Tutorial 1

Topic: Do you agree that the Primary factor behind Britan’s emergence as the
world’s first industrial nation was the agricultural revolution?

Course Name: Capitalism and Colonialism (M11403)

Monsoon Semester-2023

Submitted to: Dr. Navendu Sekhar

Submitted by: Ummer Farooq (MA 3rd semester)

The rise of Britain as the world's inaugural industrial superpower represents a momentous
turning point in human history, fundamentally reshaping economies, societies, and the nature of
labor. At the heart of this transformation lies a pivotal question: what was the primary driving
force behind Britain's ascendancy into the Industrial Revolution? One prevailing argument posits
that the Agricultural Revolution played a central role in this dramatic shift. This period of
agrarian transformation, spanning from the late 17th to the mid-19th centuries, witnessed
significant changes in farming techniques and land usage, ultimately leading to heightened
agricultural productivity. Although the Agricultural Revolution undoubtedly played a significant
role, the contention over whether it was the primary catalyst for Britain's industrialization
remains a complex and contentious issue.

The Industrial Revolution in Britain is a multifaceted and intricate phenomenon, with numerous
contributing factors. While the term "Industrial Revolution" was initially coined by early French
authors, it gained widespread recognition through the works of English economic historian
Arnold Toynbee. Toynbee defined the Industrial Revolution as the period from 1760 to 1840, but
it is more frequently used to describe the broader economic transition from an agrarian society to
one based on manufacturing, rather than being tied to a specific timeframe. However, it is crucial
to acknowledge that the Agricultural Revolution was just one of several factors that contributed
to Britain's emergence as the world's premier industrialized nation. Additional elements such as
the availability of inexpensive coal, urbanization, a low-cost labor force, and international trade
opportunities also played substantial roles in this multifaceted historical event.

Access to raw materials held a significant advantage for Britain. The nation's extensive overseas
trade and colonial empire afforded access to vast markets and sources of raw materials, further
fueling industrialization. Relative political stability in Britain during this era provided an
environment conducive to economic growth and investment, encouraging entrepreneurs and
investors to undertake risks and invest in new technologies and industries. Britain boasted a well-
developed financial system, encompassing a stable banking system and access to investment
capital, facilitating the financing of large-scale industrial ventures. The availability of a large and
relatively skilled labor force, partly due to the agricultural revolution, was paramount for
industrialization. The migration of rural populations to urban centers furnished the workforce
required for factories. The broader context of global economic changes, encompassing shifts in
international trade patterns, also played a role in Britain's industrialization.

Agriculture, as a cornerstone of economies since its inception, evolved over time to generate
surpluses and sustain burgeoning societies. In the context of Britain, the history of agricultural
innovation is a captivating journey deeply intertwined with historical events. The Crusades,
which swept across Europe during the Middle Ages, were primarily driven by the desire to
control lucrative trade routes. These conflicts were instrumental in fulfilling Europe's economic
demands, particularly for coveted goods like spices and silks from the East. Middle-class
merchant communities played a pivotal role in fostering this demand, having established
consistent engagement with the Eastern world following the fall of Constantinople in 1453. This
demand for exotic goods-initiated innovation in agriculture as farmers sought to cultivate
selective crops to meet these desires. Consequently, this selective crop cultivation not only
resulted in surplus production of luxury items but also led to specialization in the cultivation of
these crops, marking a significant departure from traditional food-centric agriculture. This
transformative shift in agricultural practices eventually culminated in what is known as the
Agricultural Revolution, a period spanning the 18th and 19th centuries in Britain. The
Agricultural Revolution brought about profound changes, including crop rotation, the Enclosure
Acts, mechanization, and advanced livestock breeding, profoundly impacting Britain's economy
and society and laying the foundation for the broader Industrial Revolution that reshaped the
world.

During the 17th century, the practice of land enclosure spread rapidly throughout England. In the
19th century, Parliament enacted significant legislation to support this trend, notably the General
Enclosure Act of 1801 and the Enclosure Act of 1845. These Acts authorized the enclosure of
specific lands across England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, and over the course of a century,
from the 1750s to the 1860s, many lands were enclosed primarily for agricultural purposes,
typically initiated by landowners seeking to consolidate and privatize these lands for their own
use. The Enclosures Movement brought about substantial improvements in farming practices,
often leading to the adoption of modern farming methods, including crop rotation, selective
livestock breeding, and the use of new machinery, resulting in increased agricultural productivity.
This higher productivity yielded surplus agricultural products that could be sold in growing
urban markets, providing food for the expanding industrial workforce. This marked the
emergence of large-scale, profit-oriented agriculture. However, the process of enclosure also had
negative consequences, as many smallholders, cottagers, and commoners lost their traditional
access to communal resources, disrupting their livelihoods and leaving them with few options in
rural areas. Consequently, a significant portion of the rural population became economically
displaced and sought new opportunities in emerging urban centers undergoing industrialization.
These cities offered employment prospects, albeit in challenging working conditions. The
migration of rural workers to urban areas had a profound impact on the labor force available to
the industrial sectors, as factories and industries in cities required a growing workforce to operate
machinery and meet production demands. However, the conditions in early industrial factories
were often harsh, with long hours, low wages, and poor living conditions.

The agricultural revolution in England was a multi-phase process marked by the adoption of new
farming techniques, crop diversification, and the introduction of advanced machinery. The first
phase, occurring before parliamentary enclosures, laid the groundwork for increased
productivity, while the second phase, in the early 19th century, brought about further
advancements that significantly boosted agricultural output. These developments played a crucial
role in the transformation of England's agricultural landscape and contributed to its economic
growth during the Industrial Revolution.

