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Title Terahertz Communications: Applications, Challenges and Open Research Issues for
Next Generation 6G Wireless Networks

Volume 12, ISSUE 08, Pages: 295-315

Paper Authors Allanki Sanyasi Rao, Dr. Sreeja Mole S S, Sreeja Yelasani, B Sandeep Kumar

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 Terahertz Communications: Applications, Challenges and Open
Research Issues for Next Generation 6G Wireless Networks
Allanki Sanyasi Rao1, Dr. Sreeja Mole S S2, Sreeja Yelasani3, B Sandeep Kumar
(Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Christu Jyothi Institute of Technology &
Science, Jangaon-506167, Telangana)
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In the approaching 2030s, transformative applications like 3D call, haptic communication,

and Tele-operated driving are set to reshape communication networks. These applications require
substantial bandwidth, ranging from gigahertz (GHz) to terahertz (THz) levels, differing from the
current megahertz standards. Despite this, the existing radio frequency spectrum struggles to meet
these escalating needs, particularly below 0.09 THz (90 GHz). Surprisingly, a solution lies in the
THz frequency band, offering contiguous radio spectrum blocks. The concept involves achieving a
data transmission rate of one terabit per second, which necessitates a substantial amount of
available frequency spectrum. The increased and noteworthy interest in 6G communication is
centered on terahertz (THz) communication in an implied manner, signifying a departure from its
purely technical intrigue in previous times. This study deeply examines THz wave attributes,
including significance, recent regulations, applications, and research opportunities, providing a
crucial foundation for anticipated 2030s networks. By decoding THz wave intricacies and
revealing uncharted research avenues, this article becomes a catalyst propelling exploration into
the forthcoming communication landscape.

Keywords: THz Spectrum, Wireless Communication Networks, THz Challenges, 6G

1. INTRODUCTION passive services, and target application areas.

Nonetheless, while recognizing the immense
In previous times, substantial advantages stemming from the expansive
endeavors have been dedicated to bandwidth, many within the THz community
surmounting diverse challenges and find themselves in contemplation. They seek
uncovering novel insights into various to elucidate how the realization of terabit-
dimensions of THz communications, per-second (Tbps) data rates can be achieved
encompassing components, basic functional at these elevated frequencies and how the
elements, packaging, antennas, channel implementation of energy-efficient and
modeling, interference mitigation with dependable THz beamforming transceivers

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can be attained. The aspiration for Tbps data on identifying, defining, and assessing
rates, anticipated for the future, presents an pivotal enabling technologies that will shape
intricate challenge that cannot be solely 6G [3,4], projected for deployment by 2030
addressed through the vast bandwidth [5].
inherent to the THz realm. The substantial
signal loss linked to extensive phased-array The overarching vision driving the
antennas necessitates additional development of 6G communications is to
amplification, subsequently leading to enhance data rates and diminish latency
heightened power dissipation. In this limitations while enabling seamless
discourse, we delve into these two ubiquitous connectivity. This paradigm shift
foundational inquiries that demand resolution will introduce novel strategies that facilitate
in the upcoming decade. Our exploration unique communication experiences, enabling
draws upon recent preliminary findings and virtual presence and universal accessibility
analytical methodologies to provide insights across all locations. This transformation will
into these complex quandaries. further facilitate the integration of
groundbreaking applications such as
The standardization of 5G has holographic calls, flying networks, and Tele-
concluded, with deployment initiated in operated driving [6]. Moreover, the
numerous global cities [1]. However, the forthcoming 6G communications framework
exponential surge in data traffic driven by the aims to surpass conventional wireless
escalating number of connected devices, networks in terms of reliability and security.
potentially surpassing hundreds of devices
per cubic meter, poses a challenge. Of all the technological advancements
Furthermore, future applications like virtual pertaining to 6G, THz and Artificial
reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), 4K/8K Intelligence (AI) stand out as the most
UHD video, 3D communication, and promising. These transformative technologies
unforeseen scenarios like autonomous hold the potential to revolutionize the
driving emerge [2]. The existing 5G wireless networking landscape, prompting
infrastructure might struggle to meet the data the industry to reevaluate its design
rate and ultra-low latency demands of these principles. The inaugural 6G wireless
applications. These challenges underscore the summit, initiated in March 2019 under the
impetus for the evolution toward a new era of banner of "ubiquitous wireless intelligence"
wireless networking, known as the sixth [7], is the first step in this transformative
generation (6G). Considering the groundwork journey. Anticipated to differ significantly
laid by 5G networks and their potential from its predecessors, 6G wireless networks
evolution, the divergence between 6G and are poised to redefine the wireless evolution
both 5G and its long-term progression from "connected things" to a realm of
becomes evident. Academic, industrial, and "connected intelligence."
research communities have already embarked

