Received 11 December 2019; accepted 30 January 2020.

Date of publication 10 February 2020;

date of current version 15 April 2020. The review of this article was arranged by Associate Editor S. Jemei.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/OJVT.2020.2972541

Thermal Management of Li-Ion Batteries With

Single-Phase Liquid Immersion Cooling
DAVID W. SUNDIN AND SEBASTIAN SPONHOLTZ
Research Department, Engineered Fluids, Tyler, TX 75708 USA
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: DAVID W. SUNDIN (e-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT Development of effective thermal management techniques is essential in enabling further tech-
nical advances and wide public acceptance of lithium-ion based battery electrical storage. Both stationary
battery arrays and electric vehicle (EV) batteries are pressed to enable charging and discharging at faster
C rates, increased amp-hour capacity, longer service life and increased safety. All of these are dependent
on more efficient and safer thermal management solutions. Traditional air cooling and indirect liquid
cooling (cold plate) methods have limitations in effectiveness and weight. Engineered Fluids has recently
completed a series of experiments demonstrating the high efficiency of Single-phase Liquid Immersion
Cooling (SLIC) technology for the thermal management of Li-ion batteries. This article reviews the results
of these experiments and discusses some of the issues and solutions for battery thermal management, and
outlines the proper design of battery thermal management systems. We will discuss such topics as active
cooling versus passive cooling, liquid cooling versus air cooling, cooling and heating versus cooling only
systems, and relative needs of thermal management for VRLA, NiMH, and Li-Ion batteries.

INDEX TERMS Immersion cooling, thermal management, battery cooling, SLIC.

I. INTRODUCTION
A. HEAT GENERATION IN BATTERIES
Significant quantities of heat are created inside lithium-ion
(Li-Ion) battery cells during the charge and discharge cycles.
This heat is generated by exothermic chemical reactions, pri-
marily, as well as losses from activation energy, ionic migra-
tion resistance, and chemical transport [4]–[6]. The majority
of heat is generated at charge and discharge extremes; there
is normally little heat generated at a State of Charge (SOC)
between 20 and 80%, [1], [2] as shown in Fig. 1.
Heat generated by Li-ion battery cells during operation is
increased by several factors and the combinations of these
factors further increases the heat energy created. The follow-
ing factors increase the heat generated by a li-ion cell: faster
(shorter time duration) charge or discharge cycle, shorter
“rest” periods between charge/discharge cycles, battery aging
due to the degradation of ion migration pathways. Increases of
35% to 70% above nominal rated values are not uncommon,
according to battery manufacturers [3]. Heat generation also FIGURE 1. Heat generated through a cycle at 1 C-rate showing heat
increases at lower temperatures throughout the battery’s life. generated as a function of State of Charge.

