Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs  Volume 18  Number 1  2018 3–14

doi: 10.1111/1471-3802.12388

Factors related to successful transition planning for

adolescents on the autism spectrum
€ rn Falkmer1,2,3 and Marita Falkmer1,2,4
Megan Hatfield1,2, Marina Ciccarelli1,2, Torbjo
1
Curtin University, Australia; 2Cooperative Research Centre for Living with Autism (Autism CRC), Australia; 3Linko€ ping
€ nko
University and Pain Rehabilitation Centre, Sweden; 4Institution of Disability Research Jo € ping University, Sweden

Key words: Asperger syndrome, Child development disorder, Pervasive developmental disorder, Employment,
Vocational education, College, University, Career planning and development.

their parents (Howlin, Moss, Savage, et al., 2013). In

Adolescents on the autism spectrum often have diffi- addition, people with autism often experience a decline in
culties with the transition from high school to post- their social relationships after leaving school and mostly
school activities. Despite this, little is known about the engage in solitary leisure activities (Howlin, Moss, Sav-
transition planning processes for this group. This age, et al., 2013). Interestingly, people on the autism
study explored predisposing, reinforcing and spectrum without an intellectual disability (ID) are three
enabling factors related to the transition planning times less likely to engage in post-school activities when
processes for adolescents on the autism spectrum in compared to people with autism who have an ID (Taylor
Australia. The PRECEDE model guided a needs and Seltzer, 2011). The poorer outcomes for this group
assessment, in which descriptive data about transi- are likely due to a number of reasons. They may not
tion planning processes were collected via an online
qualify for employment or study support programs (Tay-
questionnaire from adolescents on the autism spec-
lor et al., 2012) and face unique difficulties with transi-
trum, their parents and professionals (N = 162). Pre-
disposing factors included: an individualised and tions, social skills and emotional regulation (Hillier et al.,
strengths-focused approach, and adolescent motiva- 2007).
tion, anxiety and insight. Reinforcing factors included:
support and guidance, skill development and real-life A common barrier to successful post-school outcomes for
experiences. Enabling factors were: having a clear adolescents on the autism spectrum is a lack of transition
plan with a coordinated approach, scheduled meet- planning (Morningstar and Clark, 2003). Transition plan-
ings and clear formal documentation. Whilst some ning involves a set of coordinated activities that support
factors aligned with recommendations for transition adolescents in secondary school to successfully negotiate
planning for adolescents with disabilities in general, the move from school into adult life (Cobb and Alwell,
there were some autism-specific factors. For exam-
2009; Roberts, 2010). It includes preparation for the tran-
ple: anxiety, motivation and insight were important
sition to employment, post-secondary education and voca-
predisposing factors, and providing choice and flexi-
bility was an enabling factor. tional training (Roberts, 2010). Transition planning has
been linked to improved self-determination, increased
rates of employment, enhanced success in post-secondary
settings, greater happiness and improved participation in
Introduction the community (King, Baldwin, Currie, et al., 2005). Cur-
A key priority of the Australian National Disability Strat- rently, schools tend to focus on the academic performance
egy 2010–2020 is increased workforce participation for of adolescents with autism, rather than engaging in com-
people with disabilities (Council of Australian Govern- prehensive and autism-specific transition planning (Lee
ments, 2010). Unfortunately, people on the autism spec- and Carter, 2012). Even when transition planning require-
trum are a group left behind; they have lower ments are met for adolescents with autism, their outcomes
employment rates (42%) than people with other types of are still inferior to their peers with other disabilities
disabilities (53%), and people without a diagnosed dis- (Newman et al., 2011). This indicates that transition plan-
ability (83%) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012). ning practices for adolescents on the autism spectrum
Adolescents on the autism spectrum are also significantly need to be further explored (Benitez, Morningstar and
less likely to attend post-secondary education and training Frey, 2009; Morningstar and Clark, 2003). Studies have
than other disability groups (44%, P < 0.021) (Newman found that up to 23% of adolescents with autism are not
et al., 2011). Most adults on the autism spectrum con- involved in transition planning at all, and even when
tinue to live at home after leaving school, and those that afforded the opportunity to be involved in transition plan-
do move out of home often require continued support by ning, they were less likely to be described as active

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participants than students in other disability groups Methods

