Cellular Respiration

General Biology 1
• "F0" and "F1" refer to the two main
components of the ATP synthase complex, an
enzyme complex found in the inner
mitochondrial membrane that plays a crucial
role in the production of ATP.

• The outer membrane surrounds the

mitochondrion. It acts as a barrier, separating
the contents of the mitochondrion from the
surrounding cytoplasm. It contains porin
proteins that allow the passage of small ions
and molecules.

• The intermembrane space is the region

between the outer and inner mitochondrial
membranes. It plays a role in the storage of
protons (H+) during oxidative
phosphorylation, contributing to the proton
gradient that drives ATP synthesis.
• The inner membrane is highly folded into
structures called cristae, which increase its surface
area. It contains proteins involved in oxidative
phosphorylation, including the electron transport
chain and ATP synthase. The impermeability of
the inner membrane allows for the establishment
of a proton gradient.

• Cristae are the folds of the inner mitochondrial

membrane. They increase the surface area of the
inner membrane, providing more space for the
proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation.
This enhances the efficiency of ATP production.

• The matrix is the gel-like substance enclosed by

the inner mitochondrial membrane. It contains
enzymes involved in the citric acid cycle (Krebs
cycle), fatty acid oxidation, and other metabolic
processes. The matrix is where pyruvate is
converted to acetyl CoA before entering the citric
acid cycle.
• DNA (Mitochondrial DNA - mtDNA):
Mitochondria contain their own small circular
DNA molecules. Mitochondrial DNA encodes
some of the proteins involved in oxidative
phosphorylation. It plays a crucial role in the
replication and maintenance of mitochondria.

• Ribosomes: Mitochondria have their own

ribosomes. These ribosomes are involved in the
translation of mitochondrial DNA into proteins,
particularly those essential for oxidative
phosphorylation.
 TYPES OF RESPIRATION
1. Cellular Aerobic Respiration- has 3 stages as follow:
Stage 1: Glycolysis is a series of reactions in which glucose is degraded
to pyruvate, a net profit of 2ATPs, hydrogen atoms are transferred to
carrier can proceed aerobically. Glucose, ATP, NAD+ + Pi are the starting
materials with the end products of pyruvate, ATP and NADH.
Pyruvate: It is a three-carbon compound that is formed during glycolysis, a
metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into smaller molecules to produce
energy.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): the "energy currency" of the cell.
NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide): NAD+ is a coenzyme involved in redox
reactions (oxidation-reduction reactions) within cells.
Pi (Inorganic Phosphate): a simple molecule containing one phosphorus atom and
four oxygen atoms and a key step in releasing energy for cellular processes.
Glycolysis:

Starting Materials: Pyruvate, NAD+, ADP, Pi (inorganic

phosphate)
End Products: 2 molecules of ATP, 2 molecules of NADH, and
2 molecules of pyruvate

Note: Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm and involves

the breakdown of one molecule of glucose into two
molecules of pyruvate.
Glycolysis:

Pyruvate Decarboxylation: (mitochondrial matrix)

Starting Material: Pyruvate

End Products: Acetyl CoA, CO2, and NADH
Note: Each pyruvate from glycolysis is transported into the
mitochondria, where it undergoes decarboxylation (loss of a
carbon dioxide molecule) to form Acetyl CoA.
 TYPES OF RESPIRATION