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82 VOLUME 1, 2020
B. HEAT TRANSFER IN BATTERY CELLS AND MODULES 1) By maintaining the battery cell’s temperature in their
Battery energy storage systems are most commonly composed optimal zone for operation.
of multiple individual battery cells of identical voltage, Amp- 2) By minimizing temperature variance and cycling. Be-
hour rating, and chemistry connected in series and parallel yond maintenance of the temperature inside a band that
across their tabs to create a single battery module of the is optimum for the cells’ performance, thermal cycling,
desired voltage and Amp-hour rating. Such battery modules or excursion has been identified as a key failure mech-
include a framework or casing in which to house the cells to anism of electronic assemblies in general, and battery
maintain their orientation and in many cases facilitate individ- chemistry, in particular. Minimization of thermal cy-
ual cell cooling. Today, most stationary battery array systems cling is key to obtaining maximum efficiency and ser-
use air as the medium to cool the battery modules. In electric vice life from batteries [6].
vehicle battery systems, either air-cooling or indirect “cold 3) By minimizing thermal stratification within individual
plate” cooling is used, or in some cases a hybrid of air and cells. During charge/discharge cycles, ion migration in-
cold plates is used for battery module cooling. side the cell results in non-uniform heating, which low-
The steady state heat transfer equation that describes bat- ers the cell’s charge/discharge rate, and ultimately, its
tery cell cooling is: service life.
  4) By maintaining homogeneous temperature distribution
QBAT = U  A T BAT − T Avg2,3 from cell to cell. Temperature variation from cell to cell
Where U [units: W/°C] is a combined heat transfer coefficient in a battery module leads to different charge/discharge
that uses both conductive heat transfer from the inside of the cycling behavior for each cell.
cells to the surface of the cells and the cell tabs as well as 5) This, in turn, makes the cells in the module electrically
convective heat transfer from the cell surface and tabs to the unbalanced, which reduces the overall module perfor-
air. The cooling surface is most often the external casing of mance [6]. The design of a battery module dictates its
the battery module and/or the metallic tabs. [4] temperature distribution. Heat generated by each cell in
This equation can be simplified to one that uses only the a module may not be spatially uniform due to several
heat transfer medium’s (air, water, or dielectric coolant) char- factors: physical form factor, aspect ratio, number of
acteristics: cells and geometry of the cells and module, thermal
conductivity of the module framework and case, place-
QBAT = (F r C p (T 3 − T 2 ) ment of the positive and negative terminals, the size of
the tabs on the cells, and the size and position of the
Where: cell’s electrical interconnects within the module. Non-
F = flowrate (cm3 /second) uniform heat generation leads to non-uniform tempera-
Cp = heat transfer coefficient of the battery material ture distribution in the module.
T3 = high temperature
T2 = low temperature D. AIR COOLING VS LIQUID COOLING
Traditionally, batteries have been cooled with forced air, and
In order to adequately cool the battery cells, two conditions Li-ion batteries are no exception. Air cooling uses the princi-
must be met. First, the sum of all heat removed must be greater ple of convection to move heat from the cell or module into
than all heat generated, or in equation form: the surrounding air mass. Ambient or cooled air is directed to
QBAT flow across the surface of the battery cell or module, which
U > may feature cooling fins or another means of increasing the
TBAT − TAMB
surface area of the module to facilitate the transfer of the
(Dictating that the sum of heat transfer coefficients must be heat generated internally to the surrounding or flowing air
greater than the heat generated by the battery divided by the mass. Although generally considered an inexpensive means of
delta-T allowable between battery temperature and ambient cooling, thermal management with air requires a significant
air temperature). amount of air be directed or forced over the surface of the
Second, the mass of heat transfer medium (air, water, or battery module, typically this is accomplished with active fans
dielectric coolant) in contact with the battery cells must be and ducting or purely convection to move the air mass into and
sufficient to absorb the heat that the cells generate [5]: around the module.
QBAT Air has a very low heat capacity (Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg K at
F> standard temperature), so a large volume of air must be used,
r · C P · T
particularly when the delta in temperature between the battery
module casing and the ambient air temperature is low. Another
C. BATTERY THERMAL MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENTS challenge of air cooling is that a battery’s heat transfer surface
Thermal management affects the life of the battery in several must be exposed to air, so its physical location is restricted to
ways: those locations where air flow is available or where the air can

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FIGURE 2. Phase 1 Charge/ Discharge test parameters.

Note: The charging cycle time of 110m / .55C to achieve 100% state of
FIGURE 4. Electrical connections for battery test.
charge (SOC) was necessitated by the limitation of the charging
equipment’s maximum output of 40 Amps.

r The need to maintain more stabilized, constant voltage

output during discharge and over the service life of the
battery.
One alternative to traditional air cooling is indirect liquid
cooling, in which a water/glycol solution or dielectric liquid
coolant flows through a heat sink or “cold plate” within the
battery framework or structure of the battery module, cooling
the battery cells through conduction via their direct thermal
bonding with the heat sink within the module case. Aqueous
glycol coolants are by their composition highly electrically
conductive, which means that aqueous coolants cannot be
brought in direct contact with the battery tabs and wiring.
The conductive nature of aqueous coolants limits their use to
indirect cooling methods, such as water jackets around battery
modules or cold plates placed within the battery module.
Water/glycol coolants have very high heat capacity (Cp
= 3.777 kJ/kg K at 26.7C) and are efficient at removal of
FIGURE 3. Phase 2 charge/ discharge test parameters. heat from the heat sink. However, this efficiency is miti-
gated because the heat must be conducted through walls of
the jacket/container or fins. In addition, because many bat-
tery modules are composed of a high quantity of pouch or
be channeled. This may create the need to add additional in- cylindrical cells it is important that the heat sink is thermally
frastructure and volume to the system to ensure the total mass bonded to the entire surface of the battery cell walls and tabs
of air needed to cool the system is available, not to mention to ensure proper conduction of the heat to the cold plate or
any filtering or conditioning that maybe required to prevent jacket. Any air gaps left between the battery cells act as ther-
corrosion or degradation of the battery module materials. mal insulation rapidly degrading the cooling efficiency of the
This approach is being challenged due to new application system. This typically results in the use of high precision man-
demands placed on batteries, as well as changing battery ufactured aluminum frameworks and cold plates along with
chemistries. The application demands that require more ef- dielectric thermal grease or epoxy bonding agents to ensure
ficient thermal management include: there are no air gaps between the battery cells’ surfaces and
r faster charge/discharge cycles (higher amperages) the framework. The cost of fabrication of such systems can
r reduced rest periods between cycles (faster cycling) be expensive, yield rates low, and failure rates high due to the
r longer service life (more charge/discharge cycles) overall complexity of the system. In particular manufacturers
r higher battery voltages and users have noted that the reliability of aqueous indirect