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 The scope of 6G communications Primarily, this paper offers an
extends beyond conventional mobile Internet encompassing overview of contentious
services, encompassing robust support for research subjects related to THz waves. It
ubiquitous AI services. This holistic takes into account the latest advancements
integration spans from the core network, within the industry, contextualizing them
inclusive of data centers, through within the broader scope of primary
transmission backhauls, and culminating at application domains and challenges. Our
end devices. This transformation heralds an approach distills the key research subjects
era of interdisciplinary collaboration between into distinct categories: (i) illuminating the
information technology and wireless intrinsic features and significance of THz
communication, propelling the fusion of frequency, (ii) assessing the most recent
these domains. In this landscape, AI's role regulatory landscape, (iii) identifying the
becomes paramount in designing and most promising applications, and (iv)
optimizing 6G networks, from configurations uncovering potential research areas that
and protocols to overall operations [5, 8]. remain open for exploration.

In light of the spectrum limitations

that prompted the introduction of millimeter
wave (mm Wave) spectrum in 4G
communications, it becomes evident that this
bandwidth cannot adequately cater to the
demands of holographic videos. The
subsequent challenges encompass spatial
spectral efficiency and requisite frequency
bands for seamless connectivity.
Consequently, a wider bandwidth at the THz
band becomes essential. Positioned as the
spectrum between microwaves and optics
Figure1. Schematic Diagram for mapping the
(Fig. 1), THz waves emerge as a focal point
THz Band within the Electromagnetic
for exploration in this study, addressing the
Spectrum
distinct challenges and opportunities posed
by THz waves. This work also serves as a repository
of fresh references, thereby extending a
This paper is dedicated to the
helping hand to researchers. The insights
exploration and discourse surrounding the
provided herein hold the potential to forge
distinctive attributes of THz waves. The core
new trajectories for future research ventures,
contributions of this endeavor are outlined as
fostering the evolution of THz wave
follows:
technology. This comprehensive
investigation is intended to make a

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significant contribution to enhancing the gap. Reflected paths' power attenuates more
comprehension and progress of THz waves. (15 dB+) than LoS at 300 GHz - 1 THz [9].
Its ultimate goal is to stimulate innovation Pencil beam LoS connections counter
and foster exploration within this captivating attenuation via beamforming, but pose beam
field. tracking, alignment, and mobility challenges.
Obstacles disrupt pencil beams, causing
2. FUNDAMENTALS OF THz blockages (static, dynamic, self). Blockage
FREQUENCY BANDS models must capture environment-specific
behaviors. mmWave solutions don't fit due to
The primary advantage of utilizing range, narrower beams, and greater
THz frequencies for communication, as attenuation. Precise models are vital for
opposed to other frequency ranges, lies in the stable LoS in applications like XR [10].
generous bandwidth it offers. However, the Densely deploying THz nodes mitigates
transition to higher frequencies brings short-range nature but may amplify
inherent limitations in the form of reduced interference and handovers due to sensitive
communication range and intermittent link beam alignment.
behavior. These occurrences at THz
frequencies stem from three fundamental Molecular Absorption Effect
factors such as a) Elevated path and
reflection losses, b) Irregular availability of At THz frequencies, path and
Line-of-Sight (LoS) connections c) reflection losses coincide with another
Molecular absorption. detrimental communication factor –
molecular absorption. This phenomenon not
The first factor reveals itself when only degrades received power but also
moving towards higher carrier frequencies. augments noise, introducing molecular
Remarkably, these losses resemble those absorption noise alongside thermal noise seen
experienced at mmWave frequencies, albeit in lower bands. Molecular absorption is
more prominently pronounced in the THz present across all frequencies, but notably
range. Despite this, the distinct characteristics pronounced at THz frequencies, overlooked
of molecular absorption and the constrained, for lower ones (mmWave, sub-6 GHz) [11].
narrow LoS links are exclusive attributes to mmWave bands, richer in multipath and
the THz spectrum. The ensuing discussion NLoS links, with wider LoS beams, find
will delve into these distinctive THz beam alignment and mobility management
properties. less intricate than at THz frequencies.
Molecular absorption arises from energy state
Pencil Beam LoS Links and their differences in transmitted medium molecules,
Repercussions mainly water and oxygen vapor in THz band,
making THz communication more apt to
THz links prioritize LoS conditions;
indoors due to lower water vapor levels.
higher frequencies widen LoS-NLoS power

