College Preparatory Program Physics Department

Laboratory Manual

AP Physics C (E & M Theory)

APPC051



Name: …………………………………

Badge #: ……………………………….
Trimester III, 2016/2017
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“I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore and
diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or prettier
shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered
before me”
Isaac Newton

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Table of Contents
Lab Title Page
Table of Contents 5
Preface 6
Safety in the Physics Laboratory 7
1 Ohm’s Law 9
2 Series Circuits and Parallel Circuits 19
3 Factors Affecting The Resistance of a Wire 29
4 The Emf And Internal Resistance of a Dry Cell 39
5 The Time Constant of a Capacitor 43
6 The Tangent Galvanometer 47

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PREFACE

E xperimental physics is concerned with understanding the theory in a practical way and the
quantitative determination of physical constants, e.g. the gravitational acceleration, thermal
conductivity, resistivity, etc. Some experiments, however, are designed to investigate the
relationships between two or more physical quantities. In every case, accurate and precise
observations are necessary, and these should be taken with an intelligent understanding of the
capabilities of the apparatus provided.

This laboratory manual is designed to serve the practical part of the Advanced Placement
Physics B & C Courses offered by the Physics Department at the Saudi Aramco College
Preparatory Center. In preparing this manual, the following objectives were considered:

o Build the student’s confidence in his ability to make reliable measurements of physical
quantities and interpret relationship between them.
o Teach methods and procedures of experimental physics.
o Familiarize the student with some modern techniques and instruments of measurement.
o Provide the student with the practical background needed for the AP Physics B & C in-
house and external exams.

The manual includes several experiments in mechanics, fluid mechanics, waves & optics,
heat & thermodynamics and electricity & magnetism. Formal laboratory reports are required for
some of the experiments, where the student is given a chance to adapt the research style in
practical work and to avoid the cookbook pattern.

It is recommended that you read the entire description of an experiment before taking the
data so that you will have a clear understanding of what you are trying to do.

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Safety in the Physics Laboratory
The main safety hazards encountered in the physics laboratory are outlined below.
Heavy Objects
In some mechanics experiments, where the falling of a heavy object (e.g. hooked mass) is
intended, this must be carried out with care and attention, otherwise it may cause a nasty injury.
For this reason, the wearing of shoes, not sandals, reduces the risk of a foot injury.
In order to minimize damage to the laboratory floor, a heavy duty rubber mat is used to absorb
the main impact of the falling object. Always ensure that the mat is placed directly below the
falling object.
In some experiments, where there is a heavy, moving object (e.g. cart), care must be taken
not to lose control and allow it to hit another object or fall on to the floor spilling its contents,
(e.g. hooked/slotted masses). In such experiments, it is best to work in pairs.
Laser Beam
In some optics experiments, your teacher may well demonstrate the experiment using a laser
beam. Never look directly into a laser beam of light, since it will cause serious and permanent
damage to your eyes. Equally, never point a laser beam into someone’s eyes or on to
someone’s skin.
Hotplates
In heat experiments, hotplates are often used to heat water. Care must be taken, when removing
a beaker of hot water. Always use thermal gloves. After use, the hotplate remains hot for up to an
hour. Do not let the cable be exposed to the hotplate surface during or after use.
Electrical Currents
There are three types of electricity to be found in the physics laboratory – static, direct current
(DC) and alternating current (AC). In certain circumstances, all 3 types can be a source of a fatal,
electrical shock or a severe electrical burn.
 Static Electricity
The most likely case of static electricity causing an electrical shock is when a van de Graff
generator is being demonstrated. Your body can act as a conductor between the ground and a fully
charged generator. Thus, never point your finger or a ruler, for example, close to the sphere of
a charged-generator, unless you are standing on a well-insulated stool.
 Current electricity
The most common hazard, when using electrical apparatus, is electrical shock. The lowest
level of current, which is detected by the body, is about 1mA at 50Hz (AC) or 5mA (DC). Any
increase beyond 20mA (50Hz AC) or 80mA (DC) is a serious threat to life. For some particularly
sensitive individuals, these limits may be considerably lower. Thus, alternating current (AC) is
more dangerous than direct current (DC) electricity.
You must never insert any wire into the mains sockets on the laboratory benches or the AC
terminals of a power supply unit.

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 The electrical resistance of the human body varies significantly from one person to another.
For a given individual, the resistance of the skin will even vary at different times of the day and
under different conditions, for example, whether it is dry or moist. If your hands are moist, wash
and dry them thoroughly before handling any electrical circuitry. Soap and paper towels are
provided at every basin.
Before switching on any electrical circuit, a safe practice is to check that the dial on the power
supply unit is at zero and the switch in the circuit is in the open position.
Another major hazard, when conducting electrical experiments, is the heating effect caused by
current electricity. If the current is too high (>1-2A), the heat produced may cause equipment
insulation to break down, resulting in short circuits and sparks. In severe cases, the apparatus may
begin to smoke or catch fire. In order to avoid this problem, most experiments in this laboratory
manual are carried out using low currents (0-200mA). However, it is sound experimental practice
never to leave the current on for any length of time. This is the reason, why a switch is always
incorporated into the circuit. The procedure should always be – switch on, record the readings
and switch off. If you detect any overheating in a circuit, switch off the current at the power
supply unit and inform your teacher immediately. Do not touch any piece of apparatus, since
it may be hot enough to give you a first- or second-degree burn.
Finally, loose electrical cables, either from simple wires, spark timer or a power supply unit,
are also common hazards in the physics laboratory. Once an experiment has been completed and
the circuit dismantled, wires should be tied in small bundles. Heavy duty electrical cables on
power supply units should be folded tightly and the plug inserted into one of the loops of the cable
coil.
First Aid
The first aid procedure for dealing with electrical shock is outlined below:
1. Switch off the current. Keep any bystander away from the source.
2. Place the victim flat on his back with his legs raised about a foot above the ground.
3. Do not give the victim anything to eat or drink.
4. Seek immediate medical advice, (Nurse Tel. #877-2724).
The first aid procedure for dealing with a burn is outlined below:
(a) Heat Burn
1. Cool the affected area with cold, running water for 15-20minutes.
2. If severe, seek medical advice, (Nurse Tel. #877-2724).
(b) Electrical Burn
1. Care as for electrical shock.
2. Apply a dry, sterile dressing to the affected area only.