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 FIGURE 6. Characteristics of AmpCool AC-100 Coolant.

FIGURE 5. Battery cooling test setup.

exchanger to transfer the heat energy to the environment, or,
if the heat load is low enough, can be passively cooled by
convective air flow through the walls of the battery module or
cooling systems for Li-ion batteries is critical to ensure no cell.
aqueous solution leaks into contact with the batteries, wiring, The rate of heat transfer between the walls of the battery
and/or other electrical components causing them to short to cells and the dielectric coolant depends on several factors,
each other, cold plate, and/or battery module casing, poten- including its thermal conductivity, viscosity, density, and ve-
tially causing thermal runaway in the effected cells or injury locity of the dielectric coolant. For the same volumetric flow
to the user due to the high amperage and voltages involved. rate, heat-transfer with dielectric coolants is much more ef-
The rate of heat transfer through the battery itself, through ficient than with air because of the thinner boundary layer
the walls of the battery module, and then through the electri- and higher thermal conductivity of the liquid (approximately
cally insulating water jacket, or heat sink framework and cold 1.3–1.4 kJ/kg K). This high heat capacity allows a much lower
plate, is a function of temperature gradient and the thermal flowrate with a dielectric coolant than with air.
conductivity coefficients of the different materials involved in Liquid coolants have higher thermal conductivity and heat
each of these layers. density than air, and therefore perform very effectively as a
Direct immersion cooling systems using single-phase di- cooling medium. Of these options, direct immersion in liquid
electric liquids are another means of cooling battery cells single-phase dielectric coolants (SLIC) will theoretically de-
and modules. In direct liquid immersion cooling, often called liver the best performance for maintaining battery cells and
Single-phase Liquid Immersion Cooling (SLIC), the battery modules in the correct temperature range, with a minimum of
cells are fully immersed in a dielectric heat transfer fluid (di- temperature variation and at the lowest cost and complexity
electric coolant). The dielectric coolant is typically circulated for the system. The reduced complexity comes from the elimi-
with a pump in order to ensure a constant flow of dielectric nation of the need for any intermediate heat sink framework or
coolant within the system design to ensure continuous contact complex manufacturing of a precision framework to hold the
with all the cell walls, tabs, and electrical wiring within the cells, and any thermal bonding requirements as the dielectric
battery module. The flow of directric coolant absorbs the heat liquid coolant is in direct contact with all parts of the system.
generated by the cells through direct conduction and is then A key safety advantage that dielectric SLIC coolants have
circulated to a heat transfer device such as a radiator or heat over water glycol and other conductive coolants is that they

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FIGURE 7. Placement of thermocouples on battery cell.

FIGURE 9. Liquid immersion test setup with battery in Ampcool AC-100.

FIGURE 10. Dimensions of battery cell and fluid volume in test tank.

E. LIQUID IMMERSION TESTING

Objectives of testing battery thermal management with
Single-phase Liquid Immersion Cooling (SLIC) technology
are:
r Determine compatibility of battery cells and modules
with the dielectric liquid coolants
r Evaluate heat transfer properties of the solution and im-
pact to battery module
FIGURE 8. Steel test tank with battery cell. r Compare heat transfer characteristics with air cooling
r Hypothesize impact on safety, capital expenditures, op-
erating and maintenance costs, and system level im-
can be brought into direct contact with all components of the provements
r Finalize system level design for immersion cooling
system without causing thermal runaway of the cells, shorting
failures of electronics, or shock hazard to users. In addition,
with biodegradable, non-toxic, food grade rated dielectric liq- F. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
uid coolants the safety and environmental issues related to The efficiency of SLIC technology for thermal management
leaking and disposal of hazardous aqueous glycol coolants are of batteries was proven in a set of experiments performed at
avoided. Engineered Fluids’ Application Development Laboratory. In

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FIGURE 11. Characteristics of Samsung model 286S battery cell.

