Department of Sociology & Industrial Sociology

Prince Alfred Street, Makhanda, 6139, South Africa

Tel: +27 (0) 46 603 8361/7544
www.ru.ac.za/sociology

SOCIOLOGY 1

2023: FOURTH TERM

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE

‘Climate change is not only a

threat, it is, above all, an
opportunity to create a
healthier, greener and cleaner
planet which will benefit all of
us. We must seize this
opportunity.’ Greta Thunberg
Greenhouse Effect Food Security – COP26 summit, Glasgow,
Tatiana Grozetskaya/Shutterstock.com
Scotland
By Orthalia Kunene

Lecturer: Ms Janet Chisaka

([email protected])
INTRODUCTION
There are various ways of describing and explaining social change. Social change is defined as the
alteration of social interactions, institutions, stratification systems, and elements of culture over
time, and with relatively important consequences. Societies are in a constant state of flux (constant
change). Some changes are rapid (e.g., current social and cultural change due to technology and
climate change), and other changes are more gradual (e.g., economic development). Sometimes
people adapt quickly to change, and other times people resist change or are slow to adapt to new
possibilities (e.g., certain communities resist birth control technology on religious and cultural
grounds). The forces that result in change are complex. Nevertheless, we can identify some of the
key triggers of change: technology, innovation, rapid population growth, revolutionary ideas,
conflict, the pursuit of profit, and social media.
The speed of social change varies from society to society and from time to time within the same
society. It is challenging to explain social change in the diverse and complex world of the late 20th
century to the present day. Theorists from several disciplines have sought to analyse social change.
In some instances, they have examined historical events in order to arrive at a better understanding
of contemporary changes. For example, most development theorists try to understand African
countries’ slow development by including the impact of colonialism on post-independent
economic activities. Other theorists try to explain the many changes that have occurred or are
occurring in the family, religion, education and political systems. It is through theory that we go
beyond descriptions of social change toward explanation. A brief outline of classical sociological
theories of social change, feminism and globalisation is provided below:
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
Nineteenth-century theories of social change reflect the influence of Charles Darwin’s (1809-
1882) pioneering work in biological evolution. According to his approach, there is a continuing
progression of successive life forms. For example, since human beings came at a later stage of
evolution than reptiles, we represent a “higher” form of life. Evolutionary theory is modelled on
Darwin’s biological evolution, and it views society as moving in a definite direction. Early
evolutionary theorists generally agreed that society was inevitably progressing to a higher state.
They concluded that their behaviour and culture were more advanced than those of earlier
civilisations and non-industrial societies (ethnocentrism).

Auguste Comte (1798-1857), the founder of sociology, was an evolutionary theorist of change. He
saw human societies as a moving forward in their thinking from mythology to the scientific
method. Similarly, Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) maintained that society progressed from simple
to more complex forms of social organisation. The writings of Comte and Durkheim are examples
of unilinear evolutionary theory. This approach contends that all societies pass through the same
successive stages of evolution and inevitably reach the same end. English sociologist Herbert
Spencer (1820-1903) used a similar approach: Spencer likened society to a living body with
interrelated parts that were moving toward a common destiny. However, neo-evolutionary

