windings are wound on central limb.
• The primary winding of current transformer is connected in series with the line and
secondary winding of CT is connected to primary winding of relay coil. Primary winding of
relay coil is provided with no. of tapings.
• The tapings are connected to a plug – setting bridge by which the number of turns on the
relay operating coil can be varied, thereby giving the desired current setting.
• The secondary winding is energised by induction from primary and is connected in series
with the winding on the lower magnet.
• The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts, when the
disc rotates through a pre – set angle.
• This angle can be adjusted to any value between 0º and 360º.
• The relay time can be adjusted by adjusting this angle, i.e the travel of the moving contact
when the current is higher than the desired value of it flux occurs in both the windins and so disc rotates
and the torque i.e. driving torque occurs on disc.
 As soon as the secondary side is energised the ckt trips i.e. CB operates thereby isolating the faulty region

• The driving torque on the aluminium disc is set up due to the induction principle.
• The restraining torque provided by the spring opposes this torque.
• Under normal operating conditions, restraining torque is greater than the driving torque
produced by the relay coil current therefore the aluminium disc remains stationary.
• However if the current in the protected circuit exceeds the pre–set value, the driving torque
becomes greater than the restraining torque.
• Due to this driving torque disc rotates and the moving contact bridges the fixed contacts
when the disc has rotated through a pre–set angle.
• The trip circuit operates the circuit breaker, which isolates the faulty section.

Induction Type Directional over Current Relay :

Al disc jo ki two strip ckt is connect
whenever the disc rotate in reverse direction
ckt gets trip
When supply is given from PT and CT
the coil gets energized and hence
current coil pe magentic field generate
hogi potential coil ki taraf current pass ho raha
hoga jiski wajah se flux 1 is creadted in PC
and flux2 is created in CC
according to lenz law towue will be gernated
i.e. jis taraf magnectic flow is moving uske opposite torque
generate hoga and hence disc will rotate due
to thid reverse torque
disc is connected to trpi ckt and jaise hi ye
rotate hogi wiase hi ckt trip hoga

Fig. 2.12.2 : Induction type directional over current relay

Directional over current relay consists of two elements, viz- directional element and non-
directional element.
Directional elements :
• It is essentially a directional power relay. Which operates when the power flows in the
specific direction.
• The voltage coil of this element is connected through a potential transformer.
• The current coil of the element is energized through a C.T by the circuit current. This
winding is placed over the upper magnet of the non-directional element.
• The trip contacts (a and b) of the directional element are connected in series with the
secondary circuit of the over current element, therefore the latter element cannot start to
operate until its secondary circuit is completed.
• In other words, the directional element must operate first in order to operate the over
current element.
Non directional elements :
• It is an over current element similar explained in section 2.12.1 to a non-directional over
current relay.
• The spindle of the disc of this dement carries a moving contact which close the fixed contacts
after the operation of directional element.
• It may be noted that plug–setting bridge is also provided in the relay for current setting.
(Not shown in the diagram).
• The tapings are provided on the upper magnet of over-current element and are connected to
the bridge.
Operation :
• Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the circuit.
Therefore directional power relay does not operate and over current element remains
unenergised.
• However when a short circuit occurs, and if the current or power flows in the reverse
direction, the disc of the upper element rotates to bridge the fixed contacts a and b.
• This competes the circuit for over current element.
• The disc of this element rotates and moving contact attached to its closes the trip circuit.
• This operates the circuit breaker, which isolates the faulty section.
• The two-relay elements are so arranged that final tripping of the current controlled by them
is not made till the following conditions are satisfied.
(i) Current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element.
(ii) Current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre–set value.
(iii) Excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of over current
element.
Characteristic of Relay Units for Over–current Protection :
There is a wide variety of relay – units. These are classified according to their type and
characteristic. The major characteristic includes :