(Shogren and Plotner, 2012). This suggests that adoles-
Participants
cents with autism may have specific transition planning
Purposive sampling was utilised to obtain multiple per-
needs that are not being met.
spectives from three independent groups:
Whilst there is a large amount of research describing ele-
ments of high-quality transition planning for adolescents
• adolescents or young adults on the autism spectrum
without ID, who were in years 9–12 in high school or
with disabilities in general (Cobb and Alwell, 2009; King,
who had finished high school in the past 5 years;
Baldwin, Currie, et al., 2005; Kohler, 1996; Lindstrom
et al., 2007; Wehman, 2013), evidence that is specific to
• parents/carers of adolescents who fit the above criteria;
and
adolescents on the autism spectrum is less prolific (Hen-
dricks and Wehman, 2009; Lee and Carter, 2012; Test,
• professionals who worked with adolescents on the aut-
ism spectrum in transition planning.
Smith and Carter, 2014). Furthermore, autism-specific
recommendations are often inferred from general studies
The groups were key stakeholders in the transition team,
about adolescents with disabilities, introducing the risk
and collaboration between these groups is recommended
that important elements are missed. More research is
in transition planning (Cameto, Levine and Wagner,
required to determine the transition planning needs speci-
2004; Cobb and Alwell, 2009; Test et al., 2009b).
fic to adolescents on the autism spectrum (Lee and Carter,
2012).
Recruitment procedure
Participants were recruited via e-mails distributed to fami-
The PRECEDE model lies with a child on the autism spectrum through a variety
Identifying intervention needs for a specific population is of sources across Australia, including schools (main-
a complex process, hence it is beneficial to have a frame- stream, education support, public and private schools);
work to guide this process (Gielen and Eileen, 1996). support networks for individuals with autism and their
The PRECEDE model provides such a framework; it families; and autism-specific associations/organisations.
describes a number of phases that allow for the system- Professional participants were recruited via e-mails sent
atic application of theory and in the development of inter- out to organisations that provide services for people with
ventions (Crosby and Noar, 2011). The PRECEDE model disabilities and disability support services at universities
has been used in previous studies to identify the interven- throughout Australia.
tion needs of specific groups (Girdler, Packer and Boldy,
2008; Millard et al., 2014). Data collection instrument
An online questionnaire was developed with Qualtrics
One of the key phases in the PRECEDE model is con- software (Version 2013, Provo, Utah, USA) and used to
ducting a comprehensive needs assessment to identify collect data. The questionnaire utilised both closed- and
factors relevant to the target group (Green and Kreuter, open-ended questions to gain insights and ‘give voice’
1999). The model describes three groups of factors that into the perspectives of the adolescents, their parents and
influence the outcome of interest: predisposing, reinforc- professionals critical to improving transition planning
ing and enabling factors (Crosby and Noar, 2011). Pre- (Brantlinger, Jimenez, Klingner, et al., 2005). Question-
disposing factors are cognitive mindsets or ways of naire content was based on the results of a systematic
thinking that bring about behaviour, including knowledge, review (Murray, Hatfield, Falkmer, et al., 2016), and fur-
attitudes and self-efficacy (Carlson Gielen, McDonald, ther developed through consultation with a community
Gary, et al., 2008). Reinforcing factors promote and reference group comprised of three stakeholder groups:
reward continued engagement in behaviour; for example, young people on the autism spectrum, parents/carers and
social support, external incentives or peer influences professionals (Cooperative Research Centre for Living
(Carlson Gielen, McDonald, Gary, et al., 2008). Finally, with Autism Spectrum Disorders, 2014). Language and
enabling factors are external and environmental condi- content of the questionnaire was tailored for each of the
tions that impact on people’s ability to adopt behaviours, groups. The questionnaire was pilot tested with 10 people
such as accessibility of services, availability of resources (including young adults with autism, parents and profes-
and policies (Crosby and Noar, 2011). sionals) prior to administration to ensure feasibility for
each group.
Aim
The primary aim of the current study was to conduct a The questionnaire comprised of three sections:
needs assessment to determine the predisposing, reinforc-
ing and enabling factors that impact on successful transi- 1. Demographic information. Participants were asked to
tion for adolescents on the autism spectrum. A secondary provide demographic details, such as gender, residen-
aim was to link these factors to perceptions of current tial postcode and diagnosis. Questions were developed
and ideal transition planning processes. based on a previous questionnaire conducted at Curtin