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 Though absorption increases with Quasi-opticality of the THz band: The
frequency, it's not uniformly so; dips appear distinctive EM properties of the THz band,
at some carrier frequencies, suggesting characterized by quasi-optical behavior, pose
targeting these for lower absorption [12][13]. specific communication challenges. The
However, air composition tied to molecular absorption effect, a limiting factor
meteorology varies, making these windows for THz wave propagation, is a significant
unreliable. Hence, they suit controlled, concern. Yet, this quasi-optical nature offers
indoor setups better. As baseline absorption a double-edged advantage in the context of
rises with frequency, more bandwidth can be combined communication and sensing. While
exploited against absorption's losses and molecular absorption curtails communication
noise. For instance, in indoor AR [14], ranges, it introduces unparalleled sensing
increased bandwidth refreshed AR content, prospects absent in other frequency bands.
enhancing communication, but worsened This intricate balance highlights the intricate
worst-case scenarios due to absorption. interplay between quasi-opticality,
Molecular absorption's effect on THz links is communication, and innovative sensing
non-monotonic; it adds noise, restricts range, potentials within the THz spectrum.
and complicates outdoor use. Nonetheless,
this effect benefits THz sensing, given its THz-tailored Wireless Architectures:
quasi-optical nature and broad bandwidth – Implementing wireless THz systems involves
attributes discussed further. This quasi- considering several factors, including
optical nature is one of the seven defining increased small cell density, reduced
features outlined in Fig. 2. communication range, multifunctional
capabilities (sensing, communication,
3. UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS imaging), and unique channel conditions.
AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THz These factors necessitate the adoption of
opportunistic THz-tailored network
WAVES
architectures to harness THz system
On the electromagnetic (EM) advantages. This underscores the significance
spectrum chart, the frequency bands above of embracing cell-less architectures,
and below the THz frequency band, namely alongside their associated challenges and
μWave, mmWave, and infrared, are entirely potential benefits. Additionally, the role of
allocated and substantially occupied. Despite reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs) in
the scarcity of spectrum in the μWave, THz networks is paramount. RISs offer
mmWave, and infrared ranges, limited holographic potential due to their compact
attention has been devoted to comprehending THz footprint, extensive sensing
the THz band. This section embarks on an components, and opportunities and
exploration of the THz frequency bands, challenges in near-field communication [15]–
uncovering their unique characteristics. [17].

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Synergy of THz with lower frequency innovative services and use cases to be
bands: THz communication systems will be realized within the THz band.
implemented within an already densely
populated radio spectrum, housing sub-6
GHz and mmWave technologies. Hence, THz
systems are anticipated to exhibit a degree of
synergy, involving cooperation and seamless
coexistence with lower frequency band
wireless technologies. For instance,
applications like immersive remote presence
can strategically utilize available wireless
frequencies to ensure a comprehensive end-
to-end user experience. This accentuates the
importance of strategies fostering the
harmonious coexistence of THz frequencies
with mmWave and sub-6 GHz bands, their
services, and infrastructure. Additionally, this Figure2. Seven Key Characteristics of
collaborative interplay across varied Wireless THz Systems
frequency bands presents exciting prospects
for enhanced communication and sensing PHY-layer procedures: The THz channel's
functionalities. spatial sparsity and low rank characteristics
Joint sensing and communication systems: present unique hurdles in PHY-layer
Given the quasi-optical attributes of THz operations like wireless channel estimation
bands, a harmonious convergence between and initial access. To address these
high-rate communications and high- challenges, innovative channel estimation
resolution sensing becomes attainable. This methods that emphasize the involvement of
prompts us to underscore the significance of generative learning networks in forecasting
integrated communication and sensing comprehensive THz channel state
systems within forthcoming THz wireless information (CSI) are required. Moreover, it
networks. Specifically, the potential of is required to know how sensing plays a
reciprocal feedback between the sensing and pivotal role in optimizing the initial network
communication functionalities to enhance access process for THz devices, contributing
overall system performance. Embracing such to an enhanced overall network performance.
configurations has the potential to
Spectrum access techniques: Traditional
revolutionize wireless networks into a new
access methodologies employed in preceding
era of multifunctional systems, capable of
wireless generations encounter challenges
providing diverse services to users. This
when transposed to THz frequency bands,
paradigm shift further paves the way for
owing to hardware limitations and the

