EEL2186: CIRCUITS AND SIGNALS

Chapter 4
State Variable Analysis
of RLC Networks

1
Overview:
• Concepts of state and state variables.
• Formulation of state and output equations of simple
RLC networks using state-transition matrix.
• Transfer function of state and output equations in s-
domain.

Learning Outcome:
Solve for the time and frequency behaviour of electric
circuits using state variable analysis.
2
State and State Variables
• The state of a system refer to the past, present and
future conditions of the system. It represents the
dynamics of the system at any instant of time.
• State variables are physical properties which
characterise the state of a system regardless of how
the system got to that state.
• Examples – positions and velocities in mechanical
systems, temperatures and pressures in
thermodynamic systems, inductor currents and
capacitor voltages in electrical circuits.
3
 State and Output Equations
u(t) Linear y(t) Y (s)
H ( s) =
System U (s)

u1(t) y1(t)
y2(t)
State-space
u2(t) Linear representation is
um(t)
System yp(t)
convenient for
multivariable systems

x& = Ax + Bu State Equation

y = Cx + Du Output Equation
4
 State Equation
 x1 (t ) 
System matrix  x (t )
 x&1 (t )   2 
 x& (t )  n×n x(t ) =  • 
 2   • 
x& (t ) =  •   x (t )
 •   n 
 x& (t ) State vector representing
 n 
x& = Ax + Bu n state vectors
State vector representing
n state vectors
 u1 (t ) 
(first derivative  u (t ) 
with respect to time)  2 
u(t ) =  • 
Input coupling matrix  • 
n×m u (t )
 m 

Input vector representing

m inputs
5
 Output Equation  x1 (t ) 
Output matrix  x (t ) 
 2 
p×n x(t ) =  • 
 y1 (t ) 
 y (t )   • 
 2   x (t )
y (t ) =  •   n 
 •  State vector representing
 y (t ) y = Cx + Du n state vectors
 p 
Output vector representing  u1 (t ) 
p outputs  u (t ) 
 2 
u(t ) =  • 
Feedforward matrix  • 
p×m u (t )
 m 
Input vector representing
m inputs
6
Transfer Function from State and
Output Equations
x& = Ax + Bu
Assuming zero initial conditions, take the Laplace
transform sX( s ) = AX( s ) + BU( s )

( sI − A ) X( s ) = BU ( s )

where I = identity matrix

X(s ) = (sI − A )−1 BU (s )

7
 y = Cx + Du
Y( s ) = CX( s ) + DU( s )

Substitute for X(s)

−1
Y ( s ) = C(sI − A ) BU (s ) + DU ( s )
Transfer function Y ( s)
H (s) =
U (s)

H ( s ) = C( sI − A) −1 B + D
If there are >1 inputs and/or >1 outputs, there will be
more than 1 transfer functions.
8
 Steps to apply the state variable
method to circuit analysis

1. Select inductor currents and capacitor voltages as

the state variables.
2. Select voltage and current sources as inputs.
3. Apply KCL and KVL to obtain a set of 1st order
differential equations necessary to determine all
the state variables.
4. Obtain the output equation and put the final result
in state-space representation.

9
Example 1

Develop the state-space representation for the circuit shown

below. Take vo as the output.

i L

R
vs +
-
+
C _vo

10
Solution i L

State variables - inductor current i and

capacitor voltage vo R
Input - vs vs +
Output - vo -
+
C vo
Applying KVL _

v s = v L + v R + vo
di • v s − iR − vo
L = v s − iR − vo  ∴i = ... (1)
dt L
•
Current in C C dvo = i  ∴ vo =
i
... (2)
dt C

• 0 1 
0  1 
v o  =  C  v o  +  1  v s 0  0
 •   −1 − R   i    A= C
 B = 1
 i    L

−1 −R
  L 
L L 
L L 
 vo 
vo = [1 0]  C = [1 0] D=0
i 11
  1   −1 
 s 0  0 
C =  s
C 
−
− R 1 R
sI − A =  
0 s   − 1   s+ 
L L  L L

 R 1
Taking the inverse of this gives s + L C 
 −1 
 s
adj (sI − A )
=  L 
−1
(sI − A ) =
det (sI − A ) s 2 + R s + 1
L LC
Thus, the transfer function is given by

 R 1
s + L C   0 
[1 0] − 1 1
s   L 
 1
−1
H (s ) = C(sI − A ) B =  L  = LC =
1
2 R 1 2 R 1 LCs 2 + RCs + 1
s + s+ s + s+
L LC L LC 12
Example 2

Find the state-space representation of the circuit in figure below.

