Lecture no :1 Nuclear Imaging

Contents
1. - Introduction to radionuclide imaging
2. Atomic structure
3. Radioactivity
4. Radioisotope production
1-introduction to nuclear imaging:
• In nuclear imaging, we are using radionuclides to be injected into the patient for imaging or
therapy purposes.
• The radionuclide is targeted toward the organ using a pharmaceutical that is designed based
on the type of nuclear medicine procedure.
• The radionuclide is preferable to emit only gamma radiation for imaging and alpha or beta
particles for therapy purposes/Why?
o Gamma radiation has a higher penetration power than radiation particles, so it can
reach the detector (gamma camera or PET) for image formation.
o Gamma radiation deposits less energy inside the patient in comparison with radiation
particles, so gamma photons have Low LET (linear energy transfer)
o Radiation particles deposit all their energy in a short distance, so they can be used
for treatment as the radiation energy destroy the cancer cells and spare the normal
cells.
o Alpha particles have high LET, and Beta particle has a moderate LET.

2-Atomic structure:
Any material is composed of atoms. Each atom has a nucleus surrounded by electrons moving
in shells. The central mass of an atom is in the nucleus, as the electron mass is negligible
against the mass of protons or neutrons.

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 1- The nucleus:
1- The nuclear diameter is around 1000x smaller than the atomic diameter
2-The nuclear diameter is approximately 1x10 -14m

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 3-The nucleus contains nucleons (protons and neutrons). The net charge of the nucleus
is positive.
1-Protons (P):
A proton contains three quarks’ particles. two up quarks and one down
quarks. The up quark has a +2/3 charge, while -1/3 is the charge of the down quark, so
the net charge of the proton is +1 = (+2/3)+(2/3)+(-1/3)

2-Neutrons (N):
A Neutron contains three quarks’ particles. Two down quarks and one up quark. The up
quark has a +2/3 charge, while -1/3 is the charge of the down quark, so the net charge
of the neutron is 0 = (+2/3) +(-1/3) +(-1/3).

The relative mass of a proton or neutron is +1.

3-Nuclear Force:
• The protons have the same charge, so repulsion electrostatic force exists in the nucleus.
this repulsion force should be balanced by the strong nuclear force to keep nuclear
stability.
• Nuclear stability arises from the special arrangement of nucleons to keep the nucleus
stable. The balance between the number of protons and neutrons is mandatory to keep
the nuclear binding force greater than the repulsion force.
• The nuclear force arises from the attraction force of the different charges of quarks
between the neutrons and protons.
• If there is unbalance in the number of protons to the neutrons, it causes nuclear
instability. The unstable nucleus will convert proton to neutron or neutron to proton to
reach nuclear stability.
• Strong nuclear force: There is a strong force of attraction at distances between
nucleons of <10-15 m which changes to a repulsive force at <10-16 m. The nucleons are
kept apart at a distance of ~ 5 x10-16 m, the distance at which there is the greatest
attraction.
• Electrostatic force: this is the force of repulsion between protons. At distances of 10-15
to 10-16 m the strong attractive interaction (strong nuclear force) is much greater than the
repulsive electrostatic force and the nucleus is held together.

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 Atomic number and mass number:
• Atomic number (Z)is the number of protons or electrons of the atom
• Atomic number is responsible for the chemical properties of the
material, so the materials with the same Z ,can’t be separated
chemically
• Cyclotron: materials produced can be separated chemically as ,all have
different Z

•
Dr. Eslam Kamal
Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 • Mass number (A) is the number of protons and neutrons of the nucleus
• Mass number is responsible for the physical properties of the material
(shape, density ,…)
• Nuclear Reactor: materials produced can’t be separated chemically as
,all have the same Z

4-Ionization & Excitation:

• Ionized atom → if one of its electrons has been completely removed → ion pair
"electron + positive ion"
• Excited atom → if an electron is raised from one shell to a farther one with the
absorption of energy → the atom has more energy than normal.
When it falls back → energy is re-emitted as a single 'packet' of energy or light photon.

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
3-Radioactivity

Why atom is radioactive?

The unbalance between the number of protons to neurons causes increasing the
repulsion force more than the nuclear binding force. the improper nucleon arrangement
increases the electrostatic repulsion which causes nuclear instability.
Why atom is emitting radiation?
The atom emits radiation to reach stability by keeping the balance between the number
of neutrons and protons. If an atom has too many or too few neutrons and does not lie
upon the "line of stability", it becomes unstable and decays to a more stable form.

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 How does the atom reach the balance between the protons and neutrons?
When a nuclide undergoes radioactive decay, it breaks down to fall into a lower energy
state expending the excess energy as radiation. The radioactivity released can be:

1. Alpha particles decay:

• If the atom has an excess number of protons and neutrons Z >83, it is called
a heavy atom (C region in the figure). This radioactive heavy atom tends to
be stable by losing the extra protons and neutrons to achieve the balance for
nuclear stability.
• The heavy parent atom emits an alpha particle (Helium particle 2He4) to be
converted into a daughter atom.
Dr. Eslam Kamal
Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 • Alpha particle has 2 neutrons and 2 protons. The emission of an alpha
particle causes a reduction in the number of nucleons of parents by 4.
• The mass number (A) is the summation of the number of nucleons, so A is
reduced by 4.