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distinct propagation characteristics inherent The integration of THz
to the THz environment. As a result, communication into the realm of 6G is poised
exploration of viable spectrum access to achieve the following, as delineated:
techniques tailored for THz systems becomes
imperative. Particularly, a focus should be Efficient Energy Use in 6G with THz
directed towards harnessing the benefits Waves: Energy efficiency is a pivotal factor
arising from orbital angular momentum in 6G communications, especially with
(OAM) utilization, capitalizing on the quasi- multiple applications concurrently running on
optical attributes intrinsic to THz systems. devices, generating substantial data. THz
Notably, the synergy between NOMA and waves offer directional beam communication
THz bands can be enhanced by the inherent via MIMO antenna arrays, holding the
incorporation of reconfigurable intelligent potential to provide ample energy to network
surface (RIS) architectures at these devices. The Consumption Factor (CF)
frequencies. theory, quantified as bit per second per watt
[bps/W], is crucial. Components close to the
Real-time network optimization: The rise transmitter antenna, like the antenna itself
of 6G services like XR, holography, and and analog-to-digital converter, significantly
digital twins requires a comprehensive impact CF [19] [20], as highlighted in [21].
approach to design, covering communication, With expanding bandwidth, power efficiency
control, sensing, and computing. Past increases, especially for non-signal path
attempts have seen limited success, yet the components like baseband processors,
inherent connection between communication oscillators, or displays, as opposed to
and sensing in the THz domain suggests a transmission signal path components like
combined design is necessary and feasible. power amplifiers, mixers, or antennas [21].
This demands an exploration of the distinct For low-cost IoT applications using radio
networking challenges of THz systems and transmitters, power efficiency remains
innovative algorithms to optimize them for consistent irrespective of bandwidth [13].
applications beyond 5G. Moreover, THz This theory emphasizes the trend towards
band communication holds great potential for better energy efficiency as communication
a variety of applications, addressing both antennas move to higher frequencies like
macro and micro scales [18]. The demand for mmWave and THz, which offer greater
data-intensive tasks like video streaming has bandwidth and enhanced power efficiency
outpaced older wireless technologies. As when measured in terms of bps/W.
existing channels near capacity, the need to
explore new spectrum is crucial. THz bands Reliable THz Connectivity in Mobile
offer continuous multi-gigahertz bandwidths, Environments: Within the dynamic realm of
perfectly suited to deliver the required data mobile environments, ensuring a steadfast
rates for uncompressed videos. and highly reliable connectivity infrastructure
assumes paramount significance, particularly

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in light of the diverse array of critical establishes an environment conducive to
applications that necessitate uninterrupted secure communication provisions.
operation. Nevertheless, the landscape within
the THz band frequencies is characterized by Data Rate Enhancement via THz Waves:
substantial atmospheric attenuation, Achieving ultra-high data rates on a per-
presenting a substantial hurdle to the device basis, ranging from 1000 to 10000
seamless propagation of signals. As a times the current data rate levels, while
strategic response to this challenge, the ensuring adequate transmission distances in
adoption of innovative measures is intricate network landscapes characterized by
imperative. This entails harnessing the diverse platforms is a formidable challenge.
potential of highly directional beam antennas Unquestionably, the realm of wireless
to counterbalance the adverse impact of communications has undergone a significant
heightened path loss [22]. Consequently, the transformation in terms of data rates,
transmission of THz signals poses an propelled by the adoption of MIMO and
intricate puzzle, presenting considerable massive MIMO technology accompanied by
difficulty for any attempts aimed at relevant diversity techniques. However,
interception or unauthorized access [23]. This while these advancements have indeed
dual emphasis on reliability and security elevated data rates, the very foundation of
underscores the complexities inherent in this progress, driven by MIMO technology
managing THz signals within mobile that capitalizes on the fading channel
contexts and highlights the necessity of coefficients, is not exempt from limitations
pioneering solutions to overcome these due to the heightened computational
obstacles. complexities it introduces. Consequently, the
long-term sustainability of this technique
Secure Communication in mmWave and comes into question, making the emergence
THz: Both mmWave and THz frequencies of THz waves a promising solution to address
will facilitate extensive spatial multiplexing these challenges.
capabilities while also catering to accurate
sensing and various other applications [24]. Enhanced connectivity via Highly
In the THz band, orchestrating passive cyber- Directional Beams: The aspiration for ultra-
attacks or executing man-in-the-middle high data rates is accompanied by a
attacks, particularly within the frequency heightened connection density, aiming for a
range of 100 GHz to 3 THz, will become scale that exceeds the 5G framework by a
exceedingly challenging. This arises from the factor of 1000. The pursuit of augmented
distinct characteristics of this frequency capacity finds a solution in the application of
range, where extremely short wavelengths highly directional beams, enabling the
enable the development of remarkably high- precise steering of signal beams towards
gain antennas within compact physical intended mobile devices without triggering
dimensions [25]. This phenomenon interference. Notably, this technique