FIGURE 12. Air cooled battery test – phase 1 charge / discharge cycle.

these experiments a prismatic 68 AH cell (Samsung Model minutes between charge and discharge to allow the cell’s volt-
286S) was subjected to a series of four charge/discharge cy- age to stabilize. The cell was also allowed to rest after each
cles, while being cooled with forced air and subsequently full discharge for 60 minutes to allow the battery temperature
using the same cycle pattern while fully immersed in Engi- to stabilize, again per manufacturer’s recommendations.
neered Fluids’ AmpCool AC-100 Dielectric Coolant cooled During the second phase (Phase II) of the experiment, the
to ambient air temperature through the use of a pump, radiator time period for all rest periods was set at 20 minutes and the
and fan. discharge cycle was accelerated to 30 minutes, reducing by
The test cycle parameters for Phases 1 and 2 are shown in half the Phase I 60 minutes cycle, resulting in a 2/C discharge
figs. 2 and 3 respectively. cycle. The purpose of this test was to determine the ability
The test utilized “constant current charging and discharg- of Single-phase Liquid Immersion Cooling to manage more
ing.” The first phase (Phase I) of the experiment utilized a rapid and higher temperature variation and higher thermal
charge cycle of 110 minutes using 40 A equal to 0.55/C and stress on the battery cell.
a discharge cycle using a 68 A load at 1/C per the battery During each full testing cycle, the temperature of the cell
manufactures specification. Because the cell is designed for was monitored on each of the battery cell’s tabs (positive and
use with air cooling, we followed the manufacturer’s rec- negative as well as on two sides and top of the cell using
ommendations for rest and stabilization time between the type-K thermal probes thermally bonded to the cell. The tem-
charge/discharge cycles. The cell was allowed to rest for 20 peratures were recorded in 10secd intervals.

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FIGURE 13. Liquid cooled battery test – phase 1 charge / discharge cycle.

FIGURE 14. Liquid cooled battery test – phase 2 charge / discharge cycle.

Parameters for these tests were: Battery cell charge and discharge cycles were performed
with the use of a Cadex 8000 Battery Charger/Tester having
Ambient Air Temperature: 21C + / − 3C all four 10 A outputs interconnected and slaved to channel one
for a total charging capacity of 40 A at 12 VDC, and a B&K
Air Cooling Test (Control)
Precision 8518 DC Battery Load with a maximum load of
Air Input Temp: 23.0 + / − 5.0C
100 A at 12 VDC. Fig. 4 shows the electrical connections from
Air Volumetric Flowrate: 28.4 liters per minute
the Test Battery, the Battery Charger/Tester and the Battery
Liquid Immersion Cooling Test: Load. Fig. 4 describes the electrical charge and discharge
Liquid Coolant Input Temp: 23.0 + / − 0.5C equipment setup.
Liquid Coolant Flowrate: 0.5 liters per minute The fluid cooling unit used was a Koolance ERM-3K3UA
Liquid Cooling System, Rev1.1 which has been retrofitted to
The temperature and volume of air flow specified for cool- be material compatible with the AmpCool AC-100 coolant.
ing was per the manufacturer’s recommendations. The volume The retrofit required the replacement of all rubber seals and
of the liquid coolant flow was determined as the lowest speed O-rings with FMK and the replacement of all vinyl hoses
setting of the circulation pump used in the test setup. with Tygon tubing. The cooling unit at maximum cooling

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FIGURE 15. Summary of maximum and minimum cell temperature by location and cooling method.

FIGURE 16. Comparison of cooling performance – battery cell positive terminal / max temp C.

FIGURE 17. Comparison of cooling performance – battery cell negative terminal / max temp C.

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FIGURE 18. Comparison of cooling performance – battery cell long wall / max temp C.