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theorists are more likely to picture social change as multi-linear rather than rely on the more limited
unilinear perspective.
MULTI-LINEAR EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
This theory holds that change can occur in several ways and that it does not inevitably lead in the
same direction. Multi-linear theorists recognise that human culture has evolved along a number of
lines. For example, the theory of demographic transition graphically demonstrates that population
change in developing nations has not necessarily followed the model evident in industrialised
nations. Medical and public health technology was introduced gradually in the developed nations,
which gave them time to adjust to falling death rates and resulting rises in the population. However,
such technology was imported much more rapidly by developing nations, leading to dramatic
population growth and severe pressure on social services and natural resources, including food
production.
CYCLICAL THEORY
Cyclical theorists ask whether change is necessarily ‘progress’ as some evolutionary theorists
claim. Are developed countries on the road to advancement or decline? For example, the current
COVID-19 pandemic is reversing aspects of economic and human development all over the world,
and response to this challenge will lead to social and cultural change (e.g., hugging, kissing and
hand shaking will decline or stopped altogether). Cyclical theorists argue that civilisations are
born, ripen, decay and perish (Oswald Spengler, 1880-1936), and that civilisations rise only when
a proper challenge in the environment is presented to a people who can respond successfully to it
(Toynbee, 1889-1968). If there is no challenge from the environment, or if the society fails to meet
a challenge, that society will either fail to rise in the first place or will decline.
FUNCTIONALIST THEORY
Functionalist sociologists are concerned with the role of cultural elements in preserving the social
order as a whole. They focus on what maintains a system rather than what changes it. This might
seem to suggest that functionalists can offer little of value to the study of social change. Yet, as
the work of American sociologist Talcott Parsons demonstrates, functionalists have made a
distinctive contribution to this area of sociological investigation. Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), a
leading proponent of functionalist theory, viewed society as naturally being in a state of
equilibrium. By “equilibrium”, he meant that society tends toward a state of stability or balance.
Parsons would view even prolonged labour strikes or civilian riots as temporary disruptions in the
status quo rather than as significant alterations in a society’s social structure. Thus, according to
Parsons’ equilibrium model, as changes occur in one part of society, adjustments must be made in
other parts to find a new ‘balance’.

Parsons identified four inevitable processes of social change, namely:

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  Differentiation, which refers to the increasing complexity of social organisation (e.g.,
healthcare carried out by nurses, pharmacists, doctors, physiotherapists etc. instead of a
herbalist or sangoma in traditional societies).
 Adaptive upgrading occurs when social institutions become more specialised (e.g., doctors
specialise as cardiologists, surgeons, obstetricians, orthopaedists etc.).
 Inclusion of previously excluded groups (based on gender, race, age and social class) into
mainstream society (e.g., current affirmative action policy in South Africa).
 Value generation refers to the development of new values that tolerate and legitimate a
vast range of activities (e.g., dieting seen as preventive medicine).
Parson’s approach explicitly incorporates the evolutionary idea of continuing progress, but he
stresses balance and stability (moving equilibrium). Society may change, but it remains stable
through new forms of integration. In the past, kinship ties provided social cohesion, but now laws,
judicial processes, new values and belief systems ensure solidarity. The emphasis in the
functionalist approach is always on a return to stability (equilibrium) and order after social change
has occurred. If a new equilibrium is achieved, the parts of society do not all reach the new balance
at the same time (William Ogburn, 1886-1959). Some parts lag in time behind others. Ogburn
called this cultural lag and applied it to any situation in which disequilibrium is caused by one part
of a society failing to change at the same rate as interrelated parts. He believed that changes in
nonmaterial dimensions of culture (e.g., norms, values, and beliefs) lag behind changes in material
culture (technology and inventions). To him, significant social change occurs when nonmaterial
culture is forced to change due to a prior change in material culture (e.g., sexual norms, values and
beliefs still lag behind birth control technology in most parts of the world, particularly amongst
Catholics).
CONFLICT THEORY
While the functionalist perspective assumes society as inherently stable, conflict theorists view
society as intrinsically unstable. The conflict perspective emphasises the separate parts of society
and the conflict that occurs among them. From this perspective, social change is the result of
struggles between groups for scarce resources. Social change occurs as these conflicts are resolved.
Conflict perspective emerge from the writings of Karl Marx (1818-1883), who largely focussed
on conflict between economically determined social classes within society, but neo-Marxists
include other areas in which they see conflict at work (e.g., ethnicity, gender, race, political parties,
religious groups etc.). In all these areas, the basic source of conflict is assumed to be the unequal
distribution of power and authority (Vago, 1989).
FEMINISM
The feminist perspective advocates equality between men and women. It is both a theory and a
movement, and it has brought about significant worldwide social and cultural change. For
example, feminism has had a profound impact on sociology by challenging the functionalist vision
of the family as a harmonious and egalitarian institution. Many feminist writers have questioned