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University in Western Australia (Horlin, Falkmer, Par- The themes were then compared and contrasted between
sons, et al., 2014), and Australian Bureau of Statistics each stakeholder group.
questionnaires measuring the demographics of children
and families (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012). Ethical considerations
2. Current and ideal transition planning. Participants Approval to conduct the study was granted by the Curtin
answered questions about their experiences with transi- University Human Research Ethics Committee (approval
tion planning (i.e., the ‘current’ situation) and what number HR110/2014) in Western Australia (WA), the
they would prefer to happen (i.e., the ‘ideal’ situation). Catholic Education Office of WA, and the Department of
Participants were asked about the following aspects of Education WA. Participants received an email that included
transition planning: the school year that transition a participant information sheet and the electronic link to the
planning starts; composition of the transition planning online questionnaire. Participants provided informed writ-
team; team coordinator; transition planning assessment; ten informed consent by replying in the affirmative to the
frequency of transition planning meetings; documenta- first question of the questionnaire. Skip-logic was utilised
tion of the transition plan and transition planning to ensure that only those participants who provided
activities. informed consent could access and complete the remainder
3. Barriers and enablers in transition planning. Partici- of the questionnaire. There is increasing recognition of the
pants were invited to describe the ‘most helpful’ and importance of including adolescents and young adults on
‘most challenging’ aspects to transition planning using the autism spectrum in research, with a growing body of
open-ended responses. work in this area (Harrington, Foster, Rodger, et al., 2014).
In this study, it was crucial to ensure the perspectives of
See Data S1 for the full parent version of the question- adolescents were considered in how to improve the transi-
naire. The questionnaire data were de-identified. tion planning process. Ethical concerns for this group were
taken into consideration, as informed participation for ado-
Data analyses lescents on the autism spectrum may be compromised due
Data related to current and ideal transition planning were to difficulties with communication and social understand-
analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social ing that accompany the diagnosis (Gallagher, Haywood,
Sciences (SPSS v.20, Armonk, NY, USA: IBM Corp). Jones, et al., 2010). To ensure ethical standard was upheld,
Given that the stakeholder groups were independent (not participants under 18 years of age provided informed
related), data were analysed at the group level. Descrip- assent, and their parents provided informed consent for
tive statistics were used to summarise participants’ their participation. In the information forms, the direct rele-
responses regarding current transition planning processes vance of the research to adolescents on the autism spectrum
and what they would ideally like. A new dichotomous was outlined for participants, as recommended for this
variable for each item was created to denote whether group (Knight and Oliver, 2007). In addition, the language
there was a match between current and ideal transition used in the information and consent forms was tailored to
planning processes (yes) or a gap (no) from the perspec- support adolescents understanding of the project as recom-
tives of each stakeholder group. Generalised estimating mended for this population (Gallagher, Haywood, Jones,
equations (GEE) modelling was performed to determine et al., 2010), and this was approved by the aforementioned
whether participants’ perception of the ideal transition ethical committees.
planning process matched their current experiences. The
results of the GEE modelling are reported using odds
Results
ratios (OR), 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), and P-
values. Kruskal–Wallis tests were performed to deter- Demographics
mine if there was a difference between stakeholder One hundred and sixty-two participants completed the
groups with regard to any mismatches between current questionnaire; including 83 parents, 26 adolescents on
experiences in transition planning and their perceptions the autism spectrum and 53 professionals. As shown in
of the ideal. The level of significance for all statistical Table 1, 73% of adolescents on the autism spectrum
tests was P < 0.05. were male; 50% had left school and the other 50% were
still attending school. Parent participants were mainly
Qualitative responses from each stakeholder group were female (83%) and most had children who were still
independently coded by two researchers to enhance credi- attending school (70%). Socio-Economic Indexes for
bility of results (Anfara, Brown and Mangione, 2002). Areas (SEIFA) deciles were used to determine relative
Responses were read, coded, and then re-coded as socio-economic advantage and disadvantage of partici-
needed, using principles of constant comparison within pants (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2011). SEIFA
and between the responses (Harding, 2013; Liamputtong, deciles range from 1 to 10, where 1 indicates that a par-
2013). This resulted in a number of different emergent ticipant resides in an area within the lowest 10% of
themes for each group related to the predisposing, rein- socio-economic advantage, and so on up to 10 which
forcing and enabling factors described in the PRECEDE indicates the participant resides in an area within the
model (Carlson Gielen, McDonald, Gary, et al., 2008). highest 10% of socio-economic advantage. The majority

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Table 1: Demographics of participating parents Table 2: Demographics of participating professionals

(n = 83) and adolescents on the autism spectrum (n = 53)
(n = 26) Characteristic Professionals, n (%)
Parents, Adolescents on the Gender
Characteristic n (%) autism spectrum, n (%)
Male 7 (13.2)
Gender
Female 46 (86.8)
Male 14 (16.9) 19 (73.1)
Profession
Female 69 (83.1) 7 (26.9)
Disability employment coordinator/officer 19 (35.9)
Child’s year at school
Local government disability coordinator 4 (7.5)
Year 7 1 (1.2) 0 (0)
Therapist 14 (26.4)
Year 8 2 (2.4) 0 (0)
Teacher/lecturer 10 (18.9)
Year 9 16 (19.3) 3 (23.1)
Other 6 (11.3)
Year 10 17 (20.5) 5 (19.2)
Experience in current profession
Year 11 9 (10.8) 2 (7.7)
0–5 years 26 (49.0)
Year 12 8 (9.6) 3 (11.5)
6–10 years 14 (26.4)
Left school 30 (36.1) 13 (50)
11–15 years 4 (7.5)
Socio-economic status (SEIFA)
16–20 years 3 (5.7)
1–6 35 (42.2) 8 (30.7)
20+ 6 (11.3)
7–8 12 (14.4) 7 (26.9)
Organisation
9–10 33 (39.8) 9 (34.6)
School 9 (17)
Did not provide postcode 3 (3.6) 2 (7.7)
Disability service 22 (41.5)
State
Employment service 14 (26.4)
New South Wales 1 (1.2) 2 (7.7)
Private organisation 4 (7.5)
Australian Capital Territory 0 (0) 0 (0)
Other 4 (7.5)
Victoria 3 (3.6) 0 (0)
Queensland 4 (4.8) 0 (0)
South Australia 1 (1.2) 0 (0)
Western Australia 69 (83.1) 23 (88.4)
Figure 1: Year to start transition planning (all
groups, current n = 95, ideal n = 121)
Tasmania 1 (1.2) 0 (0)
Northern Territory 1 (1.2) 0 (0) 35%
Current Ideal
Did not provide State 3 (3.6) 1 (3.8) 30%

