Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amp)

Kaushik Mukherjee
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering, IIEST Shibpur
References: [1] Op-Amps and linear Integrated Circuits, 3rd Edition – Ramakant A. Gayakwad
[2] Electronic Principles, 3rd Edition – Albert Paul Malvino
 What is an Op-Amp?
An Op-Amp is a direct-coupled (dc), multistage, high-gain, voltage amplifier with
two differential inputs and one single ended output and can perform many
mathematical operations (like scaling, addition, subtraction, differentiation,
integration of voltages)

[1]

[1] https://bestengineeringprojects.com/op-amp-block-diagram-characteristics-of-ideal-and-practical-op-amp/
 Symbol of an Op-Amp

Figure 2

Voltages at each node in the above circuit is expressed with respect to the ‘ground’, G.
 Why study Op-Amps?
Op-Amps can perform mathematical operations on voltages and hence
are basic building blocks of:
1) Analog Computers – scaling, addition, subtraction, integration,
differentiation, multipliers etc.
2) Signal Generators (Triangular wave, Saw-tooth wave, square wave etc.)
3) Voltage-to-current converters
4) Current-to-voltage converters
5) Amplitude Modulators
6) Different type of amplifiers
7) Comparators, Zero crossing detectors etc.
Voltage Gain of an Op-Amp

VouT = AOL * (V+ - V-)

AOL

Figure 3
 Circuit model of an Op-Amp
[2]

•AOL = Large signal open loop voltage gain.

•Vd = Difference voltage V1 – V2
•V1 = Noninverting input voltage with respect to
ground
•V2 = Inverting input voltage with respect to ground
•Ri = Input resistance of op-amp
•Ro = Output resistance of op-amp

Vd = (V1-V2)
[2] https://www.eeeguide.com/equivalent-circuit-of-practical-op-amp/

Figure 4
 Ideal Op-Amp
An ideal op-amp would exhibit the following electrical characteristics:
1.Open-loop Voltage Gain A0 is infinity.
2.Infinity input resistance Rin so that almost any signal source can be
driven it and there is no loading of the preceding stage.
3.Zero output resistance R0 so that the output can be driven by an
infinite number of other devices.
4.Zero output voltage when input is zero.
5.Infinite bandwidth so that any frequency signal from 0 to ∞ Hz can be
amplified without attenuation.
6.Infinite common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) so that the output
common-mode noise voltage is zero.
7.Infinity slew rate so that output voltage changes occur simultaneously
with input voltage changes.
8.Zero drift of characteristics with temperature.
 Practical Op-Amp
The practical op-amp has the following characteristics:

1.The open-loop voltage gain A0 is maximum and finite, a typical value for practical op-amp is
considered to be 1,00,000 - 200,000.
2.The input impedance Ri is maximum and is finite i.e. in the order of 100k-2Mohms or more.
3.The output impedance R0 is minimum, not zero, in the order of 40-100ohms or less.
4.The CMRR is maximum and finite.
5.Bandwidth is maximum and finite i.e. it can amplify dc to about 1 MHz signal.
6.The drift of characteristics due to the change in temperature is not null.
7.Maximum slew-rate and has the finite value. (Slew rate is a measure of how fast the output
of an Op-Amp can change with a change in its input)
8.Output is negligibly small but non-zero (called offset) when the input voltage, Vd, is zero.
 Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
Output voltage of an Op-Amp, v0 , is actually:

𝑣0 = 𝐴𝑑 (vNI – vI) + 0.5 ACM (vNI + vI)

where, vNI = Voltage at the non-inverting input voltage of the Op-Amp

vI = Voltage at the inverting input of the Op-Amp
Ad = the differential gain (close to the open loop gain) of the Op-Amp
ACM = the common mode gain of the Op-Amp

Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of an Op-Amp is defined as:

𝐴𝑑
CMRR = | |
𝐴𝐶𝑀
CMRR is often expressed in dB (decibel) as:
𝐴𝑑
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 | |
𝐴𝐶𝑀
 Discrete and Integrated Circuits in Electronics
Discrete Electronic Circuits – A circuit built by soldering individual components like Bipolar Junction
Transistors (BJTs), resistors, capacitors, diodes etc.

Integrated Circuits (IC) – They are different, a human being does not solder individual components here to
make the circuit. Something is called a ‘chip’, which is a tiny semiconductor material (a flat, typically 0.15
mm thick, 2.5 mm long, 2.5 mm wide), that serves as a chassis of an IC. The size can be sometimes smaller
or larger. Using advanced photographis techniques, a manufacturer can produce circuits on the surface of
this chip – circuits with many resistors, diodes, BJTs, and other components.

THE FINSIHED NETWORK IS SO SMALL THAT A MICROSCOPE MAY BE NEEDED TO SEE THE CONNECTIONS.

Such a circuit is called an integrated circuit (IC) or an IC chip (here the word ‘chip’ has a second meaning, it
stands for the entire integrated circuit)

For example, LM741 is an Op-Amp IC.

 IC 741

Figure 5

Volume around 10 mm x 8 mm x 10 mm, weight about 1 gm. Price around Rs. 15/-
Ideal voltage transfer curve of an Op-Amp

Figure 6b

Figure 6a
 Open Loop Op-Amp Configurations

• Differential Amplifier
• Inverting Amplifier
• Non-inverting Amplifier
Open Loop Differential Amplifier

Figure 7
Open Loop Inverting Amplifier

Figure 8
Open Loop Non-inverting Amplifier

Figure 9
 Disadvantages of Op-Amp Circuits used in open loop
• Open loop gain is very high only over a very small bandwidth (5-10 Hz)
• Even if input voltage is of frequency less than 5 Hz, its amplitude should be
very small in order to get amplified, a slight increase saturates (clips) the
output. Such small input voltages are often contaminated with noise
signals (susceptible to noise), hence noise and signals get amplified
simultaneously, difficult to distinguish.
• Gain, although very high over a small bandwidth, depends heavily on
temperature and atmospheric conditions.
• Hence, OPEN LOOP OP-AMP CIRCUITS ARE NOT VERY POPULAR EXCEPT AS
A VOLTAGE COMPARATOR, where a square wave output is obtained with
application of a relatively large amplitude input signal at non-inverting and
inverting inputs.
Closed loop circuits – with feedback (negative or positive)
• Overall gain of an OP-AMP circuit can be controlled if we use a
modification in the basic circuit – this involves use of ‘FEEDBACK’,
where part of the output voltage signal of the Op-Amp is deliberately
fed back into the input of the Op-Amp either directly or via another
network.
• Negative (degenerative) feedback – Signal fed back is opposite
polarity, i.e. out of phase by odd multiples of 1800 with input signal.
Gain becomes much smaller but becomes very stable and bandwidth
increases. Gain does not depend much on environmental conditions
any more. Input resistance increased and output resistance decreased
substantially.
• Positive (regenerative) feedback – Signal fed back is same polarity
with that of the input signal. Used in realizing oscillator circuits.
Feedback configurations – block diagram approach
(a)Voltage-series feedback
(b)Voltage-shunt feedback
(c)Current-series feedback
(d)Current-shunt feedback

Note: Arrows indicate signal

flow directions.

We shall mostly take up

the first two cases next.

Figure 10
Voltage Series Feedback based Op-Amp
This is a Non-inverting (NI)
amplifier circuit with negative
feedback, because the input
signal is connected to the NI
terminal of the Op-Amp.
𝑣0
Open loop voltage gain: 𝐴 =
(gain without feedback) 𝑣𝑖𝑑
𝑣0
Closed loop voltage gain: 𝐴𝐹 =
(gain with feedback) 𝑣𝑖𝑛

𝑣𝑓
Gain of feedback circuit: 𝐵 =
𝑣0

This is a case of negative feedback as:

𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣𝑓

Figure 11
 Voltage Series Feedback based Op-Amp (contd.)
With respect to Figure 11, 𝑣0 = 𝐴(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑅1 𝑣0
𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑓 = since, Ri >>> R1
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
𝑅1 𝑣0 𝐴(𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 )𝑣𝑖𝑛
Hence, 𝑣0 = 𝐴(𝑣𝑖𝑛 − ) Rearranging, 𝑣0 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 + 𝐴𝑅1
𝐴(𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 )
Hence, 𝐴𝐹 = (exact)
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 + 𝐴𝑅1

Generally, A is very large, typically 105. Hence, 𝐴𝑅1 ≫ (𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 ) and (𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 + 𝐴𝑅1 ) ≅ 𝐴𝑅1

Thus, 𝑣0 𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝐹 = =1+ (practically)
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅1

For older generation Op-amps like IC 741, IC 709: any external resistor value should be more than 1 kΩ and less than 1 MΩ
 Voltage Series Feedback based Op-Amp (contd.)
With respect to Figure 11,
𝑣𝑓 𝑅1
𝐵= =
𝑣0 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
1
Hence, 𝐴𝐹 =
𝐵

Finally, the closed-loop gain can be written in terms of the open-loop gain as:
𝑅 +𝑅
𝐴(𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 ) 𝐴(𝑅 1 + 𝑅𝐹 )
𝐴𝐹 = = 1 𝐹 𝐴
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 + 𝐴𝑅1 (𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹) 𝐴𝑅1 Or, 𝐴𝐹 =
+ 1 + 𝐴𝐵
(𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 ) (𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 )

AF = closed loop voltage gain

A = open loop voltage gain
B = gain of feedback circuit
AB = loop gain

Figure 12: One-line block diagram of above equation

Voltage series feedback – Difference input voltage ideally ZERO
𝑣0
𝑣𝑖𝑑 = ≅ 0 (assumed, as input resistance and
𝐴 open loop gain are very high)

Hence, 𝑣1 = 𝑣2

𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑅1 𝑣0
𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑓 = = 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
𝑣0 𝑅𝐹
Hence, 𝐴𝐹 = =1+
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅1

Figure 13
Voltage series feedback – Input Resistance With Feedback

𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑖𝐹 = =
𝑖𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑖𝑑 /𝑅𝑖
𝑣0 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑛
However, 𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 𝑣
and, 0 =
𝐴 1 + 𝐴𝐵
𝑣𝑖𝑛
Therefore, 𝑅𝑖𝐹 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑣0 /𝐴
𝑣𝑖𝑛
= 𝐴𝑅𝑖
𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑛 /(1 + 𝐴𝐵)
= 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝐴𝐵)

This means that the input resistance with negative

feedback will become (1+AB) times that without
feedback.
Figure 14
Voltage series feedback – Output Resistance With Feedback
Output resistance, R0F – Resistance
determined looking back into the feedback
amplifier from the output terminal, as
shown.
Can be obtained by using Thevenin’s
theorem for dependent sources. (Reduce
independent source vin to 0, apply an
external voltage v0 and then calculate the
resulting current i0 𝑣0
𝑅0𝐹 =
𝑖0
At node N, 𝑖0 = 𝑖𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 ≅ 𝑖𝑎
𝑣0 − 𝑅0 𝑖0 − 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 0
However, 𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 0 − 𝑣𝑓
𝑅1 𝑣0
=− = −𝐵𝑣0
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
𝑣0 + 𝐴𝐵𝑣0
Therefore, 𝑖0 =
𝑅0
𝑣0 𝑅0
Figure 15 Therefore, 𝑅0𝐹 = =
(𝑣0 +𝐴𝐵𝑣0 )/𝑅0 1 + 𝐴𝐵
 Voltage series feedback – Bandwidth With Feedback
For a single break frequency Op-Amp, like IC 741,
gain-BW product is constant
Unity Gain Bandwidth = 𝑈𝐺𝐵 = 𝐴 𝑓0 = 𝐴𝐹 𝑓𝐹

𝐴
𝐴𝐹 =
1 + 𝐴𝐵
Hence,
Bandwidth with feedback, = 𝑓𝐹 = 𝑓0 (1 + 𝐴𝐵)

Figure 16: Open-loop gain vs. frequency curve of the 741 IC

 Voltage series feedback – Total output offset voltage with Feedback
For a single break frequency Op-Amp, like IC 741, it can be shown that total output offset
voltage with feedback =
±𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑇 =
1 + 𝐴𝐵

It therefore turns out that the Non-inverting Amplifier with negative feedback
approaches a PERFECT voltage amplifier with:

1) Very High input resistance

2) Very low output resistance
3) Stable voltage gain
4) Large Bandwidth
5) Very little output offset voltage
Voltage follower/Unity Gain Non-Inverting Buffer
Feedback fraction, B = 1. So,
𝐴
𝐴𝐹 = ≅1
1 + 𝐴𝐵
𝑅𝑖𝐹 = 𝐴𝑅𝑖
𝑅0
𝑅0𝐹 =
𝐴

𝑓𝐹 = 𝐴𝑓0

±𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑇 =
𝐴

Figure 17
Voltage shunt feedback Amplifier

Figure 18
 Voltage shunt feedback Amplifier
𝑖𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝐹 + 𝐼𝐵 (Ri very high and bias currents negligible for Op-Amps)

𝑖𝑖𝑛 ≅ 𝑖𝐹
𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣2 𝑣2 − 𝑣0
i.e. =
𝑅1 𝑅𝐹

Now, 𝑣0 = 𝐴(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 ) = - Av2

Substituting,
𝑣0 𝐴𝑅𝐹 𝑣0 𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝐹 = =− Or, 𝐴𝐹 = ≅−
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹 + 𝐴𝑅1 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑅1
𝐴𝐾 𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝐹 = where, 𝐾 = (a voltage attenuation factor)
1 + 𝐴𝐵 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
𝑅1
𝐵= (gain of the feedback ckt.)
Figure 18a 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐹
 Voltage shunt feedback Amplifier
𝐴𝐾
𝐴𝐹 =
1 + 𝐴𝐵

Figure 19

Figure 20: One-line block diagram of above equation

Comparison of Non-Inverting and Inverting Amplifier

Figure 21