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Lab 1: Ohm’s Law
Objective
 To learn how to assemble a simple electric circuit.
 To establish and verify Ohm's law.
Introduction:
 Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charges. In solids, these moving electric
charges are electrons. Current is given the symbol, I, and is measured in amperes, A.
o 1 A = 1,000 mA
 Substances, which allow electric charges to move freely, are called electrical conductors.
Metals, like silver and copper, are excellent electrical conductors. Substances, which do
not conduct electric current, are called electrical insulators. Air, glass, rubber and pure
water are examples of electrical insulators.
 For electrons to flow there must be a complete path or circuit of conducting substances.
Any break or gap in the circuit and the flow of charge stops.
 By convention, terminals and wires are color-coded in electric circuits. From the red
(positive, +) terminal on the power supply unit, red wires are attached to the red terminals
on the ammeter/voltmeter. Black wires are attached to the black (negative, -) terminals on
these meters.
 There are two types of current electricity – direct current (DC) and alternating current
(AC). Electric current, which flows in one direction only around a circuit, is called DC
electricity. Only DC electricity is used in these experiments.
 A moving electron possesses potential energy and can do work. Electrons move from a
high energy state to a low energy state. The difference in energy per unit charge between
these two states is called the potential difference (or voltage). It is measured in volts, V,
and given the symbol, V.
 The electrical resistance of a substance is the opposition to the flow of charge in that
substance. Resistance is given the symbol, R, and is measured in ohms, Ω. At a given
temperature, the resistance of a resistor has a constant value.
 The relationship between the current flowing through a resistor, and the potential difference
across it, is given by Ohm’s Law.
potential difference across the resistor
Resistance 
current flowing through the resistor
Thus,
V
R  (at constant temperature, T) ………..1.1
I
 The resistance, R, of any resistor with a uniform cross-sectional area, A, and length, L, as
shown in Figure (1.1), is given by,

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 L
R = ρ ……………………………………..1.2
A
where the resistivity, ρ, of the conductor is measured in ohm-metres, Ωm. The value of ρ
depends on both the material, from which the conductor is made, and its temperature. At a
given temperature, T, the resistivity varies almost linearly according to the equation,
ρ = ρ0[1 + α(T – T0)] ………….…………1.3
where,
ρ0 = resistivity at T0 T0 = reference temperature (= 20ºC)
α = temperature coefficient of resistivity T = operating temperature
─ The temperature coefficient, α, is virtually constant over a wide range of temperature. Since
the resistance, R, is directly proportional to ρ, the variation of resistance with temperature may
be written as,
R = R0[1 + α(T – T0)] …………………….1.4
This experiment is in three parts – Part A, Part B and Part C. In Part A, you will construct a
simple electrical circuit. In Part B, you will investigate Ohm’s Law for 3 different resistors. In
part C, you will investigate what happens to an electric lamp’s resistance as the applied voltage
across it changes.
Figure 1.1
power supply unit
- ve + ve

mA
V1

R1

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Equipment and Materials

12V power supply unit, resistance board (3 resistors), digital multimeters (2),
switch, wires (6: 3R/3B), lamp/switch assembly.

Part A – Setting up a simple Electrical Circuit

Safety Hazard Warning

Electricity is dangerous. When constructing a circuit, the power supply unit must be unplugged
from the mains supply. Use only the DC OUTPUT TERMINALS. Before plugging the power
supply into the mains supply and switching on, make sure that the switch in your circuit is
OPEN. Do not switch on your power source until it is first checked by your teacher. Never
leave the current flowing in the circuit for any length of time. After taking readings from the
voltmeter and ammeter, open the switch to break the circuit.

General Note: When constructing an electric circuit, it is common practice to start at one of
the terminals on the power supply unit, connecting resistors/meters with wires until you reach
the other terminal on the power supply unit. In the procedure outlined below, you will start at
the black (negative, -) terminal and work your way round the circuit to the red (positive, +)
terminal. It is equally correct to carry out the procedure, starting from the red terminal.

Procedure
1. Locate the DC output terminals on the power supply unit. Attach a black wire to the black
terminal to the power supply unit. Clip the other end of the black wire to the black COM
terminal of the digital multimeter (DMM). The DMM now works as an ammeter.
2. Select another black wire. Attach it to the yellow mA terminal on the DMM. Clip the other
end of the black wire leading from the DMM to the first resistor terminal on the circuit board.
3. Select a red wire and attach it to the opposite end of the first resistor terminal. Clip the other
end of the red wire on to the switch.
4. Select another red wire and clip one end of it on to the other side of the switch and the other on
to the red terminal of the power supply unit.
5. After steps 1-4, you have now completed a simple series circuit.
6. With the two remaining wires, attach the red wire to the red VΩ terminal of the DMM and the
black wire to the black COM terminal. The DMM now works as a voltmeter.
7. Attach the red wire of the voltmeter to the “positive (+)” side of the resistor and the black wire
to the “negative (−)” side. The voltmeter forms a parallel circuit with the resistor.
8. An illustration of your circuit is drawn in Figure (1.2).
9. After you have checked your circuit, ask your teacher to inspect it. On passing your teacher’s
inspection, proceed to Part B.