Determine the transfer function of the circuit when vs is the input and
ix is the output. Take R = 1Ω, C = 0.25F and L = 0.5H.

i L Node 1 iC
ix
+
vs + C _v
- R

13
Solution
i Node 1 iC
State variables - inductor current i and
capacitor voltage v L ix
Input - vs +
Output - ix vs + C _v
-
R

Applying KCL at node 1 gives

dv v • v i
i = ix + iC → C =i− or v = − + ... (1)
dt R RC C
Applying KVL around the outer loop yields

di • v vs
vs = v L + v → L = −v + vs or i = − + ... (2 )
dt L L
Both (1) and (2) constitute the state equation.
For output equation, v
i =
x
R 14
Putting (1) & (2) in the standard form leads to

 −1 1
•  0
v•  =  RC C  v  +  1  v ... (3a )
  s
 i   − 1 0     L 
i
 L 
1  v 
ix =  0   ... (3b )
R i 

If R = 1, C = ¼ and L = ½ as given in the question, we obtain

 −1 1 
   − 4 4  0  0
A =  RC C  =   B = 1 =  
−1  − 2 0   L  2
 0
 L 
1 
C= 0 = [1 0] D=0
R 
15
  s 0   − 4 4  s + 4 − 4
sI − A =   −  = 
 0 s   − 2 0   2 s 

 s 4 
Taking the inverse of this gives  
−1 adj (sI − A ) − 2 s + 4
(sI − A ) = = 2
det (sI − A ) s + 4s + 8

Thus, the transfer function is given by

 s 4  0   8 
[1 0]     [1 0]  
−1  − 2 s + 4 2
  =  2 s + 8= 8
H (s ) = C(sI − A ) B =
s 2 + 4s + 8 s 2 + 4s + 8 s 2 + 4s + 8

16
Example 3

Determine the state and output equations for the circuit shown below.
Take vo as the output.

1/4F 1H

+
v1(t) vo 2Ω v2(t)
-

17
 Solution
State variables - inductor current iL and 1/4F 1H
capacitor voltage vC
Inputs - v1 and v2
Output - vo +
v1(t) vo 2Ω v2(t)
Applying KVL at the outer loop -

v1 = vC + vL + v2
vL = v1 − v2 − vC
diL • − vC + v1 − v2
L = v1 − v2 − vC  ∴ iL = ... (1)
dt L
Applying KVL around the left-hand loop gives
v1 = vC + vo = vC + 2iR = vC + 2(iC − iL ) ... (2)
iC = 0.5v1 − 0.5vC + iL
dv • − 0.5vC + iL + 0.5v1
C C = 0.5v1 − 0.5vC + iL  ∴ vC = ... (3)
dt C
18
From (2), we see that
v1 = vC + vo
∴ vo = −vC + v1

Thus, the state variable model

•
 iL  = 0 − 1   iL  + 1 − 1  v1 (t )
 •  4 − 2 vC  2 0  v2 (t ) State Variables
vC  Output
 iL   v1 (t ) Inputs
vo (t ) = [0 − 1]  + [1 0] 
v
 C v
 2 (t )

19
 Example 4 2007/08 Final exam – Q5

a) Determine the transfer function of the electric circuit represented

by the following state-space representation:
 • 
 x1 (t ) =  0 1   x1 (t ) 0  x1 (t )
    +  u (t ); y (t ) = [4 5] 
 •  − 2 − 3  x2 (t ) 1 x
 2 (t )
 x2 (t )

Solution:

0 1 0 
Given: A=  ; B =   ; C = [4 5]; D = [0]
− 2 − 3 1

Transfer function is: H (s ) = C[sI − A ]−1 B + D

20
 [sI − A] = s 
1 0  0 1  s −1 
 −   = 
0 1 − 2 − 3 2 s + 3

 s + 3 1
 − 2 s
[sI − A] = 2
−1 
s + 3s + 2

 s + 3 1
 − 2 s
C[sI − A ]−1 = [4 5]   = [4 s + 2 5s + 4]
s 2 + 3s + 2 s 2 + 3s + 2

−1
C[sI − A ] B =
[4s + 2 5 s + 4 ] 0 
=
5s + 4
 
s + 3s + 2 1 s 2 + 3s + 2
2

5s + 4
Thus, transfer function is: H (s ) =
s 2 + 3s + 2
21
b) For the electrical RLC circuit shown below,
i. What are the state variables of the system?
ii. Derive the state-space formulation of the system. Take vx as the output.

22
Solution:

i. State variables – vc(t) and iL(t)

ii. From the circuit:

vC dv v
+ C C = iL + x ... (1)
R dt R
where v x = vs − vC ... (2)

From (1) and (2): dvC v (v − v )

C = iL − C + s C
dt R R
dvC iL 2vC vs
Rearranging it we get: = − + ... (3)
dt C RC RC
diL
We also know that: vx = vL = L ... (4)
dt

23
 diL vC vs
From (2) and (4), we get: =− + ... (5)
dt L L
From (3) and (5), we get the state equation as:

 2 1  1 
  −
•

v•C  =  RC C  vC  +  RC  v (t )
   1  s
i   − 1 0   iL   
 L
 L   L 
vC 
From (2), the output equation: v x = [− 1 0]   + vs
 iL 

24
Example 5

Consider a system described by the state-space representation

given below:
− 4 1 0 0 
•  y1  1 0 0
x =  − 5 0 1  x + 1 u , y= = x
    y
 2  0 2 0 
 − 2 0 0  1 

Y1 ( s ) Y2 (s)
(i) Find the transfer functions H1 ( s ) = and H2 (s) = .
U ( s) U (s)

(ii) Obtain the corresponding unit impulse responses h1(t) and

h2(t).

25
Solution
(i)  s 0 0 − 4 1 0  s + 4 − 1 0 
sI − A = 0 s 0 −  − 5 0 1  =  5 s − 1
0 0 s  − 2 0 0   2 0 s 

s −1 5 −1 5 s
det( sI − A) = ( s + 4) − (−1) +0
0 s 2 s 2 0
= s 3 + 4 s 2 + 5s + 2
s 2 − 5s − 2 − 2s 
Matrix of co-factors =  
s s 2 + 4s −2 
1 s+4 s 2 + 4 s + 5


adj( sI − A ) is the transpose of the matrix of co-factors

 s2 s 1 
 2 
− 5s − 2 s + 4 s s+4 
 − 2s −2 s 2 + 4 s + 5
( sI − A ) −1 =
adj( sI − A )
= 
det( sI − A ) s 3 + 4 s 2 + 5s + 2 26
 H = C( sI − A) −1 B

 s2 s 1  0  0
1 0 0  2    s2 s 
1  
0 2 0   − 5 s − 2 s + 4 s s + 4  1   1
   − 2s − 2 s 2
+ 4 s + 5 1
2
− 10s − 4 2 s + 8s 2s + 8 1
H=  =  
s 3 + 4 s 2 + 5s + 2 3 2
s + 4 s + 5s + 2

 s +1 
2s 2 + 10s + 8
H = 3 
s + 4 s 2 + 5s + 2

Y1 ( s ) s +1 1
H1 ( s ) = = 3 =
U ( s ) s + 4 s 2 + 5s + 2 ( s + 1)( s + 2)

Y2 ( s ) 2 s 2 + 10s + 8 2s + 8
H 2 ( s) = = 3 2
=
U ( s ) s + 4s + 5s + 2 ( s + 1)( s + 2)
27
(ii) Y1 ( s ) s +1 1
H1 ( s ) = = 3 =
U ( s ) s + 4 s 2 + 5s + 2 ( s + 1)( s + 2)

Y2 ( s ) 2 s 2 + 10s + 8 2s + 8
H 2 ( s) = = 3 =
U ( s ) s + 4 s 2 + 5s + 2 ( s + 1)( s + 2)

1 1 1
H1 ( s ) = = −
( s + 1)( s + 2) s + 1 s + 2

h1 (t ) = e−t − e−2t

2s + 8 6 4
H 2 ( s) = = −
( s + 1)( s + 2) s + 1 s + 2

h2 (t ) = 6e − t − 4e −2t

28
State Transition Equation
x& = Ax + Bu
sX( s ) − x(0) = AX( s ) + BU ( s )

( sI − A) X( s ) = x(0) + BU ( s )

X(s ) = (sI − A )−1 x(0) + (sI − A )−1 BU (s )

State transition matrix φ(t ) = L−1[( sI − A) −1 ]

t
State transition equation x(t ) = φ(t ) x(0) + 0 φ(t − τ )Bu(τ )dτ t ≥0

t
y (t ) = Cφ(t )x(0) +  Cφ(t − τ )Bu (τ )dτ + Du(t ) t ≥0
0

29
Example 6

Consider a system described by the state-space representation below:

• 0 1   x1  0  x1 
x
 • =
1
   +  u ; y = [4 5] 
 x  − 2 − 3  x2  1  x2 
 2
1
x(0) =  
0 

(i) Determine the state transition matrix.

(ii) Use it to solve for the state vector x(t) and the output y(t) for
t ≥ 0, given that the input is u(t) = 1 for t ≥ 0.

30
Solution
(i) 1 0  0 1  s −1 
[sI − A] = s   −   = 
 0 1   − 2 − 3  2 s + 3
 s + 3 1
 − 2 s
[sI − A]−1 = 2 
s + 3s + 2

s+3 2 1 −t − 2t
For the (1,1) element, = − → 2e − e
s 2 + 3s + 2 s + 1 s + 2

1 1 1
For the (1,2) element, = − → e −t − e − 2t
s 2 + 3s + 2 s +1 s + 2

31
 −2 −2 2
For the (2,1) element, = + → −2e −t + 2e − 2t
s 2 + 3s + 2 s +1 s + 2

s −1 2 −t − 2t
For the (2,2) element, = + → − e + 2e
s 2 + 3s + 2 s + 1 s + 2

State transition matrix

 2e − t − e −2 t e − t − e −2t 
φ(t ) = L−1[( sI − A) −1 ] = 
 − 2e − t + 2e − 2 t − e − t + 2e − 2t 

32
 t
(ii) x(t ) = φ(t ) x(0) + 0 φ(t − τ )Bu(τ )dτ
 2e −t − e −2t e −t − e −2t  1
x(t ) =  −t − 2t −t − 2 t  0 
 − 2e + 2e − e + 2 e  
t
2e −(t −τ ) − e − 2(t −τ ) e −(t −τ ) − e − 2(t −τ )  0
+  − ( t −τ ) − 2 ( t −τ ) − ( t −τ ) − 2 ( t −τ )    (1)dτ
0 − 2e
 + 2e −e + 2e  1
 2e −t − e − 2t  t  e −(t −τ ) − e − 2(t −τ ) 
= −t − 2t  + 0  − ( t −τ ) − 2 (t −τ ) dτ
− 2e + 2e  − e + 2e 
t
 2e −t − e − 2t  e −(t −τ ) − 0.5e − 2(t −τ ) 
= −t − 2t  +  − ( t −τ ) − 2 (t −τ ) 
 − 2e + 2e   − e + e 0
 2e −t − e − 2t  0.5 − e −t + 0.5e − 2t 
= −t − 2t  +  −t − 2t 
 − 2e + 2e   e − e 
0.5 + e −t − 0.5e − 2t 
= −t − 2t 
 − e + e  33
 t
y (t ) = Cφ(t )x(0) +  Cφ(t − τ )Bu(τ )dτ + Du(t )
0
t
x(t ) = φ(t )x(0) + 0 φ(t − τ )Bu(τ )dτ
Already found x(t). Also, D = 0.

y (t ) = Cx(t )
0.5 + e −t − 0.5e − 2t 
= [4 5] −t − 2t 
 −e +e 
= 2 + 4e −t − 2e − 2t − 5e −t + 5e − 2t
= 2 − e −t + 3e − 2t

34
Example 7
Find the state transition matrix for the state equation below:

x& = Ax + Bu  − 4 4
A= 
 − 2 0 
 2
If x(0) =   and u(t) = 0, find x(1).
 3
Solution  s 4 
− 2 s + 4
(sI − A )−1 = adj ( sI − A ) = 2 
det (sI − A ) s + 4s + 8

For the (1,1) element, Laplace transform pairs

s s
=
s + 4 s + 8 ( s + 2) 2 + 4
2

s+2 2
= −
( s + 2) + 4 ( s + 2) 2 + 4
2

→ e − 2t cos 2t − e − 2t sin 2t 35
For the (1,2) element, Laplace transform pairs
4 4
=
s + 4 s + 8 ( s + 2) 2 + 4
2

2 − 2t
=2 2
→ 2 e sin 2t
( s + 2) + 4

For the (2,1) element,

−2 −2 − 2t
2
= 2
→ − e sin 2t
s + 4 s + 8 ( s + 2) + 4
For the (2,2) element,
s+4 s+4 s+2 2 − 2t − 2t
2
= 2
= 2
+ 2
→ e cos 2t + e sin 2t
s + 4 s + 8 ( s + 2) + 4 ( s + 2) + 4 ( s + 2) + 4

−1 −1
 e −2t
cos 2t − e −2t
sin 2t 2e −2t
sin 2t 
φ(t ) = L [(sI − A) ] =  
−2t −2t −2t
 − e sin 2t e cos 2t + e sin 2t 
36
 e −2t cos 2t − e −2t sin 2t 2e −2t sin 2t   2
x(t ) = φ(t )x(0) =  − 2t − 2t − 2t  
 − e sin 2t e cos 2t + e sin 2t  3
2e −2t cos 2t + 4e −2t sin 2t 
=  − 2t − 2t 
 3e cos 2t + e sin 2t 
 0.380 
x(1) =  
 − 0. 046 

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Example 8

Consider a system described by the state-space representation

below:

 •   − 2 1   x   2  x1 
x
•=
1
 
1
 +  u ; y = [1 1] 
 x   − 1 0  x2  0  x2 
 2

i) Determine the state transition matrix.

0
ii) Solve for y(t) for t ≥ 0 given that x(0) =  
1

and u(t) = 0 (no input).

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Solution

1 0 − 2 1  s + 2 − 1
i) [sI − A] = s   −  = 1
 0 1   − 1 0   s 

s 1 
 − 1 s + 2
[sI − A] =  2
−1 
s + 2s + 1

φ(t ) = L−1[( sI − A) −1 ]

For s A1 A2
= +
s 2 + 2 s + 1 ( s + 1) 2 s + 1
ds −1 1
A1 = s s = −1 = −1 A2 = =1 2
+  −te − t + e − t
ds s = −1 ( s + 1) s +1

1 1
For 2
 te −t
s 2 + 2s + 1 s + 2s + 1

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 −1 −1
For  −te − t
s 2 + 2s + 1 2
s + 2s + 1
s+2 A1 A2
For = +
s 2 + 2s + 1 ( s + 1) 2 s + 1
d ( s + 2) 1 1
A1 = s + 2 s = −1 = 1 A2 = =1 +  te −t
+ e −t
ds s = −1 ( s + 1) 2 s + 1
− te −t + e − t te − t 
φ(t) =  −t 
 − te te − t + e − t 

t
ii) y (t ) = Cφ(t )x(0) +  Cφ(t − τ )Bu (τ )dτ + Du (t )
0

Since u(t) = 0

− te −t + e −t te −t  0
y (t ) = [1 1] −t    = 2te −t
+ e −t

 − te te − t + e − t  1

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