FIGURE 19. Comparison of cooling performance – battery cell short wall / max temp C.

capacity of 2kW @ 20C ambient air temperature using Am- sealed into the top of the test tank during both air and liq-
pCool AC-100 coolant. Fig. 5 describes the liquid and air- uid testing to isolate the internal environment during testing.
cooling equipment setup. During liquid test the battery cell was completely immersed
The coolant used in this study is AmpCool AC-100, a liq- in the AmpCool AC-100 Dielectric Coolant such that 25mm
uid synthetic dielectric (electrically non-conductive) coolant of coolant were present on all sides of the battery. The net
made by Engineered Fluids specifically for thermal man- volume of the liquid coolant present in the tank during testing
agement of electric motors and batteries. AmpCool AC- was 2.786 Liters.
100 Coolant is clear, has no smell, is biodegradable, non- Fig. 8 is a photo of the liquid immersion test rig with
toxic and has been granted Food Grade Status in the US. the battery fully immersed in AmpCool AC-100 prior to the
(1). AmpCool AC-100 Coolant does not boil, remaining cover being placed on the rig. Fig. 7 shows the placement of
in the liquid phase at all application temperatures from - thermocouples on the Li-ion battery cell.
66 C to 280C. It has a low viscosity, which enhances its Fig. 10 provides the dimensions of the internal volume of
heat transfer efficiency. Fig. 6 describes the characteris- the steel test tank that was used to contain the battery cell
tics of the Engineered Fluids’ AmpCool AC-100 Dielectric during testing. The tank was constructed of steel 12 cold
Coolant. rolled steel as a measure of safety during the testing should
Fig. 7 is a photo of the steel test tank used for both battery the cell go into thermal overload. Even with the added stress
and air testing. The steel plates visible inside the tank on each of very aggressive discharges while being liquid cooled, we
narrow end are removable baffles used during liquid testing were never able to push the battery cell temperatures above
to provide even liquid coolant flow over all the surfaces of 27C which is not close to 120C thermal runaway temperature.
the battery. These baffles were removed during air testing as Fig. 11 provides the characteristics of the Samsung Model
they degraded the air-cooled performance. A foam cover was 286S hybrid chemistry battery cell that was used throughout