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capitalizes on beam steering, a process frequency bands. Equally crucial is the
known for its simplicity of implementation identification and utilization of novel spectral
within the higher electromagnetic spectrum, frequencies, an imperative requirement to
as evident in the existing mmWave facilitate the sustenance of such exceedingly
technology. This strategic approach holds the elevated data rates [26]. This trajectory
potential to significantly enhance both data underscores the pivotal role of research and
rates and connectivity, shaping the landscape innovation in orchestrating the evolution of
of future communication networks. wireless communication systems toward the
realization of terabit-per-second capabilities.
Reliable THz Connectivity for Critical
Applications: The establishment of ultra- 4. STANDARDIZATION OF THz
reliable connectivity is paramount to sustain SPECTRUM FOR
a multitude of critical applications within
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
dynamic mobility environments.
Acknowledging the substantial atmospheric The electromagnetic spectrum is not
attenuation experienced within the THz band privately owned; rather, it falls under
frequencies, a strategic solution involves the governmental regulation through specialized
incorporation of highly directional beam agencies. These regulatory bodies have
antennas. These antennas are instrumental in distributed sub-6GHz bands among various
counterbalancing the elevated path loss entities, leaving frequencies from 100 GHz to
encountered [22]. Consequently, the 3 THz largely unexplored. These uncharted
implementation of THz signals will introduce frequencies offer contiguous bands with
a formidable challenge for any attempt to substantial potential for high data rates [27]
intercept or covertly access them [23]. This [28]. Crafting a strategic spectrum roadmap
approach not only safeguards the integrity of for the THz band towards 6G presents a
communication but also underscores the significant and valuable research challenge in
potential of THz signals to enhance security the upcoming years. The subsequent section
measures within various applications. delves into recent regulatory and
standardization developments concerning
Anticipated with certainty, the realm
THz frequencies [13].
of wireless terabit-per-second communication
is poised to captivate heightened attention Collaborative efforts involving global
and foster increased research endeavors from spectrum regulatory and management
both industry and academia in the impending entities, along with radio standardization
decade. The present state of the physical bodies like the Federal Communications
layer must undergo significant enhancements, Commission (FCC) [29], the European
culminating in the development of a more Telecommunication Standards Institute [30],
advanced physical layer capable of and the International Telecommunication
accommodating the demands of these high- Union [31], are underway to allocate

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electromagnetic frequencies beyond 95 GHz. 185–190 5
These frequencies are intended for point-to-
point, direct line-of-sight communications,
244–246 2
broadcasting services, and other applications
[32]. Recently, in March 2019, the FCC
unanimously decided to remove restrictions
on frequencies beyond 95 GHz, making 21.2
5. EMERGING APPLICATIONS
GHz of spectrum available for unlicensed use
(Tab. 1) and permitting investigational OF THz COMMUNICATIONS
activities within the electromagnetic
The THz system is anticipated to have
spectrum up to 3 THz [33]. Similarly, the
two primary application categories: (i)
National Telecommunications and
macroscale THz applications and (ii)
Information Administration (NTIA) is
micro/nanoscale THz applications [37] [32].
moving towards a more efficient spectrum
These application categories encompass
policy for America's future and seeks to relax
various fields such as automotive, indoor
restrictions on frequencies beyond 95 GHz
networking, aerospace, healthcare, location-
[34]. In 2017, the IEEE established the IEEE
based services, high-definition holographic
802.15.3d [35] task force to create a global
communications, and underwater
Wi-Fi standard for the 252–325 GHz
communication.
frequency range. This marked the first
worldwide wireless communication standard Astronomy: THz technology has the
for this range, featuring a new physical layer potential to revolutionize astronomy by
(PHY) data rate of 100 Gbps and channel enhancing our exploration of the universe. By
bandwidths from 2 to 70 GHz [13]. employing THz-equipped telescopes,
Furthermore, the European Commission whether in space or at high-altitude terrestrial
established the Radio Spectrum Policy Group locations, astronomers can capture images
[33] to address management issues related to and data from outer space within the 100
THz-band communications. GHz to 1 THz frequency range. These
telescopes offer a unique advantage, as they
Table1. Operation Frequency proposed by
can bypass much of Earth's atmospheric
FCC [29]
interference that can distort observations at
other wavelengths. This frequency range
Frequency band Bandwidth (GHz) holds the promise of revealing hidden details
(GHz)
about celestial phenomena such as star-
forming regions, interstellar matter, and even
116–123 7 the cold dust and gas emissions from distant
galaxies. THz telescopes could provide
174.8–182 7.2 insights into the intricate molecular
compositions of cosmic environments, aiding