25%

20%
of adolescents and parents were in the top two SEIFA
15%
deciles – 35% and 40%, respectively. The adolescents
and parents were mainly from Western Australia – 88% 10%
and 83%, respectively. Some adolescents and parents 5%
had not commenced transition planning yet, and thus 0%
only answered the questions about their perceptions of Year 7 Year 8 Year 9 Year 10 Year 11 Year 12
the ideal transition planning process. Therefore, there
were fewer responses to questions about the current
transition planning experiences than to questions about
the ideal process. should ideally start (Figure 1). Most adolescents on the
autism spectrum (72%) reported they started transition
The majority of professionals were female (87%); held planning in Year 10 or later. There was no consensus on
the roles of Disability Employment Coordinators/Officers the ideal school year in which to start transition planning;
(36%), therapists (26%) and teachers/lecturers (19%); and however, Years 7 and 10 were the most popular across
had more than 5 years of experience working with people all groups (29% and 28%, respectively). There was a mis-
on the autism spectrum (51%), as shown in Table 2. match or gap between the current and the ideal school
year to start transition planning reported across all groups;
Year that transition planning starts with 65% of participants reporting they would have liked
Participants identified the school year in which transition transition planning to start earlier. No between-group dif-
planning currently started and when they thought it ferences were found (P > 0.05).

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Figure 2: Transition planning team members (all groups, current n = 95, ideal n = 121)

100%
Current Ideal
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Adolescent Parents/carers Extended Support Teachers School special Career Govt disability Therapists Disability
Family Worker needs guidance coordinator employment
coordinator officer provider

Transition planning team assessed. The least frequently reported aspects were trig-
Participants identified the people who were currently in gers for meltdowns (36%); participation in community
the transition planning team, and who they thought activities (40%); sensory preferences (41%) and learning
should ideally be in the team (Figure 2). Seventy-eight style (42%). Overall, participants reported that ideally all
per cent of participants reported the adolescent was cur- the aspects pertaining to the adolescent listed in the ques-
rently in the team, and 84% believed the adolescent tionnaire should be assessed during transition planning.
should ideally be on the team. Similarly, 80% reported However, this was not currently happening, resulting in a
that parents were currently in the team and 87% believed gap between the current and ideal assessment processes.
the parent should ideally be on the team. There was no There were no between-group differences identified
consensus among all stakeholders with regard to the ideal (P > 0.05).
composition of the transition planning team. The propor-
tion of professionals who believed there was a gap Frequency of transition planning meetings
between the current and ideal team composition (80%) Participants identified how often the transition planning
was significantly higher than the adolescents (52%; team currently met and how often they believed the team
OR = 2.7, 95% CI = 1.3–5.5, P = 0.006). should ideally meet (Figure 5). Nearly half of participants
reported that meetings were currently conducted once a
Team coordinator year (49%). The most frequently reported ideal meeting
Participants identified who the current coordinator of the schedule was once every 3 months (43%). Parents (68%)
transition planning team was and who they thought and professionals (83%) wanted to meet more frequently
should ideally coordinate the team (Figure 3). Parents to review the transition plan; however, 64% of the adoles-
were most frequently reported to be the coordinator cents reported the current meeting schedule was ideal
(43%); followed by teachers (22%); while only 5% of (v2(2) = 13.03, P = 0.001).
participants reported that the adolescent coordinated the
transition planning team. There was no consensus among Documentation of the transition plan
all stakeholders with regard to who should ideally be Participants identified the current format used to docu-
coordinator of the transition planning team. The majority ment the transition plan, and what they believed should
of adolescents (71%) reported that the person who cur- be the ideal format (Figure 6). One-third (34%) of partici-
rently coordinated their transition planning was also the pants reported there was no current formal documentation
ideal person for the role. In contrast, 61% of parents and of the transition plan. Participants ideally would like the
79% of professionals reported that the person who cur- transition plan to either be written in a separate docu-
rently coordinated the transition planning was not their ment, or in one cohesive plan. The majority of parents
ideal choice for team coordinator (v2(2) = 10.21; (82%) and professionals (74%) and half of the adoles-
P = 0.006). cents (50%) believed the transition plan should be docu-
mented in a format different to that which was currently
Transition planning assessment used. There were no between-group differences identified
Participants identified the aspects of the adolescent that (P > 0.05).
were currently assessed during transition planning and
what they thought should ideally be assessed (Figure 4). Transition planning activities
Interests (89%), career goals (76%) and strengths (75%) Participants identified the current activities used to pre-
were the most frequently reported aspects currently pare for leaving school and those they believe should

