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Prepared by:
Engr. Marvin V. Rosales
Materials
1. Scientific calculator
2. Thermodynamics table
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References:
Titles, authors, and editions of textbooks and other materials,
required and recommended
1. Richard E. Sonntag et al. Fundamental of Thermodynamics.6th Edition.
New York: John Wiley and Sons. C. 2003
2. Michael J. Moran and Howard N. Shapiro. Fundamentals of Engineering
Thermodynamics. 4th Edition. United States of America: John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. C. 1999
3. M. David Burghardt and James A. Harbach. Engineering
Thermodynamics.3rd Edition. New York: Harper & Row Publisher, Inc. C.
1993
4. Yunus A. Cengel and Michael A. Boles. Thermodynamics: An Engineering
Approach. 1st Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill, Inc. C.
1989
➢ the branch of physical science that deals with the relations between heat and other
forms of energy (such as mechanical, electrical, o r chemical energy), and, by
extension, of the relationships between all forms of energy.
Engineers use principles drawn from thermodynamics and other engineering
sciences, including;
✓ fluid mechanics
✓ heat and mass transfer
✓ Air-conditioning and Refrigeration system
✓ Internal Combustion Engine
✓ Power Plant Engineering
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➢ The term system is used to identify the subject
of the analysis.
➢ The system is whatever we want to study
It may be:
✓ Study a quantity of matter contained
within a closed, rigid-walled tank
✓ pipeline through which natural gas
flows and etc.
➢ Everything external to the system is considered to
be part of the system’s surroundings
➢ The system is distinguished from its surroundings by a
specified boundary, which may be at rest or in motion
Two basic kinds of systems
➢ A closed system refers to a fixed quantity
of matter (also known as control mass)
✓ A special type of closed system that does not interact in any
way with its surroundings is called an isolated system.
➢ A control volume is a region of space
through which mass may flow (also
known as open system)
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❖ Macroscopic and Microscopic Views of Thermodynamics
✓ Macroscopic point of view
The macroscopic approach to thermodynamics is
concerned with the gross or overall behavior. This is
sometimes called classical thermodynamics.
✓ Microscopic point of view
known as statistical thermodynamics, is concerned directly
with the structure of matter. The objective of statistical
thermodynamics is to characterize by statistical means the
average behavior of the particles making up a system of
interest and relate this information to the observed
macroscopic behavior of the system
❖ Property, State, and Process
✓ A property is a macroscopic characteristic of a system such as mass,
volume, energy, pressure, and temperature to which a numerical value
can be assigned at a given time without knowledge of the previous
behavior (history) of the system.
✓ The word state refers to the condition of a system as described by its
properties. Since there are normally relations among the properties of
a system, the state often can be specified by providing the values of a
subset of the properties. All other properties can be determined in
terms of these few.
✓ When any of the properties of a system changes, the state changes
and the system is said to undergo a process. A process is a
transformation from one state to another.
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❖ Property, State, and Process
✓ A system is said to be at steady state if none of its properties
changes with time.
❖ Extensive and Intensive Properties
✓ Extensive property
If its value for an overall system is the sum of its values
for the parts into which the system is divided. Mass,
volume, energy, and several other properties introduced
later are extensive. Extensive properties depend on the
size or extent of a system.
✓ Intensive property
Properties are not additive in the sense previously
considered. Their values are independent of the size or
extent of a system and may vary from place to place
within the system at any moment. Intensive properties
may be functions of both position and time
Measuring Mass, Length, Time, and Force
Some SI and English Units
In SI, the units of mass, length, and time are the kilogram (kg), meter (m), and
second (s), respectively. The respective units in the English system are the pound-
mass (lbm), foot (ft), and second (s).
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In SI, the force unit is the newton (N), and it is defined as the force
required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2. In the English
system, the force unit is the pound-force (lbf) and is defined as the
force required to accelerate a mass of 32.174 lbm (1 slug) at a rate of
1 ft/s2
Force Units
We call a mass of 32.174 lbm 1 slug
➢ When substances can be treated as continua, it is possible to speak of
their intensive thermodynamic properties “at a point.” Thus, at any
instant the density at a point is defined as
where V’ is the smallest volume for which a definite value of the ratio
exists. The volume V’ contains enough particles for statistical averages to
be significant. It is the smallest volume for which the matter can be
considered a continuum and is normally small enough that it can be
considered a “point.”