• Definite characteristic
• Inverse characteristic
• Extremely Inverse
• Very Inverse
• Inverse.
In definite characteristic the time of operation is almost definite
Iº t = k
I = Current in relay coil
t = Relay time
k = Constant
In inverse characteristic time is inversely proportional to current i.e
 I t = k
In more inverse characteristic
n
I t = k
Where ‘n’ can be between 2 to 8. The choice depends on discrimination desired.
• Instantaneous relay are those which have no intentional time lag and which operate in less
than 0.1 second, usually less than 0.08 second. As such they are not instantaneous in real
sense.
• The relays which are not instantaneous are called ‘Time delay’ relay such relay are provided
with delaying means such as drag magnet, dash pots, bellows escape mechanisms, back-stop
arrangement etc.
• The operating time of a relay for a particular setting and magnitude of actuating quantity
can be known from the characteristics supplied by the manufacturer. The typical
characteristics are shown in Fig. 2.12.3 (a).
• A inverse curve is one in which the operating time becomes less as the magnitude of the
actuating quantity is increased.
• However for higher magnitudes of actuating quantity the time is constant.
• Definite time curve is one in which operating time
is little affected by magnitude of actuating current.
• However even definite time relay has a
characteristic, which is slightly inverse.
• The characteristic with definite minimum time and
of inverse type is also called as inverse definite
minimum time (IDMT) characteristics.
Fig. 2.12.3 (a) : Typical curves of operating time
us magnitude of actuating quantity

Static Over Current Relays :

The conventional electromagnetic over current relays are at present commonly used in many
application. However, static over current relays, offer several advantages such as :-
(1) Reduced VA consumption (7 mVA to 100 mVA) as compared with electro magnetic relays.
(1000 mVA to 3000 mVA). Therefore the performance of CT under short circuit condition is
improved. The size of CT core is also reduced.
(2) Static relays are compact. The size of a single three phase over current relay may be about
one-forth of three electromagnetic relays.
(3) Static over current relay is not affected by vibration.
(4) The static relays can have more accurate time–current characteristic.
(5) Static over current relays can be of following types :
• Over current relay without time lag
• Over current relay with time lag
The static over current relay has generally the following functional blocks :
• Input circuit comprising main C.T, auxiliary C.T, current setting switch, RC filter.
• Rectifier with smoothing circuit.
• Level detector
• Amplifier
• Tripping relay.
• In over current relays without directional feature are as rule single actuating quantity
relays. The directional over current relays are as a rule double actuating quantity relays,
the direction of power flow is sensed by sensing the phase angle between current and
voltage.
• The various functional blocks mentioned above are standardised by the manufactures.
Depending upon the type of relay, the required functional blocks are connected in the final
assembly.
Single actual quantity relays :
• The protective relays or either single actuating quantity relays such as over current under–
voltage, earth fault relay or double actuating quantity relays such as distance relay
differential relay.
• Fig. 2.12.4 gives the simplified block diagram of a single actuating quantity rectified current
relay.
• The secondaries of CT’s are connected to a summation circuit.
• The output of the current transformer is supplied to full wave rectifier bridge.
• The rectified output is given to measuring element
• The measuring element determines whether the quantity has reached the threshold value or
not.
• The measuring element detect the level of the input signal
• The measuring element can be of the following three types :
• Moving coil permanent magnet relay.
• Polarized moving iron relay
• Static relay.
• The same cases the output of the rectifier is amplified and fed to electromechanical relay.
• The static measuring element comprises d.c. amplifiers with transistors.
• The amplifier is single stage two–stage or three stages and is usually feedback type.
• The feedback ensure progressive rise of output power when the input to the measuring unit
reaches a contain level.
• When input to measuring unit is less than threshold input, the output of the level detector is
zero.
• For an over current relay
for Iin  Ith, Iout = 0
for Iin Ith, Iout = Present
Iin = Input to measuring unit.
Iout = Output of measuring unit.
Ith = Threshold value of input.
In an actual relay, Ith can be adjusted.
• After operation of the measuring element the output of the level detector is amplified by the
amplifier.
• The amplified output is given to the output device. The trip coil of the circuit breaker is
connected in the output stage.
• If time delay is desired, a timing circuit is introduced before the level detector.
• Smoothening circuit and filters are introduced in the output of the rectifier.
 fig. 2.12.4 : Simplified block–diagram of a single Fig. 2.12.5 : Block diagram of static over current relay
actuating quantity (1) with time delay (2) without time delay block