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Figure 3: Transition planning team coordinator (all groups, current n = 83, ideal n = 121)

50%
Current Ideal
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Adolescent Parents/carers Extended Support Worker Teachers School special Career guidance Govt Therapists Disability
Family needs officer coordinator employment
coordinator provider

Figure 4: Transition planning assessment areas (all groups, current n = 81, ideal n = 118)

Current Ideal
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

Figure 5: Frequency of transition planning meetings Figure 6: Documentation of the transition plan (all
(all groups, current n = 69, ideal n = 119) groups, current n = 77, ideal n = 119)

60% 50%
Current Ideal
Current Ideal 45%
50% 40%
35%
40%
30%
30% 25%
20%
20% 15%
10% 10%
5%
0% 0%
1x month 1x every 3 1x every 6 1x year Not formally Included in educaon In one big plan Separate document
documented plan
months months

Predisposing factors
ideally be included (Figure 7). Work experience was the
most commonly reported activity (71%), and mentoring Individualised and strengths-focused approach. A
the least (14%). The other activities were only completed predisposing factor in transition planning identified by all
by about half the respondents currently; despite many groups was the use of an individualised and strengths-
reporting that ideally all the activities should be used to focus approach. All groups reported that the focus needed
prepare for the transition from school. Parents and profes- to be on assisting the adolescent to identify their strengths,
sionals believed that more activities should ideally be and supporting the development of a ‘sense of purpose’.
done in transition planning compared to adolescents Parents and professionals identified that special interests
(OR = 2.4, 95% CI = 1.1-5.1, P = 0.023). that can be leveraged as strengths to enhance confidence

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Figure 7: Transition planning activities (all groups, current n = 84, ideal n = 120)

100%
Current Ideal
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Volunteering Higher educ. Vocaonal Work Social skills Life skills Job skills Mentoring
exploraon training experience training training training

and reduced anxiety: ‘enabled a person to visualise their the adolescent in the transition planning process, and
version of personal success’. Adolescents endorsed an adolescents reported they wanted ‘to be listened to’. In
individualised process to meet their needs, and being able addition, professionals reported that expectations
to ‘tell the teacher what I really like and I’m good at’ impacted on transition planning outcomes; when parents
which led to enhanced confidence. Professionals indicated supported their children’s dreams and provided
that the heterogeneity of the autism population enhanced opportunities for them to challenge themselves, the
the need for a person-centred approach. One area in which adolescent tended to thrive. Parents also acknowledged
there was not group consensus was that parents and this and added that professional expectations were also
professionals identified the need to work on the important to ‘give them [the adolescent] a chance to
adolescent’s weaknesses; however, adolescents did not prove themselves, and that they can actually work
identify weaknesses to be an important area of focus. independently’. Conversely, parents also spoke about
being ‘realistic’ about the adolescent’s future in order to
Adolescent motivation, anxiety and insight. Adolescent prevent disappointment for their child.
motivation, anxiety and insight, and how this impacted on
the adolescent’s willingness to get involved in the Skill development and real-life experiences. The
transition planning process were described by both parents development of skills as a reinforcing factor in the
and professionals as predisposing factors. One parent transition planning process was identified by all groups.
commented that there is a need for a ‘balance between Adolescents identified developing social skills and
being aware of possible anxiety points, communicating gaining the necessary life skills to be important to assist
these, without then overloading the person’. Parents with things like job applications. Parents also described
reported adolescents sometimes had reduced insight into the importance of social skills, communication, transport,
why transition planning was important, this impacted on anxiety management and organisational skills.
their motivation to engage in the process. Adolescents did Professionals mentioned skill development the least out
not identify motivation or insight as an issue, but of the three groups, and referred to it more in terms of
described how thinking about the future caused anxiety the end goal – independence. All groups discussed the
and that they felt pressurised by timeframes and deadlines. importance of work experience or real-life skills.
This linked to a theme that was raised by parents and Adolescents reported real-life experiences helped them to
professionals, who reported that it was helpful to start know the difference between school and work; ‘to know
thinking about transition planning early, to ensure that what it’s like in the real world’. Parents discussed having
there was enough time to develop a solid pathway. a mentor as an important support to help adolescents
succeed in real-life experiences.
Reinforcing factors
Enabling factors
Support and guidance. The importance of support and
guidance during the transition process was identified by Having a plan. The main enabling factor in transition
parents, professionals and adolescents. However, they had planning identified by all three groups was the
different beliefs about from whom the support should importance of having a plan with clear goals and a
come from. Professionals felt support was needed from defined structure. Many parents and adolescents reported
parents and families; while parents wanted support from that currently they did not have a formal transition
professionals as part of a ‘whole-family approach’, and planning process in place, but that this would have been
for teachers to link them in with the right resources. very helpful. Parents reported having a clear process to
Adolescents wanted ‘parents and others to help’. Parents follow provided the opportunity to ‘put together a road
and professionals agreed on the importance of including map to get to the goal’. Adolescents reported that they