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in our understanding of star formation, This applies to scenarios from individual and
galaxy dynamics, and the evolution of the vehicle screening to package and roadside
universe. Their ability to observe these bin examination. Key to this concept is
wavelengths could unveil previously emitting and receiving THz signals across
inaccessible insights, contributing frequencies. Reflected signals offer insights
significantly to the advancement of into object composition, distinguishing
astronomical knowledge. explosive materials like SEMTEX, TNT, or
RDX. By analyzing their unique signatures,
Internet of Things (IoT): The Internet of it's possible to identify their presence in
Things (IoT) landscape is on a rapid packages or on individuals.
expansion trajectory. Notably, wireless and
mobile devices will play a pivotal role, Medical Imaging: Medical imaging
contributing to a significant 78 percent of the employing THz technology brings forth
overall IP traffic by 2030. This growth in IP distinct advantages compared to conventional
traffic is intrinsically linked to the escalating x-rays. The non-ionizing nature of THz
demand for faster data rates. This demand, in radiation ensures its safety for imaging tasks
turn, is fueling the requirement for a higher involving human tissue, flesh, and dental
frequency spectrum that can accommodate applications. Notably, THz radiation poses
the transmission of substantial volumes of significantly reduced hazards compared to
data. This evolution is driven by consumers' ionizing radiation like x-rays. Moreover, THz
insatiable appetite for continuously imaging offers superior resolution
increasing data usage, underlining the capabilities when contrasted with traditional
necessity to meet these demands effectively. x-ray techniques. This heightened resolution
As we move forward, the correlation between empowers the differentiation of soft tissues,
the expansion of IoT and the need for robust, rendering it a valuable tool for the early
high-frequency data transmission becomes detection of cancer cells. Additionally, THz
increasingly apparent. technology proves highly effective in
identifying dental concerns, including the
Chemical fingerprinting: Utilizing a detection of cavities and issues pertaining to
frequency spectrum scan, this method enamel layers in human teeth.
discerns internal contents of objects,
materials, or packages without causing XR and Holographic Teleportation:
damage or disassembly. Its distinctive trait Extended Reality (XR) includes Augmented
lies in revealing hidden substances while Reality (AR), Mixed Reality (MR), and
preserving item integrity. THz technology's Virtual Reality (VR), forming immersive
potential impact is significant: identifying tech spectrum. VR offers full immersion,
concealed contraband, like drugs, even within while AR overlays virtual elements on real
packages or on individuals, and detecting world, demanding HRLLC for visual and
explosives or weapons for security purposes. haptic experiences, ensuring high user

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satisfaction (QoE). MR blends AR and VR E2E digitization and autonomy. Trustworthy
for apps like holographic teleportation, with real-time synchronization between cyber and
strict HRLLC needs, needing up to 5 Tbps physical realms is crucial. Achieving real-
data rates and sensory sync. THz time control and prediction relies on ML-
communications offer high data rates for XR driven communication links, extending THz
and holography, but QoE needs more than optimization algorithms to minimize latency
data rates. XR needs low latency, minimal and enhance digital twin efficiency.
jitter, fresh info (for AR), and cross-sensory
sync. Strategic deployment is vital, Tactile Communication: Having utilized
integrating THz nodes for Line of Sight holographic communication to transmit near-
(LoS) links, like Reconfigurable Intelligent realistic visual experiences of people, events,
Surfaces (RISs), boosting indoor coverage and settings, there arises a need for real-time
and network efficiency. Advanced sensing, remote physical interaction via the tactile
combining THz sensing, RIS-enabled paths, Internet [38] [39]. The ensuing analysis
and mmWave sensing, plays a vital role. demonstrates that THz frequencies are poised
Real-time Machine Learning (ML) to deliver the rapid calculations essential for
algorithms combine sensing and comms data, wireless applications involving human
overcoming THz uncertainties, ensuring user cognition [40]. The human brain, comprising
QoE. Outdoor XR poses challenges due to approximately 1011 neurons capable of firing
absorption, range, and operation-QoE trade- 200 times per second (5 ms), each
offs. Foveated rendering and compression interconnected with around 1,000 others,
mitigate content size. Mobility cases like AR results in a computation speed of 20 × 1015
for assisted driving need solutions for floating-point operations per second (flops)
outdated data, beam tracking, and safety- [13]. Accordingly, the human brain's
seamlessness balance. Hybridizing networks computation speed can be calculated as
via lower bands manages this trade-off follows:
efficiently.
Computation Speed of Human Brain = 1011
Industrial 4.0 and Digital Twins: Industry neurons × 200 flops per second × 103 per
4.0's rise drives autonomous operations, neuron = 20 × 1015 flops/second = 20 peta
demanding precise control in machine and flops/second = 1 bit per flop (1)= 20,000
robot processes. Instantaneous control Tbps
systems are vital, given rapid automation's
With each neuron's write access to 1,000
need for high data rates, low latency, and
bytes, the memory size can be computed as
high density. THz networks offer solutions,
follows [40]:
but challenges persist for low latency, dense
coverage, and precision control. Current Storage = 1011 neurons × 103 bytes per
industrial systems require flexible data neuron = 1014 bytes = 100 TB (2)
collection; digital twins emerge to enable

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Anticipating THz wireless generations organic compounds [43]. Consequently, the
employing RF channels up to 10 GHz per potential arises to analyze illnesses, detect
user, by considering 10 bits/symbol emotions, gather biological information, and
modulation methods, a 1,000-fold increase in establish remote connections with the human
channel capacity, and the use of massive body. Overall, the development of
MIMO, data rates up to 100 Tbps are communication systems capable of emulating
expected: human senses and biological characteristics is
a burgeoning research domain that
Data rate = 10 GHz × 10 bits per (Hz·sec) × necessitates further exploration in the future.
10^3 = 100 Tbps
Wireless Cognition: The notion involves a
Equations (1) and (2) reveal that a communication link that enables machines or
data rate of up to 100 Tbps is achievable devices operating in real-time scenarios to
using RF channels up to 10 GHz per user, perform extensive computations from a
providing 0.5% of real-time human distance. Consider a scenario where a drone
computational power. In a more ambitious fleet lacks the power resources for significant
scenario, employing RF channels up to 100 computations. However, utilizing ample
GHz could yield 1 petabit per second or 5% bandwidth and real-time processing, complex
of real-time human computational power tasks and rapid data transfer for perception
[40]. Nonetheless, the design of an efficient could occur at a designated fixed base
physical (PHY) and cross-layer station, offering real-time cognition and
communication system must address the wireless connectivity to the drone fleet. Thus,
stringent requirements of these applications even in the absence of a local cognitive
[41]. platform, a similar approach can be adopted
for designing robots and autonomous
Human bond Communications: Primarily,
vehicles to execute cognitive processing
6G technology will steer the concept of
remotely [13].
communication centered around humans,
enabling access to physical data and the 6. PROMINENT RESEARCH
sharing of physical attributes. As it matures,
CHALLENGES AND OPEN
this communication paradigm will establish a
platform through which the human senses ISSUES
can be transmitted via the Internet [42].
Design of THz Electronics: The "THz gap,"
Recently, this idea has gained momentum
a formidable challenge in THz
due to the 'communication through breath'
communications, hinders rapid progress due
approach, enabling the capture of a human's
to signal generation complexities. THz
bio-profile from exhaled breath and even
frequencies are problematic for conventional
facilitating communication with the human
oscillators (too high) and optical photon
body through the inhalation of volatile
emitters (too low), necessitating current THz

Vol 12 Issue 08, Aug 2023 ISSN 2456 – 5083 Page 307
wave generation methods, often combined free space conditions, is challenging,
with frequency multipliers/dividers, resulting necessitating the addition of an extra
in limited output power (typically -10 dBm). exponential component to the conventional
Although novel approaches like graphene power law in the path loss equation [47] [48].
plasmonic antennas show promise [44], Secondly, given the prevalence of indoor
advancement remains gradual, impeding THz scenarios and short communication ranges in
communications expansion. most use cases, reflections and penetrations
from walls, ceilings, floors, and various
Slower progress contributes to high objects must be factored in. Due to the high
testing bed costs, restricting research entities costs associated with THz equipment, only a
capable of access. Nevertheless, the potential limited number of studies on this topic have
benefits and substantial investments from been conducted thus far (e.g., [49] and [50]).
industrial and governmental players continue Furthermore, considering that THz
to drive progress. Developing new wavelengths are in the order of hundreds of
transceiver architectures for the THz band is micrometers, THz waves scatter from nearly
essential. Challenges include imperfect any object in real-world settings, whether
hardware like nonlinear amplifiers, phase indoors or outdoors [51]. Lastly, the presence
noise, and limited modulation index [42], of directional antennas adds complexity to
affecting signal quality. Antenna and the analysis, as some received components
waveform design, as well as energy-efficient (e.g., those from the main beam) must take
signal processing, could raise concerns. precedence over others [52].
Innovative transceiver technologies are
pivotal for advanced THz sources, Two primary approaches are
particularly within medium- to high- employed to analyze THz wave propagation
frequency THz bands (>300 GHz) [38][ 29]. within a given environment. The first is the
Both conventional CMOS technology and "deterministic" approach, often based on ray-
emerging nanomaterials like Graphene offer tracing or ray-launching techniques. When
avenues for novel transceiver designs in the environment's dimensions, shapes, and
THz-enabled devices [46]. Practical testing is materials of existing objects are fully
crucial to fully assess any proposed design's described, this approach provides a
performance. reasonably accurate depiction [53]. However,
this method's main drawback, aside from
THz Channel Modeling: Creating a channel computational complexity, lies in its limited
model for THz wireless communications applicability to altered scenarios, even when
entails considering several critical factors. minor changes are introduced.
Firstly, the pronounced frequency-selective
molecular absorption leads to distinct In contrast, the second approach aims to
"transparency windows". Consequently, construct a stochastic channel model,
constructing a propagation model, even for averaging the environmental impact instead