• The protection operates if Iin > Ith with a set time delay.
• Static over current relay is made in form of a single unit in which, transistor, diodes,
resistors, capacitors etc. are arranged on printed board and are bolted with epoxy resin.
• In instantaneous over current relay without intentional time delay functional block is not
necessary. In instantaneous relays the output of rectifier is given to level detector and then
to amplifier.
• In time delay over current relay, the rectifies output is supplied to level detector (I) and
timing circuit is added in between the level detector (I) and level detector (II) rout 1.

Microprocessor Based Over Current Relays :

• An over current relay is the simplest form of protective relay which operates when the
current in any circuit exceeds the certain predetermined value, i e. the pick up value.
• Using a multiplexer, the microprocessor can serve the fault currents of a number of circuits.
• If the fault current in any circuit exceeds the pick up value, microprocessor sends tripping
signal to the circuit breaker of the faulty circuit.
• As the microprocessor accepts signals in voltage form, the current signal derived form the
current transformer and converted into a proportional voltage signal using a current to
voltage converter.
• The a.c. voltage proportional to the load current is converted into d.c. using a precision
rectifier. Thus, the microprocessor accepts d.c. voltage proportional to the load current.
• The schematic diagram of the relay is as shown in Fig. 2.12.6. The output of the rectifier is
fed to the multiplexer.
• The microcomputer sends a command to switch on the desired channel of the multiplexer to
obtain the rectified voltage proportional to the current in a particular circuit.
• The output of multiplexer is fed to the A/D converter to obtain the signal in digital form.

Fig. 2.12.6 : Schematic diagram of microprocessor based over current relay

• The A/D converter ADC 0800 has been used for this purpose. The microcomputer sends
signal to the ADC for stating the conversion.
• The microcomputer reads the end of conversion signal to examine whether the conversion is
over or not.
• As soon as conversion is over, the microcomputer reads the current signal in digital form
and then compares it with the pick up value.
• In case of definite time over current relay, the microcomputer sends the tripling signal to the
circuit breaker after a predetermined time delay if the fault current exceeds the pick up
value.
• In case of instantaneous over current relay there is no intentional time delay.
• In order to obtain inverse time characteristics, the operating times for different values of
currents are noted for particular characteristics.
• These values are stored in the memory in tabular form.
• The micro computer first determines the magnitude of the fault current and then selects the
corresponding time of operation from the look-up table
• A delay sub routine is started and the trip signal is sent after the desired delay.
• The micro computer continuously measures the current and moves in a loop and if the
measured current exceeds the pick up value, it compares the measured value of the current
with the digital values of current given in the look up table in order to select the
corresponding current for a time delay.
• Then it goes in delay subroutine and sends a trip signal to the circuit breaker after the
predetermined time delay.
functioning depends on the distance of fault in
Distance Relaying : line
operation depends on teh faulty part of the
impedance and the poitn where relay occured.

Fig. 2.12.1 : Definite – distance type impedance relay

• Fig. 2.12.1 shows the schematic arrangement of distance relay.
• It consists of two electromagnets one is energised by current of current transformer and
other is energised by voltage of voltage transformer.
• The armature of these two electromagnets is mechanically connected to pivoted beam on the
opposite side.
• The beam is provided with bridging piece for the trip contacts.
Operation : CT current
PT voltage
• Voltage magnet produces as restraining torque and current magnet produces operating
torque.
• Under normal operating conditions, the pull due to the voltage element is greater than that
of the current element therefore the relay contacts remain open. restraining torque>operating torque
• When a fault occurs in the protected zone, the applied voltage to the relay decreases where
as the current increases. restraining torque< operating torque
• The ratio of voltage to current falls below the predetermined value; therefore pull of the
current element will be more than voltage element, which causes the beam to tilt in
direction to close the trip contacts.
• The ratio V/I is measured at the location of CT’s and VT’s. Z=V/I it is impedance
• The voltage at VT location depends on the distance between the VT and the fault. If fault is
nearer, measured voltage is lesser. If fault is farther measured voltage is more.
• Hence assuming constant fault resistance each value of V/I measured from relay location
corresponds to distance between the relaying point and the fault. Hence such protection is
called Impedance Protection or Distance Protection.

Static Distance Relays :

Fig. 2.12.2 : Block diagram of static distance Relay

• Fig. 2.12.2 shows the block diagram of static distance relays.

• As we know the distance relays compares the ratio V/I. It is set to impedance V/I = Z. Such
that for a fault at certain distance from relay location the relay operates if the fault
impedance is less than the set impedance.
• The measurement of impedance reactance or admittance is done by comparison of input
combinations of current and voltage. Hence distance relays have input current and voltage.
• In static comparators the two quantities to be compared must be similar i.e current / current
or voltage / voltage.
• Here current I obtained from the CT is converted into equivalent voltage by producing
voltage drop in an impedance Z.
• The line PT is connected to auxiliary PT and line CT is connected to auxiliary CT.
• Then voltage drop in impedance is compared with the line voltage ‘V’.
whenever the impedance will fall some constant value the relay will work
Z=V/I
The level of voltage and current are stepped down to electrcial level suing PT and CT
Micro Processor based Distance (Impedance ) Relay :

• The schematic diagram of the interface for the impedance relay is shown in Fig. 2.12.2
• The levels of voltage and current signals are stepped down to the electronic level by using
potential and current transformer.
• The current signal derived from the current transformer is converted into proportional
voltage signal using a current to voltage converter.
• The voltage and current signals are then rectified using rectifiers to convert them into d.c.
• These Vdc and Idc are fed to two different channels of the multiplexer, which are switches on
sequentially by proper commands from the microcomputer.
• The output of the multiplexer is fed to the A/D converter through a sample and hold circuit.
• The data acquisition system (DAS) is interfaced to the microprocessor using 8255A
programmable peripheral interface.
• A clock of 300 kHz is obtained by dividing the 3 MHz clock of the microprocessor by ten
using the IC package 7490.
• The microcomputer reads Vdc and Idc calculate the impedance z seen by the relay and then
compare Z with Z1 that is the predetermined value of impedance for the first zone of
protection.
• If Z is less than Z1, the microcomputer sends a tripping signal to the trip coil of circuit
breaker.
IIdc

CT

Vdc and Idc will reflect to different channels of

mutliplexer AM 3705
o/p is given Sample and Hold support (S/H)

PT Vdc

Fig. 2.12.3 : Block diagram at microprocessor Based impedance relay

Directional Relay (Reverse Power Relay) :

Fig. 2.14.1 : Directional power relay

• Fig. 2.14.1 shows an electromagnetic directional power relay. A directional relay is energised
by two quantities, namely voltage and current.
• Fluxes 1 and 2 are set up by voltage and current, respectively.
• Eddy currents induced in the disc by 1 interact with 2 and produce a torque, similarly 2
also induces eddy currents in the disc which interact with 1 and produce torque. The
resultant torque rotates the disc.
• The torque is proportional to VI cos , where  is the angle between voltage V and current I.
• The torque is maximum when voltage and current are in phase.
• To produce maximum torque during the fault condition, when
the power factor is very poor, a compensating winding and
shading band are provided.
• Earlier it has been mentioned that the torque produced by an
induction relay is given by T = 1 2 sin   I1 I2 sin where 1
and 2 are fluxes produced by I1 and I2 respectively.

• The angle between 1 and 2 or I1 and I2 is . Fig. 2.14.2 : Phasor diagram

• If one of the actuating quantities is voltage, the current flowing in the voltage coil lags
behind voltage by approximately 90º. Assume this current to be I2.
• The load current I (say I1) lags V by . Then the angle  between I1 and I2 is equal to
(90 –  ) as shown in above Fig. 2.14.2 (phaser diagram).
 T  I1 I2 sin (90 – )  I1 I2 cos   V I cos 
it compares the incoming and outgoing current and if any changes comes in magnitude
Differential Relays : it sense it as a abnormality and trips the ckt

• The differential relay is one that operates when the vector difference of two or more similar
electrical quantities exceeds predetermined value.
• There are two fundamental systems of differential protection :
1) Current balance protection.
2) Voltage balance protection.

Current Differential Protection :

• Fig. 2.15.1 shows an arrangement of differential relay.

• A pair of identical current transformers is fitted on either end of the section to be protected.
• The secondaries of CTs are connected in series in such a way that they carry induced
currents in the same direction.
• The operating coil of the over current relay is connected across the CT secondary circuit.
• This differential relay compares the current at the two ends of the protected winding.

operating relay coil

(a) Current differential protection (b) Current differential protection under fault condition
Fig. 2.15.1
it energies whenever the abnormality occurs then the current flows in relay coil
 • Under normal operating conditions suppose the current through the winding is 1000 A.
therefore, secondary current is 5 Amp.
• This current will circulate through pilot wires.
• If the ground fault occurs on the winding as shown in Fig. 2.15.1(b) the two secondary
currents will not be equal and the current flows through the operating coil of the relay
causing the relay to operate.
• If some current (assume 500A) flows out of one side while large current (assume 1000A)
enters the other side as shown in Fig. 2.15.1(b).
• Then the difference of the CT secondary currents i.e. 05 – 2.5 = 2.5 A will flow through relay
Disadvantages of Current Differential Protection :
• Pilot cable capacitance causes incorrect operation of the relay when a large through current
flows.
• The impedance of the pilot cable causes slight difference between the current at the two
ends of the section to be protected. If relay setting is low then the small differential current
flowing through the relay may cause it to operate even under normal condition.
• Accurate matching of current transformers cannot be achieved due to pilot circuit
impedance.
• Saturation of CT magnetic circuits during short circuit condition. Due to these causes the
relay may operate even for external faults. The relay may loose its stability for through
faults.
• Tap changing causes change in transformation ratio of a transformer. There by CT ratio’s do
not match with the new tap settings, resulting to current in pilot wires even during healthy
condition. This difficulty is over come by biased differential relay.
Biased or Percentage Differential Relay : advance of differential coil...yahan pe hum restraining coil ko use
krte hain
• The reason for using modification is circulating current differential relay is to overcome the
trouble arising out of differences in CT ratios for high values of external short circuit
currents. In this relay the operating coil is connected to the mid point of the restraining coil.
• The total number of ampere turns in the restraining coil becomes the sum of ampere turns
I1N I2N I1 + I2
in its two halves i.e + which gives the average restraining current of in ‘N’
2 2 2
turns. jo actual current flow karti hain uske fractional relaton ko operate krne k liye ye use hota hain
• For External faults both the currents I1 and I2 increases and there by the restraining torque
increases which prevents the mal operation.
• The operating characteristics of such relay is as shown in Fig. 2.15.2.
• The ratio of differential operating current to average restraining current is fixed percentage.
Hence the relay is called ‘Percentage Differential Relay’.

Fig. 2.15.2 : Biased beam relay Fig. 2.15.3 : Operating characteristics of different relay
under the faulty conditions operating coil torque> restraining coil and so ckt trips
Voltage Balance Differential Relay :
• Fig. 2.15.4 shows the voltage balance protections. In this
scheme of protection, two similar current transformers are
connected at either end of the winding to be protected by
means of pilot wires.
• The secondaries of current transformers are connected in
series with a relay in such a way that the under normal
working conditions, their induced e.m.f’s are in opposition.
Fig. 2.15.4 : Voltage balance differential Relay

• Under healthy working conditions, equal currents (I1 = I2) flow in both primary windings of
CT1 and CT2.
• Therefore the secondary voltages of the two transformers are balanced against each other
and no current will flow through pilot wires and hence in operating coil.
• When faults occurs in the protected zone, the currents in the two primaries will differ form
one another (i e. I1  I2 ) therefore their secondary voltage will no longer be same.
• These voltage differences will causes a current to flow through the operating coil of the
relay, which closes the trip circuit.