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would like a clearer understanding of the planning goals for their future than their parents have for them
process, and there was a strong sense that they wanted (Malmberg, Ehrman and Lithen, 2005). In addition, they
flexibility and options with ‘the ability to discuss and viewed the future in a broader, more individualistic man-
compromise on which pathways are available’. Many ner, whereas parents looked more at the normative transi-
adolescents reported they felt they wanted the ability to tion to adulthood. During high school, adolescents often
change their minds if they needed; one participant develop their own ‘horizontal’ identity that contrasts the
described a ‘fear of the finality of your decision’. ‘vertical’ identity that is passed on from one’s family
Professionals emphasised the need for concrete goals, (Solomon, 2012). This further supports a strength-based
avoiding abstract objectives that can be confusing for and individualised transition planning process that incor-
adolescents with autism. porates the adolescent as a key part of the transition team.
This allows for the adolescents voice to be heard and
Coordinated approach. All participants reported that the their identity as an individual is cultivated.
coordination of the team is one of the biggest challenges to
transition planning. The success or failure of the plan The first predisposing factor was the importance of an
hinged on the ability to coordinate times to meet and individualised and strengths-focused approach. Strengths
methods of communication. Parents reported that everyone and interests were the most commonly assessed areas.
needs to be on the same page for coordinated services, and The importance of this has been confirmed by literature;
adolescents felt it was important ‘to get everyone together a strengths-based approach has been linked to improved
to discuss the planning process’. However, all groups self-determination in adolescents with disabilities (Test
identified that getting everyone together to discuss the plan et al., 2009a,b). A focus on preferred interests can reduce
was a challenge, especially when multiple agencies were anxiety for adolescents, and many adults with autism
involved. In particular, professionals identified the lack of engage in post-school education and employment options
time they had to fit in transition planning. Parents also in their area of interest (Patten Koenig and Hough Wil-
acknowledged school resource pressures and emphasised liams, 2017). Autism-specific characteristics, such as trig-
the importance of coordinated communication. gers for meltdowns, sensory preferences, and learning
styles were reported to be the least frequently assessed
Discussion areas in transition planning. Existing literature focuses on
The predisposing, reinforcing and enabling factors the importance of assessing social and communication
described in this study provide insight into how transition skills in adolescents with autism (Hendricks and Weh-
planning could be targeted specifically to adolescents on man, 2009; Lee and Carter, 2012). However, little is
the autism spectrum. Some factors align with current rec- mentioned about other important autism-specific factors.
ommendations for transition planning for adolescents with Sensory preferences could impact on the type of job envi-
disabilities in general, including having a coordinated ronment the adolescent may select, and consideration of
plan, a strengths-focused approach, support from a team, the adolescent’s learning styles could increase success in
and encouraging skill development (Test, Smith, and Car- achieving transition planning goals. This highlights the
ter, 2014; Test et al., 2009a). Some novel findings of this need for a more tailored assessment approach.
study include the importance of adolescent motivation,
insight and anxiety in predisposing transition planning, The adolescent’s motivation, anxiety and insight are pre-
considering autism-specific characteristics and providing a disposing factors in transition planning. Decreased moti-
clear but flexible plan. In addition, this study appears to vation and increased anxiety have been described as
be the first to describe the predisposing, reinforcing and specific challenges for youth with autism (Cheak-Zamora,
enabling factors in transition planning using the PRE- Teti and First, 2015; Giarelli and Fisher, 2013; White,
CEDE model. This insight into the process may support Oswald, Ollendick, et al., 2009). In this study, parents
parents and professionals to gain understanding of poten- and professionals identified adolescents on the autism
tial intervention areas. spectrum sometimes had reduced motivation to engage in
transition planning. In addition, adolescents reported that
An interesting finding of the study was the difference in anxiety is amplified by tight timeframes and the uncer-
how adolescents on the autism spectrum perceived the tainty of not knowing what will happen after leaving
‘ideal’ transition planning process, compared to parents school. This links to the parents’ and professionals’ sug-
and professionals. Adolescents tended to report that the gestions of starting transition planning early. Prior
current situation was ideal. Parents and professionals research also recommends transition planning for people
tended to report that there was a mismatch between the with disabilities commence at 14 years of age, or around
current and ideal. Therefore, the perceptions of the transi- Year 9 (Martin and Williams-Diehm, 2013; Weidenthal
tion planning process may be different for adolescents and Kochhar-Bryant, 2007). Unfortunately, 72% of ado-
when compared to parents and professionals. These find- lescents in the current study started transition planning in
ings could be indicative of a divergence in thinking Year 10 or later. More emphasis must be placed on start-
between parents and their children that often occurs in ing earlier and on exploring strategies to motivate the stu-
adolescence. Neurotypical adolescents have different dent to get involved in transition planning.