• The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons or electrons, so Z is reduced

by 2.

An alpha particle is a helium nucleus.

• It has a relative charge of +2.
• Alpha particle is a charged particle that interacts with atoms around. This interaction
causes ionization (knocking out electrons from the atoms) of the surrounding atoms and
losing alpha particle energy in a short traveling distance. Its penetration power is the
lowest among the three types of particles and can be blocked by a piece of paper or a
few cm (1-10 cm) of air.
• Its ionizing power is the highest among the three types of particles ( High LET).

• Alpha particles can be used for cancer treatment because of the following:
Dr. Eslam Kamal
Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 1- High Linear Energy transfer (LET). It means high energy loss per unit of distance
traveled inside the medium. This energy causes damage to the DNA of cancer cells
through the ionization process. DNA damage initiates the apoptosis process (Cell
Death).
2- Short range of alpha particle cause sparing of normal cells from radiation exposure,
so the treatment is highly localized.

2. Beta particles:
1-B- decay:
• If the atom (Area B in the figure) has an excess number of neutrons (n>p), it
converts n to p to achieve the required n/p balance for nuclear stability. It
releases negative electrons (B-) and antineutrino.
• The atomic number increase by 1, while the mass number remains the same.
• It has a relative charge of -1.
• Not all beta particles have the same energy, but they are produced in a range
of energies.
• The average energy of beta particles is one-third the maximum energy.
• The beta particles traveled a certain distance based on their energy and the
density of the material.
• The maximum distance traveled by beta particles is called the range. the
range is directly proportional to beta energy and inversely proportional to
material density.
• Its penetration power is in the middle among the three types of particles and
can be blocked by a thin sheet of aluminum.
• Its ionizing power is in the middle among the three types of particles.

• It is used in thyroid cancer treatment using the I-131 beta emitter.

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 2-B+ (Positron) decay:
• If the atom (Area A in the figure) has an excess number of protons (p>n), it
converts p to n to achieve the required n/p balance for nuclear stability. It
releases positive electrons (positron B+) and neutrino.
• It has a relative charge of +1.
• B+ collides with an electron around (few mm ) to annihilate two gamma
photons 1800 to each other with an energy of 511 Kev.

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 •
• The two gamma photons are detected by a Positron emission tomography
PET scanner.
• F-18 is an example of a positron emitter labeled with glucose to form
FDG(fluor deoxy glucose) .
• FDG is highly used for whole-body imaging using PET-CT.

• The atomic number decrease by 1, while the mass number remains thesame.

3. Electronic capture
Dr. Eslam Kamal
Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 • it happens for atoms that are highly rich in protons (high Z). this decay
method competes for the B+ decay
•
• I-123 is an example of electronic capture decay, which emits 28 Kev X-rays
and 160 Kev gamma.
• The atomic number decrease by 1, while the mass number remains the same

4-Isomeric transition
• The atom covert from an excited state (metastable state) to a stable state
without a change in atomic or mass number.
• The parent and daughter are called isomers. that’s why we are calling this
decay method an isomeric transition.
• Two isomers mean the same A and Z. the only difference is the energy state.

5-Gamma Rays

• Gamma photons are produced following alpha or beta decays i. e I-131.

• I-131 is used for cancer thyroid treatment using Beta particles.
• I-131 gamma photons are used for thyroid imaging using a gamma camera.
• Gamma rays can be produced from the isomeric transition
• Gamma photon can give all its energy to an electron in the electronic shell to
be knocked out (internal conversion).
• It does not have a charge.

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 • Its penetration power is the highest among the three types of particles and
can be blocked by several cm of lead.
• Its ionizing power is the lowest among the three types of particles (Low LET)

• The nuclear transformation from an unstable to a stable state is called

radioactive decay
• the conversion of one unstable atom to a stable state (one decay) is
expressed in Becquerel (Becquerel (Bq): 1 Bq = 1 transformation per second
)
• the decay of nuclides is exponential i.e it never reaches zero theoretically.
• Decay constant is the probability of nuclear decay (fraction of nuclei
decaying) per unit of time
• The decay of individual atoms is random and can’t be predicted.
Definitions
• Activity
o The activity is not determined by the number of unstable atoms
but by the number of transformations from instability to stability
status per second (decay rate).
o One disintegration per second is considered as one decay.
o The unit of activity is Bq which is one decay per second.
Dr. Eslam Kamal
Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 o Your body contains around 2000 Bq .
o The administrated activity in MBq = 10^6 Bq
o The generator activity in GBq = 10^9 Bq .
o The old unit is Ci ,mci = 37 MBq.

• The measured count rate and Activity

o The measured count rate (CPS) is in direct proportionality with
the activity & number or mass of radioactive atoms in the
sample.
o The measured CPS is not representing the activity as not all
radiations are detected by the detector.
• Physical Half-life
o The half-life (t1/2) of a radionuclide is the time taken for its
activity to decay to half of its original value .
o The half-life (t1/2) is characteristic of each radioactive material
Cant be changed,Can’t be affected by electricity, heat, or
chemicals
• Exponential decay
o The fundamental law of radioactive decay states that the activity
of a radioactive sample decreases by equal fractions
(percentages) in equal intervals of time. This is referred to as the
exponential law.
• Effective half life
o If the radionuclide is stored in a bottle, its activity decays with its
physical half-life, tphy .
o If the radiopharmaceutical is administered to a person, the
radioactivity in specific tissues, an organ or the whole body
decreases because of the simultaneous effects of radioactive
decay and metabolic turnover and excretion.Tbio

o
Dr. Eslam Kamal
Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 4-Producing radioisotopes:
There are three methods of radionuclide production.
1-Cyclotron
2-Nuclear Reactor
3-Radionuclide generator

1. Cyclotron:
1. The cyclotron is used to produce radionuclides by
accelerating the proton to a higher level of energy to be
ready for O-18 bombardment.

2. The cyclotron is composed of two electrodes (D1 and D2)

connected with an alternating electric field which can
alternate the electrode potential from +ve to -ve or reverse.
3. the two electrodes (D1 and D2) are inside an external
magnetic field .

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 4. Once charged particle is inserted in the middle of two
electrodes, it would be affected by the electric force to be
moved from +ve D1 to the -ve D2 electrode.
5. The charged particle reaches the surface of the electrode D2
so it has to be affected by an external magnetic field which
changes the direction of a charged particle to move in a
circular path toward the surface of the electrode D2.
6. By changing the electrode potential from -ve to +ve, the
charged particle will move to -ve electrode D1 to reach the
electrode surface.
7. By the effect of the external magnetic field, the charged
particle moves in a circular path toward the surface of
electrode D1.
8. Each cycle of the charged particle will increase the radius of
circular path and the energy of the charged particle.
9. Once the charged particle reaches the required energy , it is
directed to O-18 to bombard for radionuclide F-18
production .

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 10.
11.Radionuclides produced in a cyclotron can be obtained
carrier-free. They can be separated chemically from the
original stable nuclides, as they have different atomic
numbers and so different chemical properties.

2. Nuclear Reactor
• Addition of neutrons by nuclear reactor

• Radionuclides produced in a nuclear reactor cannot be

separated from the original stable nuclides, as they have the
same atomic number and so the same chemical properties.
Dr. Eslam Kamal
Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 • Radioactive fission products

• As the molybdenum is different chemically from the other

products, it can be separated and prepared in a very pure
form.

• U-235
is bombarded by neutrons which causes fission to the
atom to form Ba-142, Kr-91 and three neutrons
• The three neutrons are going to another fission process.

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 • A giant heat energy is released from this fission reaction, so
water is used for cooling,
• Using water as a moderator to slow down the energy of
neutron for better interaction.
• To control the fission reaction, Cadmium rods are used as
an absorbing material for the neutrons to stop the reaction.

3 Radionuclide generator:
• Molybdenum-99 is produced as a fission product in a
nuclear reactor.
• The molybdenum (Mo-2) is based on Alumina (Al2o3 +3).
• The molybdenum has a half-life 67 hrs and decays to
99mTc which has 6 hrs half-life.
• The molybdenum work as a parent which form 99mTc
(daughter) .
• the molybdenum can be used to produce a certain amount of
99mTc on daily basis (cow machine)
• every 24hrs after elution, the 99mTc reach the highest
activity and be ready for milking.

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 • The relation between the parent (Mo-99) and daughter
(99mTc) is a transient equilibrium, as the parent has longer
half life than the daughter

•
• Mechanism of elution process:
o As shown in the picture, there are two openings with
a needle (U-shape) passing through the molybdenum
column to trach to the second opening.
o The first opening is used to put the saline which pass
through the molybdenum column to bind with the
99mTc.
o The alumina prevents the Mo-99 to be washed out as
there is a strong bond between alumina +3 and Mo-2
.
o While 99mTc is loosely bound as it’s charge is -1
which cause easily binding with Na+ cl-(Saline).
o The saline has to be pushed to the second opening ,
that’s why we are using an evacuated vial to
withdraw the saline to be collected in an evacuated
shielded vial.

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
 o
o This process is called the milking or elution process.
o The eluate should be free 99mTc , where there is no
alumina or Mo-99.
o The presence of alumina will affect on labeling
efficiency of 99mTc with pharmaceutics .
o The presence of Mo-99 will affect on the labeling
efficiency , increase patient dose ( beta emitter) and
reduce the image quality as Mo-99 emt gamma
photon with energy exceeds 700 Kev .
o The 700 Kev cause high scatter and reduce the image
contrast.

Dr. Eslam Kamal

Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists
Dr. Eslam Kamal
Medical Physics Consultant
What’s app: +2010192006709
YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/IslamKamal/playlists