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the vision that the family is a cooperative unit based on common interests and mutual support
(Giddens, 2006). For example, radical feminists argue that patriarchy explains the unequal and
unfair domestic division of labour in the family. They view the exploitation of women’s labour as
rooted in ‘the domestic mode of production’ in the household, not in the capitalist mode of
production (Delphy, 1992).
GLOBALISATION
Globalisation refers to the fact that we all increasingly live in a unified or integrated world, so that
individuals, groups and nations become interdependent. Globalisation is the growing
interdependence between different peoples, regions and countries in the world as social and
economic relationships come to stretch worldwide. Transnational corporations (TNCs) increase
their profits by producing in countries where production costs are low and selling their products in
the high-consumption markets of the developed world. The development of information and
communication technologies (ICTs) has escalated globalisation, which has intensified the speed
and scope of interaction between people all over the world (Giddens, 2006).

COURSE OBJECTIVE AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

The aim of this course is to offer you an engaging and critical sociological perspective on social
change. Theories of social change will ground your understanding of the underlying trends in the
evolution and transformation of human societies. By the end of the course, you will be able to:

 Provide a sociological definition of social change.

 Explain different sociological theories and perspectives of social change, and be able to
apply them in the tutorial assignments, test and exam-equivalent assessments.
 Explain social and cultural change, particularly change due to biomedicine, a rapid
population growth and climate change.

You are expected to read prescribed readings (available on RUconnected) and encouraged to read
academic journals on the topics covered in the course (e.g., biomedicine, population and climate
change). You are also encouraged to draw on current social media articles, videos and personal
experiences to support your arguments in the tutorial assignments, test and exam.

Please refer to the Sociology Handbook (available on RUconnected) for the rules regarding the
university’s policy on plagiarism as well as the department’s rules regarding formatting,
referencing, and late submission of assignments. All assignment, test and exam submissions MUST
include a signed cover page (available on RUconnected and in the Handbook).

COURSE STRUCTURE AND OVERVIEW

There will be four lectures per week (Monday – Thursday) at 17h00 – 17h45 in Barratt 1.
Prescribed readings and lecture slides will be uploaded on RUconnected. There will be four

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compulsory tutorials starting from the second week of term. You are expected to read prescribed
readings before each lecture, and you are encouraged to ask clarifying questions on the week’s
lecture notes, presentations and readings.

Weeks 1 - 2: Defining and Theorising Social Change (28 August – 8 September)

What is social change? Sociologists define social change as the significant alteration of social
structure and cultural patterns through time (Vago, 1989). This definition underpins various
considerations of social change throughout the course. There are many theories of social change,
ranging from those that explain specific factors that cause small-scale changes to abstract and
broader theories which attempt to understand underlying trends in the evolution and transformation
of human societies. This section will help you understand the key forces that underpin explanations
and characterisations of contemporary social and cultural change.

Prescribed Readings
Thomas, C. (2014). Social change. In: P. Stewart & J. Zaaiman (eds.). Sociology: A South
African introduction, pp. 89-91. Cape Town: Juta & Company.

Vago, S. (1989). Social change, pp.7-15 & 27-59. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Recommended Readings

Giddens, A. (2006). Sociology (fifth edition) Cambridge: Polity Press. [Chapters 1, 7 & 16].
Haralambos, M., Holborn, M. & Heald, R. (2004). Sociology: Themes and perspectives (sixth
edition). London: HarperCollins Publishers. [Chapters 1].
Harper, C.L. (1993). Exploring social change. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
[Chapter 1].
Lauer, R. H. (1991). Perspectives on social change. Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon. [Chapter 1].
Moore, W.E. (1963). Social change. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. [Chapter 1].