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 Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 18 3–14

A key reinforcing factor was having guidance from a clear and formal plan, and that the transition plan was not
team; however, there was no consensus on who should documented. Furthermore, the adolescents identified the
be included in the transition team. The team composition need for options, and a pathway that was clear but flexi-
is likely to be different for each adolescent given their ble. This is an interesting finding, as it appears to contra-
support network, consistent with person-centred practice dict the diagnostic criteria for people with autism of
principles (Hagner et al., 2012). The adolescent was insistence on sameness and rigid patterns of thinking
included in transition planning 85% of the time, however (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Rather than
they only lead the team in 5% of cases. This may indicate insisting on having one option for their futures, adoles-
that adolescents on the autism spectrum are not currently cents reported that they preferred being given multiple
actively taking part in the team, which is consistent with choices and the opportunity to change their transition
current literature (Shogren and Plotner, 2012). This is an pathway. This desire for choice and flexibility in transition
important differentiation, as it is active participation, and planning should be considered in future transition plan-
where possible leadership, of the transition team that has ning for adolescents on the autism spectrum.
been linked to improved post-school outcomes and
increased self-determination (Hendricks and Wehman, Another key enabling factor was having a coordinated
2009; Martin and Williams-Diehm, 2013). Therefore, approach, including making the time to meet and ensur-
adolescents on the autism spectrum need increased sup- ing open communication. Strong team communication
port to be active participants in the planning process, and and a coordinated approach have been linked to improved
to cope with the social and communication demands that transition outcomes (Nuehring and Sitlington, 2003). Par-
come with team participation (Tantam, 2000). ents and professionals in the current study expressed the
need for more regular meetings; however, the adolescents
Another important reinforcing factor is supporting the did not. Adolescents on the autism spectrum may find
adolescent to develop skills and engage in real-life expe- meetings uncomfortable, possibly because of difficulties
riences. It was positive that the majority of adolescents with social communication, highlighting the need for aut-
had engaged in work experience, as it is a key element ism-specific strategies to support engagement in transition
of successful transition planning (Hendricks and Weh- planning meetings (Hagner, Kurtz, May, et al., 2014).
man, 2009; King, Baldwin, Currie, et al., 2005; Lee and
Carter, 2012; Lindstrom et al., 2007; Morningstar, 1997). Limitations
However, many adolescents had not engaged in activities The current study included responses from 162 partici-
such as career preparation, life skills training, volunteer- pants across Australia, which is comparatively a small
ing and part-time work. These activities are important sample. The questionnaire was disseminated to potential
for all adolescents with disabilities; but they are particu- participants across Australia; however, most responses
larly important for adolescents on the autism spectrum came from one state – Western Australia. There may be
for two reasons. Firstly, they develop ‘help recruiting differences in school transition planning processes
skills’, or the social skills needed to seek help from between states because education in Australia is managed
others to overcome barriers (Taylor-Ritzler et al., 2001). at a state government level. In addition, most of the ado-
Secondly, these activities allow adolescents on the aut- lescents and parents came from higher socio-economic
ism spectrum to see the big picture; to understand what areas, limiting the generalisability of the findings. The
life will be like after leaving school. This may be partic- adolescents on the autism spectrum answered fewer ques-
ularly difficult for adolescents on the autism spectrum, tions about the current transition planning process than
as they are not able to intuitively understand abstract other parts of the questionnaire, possibly because they
concepts (Fullerton, Stratton, Coyne, et al., 1996). This had either not started transition planning or did not know
was reflected in comments from the adolescents, who about their current plan. While this was a limitation to
reported that it was difficult ‘trying to make decisions the study, it further supports the need for active involve-
about things that haven’t happened yet’, and that they ment of adolescents in transition planning.
needed experiences to help them to understand what life
is like in the ‘real world.’ Most of the professionals who participated in the study
had less than 5 years’ experience working with people
Enabling factors were developing a clear transition plan on the autism spectrum. This lack of experience needs
and having a coordinated approach. Literature recom- to be considered when interpreting the professionals’
mends a structured plan that provides adolescents and par- responses. Furthermore, 83% of the parents were moth-
ents with a clear process to guide their transition out of ers and the views of fathers may differ. The question-
school (Mazzotti, Test and Mustian, 2014). In fact, having naire used was developed specifically for this study,
a clear transition process increases the chance of gaining and was not previously tested for validity and reliabil-
employment after leaving school (medium effect size, ity. However, the aim of the questionnaire was to cap-
0.46) and getting into postsecondary education (small to ture participants’ perceptions of the transition planning
large effect size, 0.26–0.61) (Test et al., 2009a,b). How- process and there were no existing valid and reliable
ever, many parents and adolescents reported a lack of a tools relevant to this aim.

ª 2017 NASEN 11
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 18 3–14

Conclusion process more public.’ Educational Researcher, 31 (7),

This study revealed some unique transition planning fac- pp. 28–38.
tors for adolescents on the autism spectrum. For example, Australian Bureau of Statistics (2011) Census of
the predisposing factor of considering the adolescents Population and Housing: Socio-Economic Indexes for
anxiety, motivation and insight, and the enabling factor of Areas (SEIFA) cat. no. 2033.0.55.001. viewed 28 May
having a structured but flexible transition plan. This indi- 2015, www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/2033.0.
cates a need for an autism-specific transition planning 55.001.
process that is tailored to support the distinct needs of Australian Bureau of Statistics (2012) ‘Autism in
this group. Australia.’, cat. no. 4428.0, viewed 5 June 2015,
http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/4428.0.
Benitez, D., Morningstar, M. & Frey, B. (2009) ‘A
multistate survey of special education teachers’
Acknowledgements
perceptions of their transition competencies.’ Career
The authors wish to thank Professor Sylvia Rodger for
Development and Transition for Exceptional
her support and supervision in this study and Dr Richard
Individuals, 32, pp. 6–16.
Parsons for assistance with statistical analyses of the data.
Brantlinger, E., Jimenez, R., Klingner, J., Pugach, M. &
In addition, we wish to thank our community partners
Richardson, V. (2005) ‘Qualitative studies in special
including Rocky Bay, Therapy Focus, the Autism Associ-
education.’ Exceptional Children, 71 (2), pp. 195–
ation of Western Australia, Autism West, the Western
207.
Australian Department of Education and Catholic Educa-
Cameto, R., Levine, P. & Wagner, M. (2004) ‘Transition
tion Office and a number of Disability Employment Ser-
planning for students with disabilities. A special topic
vice Providers.
report of findings from the National Longitudinal
Transition Study-2 (NLTS2).’ Menlo Park, CA: SRI
Funding
International.
This research was supported by funding from the Aus-
Carlson Gielen, A., McDonald, E., Gary, T. & Bone, L.
tralian Postgraduate Award scholarship from the Aus-
(2008) ‘The precede-proceed planning model.’ In K.
tralian Federal Government and Curtin University. The
Glanz, B. Rimer & K. Viswanath (eds), Health
candidate acknowledges the financial support of the
Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research,
Cooperative Research Centre for Living with Autism
and Practice (4th edn), pp. 359–83. San Francisco,
(Autism CRC), established and supported under the Aus-
CA: Jossey-Bass.
tralian Government’s Cooperative Research Centres Pro-
Cheak-Zamora, N., Teti, M. & First, J. (2015)
gram (http://www.autismcrc.com.au/).
‘‘Transitions are scary for our kids, and they’re scary
for us’: family member and youth perspectives on the
Author contribution challenges of transitioning to adulthood with autism.’
MH, MC, MF, TF contributed to the design of the study. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual
MH wrote the manuscript. MC, MF, TF reviewed the Disabilities, 28 (6), pp. 548–60.
manuscript. The manuscript has been read and approved Cobb, R. B. & Alwell, M. (2009) ‘Transition planning/
by all authors. coordinating interventions for youth with disabilities:
a systematic review.’ Career Development and
Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 32, pp. 70–
Address for correspondence 81.
Megan Hatfield, Cooperative Research Centre for Living with Autism
School of Occupational Therapy and Social Work, Spectrum Disorders (2014) Inclusive Research
Curtin University, Practice Guides and Checklists for Autism Spectrum
GPO Box U1987, Research. Brisbane, QLD: Autism CRC Ltd.
Perth,
WA 6845, Council of Australian Governments (2010) National
Australia. Disability Strategy 2010–2020. Canberra: Council of
Email: megan.hatfi[email protected]. Australian Governments.
Crosby, R. & Noar, S. (2011) ‘What is a planning
model? An introduction to precede-proceed.’ Journal
of Public Health Dentistry, 71, pp. S7–15.
Fullerton, A., Stratton, J., Coyne, P. & Gray, C. (1996)
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14 ª 2017 NASEN
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