Stage 2: Citric Acid Cycle or Krebs cycle is where pyruvate is degraded

and combined with coenzyme A to form acetyl COA, hydrogen atoms
are transferred to carriers CO2 is released. Series of reaction in which
the acetyl portion of acetyl COA is degraded to CO2, Hydrogen atoms
are transferred to carriers, ATP is synthesized. Pyruvate, NAD+, FAD+,
H2O, ADP+, Pi are the starting materials with the end products of CO2,
NADH, FADH2 and 2ATP.
In summary, the Krebs cycle starts with the combination of acetyl
CoA and oxaloacetate, leading to a series of reactions that release
carbon dioxide and generate reduced coenzymes (NADH and
FADH2). The cycle also results in the production of one GTP (or ATP
equivalent). The oxaloacetate is regenerated to continue the cycle,
and the reduced coenzymes play a critical role in the subsequent
electron transport chain, contributing to the production of ATP in
oxidative phosphorylation (involve in the production of ATP).
Stage 3: Electron transport chain, a chain of several electron molecules
is passed along chain, released energy is used to form a proton
gradient, ATP is synthesized as protons diffuse down the gradient.
Oxygen is the final electron acceptor. O2, NADH, FADH, ADP, Pi are the
starting materials with end products of NAD+, FAD+, ATP and H2O.
(FAD-flavin adenine dinucleotide)
2. Cellular Anaerobic respiration follows glycolysis but when there is
no enough oxygen to continue, fermentation process occurs. In Lactic
acid fermentation pyruvic, NADH are the starting materials to produced
lactic acid and NAD+. Alcoholic fermentation also uses pyruvic acid,
NADH to produce alcohol, CO2 and NAD+.
3. Cellular respiration follows different metabolic pathways.
Aerobic Pathway - is the pathway of obtaining energy also known as
cellular respiration that requires the use of oxygen. It consists of three
stages and occur in the specific locations and in particular order.
1. Glycolysis - The first stage of aerobic pathway, glycolysis from glycol
meaning “sugar and lysis meaning “to split. It occurs in the cytoplasm. It
does not require oxygen. It begins by breaking down of glucose from
food, after passing through a series of enzyme controlled reactions. The
six carbon glucose molecule is broken down to two three carbon
molecules. The process continues until the formation of two three-
carbon compound called pyruvate molecules, which results in the
release of 2ATP. The three-carbon pyruvate leaves the cytoplasm and
enters the mitochondrion.
Glycolysis
2. Krebs cycle – also known as citric acid cycle. It starts with the end
product of glycolysis. The pyruvates are acted upon by the enzymes and
converted it into two carbon acetyl molecules. The remaining carbon
and oxygen atoms reorganized and released CO2. During these
reactions, the remaining hydrogen are removed from the pyruvate and
their electrons are carried by the electron carriers NAD+ to form NADH
while Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) picks up electrons to form
FADH. Only a small amount of energy (2ATP) is formed during this cycle.
Krebs Cycle
3. Electron transport chain – the third part of the process also involves
series of enzyme-controlled reactions that transfer energy present in
hydrogen electrons to ATP. The energy carried by NADH and FADH2 is
use to generate ATP. In the mitochondrion are iron-containing enzymes
called cytochrome (class of proteins that contain heme involved in
ETC). The energy-rich electrons are transported from one cytochrome to
the next and the energy is used to pump hydrogen ions from one side of
the membrane to the other. This results in a higher concentration of
hydrogen ions on one side, thus a proton gradient builds up. As the
hydrogen ions pass the channels, the ATP synthase speeds up the
formation of ATP molecules, a total of 32 molecules are formed from
the electrons. The hydrogen ions bond to oxygen to form water.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
The resulting products of cellular respiration are:
❖ Carbon dioxide produced from the breakdown of pyruvate form
Krebs cycle
❖ Water from the electron transport chain
❖ A net gain of 38 ATP molecules for every glucose molecule (2 from
glycolysis, 2 from Krebs cycle and 34 from electron transport chain).

Anaerobic Pathway – is a glucose break down without oxygen, the

chemical reactions that transfer energy from glucose to the cell. The
process involves glycolysis and fermentation which allows glycolysis in
the absence of oxygen.
1. Glycolysis – the first step similar to aerobic pathway where the end
product is three- carbon pyruvate and 2ATP molecules. Glycolysis
produces high energy electron to convert NAD+ to NADH. In order
for glycolysis to continue, NADH must be converted back to NAD
that is where the process of fermentation occurs.

2. Fermentation – enables cells to carry out energy production in the

absence of oxygen. In bacteria many different organic molecules
serve as the final electron acceptor.
There are two pathways:

a. Lactic Acid Fermentation – pyruvate which is the product of glycolysis

is change into lactic acid. Lactic acid is produced in muscles during
rapid exercise when the body cannot supply enough oxygen to the
tissues to produce ATP. The build-up of lactic acid causes burning
painful sensation in your muscles. During vigorous exercise like running,
swimming, your muscles run out of oxygen that results to the
accumulation of lactic acid causing muscle sore.
b. Alcoholic fermentation – another type of fermentation occurs in
yeasts and a few microorganisms. Pyruvic acid is broken down to
produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. Alcoholic fermentation is
important to bakers and brewers. The carbon dioxide produced by
yeasts causes the dough to form and form air spaces in our slice of
bread. The carbon dioxide released during fermentation is the result of
bubbles and sparkling to beverages. To brewers, alcohol is the
byproduct of fermentation.
Lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation are two
types of anaerobic cellular respiration that allow cells to
produce energy in the absence of oxygen.

Let's compare and contrast lactic acid fermentation and

alcoholic fermentation:
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Alcoholic Fermentation
Similarities:
Anaerobic Process: Both lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic
fermentation are anaerobic processes, occurring in the absence of oxygen.
Regeneration of NAD+: A common purpose of both fermentations is to
regenerate NAD+ from NADH generated during glycolysis. This regeneration
is essential for the continuation of glycolysis under anaerobic conditions.
Utilization of Glycolysis: Both types of fermentation start with glycolysis,
which breaks down glucose into pyruvate.
In summary, lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation are both
anaerobic processes that allow cells to generate energy in the absence of
oxygen. They share the common goal of regenerating NAD+ to sustain
glycolysis. The main differences lie in the end products and the organisms
that typically carry out each type of fermentation.
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration