January-2023

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
CEng5123
Chapter Four: Analysis of Wind Load
Lecture One
Duresa Dubale (MSc.)
 Contents

Chapter Four: Analysis of Wind Load

4.1 Wind loads
4.2 Wind Effects
4.3 Wind Load Analysis According to ES EN 1991-
1.4: 2015

24-Jan-23 By: Duresa Dubale 2

 4.1 Wind loads

Introduction:
• Wind loads have a great deal of influence on building design and the
design of other kinds of civil engineering structures.

• Many whole structures or parts of structures that fail, do so because

inadequate thought was given to wind actions at the design stage.

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 Cont.
4.1 Wind loads
• Wind is air in motion. Structure deflects or stops the wind, converting the
wind’s kinetic energy into potential energy of pressure, thus create wind
loads.
• Wind forces are variable loads which act directly on the internal and
external surfaces of structures.
• The intensity of wind load on structure is related to the square of the wind
velocity and the dimensions of the members that are resisting the wind
(frontal area).

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 Cont.
4.1 Wind loads

• The intensity of the wind pressure depends on:

✓Shape of structure
✓Angle of the induce wind.
✓Velocity of air.
✓Density of air.
✓Stiffness of structure.

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 4.2 Wind effects

1) Direct positive pressure

• Surface facing the wind and perpendicular to its path receive a direct
impact effect from the moving mass of air.

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 Cont.
4.2 Wind effects

2) Drag

• Because the wind does not stop upon striking the object but flows
around it like a liquid, there is a drag effect on surfaces that are
parallel to the direction of the wind.

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 Cont.
4.2 Wind effects

3) Negative pressure

• On the leeward side of the object there is usually a suction effect

consisting of pressure out ward on the surface of the object.

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4.3 Wind Load Analysis According to ESEN 1991-1.4: 2015

Wind pressure on structure

1) External pressure

• The wind pressure acting on external surfaces of a structure, We,

shall be obtained from:

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 4.3.1 Wind pressure on structure

2) Internal pressure

• The wind pressure acting on internal surfaces of a structure, Wi,

shall be obtained from:

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 4.3.2 Peak velocity pressure (qp(z)) at height z

• The peak velocity pressure (qp(z)) at height z, which includes mean

and short-term velocity fluctuations, should be determined.:

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 Cont.
4.3.2 Peak velocity pressure (qp(z)) at height z

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 4.3.3 The mean wind velocity (vm(z)) at height z

• The mean wind velocity vm(z) at a height z above the terrain depends
on the terrain roughness and orography and on the basic wind
velocity vb and should be determined using:

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 4.3.4 The roughness factor (Cr(z))

▪ The roughness factor Cr(z) accounts for the variability of the mean
wind velocity at the site of the structure due to:
• The height above ground level
• The ground roughness of the terrain upwind of the structure in the
wind direction considered

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 Cont.
4.3.4 The roughness factor (Cr(z))

▪ The recommended procedure for the determination of the roughness

factor at height z is given:

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 Cont.
4.3.4 The roughness factor (Cr(z))

▪ Z0 , Zmin depend on the terrain category.

▪ Recommended values are given in table 4.1 (ES EN 1991-1.4: 2015)

depending on five representative terrain categories.
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 Cont.
4.3.4 The roughness factor (Cr(z))

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 4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

▪ Where orography (e.g. hills, cliffs etc.) increases wind velocities by

more than 5% the effects should be taken into account using the
orography factor C0.

▪ The procedure to be used for determining C0 is given in Annex A.3 of

EBCS 2015

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 Cont.
4.3.5 Terrain orography factor (C0(z))

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 4.3.6 Wind Turbulence
▪ The turbulence intensity Iv(z) at height z is defined as the standard
deviation of the turbulence divided by the mean wind velocity.

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 4.3.7 Pressure coefficients for buildings
▪ The external pressure coefficients Cpe for buildings and part of
buildings depend on the size of the loaded area A, which is the area of
the structure that produces the wind action in the section to be
calculated.
▪ The external pressure coefficients are given for loaded areas A of 1
m2 and 10 m2 in the tables for the appropriate building configurations
as Cpe,1, for local coefficients and Cpe,10, for overall coefficients,
respectively.

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 Cont.
4.3.7 Pressure coefficients for buildings
▪ Values for Cpe,1 are intended for the design of small elements and
fixings with an area per element of 1 m 2 or less such as cladding
elements and roofing elements.
▪ Values for Cpe,10 may be used for the design of the overall load
bearing structure of buildings.
▪ A procedure for calculating external pressure coefficients for loaded
areas above 1 m2 based on external pressure coefficients Cpe,1 and
Cpe,10.
▪ The recommended procedure for loaded areas up to 10 m2 is given in
figure 7.2 from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015.
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 Cont.
4.3.7 Pressure coefficients for buildings

Figure 7.2 - Recommended procedure for determining the external pressure

coefficient Cpe for buildings with a loaded area A between 1 m2 and 10 m2

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 Cont.
4.3.7 Pressure coefficients for buildings

▪ The values Cpe,10 and Cpe,1 in Tables 7.1 to 7.5 should be used for the
orthogonal wind directions 0°, 90°, 180°. These values represent the
most unfavorable values obtained in a range of wind direction θ = ±
45° either side of the relevant orthogonal direction.

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 4.3.8 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings
▪ The reference heights, Ze, for windward walls of rectangular plan
buildings (zone D, see Figure 7.5) depend on the aspect ratio h/b and
are always the upper heights of the different parts of the walls.
▪ They are given in Figure 7.4 for the following three cases:
1) A building, whose height h is less than b, h ≤ b, should be
considered to be one part.
2) A building, whose height h is greater than b, but less than 2b,
b<h≤2b, may be considered to be two parts, comprising: a lower
part extending upwards from the ground by a height equal to b and
an upper part consisting of the remainder.
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 Cont.
4.3.8 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings
3) A building, whose height h is greater than 2b, h>2b, may be
considered to be in multiple parts, comprising:
• A lower part extending upwards from the ground by a height
equal to b;
• An upper part extending downwards from the top by a height
equal to b and
• A middle region, between the upper and lower parts, which may
be divided into horizontal strips with a height h strip as shown in
figure 7.4.

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 Cont.
4.3.8 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings

Figure 7.4 - Reference height, Ze, depending on h and b, and corresponding

velocity pressure profile
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 Cont.
4.3.8 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings
Figure 7.4 - Reference height,
Ze, depending on h and b, and
corresponding velocity pressure
profile

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 Cont.
4.3.8 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings

Figure 7.4 - Reference height,

Ze, depending on h and b, and
corresponding velocity pressure
profile
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 Cont.
4.3.8 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings
▪ The external pressure coefficients Cpe.10 and Cpe.1 for zone A, B, C, D
and E are defined in Figure 7.5.
▪ NOTE:
1. The values of Cpe,10 and Cpe,1 may be given in the National Annex.
The recommended values are given in Table 7.1, depending on the
ratio h/d. For intermediate values of h/d, linear interpolation may
be applied. The values of Table 7.1 also apply to walls of buildings
with inclined roofs, such as duopitch and monopitch roofs.

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 Cont.
4.3.8 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings
Figure 7.5 - Key for vertical walls

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 Cont.
4.3.8 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings
Figure 7.5 - Key for vertical walls

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 Cont.
4.3.8 Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings

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 4.3.9 Flat roofs
1) Flat roofs are defined as having a slope (α) of -5o < α < 5o
2) The roof should be divided into zones, as shown in figure 7.6
3) The reference height for flat roof and roofs with curved or
mansard eaves should be taken as h.
4) The reference height for flat roofs with parapets should be taken as
h + hp.
5) Pressure coefficients for each zone are given in table 7.2

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 Cont.
4.3.9 Flat roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.9 Flat roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.9 Flat roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.9 Flat roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.9 Flat roofs
▪ Note
1. For roofs with parapets or curved eaves, linear interpolation may
be used for intermediate values of hp/h and r/h.
2. For roofs with mansard eaves, linear interpolation between α=30o,
α=45o and α=60o may be used. For α >60o linear interpolation
between the values for α=60o and the values for flat roofs with
sharp eaves may be used.
3. In zone I, where positive and negative values are given, both values
shall be considered.

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 Cont.
4.3.9 Flat roofs
▪ Note
4. For mansard eave itself, the external pressure coefficients are given
in table 7.4a “External pressure coefficients for duopitch roofs:
wind direction 0o”, zone F and G depending on the pitch angle of
the mansard eave.
5. For the curved eave itself, the external pressure coefficients are
given by linear interpolation along the curve, between values on the
wall and on the roof.
6. For mansard eaves with horizontal dimension less than e/10, the
values for sharp eaves should be used.
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 4.3.10 Monopitch roofs
1) The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided into zones as
shown in figure 7.7.
2) The reference height ze should be taken equal to h.
3) The pressure coefficients for each zone that should be used are
given in table 7.3a and 7.3b.

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 Cont.
4.3.10 Monopitch roofs

Figure 7.7 - Key for monopitch roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.10 Monopitch roofs

Figure 7.7 - Key for monopitch roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.10 Monopitch roofs

Figure 7.7 - Key for monopitch roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.10 Monopitch roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.10 Monopitch roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.10 Monopitch roofs
Note:
1. At θ = 0o (see table 7.3a) the pressure changes rapidly between
positive and negative values around a pitch angle of α =+5o to +45o,
so both positive and negative values are given. For those roofs, two
cases should be considered: one with all positive values, and one
with all negative values. No mixing of positive and negative values
is allowed on the same face.
2. Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles may be used
between values of the same sign. The values equal to 0.0 are given
for interpolation purposes.
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 4.3.11 Doupitch roofs
1. The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided in zones as
shown in figure 7.8.
2. The reference height ze should be taken as h.
3. The pressure coefficients for each zone that should be used are
given in table 7.4a and 7.4b.

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 Cont.
4.3.11 Doupitch roofs

Figure 7.8 - Key for duopitch roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.11 Doupitch roofs

Figure 7.8 - Key for duopitch roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.11 Doupitch roofs

Figure 7.8 - Key for duopitch roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.11 Doupitch roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.11 Doupitch roofs
▪ Note:
1. At θ = 0o the pressure changes rapidly between positive and
negative values on the windward face around a pitch angle of α = -
5o to +45o, so both positive and negative values are given. For those
roofs, four cases should be considered where the largest or smallest
values of all areas F, G and H are combined with the largest or
smallest values in areas I and J. No mixing of positive and negative
values is allowed on the same face.
2. Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles of the same sign
may be used between values of the same sign. (Do not interpolate
between α = +5o to -5o, but use the data for flat roofs.)
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 Cont.
4.3.11 Doupitch roofs

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 4.3.12 Hipped roofs
1. The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided in zones as
shown in figure 7.9.
2. The reference height ze should be taken as h.
3. The pressure coefficients for each zone that should be used are
given in table 7.5.

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 Cont.
4.3.12 Hipped roofs

Figure 7.9 - Key for hipped roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.12 Hipped roofs

Figure 7.9 - Key for hipped roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.12 Hipped roofs

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 Cont.
4.3.12 Hipped roofs
▪ NOTE
1. At θ =0° the pressures changes rapidly between positive and
negative values on the windward face at pitch angle of α =+5° to
+45°, so both positive and negative values are given. For those
roofs, two cases should be considered: one with all positive
values, and one with all negative values. No mixing of positive
and negative values are allowed.
2. Linear interpolation for intermediate pitch angles of the same
sign may be used between values of the same sign. The values
equal to 0.0 are given for interpolation purposes.
3. The pitch angle of the windward face always will govern the
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 4.3.13 Internal pressure coefficients
▪ Internal and external pressures shall be considered to act at the same
time.
▪ The worst combination of external and internal pressures shall be
considered for every combination of possible openings and other
leakage paths.
▪ The internal pressure coefficient, Cpi, depends on the size and
distribution of the openings in the building envelope.
▪ A face of a building should be regarded as dominant when the area of
openings at that face is at least twice the area of openings and
leakages in the remaining faces of the building considered.
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 Cont.
4.3.13 Internal pressure coefficients
▪ For a building with a dominant face the internal pressure should be
taken as a fraction of the external pressure at the openings of the
dominant face. The values given by Expressions (7.1) and (7.2)
should be used.
• When the area of the openings at the dominant face is twice the area of the
openings in the remaining faces,

• When the area of the openings at the dominant face is at least 3 times the
area of the openings in the remaining faces,

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 Cont.
4.3.13 Internal pressure coefficients
▪ For a building with a dominant face the internal pressure should be
taken as a fraction of the external pressure at the openings of the
dominant face.
• When the area of the openings at the dominant face is between 2 and 3 times
the area of the openings in the remaining faces linear interpolation for
calculating Cpi may be used
where
• Cpe is the value for the external pressure coefficient at the openings in the
dominant face. When these openings are located in zones with different
values of external pressures an area weighted average value of Cpe should be
used.

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 Cont.
4.3.13 Internal pressure coefficients
▪ For buildings without a dominant face, the internal pressure
coefficient Cpi should be determined from Figure 7.13, and is a
function of the ratio of the height and the depth of the building, h/d
and the opening ratio μ for each wind direction θ, which should be
determined from Expression (7.3).

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 Cont.
4.3.13 Internal pressure coefficients

NOTE
1. This applies to facades and roof of buildings with and without
internal partitions.
2. Where it is not possible, or not considered justified, to estimate μ
for a particular case then Cpi should be taken as the more onerous
of +0,2 and -0,3.

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 Cont.
4.3.13 Internal pressure coefficients

NOTE:
For values
𝐡
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 < < 𝟏. 𝟎
𝐝
• linear interpolation
may be used.

Figure 7.13 - Internal pressure coefficients for uniformly distributed openings

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 Worked Example-1
▪ Example-1

▪ The structure, shown below in figure below, is to be located in an

urban area on a site surrounded by buildings of similar height. For the
wind direction shown in the figure, determine the wind pressure
acting on all faces or walls of the building. Also analyze flat roof of
the building.

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

Figure: Building plan

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1
▪ Solution

1) Basic wind velocity (Vb)

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1
2) Mean wind velocity

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Cont.
Worked Example-1

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 Worked Example-2
▪ Example-2

▪ The building shown in below is to be built in a sloped terrain in

jimma. The details of the terrain and the position of the building are
shown in the figure. Calculate the wind load acting on the middle
truss in the roof truss assembly. The trusses are spanning in the short
direction of the building at 3m centers. The shape of the roof truss is
also shown in the figure.

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2
▪ Solution

1) Mean wind velocity ( vm(z))

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

=(0.6488)*(1.0414)*(22 m/s)

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

−1
1.6
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 14.930 ≅ 150
6

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

1.6
𝛼= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 14.930 ≅ 150
6
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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 Cont.
Worked Example-2

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 THANK YOU!
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