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 Fig 1.2
plan view

DMM ammeter power supply unit variable voltage dial

DMM voltmeter

DC terminals

R3 R2 R1

switch
resistors
circuit board

black wire red wire

negative terminal positive terminal

Part B – The Verification of Ohm’s Law

1. You will now use the circuit, assembled in part A, to verify Ohm's law. Plug the power supply
unit into the mains socket. Switch it on. Turn the dial on the DMM ammeter to read on the 0-
200mA scale and the DMM voltmeter to the 0-20V scale.
2. Close the circuit switch. Adjust the variable voltage dial on the power supply unit until the
DMM voltmeter reads 0·50 volt. Read the DMM ammeter. Open the circuit switch. Record
your DMM ammeter reading in Table 1.1.
[Note: If you cannot get the precise value of the voltage, set it to a value close to the desired
value. Insert the value of the second decimal place into Table 1.1.]
3. Repeat step 2 for DMM voltmeter readings 1·00, 1·50, 2·00, 2·50, 3·00,·3·50·and 4·00 volts.
Record all your readings in Table 1.1.
4. Disconnect all the wires to resistor, R1. Reconnect the same wires to resistor, R2. Get your
teacher to check your circuit. Repeat steps 2-3 for resistor, R2.

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Part C – The Effect of Heat on a Resistor
1. Replace the resistor in your circuit with the electric lamp assembly. Your circuit diagram is
shown in Figure 22.4. Turn the dial on the DMM ammeter to read on the 0−200mA scale and
the DMM voltmeter to the 0−20V scale.
2. Switch on the power supply and close the circuit switch. Adjust the variable voltage dial on the
power supply unit until the DMM voltmeter reads 0·02V. Read the DMM ammeter. Open the
circuit switch. Record your DMM ammeter reading in Table 1.2.
3. Repeat step 2 for all the applied voltage readings given in Table 1.2.

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 Lab 1:Ohm’s Law
Student: __________________ Badge #: __________________

Data and Analysis

Table 1.1

Potential Difference Current (mA) Current (mA)

(V) (R1) (R2)
0·50
1·00
1·50
2·00
2·50
3·00
3·50
4·00
Table 1.2
Potential Potential
Current Current
Difference Difference
(mA) (mA)
(V) (V)
0·04 0·40
0·08 0·45
0·12 0·50
0·16 0·60
0·20 0·70
0·25 0·80
0·30 0·90
0·35 1·00

(Remember to use the correct number of significant figures in any calculation.)

1. On a sheet of A4 graph paper, plot the current, I, on the x-axis and the potential difference, V,
on the y-axis, using the data in Table 1.1 for resistor, R1 and R2.

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2. From your graph, describe the relationship between the potential difference, V, and the current,
I?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
3.
a) From the graph, what is the mathematical relationship between voltage and current?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) What is the current, when the voltmeter reads

(i) 2·30 V? __________ (ii) 4·80 V? __________

4.
a) Calculate the slope of the two lines. Show your working in the space below.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) What does each slope (gradient) represent?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Does each resistor obey Ohm’s Law? Use data from your graphs to support your answer.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Determine R1 and R2 from the graphs.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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7. Using error analysis, calculate the percentage errors from the printed value on your resistors in
the space below. Use the experimental value as the standard value.
R1: ………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

R2: ………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. On a second sheet of A4 graph paper, plot the voltage-current data in Table 1.2 for the light
bulb. Put the current, I, on the x-axis and the potential difference, V, on the y-axis.
9. Explain the shape of the graph.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. Does the electric lamp obey Ohm’s Law over any range in your graph? If so, explain why?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Lab 2: Series and Parallel Circuits
Objective
1. Determine the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in series.
2. Determine the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in parallel.
Introduction
PART A – Series Circuits
Resistors are in series, if the following two conditions are satisfied:

1. The same current (I) passes through each in turn.

2. The potential difference (voltage, V) applied across the combination of resistors is the sum
of the potential differences across the individual resistors.

Fig. 2.1.A shows two resistors connected in series to a DC power supply unit. The power supply
unit applies a potential difference, Vapplied, across the two-resistor combination. The single
resistance, Req, is equivalent to the two-resistance series combination in Fig. 2.1.A. Therefore, if
V1, and V2 are potential drops across R1, and R2 respectively,

Vapplied = V1+V2 ………… (1)

By definition, resistance R1=V1/I, R2=V2/I. Thus V1=IR1, and V2=IR2. Furthermore, Vapplied=IReq.

Since Vapplied = V1+V2 for a series circuit, then

IReq = IR1 + IR2 …………. (2)

and
Req = R1 + R2 ………… (3)

Vapplied
Fig. 2.1.A
I

S I

R1 R2

V1 V2

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PART B – Parallel Circuits
Resistors are in parallel if the following two conditions are satisfied:

1. The potential difference (voltage), Vapplied, applied across the parallel combination is the
same as the potential difference across each individual resistor.