Weeks 3 – 4: Sources of Social Change (11 – 22 September)

When we think about a specific change, such as urbanisation, it is not easy to pinpoint a single
source of that change. This is because change tends to result from a complex series of
interconnected events. For example, most sociologists trace the major changes in the structure and
functions of the family to the Industrial Revolution, colonialism, urbanisation, and modernization.
In this section, we will focus on some of these sources of social change, namely: economic
development, globalization, biomedicine and climate change.
Prescribed Readings

Kunene, O. (2019). The impact of climate change on food security and poverty. Available at:

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 https://keepleft.org.za/2019/10/15/the-impact-of-climate-change-on-food-security-and-
poverty/
Thomas, C. (2014). Social change. In: P. Stewart & J. Zaaiman (eds.). Sociology: A South
African introduction, pp. 91-111. Cape Town: Juta & Company.
Rugunanan, P. & Meyers, C. (2022). Transnational family practices and use of polymedia methods
for inter-family communication among Zimbabwean women migrants in South Africa.
South African Review of Sociology, Vol. 52 (4), pp, 72-88.
White, K. (2002). Sociology of health and illness. London: SAGE Publications. [Chapter 1]

Recommended Readings

Fambasayi, R. & Addaney, M. (2021). Cascading impacts of climate change and the rights of
children in Africa: A reflection on the principle of intergenerational equity. African Human
Rights Law Journal, Vol. 21, pp. 29-51
Giddens, A. (2006). Sociology (fifth edition) Cambridge: Polity Press. [Chapters 16].
Haralambos, M., Holborn, M. & Heald, R. (2004). Sociology: Themes and perspectives (sixth
edition) London: HarperCollins Publishers. [Chapter 8].
Makiwane, M., Gumede, N. A., Makoae, M. & Vawda, M. (2017). Family in a changing South
Africa: Structures, functions and the welfare of members. South African Review of
Sociology, Vol. 48 (2), pp. 49-69.
Manka, S., Mapadimeng, M. S. & Mokgadi, R. (2023). Indigenous foods in decline? A study on
changing consumption patterns within the Barolong Boo Ratshidi community, Northwest
Province of South Africa. South African Review of Sociology, Vol. 53 (1), pp. 67-84
Nyahunda, L. & Tirivangasi, H. M. (2020). Effects of climate change on rural women in Makhado
Municipality, Vembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Gender and Behaviour,
Vol. 18 (2), pp. 15769-15778.

Week 5: Feminism (25 – 29 September)

This week’s lectures will focus on feminism as a social movement and as a theory, with a specific
focus on African feminism. The guest lecturer, Ms Corinne Knowles, will provide details and
readings for this section on RUconnected during the first week of term.

Weeks 6 – 7: Population, Demographic and Epidemiological Transitions (3 – 14 October)

Population growth and density are responsible for many of the major policy issues, such as urban
overcrowding, pollution, and family planning. Changes in the size, density, and composition of a
population have an important impact on social change. The focus in this section is on demographic
transition, which involves the study of the current state and changes over time in the size,
distribution, and composition of human populations. We will also include epidemiological
transition, which is used to demarcate the change from predominantly infectious causes of death,
still common in poorer countries, to degenerative diseases, which have become the leading cause
of death in richer countries (McKeown, 2009).