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of focusing on specific configurations. 2D planar phased arrays). Naturally, a
Following this path, two similar stochastic simplistic MAC design would be inadequate
channel models for THz communications for achieving reasonable link setup times
have been recently proposed in [3] and [54]. under these circumstances, thus necessitating
the application of advanced signal processing
Coverage Planning: Planning coverage for techniques like compressed sensing and
THz networks presents challenges akin to multi-antenna precoding, among others.
those confronted by mmWave systems
operating at a 60 GHz carrier frequency, with Furthermore, the requisite antenna
focal concerns related to establishing an gains for THz links of practical range
unobstructed, preferably Line of Sight (LOS), mandate the obligatory employment of RF
path between the transmitter and receiver. beamforming, even for elementary signaling
Consequently, THz access networks will messages. While mmWave systems like
probably necessitate coverage from multiple IEEE 802.11ad and Wireless HD might
vantage points to ensure a reliable connection utilize quasi-omnidirectional antenna patterns
[55]. for certain discovery and signaling messages,
THz band protocols will not enjoy such
Certainly, appropriate tools must be conveniences, thereby demanding a
devised to streamline the planning process, completely new MAC design approach.
requiring intricate 3D models of the
surroundings to guarantee precise outcomes. Support for Nodes Mobility: Virtually all
As a result, automating this planning wireless access links aim to facilitate the
procedure will likely become imperative due movement of communicating entities, and
to the substantial number of antennas THz access is likely to adhere to the same
requiring deployment. The manual planning principle. Nevertheless, given the concerns
of an ultra-dense network is both a highly related to antenna gain addressed earlier,
arduous and costly endeavor. ensuring the tracking of an established beam
configuration for mobile devices presents a
Efficient Media Access Control: The considerable challenge. For instance,
challenges encountered in the design of such straightforwardly extending the typical
a MAC would resemble those found in beamforming training methodology to THz
conventional mmWave systems, but they frequencies leads to impractically extended
would be considerably magnified. For training sequences for CSMA/CA protocols.
instance, if a mmWave system covering a
specific range needed to explore 16 antenna Reliable 3D Networking Deployment: 6G's
configurations during link establishment, a evolution demands support for
THz system operating at a carrier frequency 5 communication within 3D space,
times higher might need to contend with up necessitating comprehensive research across
to 400 configurations (assuming utilization of multiple aspects: (i) Measurement and data-

Vol 12 Issue 08, Aug 2023 ISSN 2456 – 5083 Page 309
driven modeling of 3D propagation primary concern associated with THz
environments, (ii) Innovative approaches for frequencies pertains to heating, which is
3D frequency and network planning, and (iii) recognized as the primary contributor to
Novel network optimizations for mobility potential cancer risks [60]. However, the
management, routing, and resource allocation principles of thermal hazards and non-
in a 3D context. It's also crucial to analyze ionizing radiation standards are established
fundamental 3D performance metrics such as by the FCC and the International
rate-reliability-latency trade-offs and spectral Commission, outlined in [61]. Furthermore,
efficiency, while considering the introducing the concept of electromotive-
communication requirements for driving force transmission could emerge as a novel
applications. Initial steps toward this are approach within 6G to address health-related
evident in recent studies [56] [57]. concerns.

However, the Poisson point process 7. CONCLUSIONS AND

(PPP) often used to model randomness in EMERGING PATHWAYS
network deployment and coverage scenarios
relies on the assumption of random object The THz band offers a promising and
distribution, which isn't entirely accurate due accessible resource for distinctive
to the static deployment of transmitters in applications in medical, environmental, and
contrast to the randomness of mobile devices. military domains. However, the study of THz
This assumption misaligns with emerging communications, with its manifold
patterns where certain base stations attract challenges, has led to a fragmented landscape
more traffic while others do not. In small cell across various fields, from physics and
networks, user-centric hotspots coexist with nanotechnology to medicine and computer
areas of lower traffic in macrocell science. This paper aims to consolidate this
deployments. The PPP's limitations render it landscape by succinctly summarizing
inadequate for modeling the 6G networking potential applications, open research hurdles,
environment, especially in 3D scenarios. and recent standardization efforts in the field.
While PPP has shown versatility in the 2D
and 2.5D domains, its extension to a 3D Upon analysis, three primary research
channel model requires addressing these directions in THz communications become
limitations. apparent. The first focuses on leveraging
lower THz frequencies (275–325 GHz) to
Safety and Health Concerns: THz radiation enhance existing applications, currently in an
holds photon energy ranging from 0.1 to 12.4 applied research and engineering phase. This
meV, which is less than three times the direction is also the sole consideration of
ionizing photon energy levels. Consequently, standardization bodies, with emphasis on
THz radiation is classified as non-ionizing cost-effective electronics and associated
photon energy [58] [59]. As such, the networking protocols. The second direction

Vol 12 Issue 08, Aug 2023 ISSN 2456 – 5083 Page 310
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