2. The total current, Itotal, is equal to the sum of the currents through the branches.

Fig. 2.1.B shows two resistors connected in parallel to a DC power supply unit. The power
supply unit applies a potential difference, Vapplied, across the parallel combination. The single
resistance, Req, is equivalent to the three-resistor combination. If Itotal is the total current through
the network and I1, and I2, are the currents in each of the separate branches, then

Itotal = I1 + I2 ………. (1)

By definition, resistance Req = Vapplied/Itotal, R1 = Vapplied/I1, R2 = Vapplied/I2

. Therefore, Itotal = Vapplied/Req, I1 = Vapplied/R1, I2 = Vapplied/R2

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + ………. (2)
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 1
= + ………. (3)
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2

R2
Fig. 2.1.B
I2
1
Vappli I1 Itotal
Itotal
S R1

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Equipment and Materials

DC power supply unit

Connecting wires: short red x3, long red x2, short black x3, long black x3, long 24” black x1
Unilab spring switch
Unilab Easy read meters x2
0-20mA ammeter shunt x1
20V voltmeter shunt x1
Resistance board (270, 470 resistors)

*Caution
 If the easy read meter shows LOW BATTERY, do not use it and inform the teacher
 Remember to connect (a) the voltmeter in parallel across the resistors and
(b) the milliammeter in series with the resistors.
 One of the digital multimeters will be used as a milliammeter and the other as a voltmeter.
 Remember to connect (a) the voltmeter in parallel across the resistors and (b) the
milliammeter in series with the resistors.
 Make sure that the correct range for each meter is used.

Procedure

PART A – Measuring the Resistance of Individual Resistors

1. Set up the circuit as shown in Fig. (2.2.A), starting with the 270 resistor, R1.
2. Leave the switch open (i.e. the circuit is broken) until the circuit has been checked by your lab
instructor.
3. Close the switch and then adjust the power supply so voltmeter reads 0.50V. Record the
voltmeter and milliammeter readings in Table 2.1.

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4. Repeat step 3 using the following P.D voltage values: 1.00V, 1.50V, 2.00V, 2.50V and 3.00V.
Record the corresponding currents in Table 2.1.
5. Move to the 470 resistor on the resistance board and repeat steps 3-4.

PART B – Series Circuits

1. Connect the resistors on the board to give the combination of R1, and R2 in series and repeat
steps 3-5. Record the data in Table 2.2.
2. With the voltage is 3.00V across the combination, connect the voltmeter in parallel with R 1.
Record the reading in Table 2.3. Repeat with resistor R2.

PART C – Parallel Circuits

1. Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig. (2.2.A), with R1 and R2 connected in parallel.
2. Starting with the milliammeter in position A so as to read Itotal.
3. Leave the switch open until the circuit has been checked by your lab instructor.
4. Close the switch and then adjust the power supply so that the digital voltmeter reads 0.20V.
Record the digital voltmeter and digital milliammeter readings in Table 2.4.
5. Adjust the voltage to other values e.g. 0.40V, 0.60V, 0.80V, 1.00V and 1.20V. Record the
corresponding currents in Table 2.4.
6. Open the switch as soon as the readings have been recorded.
7. At the end of step 5, (i.e. Vapplied = 1.20V across the combination), connect the digital
voltmeter across R1 only. Record the reading in Table 2.5. Repeat with resistor R2.
8. When the voltage is 1.20V across the combination, connect the digital milliammeter in series
with R1 to measure I1 in Fig. (2.2.B). Record the reading in Table 2.6.
9. Repeat step 8 with resistor R2.

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Lab 2: SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Student: __________________ Badge #: __________________

Data and Analysis

Table 2.1

R1 = 270  R2 = 470 
(printed value) (printed value)
Voltage (V) Current (mA) Voltage (V) Current (mA)
0.50 0.50
1.00 1.00
1.50 1.50
2.00 2.00
2.50 2.50
3.00 3.00
R1=_______ R2=_______
(measured value) (measured value)
Table 2.2

Req =__________
(calculated value)
Voltage (V) Current (mA)
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
Req=________
(measured value)

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 Table 2.3

Digital Voltmeter Reading (V)

Across Req Across R1 Across R2
3.00

Table 2.4

Req= _______
(calculated value)
Voltage (V) Current (A)
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
Req= ________
(measured value)
Table 2.5

Digital Voltmeter Reading (V)

Across Req Across R1 Across R2
1.20
Table 2.6

Digital Milliammeter Reading (mA)

I I1 I2

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PARTS A and B
1. Use the data in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 to draw graphs of voltage, V, (on the y-axis) versus current,
I, (on the x-axis) on the same graph paper.
2. Calculate the slope of each graph.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. What does the slope of each graph represent?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Determine R1, R2, and Req from the graphs. Record these values in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Calculate the percentage error in the measured Req. (Consider the calculated Req as a standard
value.)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. What do you conclude from Table 2.3?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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6. As more resistors are added in series to an existing circuit, what happens to the current?
Explain your answer.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. Ten bulbs of equal resistance were connected in a circuit in series. When connected to a 120V
power supply, the current through the bulbs was 0.06A.

a) What is the equivalent resistance of the circuit?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

b) What is the resistance of each bulb?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
PART C
8. Use the data in Table 2.4 to draw the graph of voltage, V, (on the y-axis) versus current, I, (on
the x-axis) on a graph paper.
9. Calculate the slope of the obtained graph.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. What does the slope of the graph represent?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
11. Determine Req from the graph. Record the value in Table 2.4.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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12. Calculate the percentage error in the measured Req. (Consider the calculated Req as a standard
value.)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
13. What do you conclude from Table 2.5?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

14. What do you conclude from Table 2.6?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

15. As more resistors are added in parallel to an existing circuit, what happens to the total current?
Explain your answer.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
16. A 12 resistor and a 15 are connected in parallel and placed across the terminals of a 15.0V
battery.
a) What is the equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) What is the current through each branch of the parallel circuit?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
17. How can you make an analogy between the resistors and the spring constants in the mechanics
lab Hooke’s Law?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Lab 3: FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE OF A WIRE
Objectives

 Investigate the factors affecting the resistance of a conducting wire.

 Write a formal laboratory report.

Format of a formal lab report

A formal laboratory report should include the following sections:

 Title
A statement, which indicates the nature of the experiment.
 Objectives
An indication, of what you expect to accomplish in the experiment.
 Introduction
A short text containing all the theoretical background needed to explain the scientific concepts
that lie behind the experiment.
 Materials and Equipment
The apparatus and material required to perform the experiment should be listed.
 Procedure
This section tells how to carry out the practical investigation, step by step. It should consist of
a series of instructions that would be followed by anyone so that they can repeat what you
have done.
 Data
All observations made and all data collected during the experiment are reported in tables.
 Analysis
Your analysis may contain graphs, sketches and calculations that explain the data.
 Conclusions
This section should state the meaning of the results besides your personal comments and
suggestions on how the laboratory work could be improved.

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Introduction:
For a conductor with a uniform cross-sectional area, A, and a length, l, as shown in Fig. (3.1),
the resistance, R, is given by
l
R  ……………… (1)
A
where  is the resistivity of the conductor, measured in ohm meters, m. This term depends on
the material, from which the conductor is made.
l

A
Fig. (3.1)
The resistivity,  , varies with temperature in an approximately linear fashion according to the
equation:
  0 1  T  T0  ……… (2)

where  is the resistivity at any given temperature, T, (in oC),  0 is the resistivity at a reference
temperature, T0 , (usually considered to be 20oC) and  is the temperature coefficient of
resistivity, which is assumed to be constant with temperature.
Since the resistance is proportional to the resistivity (equation (1)), the variation of resistance with
temperature can be written as
R  R 0 1  T  T0  ……… (3)

Equipment and Materials

DC power supply unit digital multimeters (2): HM300, Unilab
resistance box connecting wires (7): short red x3, long red x 1, short
black x1, long black x 1, v.long black(24”) x 1
Unilab switch x 1 digital caliper x 1
50m-magnet wire coil x 1 thermometers x 2
400ml beaker x 1 crushed ice
Distilled water water bath x 2
40cm-Al wire (AWG #24)*
40cm -Cu wire (AWG #24) board #1**
40cm -Ni/Cr wire (AWG #24)
40cm -Ni/Cr wire x 3 wires different diameters…..board #2****
40cm -2 x Ni/Cr wire boards #3: (#22, #24, #26), & #4: (#29, #33, #35)***

*Caution:

 One of the digital multimeters(HM300) will be used as a milliammeter and the other(Unilab)
as a millivoltmeter.
 Remember to connect (a) the voltmeter in parallel across the sample wire and (b) the
milliammeter in series with the sample wire.
 Make sure that the correct range in each meter is used.
 Start your measurement using the 200mA and 200mV ranges.
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*
AWG is an abbreviation for the American Wire Gauge
** This board will be used, when studying the effect of the cross-sectional area
***
These boards will be used, when studying the effect of the cross-sectional area.
****
This board will be used when studying the effect of the length
Vapplied
Fig. (3.2)
Resistance
Box

HM300
0-
200mA sample wire
scale

Unilab
0-
200mV

Procedure
In this practical, the effect of four parameters on the resistance of a wire will be investigated, i.e.
the effect of wire material, length, cross-sectional area and temperature..
Effect of Material
1. Set the resistance box to 200.
2. Assemble the electric circuit as shown in Fig. (3.2), starting with the 40cm-Ni/Cr wire (AWG
#24) on the materials board #1. Leave the switch open until the circuit is checked by your lab
instructor.
3. Close the switch and then adjust the power supply so that the digital voltmeter reads 0.020V
(20mV). Record the digital voltmeter (0-200mV scale) and digital milliammeter (0-200mA
scale) readings in Table (3.1).
4. Adjust the voltage using one the following values at a time: 0.030V (30mV), 0.040V (40mV),
0.050 (50mV), 0.060V (60mV) and 0.070V (70mV). Record the corresponding currents in
Table (3.1).
5. Open the switch as soon as the readings are recorded.
6. Move to the 40cm-Cu wire (AWG #24) on the board and repeat steps 3–5.
7. Finally, move to the 40cm-Al wire (AWG #24) and repeat steps 3–5.

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Effect of Length
1. Set the resistance box to 200.

2. Only use one of the wires(next to the cm scale) in the 40cm-Ni/Cr wire board #2 (AWG #29)
or as a sample wire and assemble the electric circuit as shown in Fig. (3.2). Leave the switch
open until the circuit is checked by your lab instructor.

3. Clip a 0.05m (5.00cm) length of the sample wire into the circuit.

4. Close the switch and then adjust the power supply so that the digital milllivoltmeter (Unilab)
reads 0.020V (20mV). Record the digital voltmeter (0-200mV scale) and digital
milliammeter(HM300)…(0-200mA scale) readings in Table (3.2).

5. Adjust the voltage one of the following values at a time: 0.030V (30mV), 0.040V (40mV),
0.050 (50mV), 0.060V (60mV) and 0.070V (70mV). Record the corresponding currents in
Table (3.2).

6. Open the switch as soon as the readings are recorded.

7. Repeat steps 4–6 with lengths of 0.10m, 0.15m, 0.20m, 0.25m, 0.30m and 0.35m.

Effect of Cross-Sectional Area

1. Using the digital caliper, measure the diameter of each wire in the Ni/Cr wire board #3 (AWG
#22-#26). Record the reading in Table (3.6).

2. Set the resistance box to 200.

3. Using the 40cm-Ni/Cr wire board #3 (AWG #22-#26), assemble the electric circuit as shown
in Fig. (3.2), starting with the Ni/Cr wire (AWG #22) as a sample wire. Leave the switch open
until the circuit is checked by your lab instructor.

4. Close the switch and then adjust the power supply so that the digital voltmeter reads 0.020V
(20mV). Record the digital Unilab voltmeter (0-200mV scale) and digital milliammeter,
HM300, (0-200mA scale) readings in Table (3.3).

5. Adjust the voltage using one of the following values at a time: 0.030V (30mV), 0.040V
(40mV), 0.050 (50mV), 0.060V (60mV) and 0.070V (70mV). Record the corresponding
currents in Table (3.3).

6. Open the switch as soon as the readings are recorded.

7. Repeat steps 3–5 for each of the different wire gauges, (AWG #22, #24, #26)

8. Repeat, using board #4, steps 3-7 for wires: #29, #33, and #35.

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Effect of temperature
1. Set the resistance box to 50.

2. Assemble the electric circuit as shown in Fig. (3.2), using the 50m-magnet wire coil as a
sample wire. Leave the switch open until the circuit is checked by your lab instructor.

3. Put some crushed ice into a 400ml beaker and place the 50m-magnet wire coil in the crushed
ice.

4. Place a thermometer in the beaker and leave for 5 minutes to reach thermal equilibrium. This
happens when the temperature becomes constant. Record this temperature, T1, in Table (3.4).

5. Close the switch and then adjust the power supply so that the digital voltmeter reads 0.020V
(20mV). Record the digital voltmeter (0-200mV scale) and digital milliammeter (0-200mA
scale) readings in Table (3.4).

6. Adjust the voltage one the following values at a time: 0.030V (30mV), 0.040V (40mV),
0.050(50mV), 0.060V (60mV) and 0.070V (70mV).Record the corresponding currents in
Table (3.4).

9. Open the switch as soon as the readings are recorded.

10. Remove the magnet coil from the crushed ice bath and dry with paper towels.

11. Put the coil in a 400ml beaker of distilled water at room temperature. Wait for thermal
equilibrium to take place and then measure the temperature, T2.

12. Repeat steps 4–6.

13. Using two water baths, repeat the experiment at two different temperatures, T3 and T4. Record
the results in Table (3.4).

14. Switch off the water bath as soon as the readings are recorded.

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Data and Analysis
Table 3.1

Effect of Material
Ni/Cr wire Cu wire Al wire
V (mV) I (mA) V (mV) I (mA) V (mV) I (mA)
1.00 1.00 1.00
2.00 2.00 2.00
3.00 3.00 3.00
4.00 4.00 4.00
5.00 5.00 5.00
6.00 6.00 6.00
Table 3.2

Material R (Ω) A (m2) l (m) ρ (Ω.m)

Ni/Cr
Cu
Al

Table 3.3

Effect of Length
0.05m 0.10m 0.15m 0.20m 0.25m 0.30m 0.35m
V(mV) I(mA) V(mV) I(mA) V(mV) I(mA) V(mV) I(mA) V(mV) I(mA) V(mV) I(mA) V(mV) I(mA)

20 20 20 20 20 20 20
30 30 30 30 30 30 30
40 40 40 40 40 40 40
50 50 50 50 50 50 50
60 60 60 60 60 60 60
70 70 70 70 70 70 70

Table 3.4

l (m) 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

R ()

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 Table 3.5

Effect of Cross-Sectional Area

#22 #24 #26 #29 #33 #35
V(mV) I(mA) V(mV) I(mA) V(mV) I(mA) V(mV) I(mA) V(mV) I(mA) V(mV) I(mA)

20 20 20 20 20 20
30 30 30 30 30 30
40 40 40 40 40 40
50 50 50 50 50 50
60 60 60 60 60 60
70 70 70 70 70 70

Table 3.6

AWG #22 #24 #26 #29 #33 #35

Diameter (m)
A (m2)
R ()

Effect of Temperature
T1 =______ oC T2 =_______ oC T3 =_______ oC T4 =_______ oC
V (mV) I (mA) V (mV) I (mA) V (mV) I (mA) V (mV) I (mA)
20 20 20 20
40 40 40 40
60 60 60 60
80 80 80 80
100 100 100 100
120 120 120 120

Temperature (oC) T1 = ______ T2 = _______ T3 = ______ T4 = ______

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 R ()

When writing the formal lab report, the following points must be taken into consideration:

1. Using the data in Table 3.1, plot all the graphs of voltage, V, (on the y-axis) versus current, I,
(on3.7
Table the x-axis) on the same graph paper.

2. Find the resistance of each wire by calculating the slope of the corresponding graph. From the
length and cross-sectional area calculate the resistivity of each material, Table 3.2.

3. Using the data in Table 3.3, plot all the graphs of voltage, V, versus current, I, on the same
graph paper.

4. Find the resistance of each length of the Ni/Cr wire by calculating the slope of the
corresponding graph. Record the results in Table 3.4.

5. Using Table 3.4, plot a graph of the length, l, versus the resistance, R. State whether the graph
is in agreement with equation (1).

6. Using the data in Table 3.5, plot all the graphs of voltage, V, versus current, I, on the same
graph paper. Find the resistance for each cross-sectional area of the Ni/Cr wires by
calculating the slope of the corresponding graph. Record the results in Table 3.6.
Table 3.8
7. Using Table 3.6, plot a graph of the resistance, R, versus (cross-sectional area, A)-1. State
whether the graph is in agreement with equation (1) and state why you have reached this
conclusion.

8. Using the data in Table 3.7, plot all the graphs of the voltage, V, versus the current, I, on the
same graph paper. Find the resistance of the magnet wire coil at each temperature by
calculating the slope of the corresponding graph. Record the results in Table 3.8.

9. Using Table 3.8, plot a graph of the resistance, R, versus T. State whether the graph is in
agreement with equation (3) and state why you have reached this conclusion. Determine the
temperature coefficient of resistance for copper wire.

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Lab 4: THE EMF AND INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A
DRY CELL
Objectives
To measure the emf and internal resistance of a battery using Ohm’s law.
Introduction:
Each electrical circuit may be divided into the internal circuit and the external circuit. The internal
circuit is composed of all the component parts of the source itself. The external circuit comprises
connecting wires, resistors, switch and meters.
The potential difference, V, between any two points in the external circuit is defined as the energy
converted into other forms of energy (e.g. heat, light, and mechanical) by the devices in the circuit.
It is measured in volts, (V), (where 1V = 1 J C-1). However, some of the energy inside the source is
wasted (usually in the form of heat) and not delivered to the external circuit. This is caused by the
internal resistance, r, within the source. Consider the circuit drawn in Figure 1.
Figure 1

E
Internal circuit R
r External circuit
r

The internal resistance, r, of the cell is in series with the variable resistance, R, in the external
circuit. Thus,
Ecell = VR + Vr ………………….……..…1
= VR + Ir …………………..………2
Rearranging equation 2 gives
VR = -Ir + Ecell ……………………………………3
A plot of VR versus I produces a graph similar to the one shown in Figure 2. It is clear in equation
2 and Figure 2 that the slope and y-intercept represent the internal resistance, r, and Ecell,
respectively.
Figure 2 VR

Ecell

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Equipment and Materials
switch (single-pole) connecting wires
power supply resistance box
rheostat (35Ω) AA (or C) batteries
digital multimeters (2) battery holder

Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus according to the circuit diagram drawn in Figure 3. Switch the digital
multimeter (DMM voltmeter) to the 0-2v scale and the DMM to the 0-200mA scale.
2. Set the resistance box to read 30Ω. Insert the battery into the cell holder. Record the readings
on the voltmeter and milliammeter in Table 1.
3. Increase the resistance to 40Ω. Record your data in Table 1.
4. Repeat steps 2-3 for resistances 50Ω, 60Ω, 70Ω, 80Ω, 90Ω and 100Ω.
5. Switch off the multimeters and dismantle the apparatus.

Figure 3

DMM voltmeter
(0-2V scale)
V

Ecell r

DMM milliammeter
(0-200mA scale) mA

resistance box

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Lab 4: THE EMF AND INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A
DRY CELL
Student: __________________ Badge #: __________________

Data and Analysis

Table 1

External Resistance Circuit Current Potential Difference

R (Ω) I (A) VR (V)
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

1. From the data in Table 1, construct a graph of the potential difference across the resistor R,
VR, versus the circuit current, I, on a sheet of A4 graph paper.
2. (a) Write down the value of the y-intercept in the space below.

..........................................................................................................................................
(b) What is the emf of the cell? Explain your answer.

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
3. (a) Calculate the slope of your graph.
..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

(b) What does this slope represent?

..........................................................................................................................................

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 Lab 5: THE TIME CONSTANT OF A CAPACITOR

Objectives:
 Measure the time constant () of an RC circuit
 Measure the capacitance of a capacitor
Introduction:
A capacitor is a device, which is used to store electric charge. Effectively, all capacitors consist of
a pair of oppositely charged conducting plates separated by an insulator. The capacitance C of any
capacitor is defined to be the ratio of the charge Q on either conductor to the potential difference V
between them:

Q
C (1)
V

The SI unit of capacitance is coulomb per volt, or farad (F).

If a capacitor is charge with a battery through a resistance R, as shown in Figure 1, the charge on
the capacitor and the current in the RC circuit vary in time according to the expressions:

 t


Q(t )  Qo 1  e RC  (2)

 

 RCt


I (t )  I o  e  (3)

 
where, Qo = CV is the maximum charge on the capacitor,
Io is the initial (maximum) current in the RC circuit, and
RC = is the time constant for the RC circuit which is a measure of how quickly a
capacitor becomes charged

Figure 2 illustrates the variation of charge and current with time.

Q (C) I(A)
I
Qo Io
V
0∙632 Qo
R
S
0.368 Io
+ −
t (s) t (s)
C RC RC
Figure 1 Figure 2

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In this experiment, you will charge a capacitor, using a constant applied voltage and measure the
time constant as a number of different resistances are introduced into the circuit. The capacitance
may, then, be obtained from a time constant-resistance graph.

Equipment and Materials

DC power supply switch connecting wires

digital multimeters (2) stopwatch A4 graph paper
resistance box calculator capacitor (2200 μF)

Procedure
1. Set up the RC circuit shown in Figure 3. Do not switch on the power. Leave the switch open.
2. Set the resistance box (variable resistance) to read 20,000Ω. Record this value in Table 1.
3. Set the DMM voltmeter to the 0-20V scale. Set the DMM ammeter to the 0-200μA scale.
4. After you have checked your circuit, ask your teacher to inspect it.

I
Figure 3
V

S R
+ −
μA

5. Plug in and switch on the digital DC supply unit. Set the voltage to read 4·00V on the DMM
voltmeter. Record this value in the Data Section.
6. Clip the crocodile discharge wire on to each side of the capacitor. This will discharge the
capacitor. Unclip after a few seconds.
7. Close the switch and start the stop-clock. Record the highest ammeter reading in Table 1.
Multiply the initial current by 0·368. Enter this value in Table 1.
8. Look at the ammeter. As soon as the reading reaches the value in step 7, record the time in
Table 1 and then open the switch.
9. The procedure in steps 6-8 should be followed for 30,000, 35,000, 40,000, 45,000, 50,000,
55,000 and 60,000Ω.
10. Switch the DC power supply off, unplug it from its socket and then dismantle the circuit.

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Lab 5: THE TIME CONSTANT OF A CAPACITOR
Student: __________________ Badge #: __________________

Data and Analysis

Table 1 Input voltage = ……….. V

Resistance Initial Current 0·368 Iinitial Time Constant

(Ω) (μA) (μA) (s)
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
45,000
50,000
55,000
60,000

1. From Table 1, what happens to the time constant for a capacitor circuit as the resistance of that
circuit increases?

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
2. Use Table 1 to plot a graph of the time constant (y-axis) versus the resistance (x-axis).
3. What is the relationship between the time constant for a capacitor circuit and the circuit
resistance?

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

4. Calculate the slope of the graph constructed in Q. 2. Show your work in the space below.

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

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5. Use the graph plotted in Q. 2 to obtain the capacitance (C) of the capacitor.

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

6. Using the capacitance indicated on the capacitor as the standard value, calculate the percentage
error in the experimental measurement of C.

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

7. From the time constant versus resistance graph,

a. what circuit resistance will give a time-constant of 40s?

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
b. what is the time constant for a circuit resistance of 7 × 104Ω?

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................

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Lab 6: The Tangent Galvanometer
Objective
Measure the Earth’s magnetic field using the tangent galvanometer.

Introduction:
The magnetic field, B, at the center of the plane circular coil shown in Fig. 1 is directed into the
paper (by the right-hand rule) and its magnitude is given by I
 o NI
B (1)
2r
Where
r B
B: the magnetic field (T)
μo: the permeability of free space (= 4π × 10-7 H/m)
N: the number of turns on the coil
I: the current in the coil (A)
r: the radius of the coil (m)
Fig. 1

The tangent galvanometer in its simplest form consists of a magnetic compass situated horizontally
at the center of a vertical circular coil. If the plane of the coil is aligned to coincide with the
direction of the Earth’s magnetic field, BE, the magnetic field, B, generated by the current will be
perpendicular to BE at that location. When there is a current flowing in the coil, the magnetic
compass will be deflected along the resultant of both fields, Bresultant as shown in Fig. 2. Therefore,
B can be written as

B  BE tan (2)
Bresultant
Where θ is the angle of deflection of the compass needle form its position
of rest along BE. Substituting equation (2) in (1) we get B
θ
BE
2rBE
I tan  (3) Fig. 2
o N

Equipment and Materials

Tangent galvanometer (G)
Digital Multimeter/ammeter (A)
Rheostat
DC power supply
Connecting leads.

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Procedure

Tangent Galvanometer
Earth magnetic lines of force -
....parallel to the plane of the coil
N
coil

compass

S magnetic
south

S 5V
Circuit diagram

Decade comm digital multimeter

Resistance (current in Amps)
Box A
10A

TG
Procedure - Tangent
Galvanometer

1. Connect up the circuit, as shown in the circuit diagram....uisng the multimeter A(amps) scale
Note.....the tangent galvanometer is connected up to 15 turns of the coil

2. With no current flowing, rotate the tangent galvanometer until the plane of the coil is
aligned(lined up) with the N-S direction of the compass needle...see Fig. 1

3. The pointer end of the compass needle should now show read 0o

4. Set the voltage output on the power supply(blue knob) at a fixed value of 5v.........
do not change this value for the remainder of the experiment

5. Adjust the Resistance Box to about 37 .. Switch on the electrical power supply.

6. Close switch S. Adjust the compass pointer to read 30o...using the Resistance Box to control the
pointer readings(do not move the coil). Use the magnifying glass to check the compass reading.

Note: if the compass reading gives a negative deflection....please reverse the leads to the coil

7. Record the current, I(A) on the digital ammeter in Table 1.

8. Repeat steps 6 and 7, using different resistance values to produce deflections of 35o, 40o, 45o,
50o, 55o and 60o.

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Lab 6: The Tangent Galvanometer
Student: __________________ Badge #: __________________
Data and Analysis
Table 1
I (A) θ (o) tan θ
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Radius of Coil, r = m N= turns

1. What is the relationship between the current, I, and tan θ in equation (3)?

..........................................................................................................................................
2. Using Table 1, plot a graph of I versus tan θ.
3. Draw the best linear fit for graph you plotted in 2. What does the slope represent?

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
4. Using the slope you obtained in Q3, calculate the magnitude of the Earth’s magnetic field, BE.
Show your work.

..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
5. Using BE = 5.0 × 10-5 T as a standard value, calculate the percentage error in the Earth’s
magnetic field you obtained in this experiment.
..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
6. Determine the magnetic field produced by the coil when θ = 45o.

..........................................................................................................................................

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..........................................................................................................................................

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