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Prescribed Reading

du Plessis, G. (2014). Population. In: P. Stewart & J. Zaaiman (eds.). Sociology: A South African
introduction, pp. 55-84. Cape Town: Juta & Company (RUconnected).
Recommended Readings and YouTube Videos
Bhana, D. & Nkani, N. (2016). ‘What can I do, the child is already here?’ Caregivers, gender,
poverty and the contradiction of care in supporting teenage mothers at school. South
African Review of Sociology, Vol. 47 (2), pp. 3-18.
Cleland, J. & Machiyama, K. (2017). The challenges posed by demographic change in sub-
Saharan Africa: A concise overview. Fertility Transition in sub-Saharan Africa, Vol. 43
(S1), pp. 264-286.
Cunningham, P., Boult, B. & Popenoe, D. (1998). Sociology (first edition), pp. 396-414.
Johannesburg: Prentice Hall South Africa.
Duminy, J. (2023). Critical commentary: Beyond growth and density: Recentring the demographic
drivers of urban health and risk in the global south. Available at:
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epub/10.1177/00420980211014410
Mckeown, R. E. (2009). The epidemiologic transition: Changing patterns of mortality and
population dynamics. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, Vol. 3 (1Suppl), pp. 1-14
Moyo, I. & Nicolau, M. D. (2016). Remittances and development: Zimbabwean migrant teachers
in South Africa and their impact on their Zimbabwean families. African Population
Studies, Vol. 30 (2), pp. 2506-2519.
Muza, C. & Mangombe, K. (2019). Population development in Africa with special regards to
ageing. African Population Studies, Vol. 33 (2), pp. 4913-4926.
United Nations Population Fund. (2023). Available at: https://youtu.be/_rMyZLaalPM
United Nations Population Fund. (2023). Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lqv7EhlK1Gg
United Nations Population Fund. (2023). Available at: https://youtu.be/Lxu15yLM5NI?t=3
Vago, S (1989). Social change, pp. 157-163. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
MODULE ASSESSMENT
Five assignments will be written for this module: four compulsory tutorial assignments (assessed
by tutors), and a test (assessed by Ms Chisaka). The test counts 95% of the term mark, and it is
mandatory as it is part of your Duly Performed (DP) requirements for Sociology 1. Although the
tutorial assignment mark counts only 5% towards your term mark, it is in your best interest to pay
attention to each tutorial because one of the tutorial questions will be included in the exam.

If you are unable to attend the tutorial or write the test on the stipulated date, you must apply for a
Leave of Absence (LOA). A failure to do so will jeopardise your DP (see pages 19-21 of the
Sociology Handbook). Email Mrs Juanita Fuller ([email protected]) or Mrs Noluvuyo Sakata
([email protected]) for the LOA form, which must be submitted to the Head of

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Department for approval. An LOA is not automatically approved and must be accompanied by
relevant documents (e.g., medical certificate) to support the application.

A test will be written on 22 September in the Great Hall from 17h00 to 18h30.

You will write two essays in the November exams, which are based on the material covered in the
lectures and tutorials. The module mark is broken down as follows:

 Test and tutorial assignment – 30%

 November examination – 70%

Tutorial Assignment 1 – 8 & 9 September

Sociologists define social change as any significant alteration, modification, or transformation in
the organisation and operation of social activity. As a sociologist, when you study change, you
must first identify the social activity that has changed or is changing.

Question:

What theory or theories of social change do you think provide(s) a better explanation of the
changing perceptions among African youth in 21st century?

Assignment criteria:

 Read the article – Who is influencing who? Unpacking youth and influence in Africa.
Available at: http://africanofilter.org/documents/ANF_Who-is-Influencing-
Who_Research-Report.pdf
 Write an introduction in two to three sentences outlining how you will answer the question;
 Identify two to three factors that have triggered the change in perceptions on how African
youth view themselves and the continent;
 Discuss in two to three paragraphs a theory or theories of social change that provides a
better explanation of the change in youth perceptions of themselves and the continent;
 Conclusion, write two to three sentences summarising your discussion;
 Your assignment must be 800-1000 words in length;
 Reference article in-text as: Africa no Filter (2023) as part of a sentence; or as (Africa no
Filter, 2023) at the end of a sentence.
 List article on the reference list as:
Africa no Filter (2023). Who is influencing who?: Unpacking youth and influence in
Africa. Available at: http://africanofilter.org/documents/ANF_Who-is-Influencing-
Who_Research-Report.pdf [Accessed XX September 2023]. XX - you must insert the date
on which you read the article.

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Tutorial Assignment 2 – 15 & 16 September
When sociologists study any social change, they take particular interest in identifying tipping
points – situations in which previously rare events snowball into commonplace ones (e.g., the now
frequent and increased intensity of floods due to climate).

Question:

Do you agree with the proposal that high-income countries must compensate low-income countries
for the negative consequences of natural disasters due climate change?