90 VOLUME 1, 2020
the testing. The same cell was used for both air and liquid additional thermal load brought about by rapid discharge and
testing to maintain consistency of the test results. The Air test- reduced rest times.
ing was conducted first in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations. II. CONCLUSIONS
Advances in battery technology are facilitating their use in
a wide range of stationary and mobile applications. Efficient
G. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION thermal management of these battery systems will be a key
Analysis of the test data shows that single-phase liquid im- factor in their successful adoption and application. Mainte-
mersion cooling of the battery cell had the following effects, nance of battery temperatures within a narrow range maxi-
when compared with air cooling: mizes the battery capacity, maximizes the rate of charging
Optimum Temperature Maintenance: In Phase 1 testing and discharging the battery, and extends the battery’s useful
(0.55/C charge, 1/C discharge), the average battery temper- life [7], [8]. All of these factors have a major impact on the
ature was five degrees C lower when the cell was immersed economic viability of applications for these battery systems.
in AmpCool AC-100. Using the Arrhenius Rate Equation of Several means of controlling the temperature of batteries
chemical reaction kinetics, this 5 C difference in average cell during charge and discharge cycles have been evaluated. Tra-
temperature translates to an approximate extension of battery ditional air cooling cannot economically maintain the temper-
life by a factor of 1.4. ature within the desired range during charging and discharge
Elimination of temperature swings: In Phase 1 testing when cycles. Adding surface area and/or cooling fins to the battery
air cooled, battery temperatures varied more than 16 degrees case helps dissipate heat more rapidly, but adds too much bulk
from cycle to cycle. In the liquid immersion-cooled test, this and weight to be considered for most applications.
temperature variation was only 1.8 degrees C. In the Phase 2 Liquid cooling is the most effective and economical solu-
immersion-cooled test testing (0.55/C charge, 2/C the maxi- tion for keeping battery temperatures within the desired band.
mum temperature variation 5.1 degrees C even while main- Liquid cooling can be done indirectly, using cold plates or
taining the same rate of coolant flow as in the Phase 1 testing. pipes through which a water-based solution is pumped. This is
This provides an opportunity for further testing by increasing more effective than air-cooling, but is inflexible and expensive
the coolant flow rate to see if the similar 1.8 degrees C delta (cold plates must be made specifically to fit every different cell
could be achieve during the more aggressive discharge cycle. shape and component to be cooled) and does not approach the
Immersed in AmpCool Coolant, the battery was held with efficiency of intimate contact between the battery and the heat
its manufacturers recommended optimum operating tempera- transfer fluid.
ture range of 23+/- 3C at all times during the four cycle test. The most efficient cooling method for batteries is direct
The battery cell cooled with forced air experienced tempera- immersion in a single-phase, nonconductive cooling fluid.
ture swings from 20 to 37 C., with five times the standard vari- Until recently, dielectric fluids were not available with the
ation around the average, and well above the manufacturer’s right combination of material compatibility profile, environ-
recommended operating temperature range. mental impact and fire safety. Developed in 2017, AmpCool
Fig. 15 shows the cooling performance in greater detail, as Dielectric Coolants are a safe and reliable way to optimize and
it tracks surface temperatures measured along the long side of extend the value of today’s battery systems.
the cell through one charge/discharge cycle. The experiment described in this paper used Samsung
Elimination of Cell Temperature Stratification: Immersion Model 286S battery cells that were subjected to multiple rapid
cooling maintained homogeneous temperatures inside the test charge-discharge cycles while being cooled with forced air
cell, air-cooling allowed temperature stratification inside the and by immersion in a dielectric coolant, AmpCool AC-100.
cell, lessening the cell’s efficiency and service life. This can The test cells that were immersed in AmpCool AC-100
be seen in the graphs above as the temperatures of the battery Dielectric Coolant maintained an average cell temperature
cell’s side wall deviated from the tab, or terminal temperature. of 22.5 degrees C. with very low deviation from the mean.
With the immersion cooled cells, this difference was not seen. In contrast, when the cells were cooled with forced air, the
Phase 2 of this experiment tested the AmpCool Coolant’s average cell temperature was 28.7 degrees, with much greater
ability to manage higher thermal stress by discharging the temperature variation during charge/discharge.
battery cell at twice the design rate. In this part, discharge was The second phase of this experiment showed that immer-
done at 2/C, taking the battery cell from 100% SOC to 30% in sion cooling can maintain a cell’s temperature within a de-
only 30 minutes, with only 10 minutes between cycles. sired band even under high thermal stress brought about by
The accelerated discharge rate places higher thermal accelerated discharge. This finding has powerful implications
stress on the battery cell, raising its internal temperature. in terms of asset management mobile and stationary battery
Maintenance of the cell’s temperature within the desired range systems.
recommended by the manufacturer is vital to maximizing The experiment indicates that required relaxation times be-
the battery’s useful life. Fig. 13 and 14 show how liquid tween discharge-charge cycles can be significantly reduced
immersion cooling with Ampcool AC-100 Dielectric Coolant and battery lifetime will be extended. As battery efficiencies
maintained the battery cell’s temperature even with the are raised, so are returns on battery asset investments.

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As electric vehicles and stationary battery arrays become [6] G.-H. Kim, Ph.D. and A. Pesaran, Ph.D., Battery Thermal Management
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batteries, having the right cooling system is fundamental to
maximizing battery efficiency, service life and profitability.
This experiment has shown that thermal management through
Single-phase Liquid Immersion Cooling (SLIC) technology
can safely and efficiently maintain target temperatures in bat- DAVID W. SUNDIN received the B.A. degree in liberal arts (Chemistry)
tery cells and modules. from Hendrix College, Conway, AR, USA, in 1975, MBA from the Keller
Graduate School of Management, Lincolnshire, IL, USA, in 1988, and the
Ph.D. degree in engineering from the Clayton Scholl of Engineering, Clayton,
REFERENCES VIC, Australia, in 1992. He received postgraduate certificates from Fundação
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stationary lithium-ion energy storage enclosures,” Solar Power World, currently Chief Scientist with Engineered Fluids. He has been active for more
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com/2019/04/the-importance-of-thermal-management-of-stationary- American Society of Testing and Materials. His primary areas of research are
lithium-ion-energy-storage-enclosures/ heat transfer and electrical insulating materials.
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pp. 618–628, 2014. SEBASTIAN SPONHOLTZ is currently a Product Manager for SLIC cooling
[5] S. F. Ashkan Nazari, “Heat generation in lithium-ion batteries with dif- systems with Engineered Fluids. He is a self-taught master Machinist and
ferent nominal capacities and chemistries,” Appl. Thermal Eng., vol. 125, Fabricator with extensive experience in building and manufacturing liquid
pp. 1501–1517, 2017. cooling systems for servers, batteries, and blockchain applications.

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