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➢ The density, or local mass per unit volume, is an intensive property
that may vary from point to point within a system. Thus, the mass
associated with a particular volume V is determined in principle by
integration
and not simply as the product of density and volume.
➢ Specific volume
✓ is defined as the reciprocal of the density
➢ The concept of pressure from the continuum
viewpoint. Let us begin by considering a
small area, A, passing through a point in a
fluid at rest. The fluid on one side of the area
exerts a compressive force on it that is
normal to the area, Fnormal. An equal but
oppositely directed force is exerted on the
area by the fluid on the other side. For a fluid
at rest, no other forces than these act on the
area. The Pressure, p, at the specified point
is defined as the limit
where A’ is the area at the “point” in the same
limiting sense as used in the definition of
density.
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➢ Absolute Pressure is obtained by adding the atmospheric pressure
either to the gage pressure or vacuum pressure, the atmospheric
pressure obtained from the barometric reading.
For internal pressure above atmospheric,
Pabs = Patm + Pgage
For internal pressure less than atmospheric
Pabs = Patm - Pvac
➢ Atmospheric Pressure is defined as being equivalent to a
mercury column 760 mm high, where mercury has
temperature of 0 0C.
The standard reference atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg, 29.92 inHg at 32 0 F,
14.696 psia, 1 atm, 101.325 kPa.
➢ Gage Pressure the difference between
the internal pressure and the outside
pressure as indicated by pressure gage.
In usual, in usual cases the outside
pressure is atmospheric pressure.
➢ Vacuum difference between the
outside ( or atmospheric pressure ) and
internal pressure when the latter is less
than the former. It is also referred to as
negative gage pressure.
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❖ Pressure Measurement
✓ Manometers and baro meters measure
pressure in terms of the length of a
column of liquid such as mercury, water,
or oil.
Applying an elementary force balance:
✓ Specific Gravity ( S.G. ) is the ratio of the
density of any fluid to the density of water at
4 o C for liquids. The density of water at this
reference temperature has been determined to
be 1000 kg/m3 . Thus for liquids we can use
the following equation:
❖ Pressure Units
✓ The SI unit of pressure and stress is the pascal:
✓ Multiples of the pascal, the kPa, the bar, and
the MPa,
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❖ Temperature
✓ is an indication of hotness or coldness and
therefore is a measure of the intensity of
heat.
Temperature Scales:
✓ Absolute temperature is the temperature
measured from absolute zero.
✓ Absolute zero temperature is the
temperature at which all molecular
motion ceases.
EXAMPLE
A steel cylinder of mass 2 kg contains 4 L of liquid water at 25 C at 200 kPa.
Find the total mass and volume of the system
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EXAMPLE
When you move up from the surface of the earth the gravitation is reduced as g
= 9.807 − 3.32 × 10-6 z, with z as the elevation in meters. How many percent is
the weight of an airplane reduced when it cruises at 11 000 m?
EXAMPLE
A 1 m3 container is filled with 400 kg of granite stone, 200 kg dry sand and 0.2
m3 of liquid 25°C water. Use properties from tables A.3 and A.4. Find the
average specific volume and density of the masses when you exclude air mass
and volume.
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EXAMPLE
The density of atmospheric air is about 1.15 kg/m3, which we assume is
constant. How large an absolute pressure will a pilot see when flying 1500 m
above ground level where the pressure is 101 kPa.
EXAMPLE
Blue manometer fluid of density 925 kg/m3 shows a column height
difference of 6 cm vacuum with one end attached to a pipe and the other
open to P 0 = 101 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in the pipe?
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EXAMPLE
A piston/cylinder with cross sectional area of 0.01 m2 has a piston mass of 100
kg resting on the stops, as shown. With an outside atmospheric pressure of 100
kPa, what should the water pressure be to lift the piston?
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