Assignment criteria:

 Read - Cyclone Freddy in Malawi: Reflections from a primary care perspective. Available
at: https://0-journals.co.za.wam.seals.ac.za/doi/epdf/10.4102/phcfm.v15i1.4142 and on
RUconnected.
And read – COP27 Climate change conference: Urgent action needed for Africa and the
world. Available at: https://phcfm.org/index.php/phcfm/article/view/3830/5806 and on
RUconnected.
 Write an introduction in two to three sentences outlining how you will answer the question;
 In three to four paragraphs draw on the sources of social and cultural change, such as
economic development, modernisation and globalisation to support your position (i.e.
whether you agree or disagree that high-income countries must compensate low-income
countries for the loss and damage caused by climate change);
 Conclusion, write two to three sentences summarising your discussion;
 Your assignment must be 800-1000 words in length;
 Reference article in-text as Lutala and Makwero (2023) as part of a sentence, or as (Lutala
& Makwero, 2023) at the end of a sentence (see the Sociology Handbook).
 Reference Atwoli et al. (2023) as part of the sentence, or as (Atwoli et al., 2023) at the end
of the sentence (see the Sociology Handbook).
 List articles on the reference list as:
Lutala, P. & Makwero, M. (2023). Cyclone Freddy in Malawi: Reflections from a primary
care perspective. Available at: https://0-
journals.co.za.wam.seals.ac.za/doi/epdf/10.4102/phcfm.v15i1.4142 [Accessed on XX
September 2023] XX - you must insert the date on which you read the article (see the
Sociology Handbook).
Atwoli, L. et al. (2023). COP27 Climate change conference: Urgent action needed for
Africa and the world. Available at:
https://phcfm.org/index.php/phcfm/article/view/3830/5806
[Accessed on 1 September 2023] XX - you must insert the date on which you downloaded
the article (see the Sociology Handbook).

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Tutorial 3: 29 & 30 September

The details for this tutorial on feminism will be provided on RUconnected in the first week of the
term.

Tutorial 4: 6 & 7 October

Why are Thomas Malthus’ positive checks (e.g., famine, infectious diseases, war and natural
disasters) not controlling the rapid population growth in Africa?

Assignment criteria:

 Watch: Nigeria's population projected to double by 2050. Available at:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FsOiNKdMOks
 Watch: Women fleeing from conflict in Sudan receive mental health support in Egypt.
Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lxu15yLM5NI
 Write an introduction in two to three sentences outlining how you will answer the question;
 Identify three to four factors contributing to a rapid population growth in Africa;
 In three paragraphs, use the demographic transition theory and the Malthusian perspective
to explain your identified factors that are causing a rapid population growth in Africa;
 Conclusion, write two to three sentences summarising your discussion;
 Your essay must be 800-1000 words in length.
 Reference YouTube in-text as Voice of America (2019) as part of a sentence, or as (Voice
of America, 2019) at the end of the sentence (see the Sociology Handbook).
 Reference YouTube video as UNFPA (2023) as part of a sentence, or as (UNFPA, 2023)
at the end of the sentence (see the Sociology Handbook).
 List YouTube video on the reference as:
 Voice of America. (2019). Nigeria's population projected to double by 2050. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FsOiNKdMOks [Accessed on XX October 2023] XX
- you must insert the date on which you watch the YouTube video (see the Sociology
Handbook).
United Nations Population Fund. (2023). Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lxu15yLM5NI [Accessed on XX October 2023] XX -
you must insert the date on which you watched the YouTube video (see the Sociology
Handbook).

MODULE EVALUATION
As a department, we are committed to reflecting on our teaching practices and module content to
strengthen our courses. Towards the end of the term, you will be asked to participate in a module
evaluation process. Please take this seriously and evaluate the module honestly and
comprehensively. Your input will be highly appreciated and make a real contribution to enhancing
teaching and learning in the department.

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CONSULTATION TIMES:
Tuesday and Wednesday: 10am – 12.30pm
Friday: 14.15pm – 16.30pm
Please email me ([email protected]) to book an appointment

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