Before World War I, the study of economic history related to the Industrial Revolution had
limited source material and a narrow perspective. T.S. Ashton noted that historians at that time
had very rare sources of historiography to draw upon while constructing the narrative of the
Industrial Revolution. However, significant developments emerged in the historiography of the
Industrial Revolution in the period between the two world wars. The catalyst for this shift in
historiography can be attributed to the catastrophic effects of World War I. Prior to the war,
historical writing on industrial growth predominantly presented industrialization as a symbol of
human progress. This perspective largely ignored the darker aspects or negative consequences
associated with industrialization. As the need for a more comprehensive understanding of this
transformative event became apparent, historians began to explore additional dimensions. Arnold
Toynbee, for instance, emphasized the role of overseas trade as a principal driver of economic
change during the Industrial Revolution. He argued that the growth of foreign trade played a
pivotal role in reshaping the economic system of the time. William Cunningham shared a similar
perspective, suggesting that foreign trade might have been a key pathway to industrialization in
Britain. These historians introduced a more nuanced view of industrialization, considering not
only its positive aspects but also its complex relationship with global trade and its potential
consequences.

Numerous scholars have emphasized the crucial role of agriculture within the industrial sector.
According to Rostow the successful start of the British economy hinged on the necessity of a
technological revolution in agriculture. In 1969, Deane provided a detailed account of the strong
correlation between the Agricultural Revolution and the Industrial Revolution in England. This
connection stemmed from the idea that advancements in the agricultural field amplified the
purchasing power for industrial goods. Additionally, agriculture functioned as a significant
source of the financial capital imperative for the process of industrialization.

The revisionist approach to understanding the Industrial Revolution suggests that agricultural
growth in Britain experienced a distinct pattern of development. According to this perspective,
agricultural expansion was relatively slow during the latter part of the 18th century, but it gained
significant momentum in the first half of the 19th century. Importantly, this view posits that the
Industrial Revolution was not an isolated event but was preceded by a prolonged period of
agricultural expansion. This perspective contends that one of the reasons for the initially slow
economic growth during the early stages of the Industrial Revolution was a stagnation in
agricultural output and productivity in the latter half of the 18th century. In essence, the
agricultural sector faced limitations and challenges during this period that hindered its ability to
contribute substantially to overall economic growth.

However, the revisionist approach highlights a crucial turning point. It emphasizes that after
1800, there was a notable increase in agricultural output, and this surge in agricultural
productivity played a pivotal role in driving economic growth after 1815. The idea of an
agricultural revolution goes beyond just an increase in the quantity of agricultural output; it also
signifies a qualitative improvement in productivity, which was instrumental in supporting and
catalyzing the broader economic growth seen in the early 19th century.
Robert C. Allen's argument about the timing and phases of the agricultural revolution in England
sheds light on the complex and transformative changes that occurred in the country's agricultural
sector during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. His perspective emphasizes two distinct
phases of agricultural innovation and increased productivity, each with its own set of key
developments.

The first Phase (Late 18th Century - Pre-Parliamentary Enclosures) of the agricultural revolution
occurred before the parliamentary enclosures, which were a series of legislative acts that
privatized and consolidated common lands into individual, fenced-off farms. The open-field
system was still prevalent during this time. Small-scale farmers within the open-field system
were the primary drivers of change. They adopted new farming techniques and practices. The
key innovations of this phase included crop rotation, the adoption of new crop varieties, and
improvements in farming practices. Crop rotation involves alternating the types of crops grown
in a field to improve soil fertility and reduce the depletion of nutrients. The adoption of new crop
varieties was crucial for diversifying agriculture and reducing vulnerability to crop failures.
These changes contributed to higher agricultural yields and improved food production. Crop
rotation, in particular, had a positive impact on soil health and crop productivity, setting the stage
for increased agricultural output.

The second phase of the agricultural revolution occurred in the first half of the 19th century,
which was after the parliamentary enclosures had taken place. The second phase, happening after
parliamentary enclosures, brought significant advancements in farming technology, including the
seed drill, threshing machine, and improvements in livestock breeding. Steam power and
railways played a role in the efficient production and distribution of agricultural products. These
innovations increased agricultural output and productivity, enabling more food production with
fewer laborers and contributing to overall agricultural sector growth.

Increased fertility in Britain was driven by various agricultural innovations such as crop rotation,
legume-based nitrogen fixation, improved permanent grasslands, and the daily movement of
animals to enrich arable fields with nutrients. M.A. Havinden suggested that the impressive crop
growth was a result of extensive land use across open areas. Prior to the enclosure movement,
large estates were primarily units of ownership, not production, and much land lay fallow due to
high land rents, making agriculture unprofitable. However, in the mid-18th century, prominent
landowners, particularly aristocrats, began subsidizing agriculture.

Economic thinkers like Mantoux and Gillespie delved into models of industrial growth, with a
particular focus on the contributions of Toynbee and Cunningham. Mantoux explored internal
factors, such as Britain's political positioning, which played a favorable role in the development
of its industries. Gillespie, on the other hand, emphasized the crucial role of English trade with
America as a primary driver of Britain's industrial growth. During the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, trade with America greatly benefited Britain, while trade with other parts of the world,
like India and Southeast Asia, often resulted in losses. It wasn't until the nineteenth century, after
significant industrial growth, that Britain began to see profits in its trade with these regions.

EL Jones conducted an examination of the role of agriculture in Britain's journey toward

industrial development, and his analysis drew heavily from Arthur John's research on the
economic dynamics between 1660 and 1750. This specific historical period witnessed several
noteworthy shifts within the agricultural sector. While historians have proposed various theories
to explain the growth of industry in Britain, Jones primarily emphasized the importance of
innovations in crop cultivation and changes in farming techniques, which are often collectively
referred to as the classic agricultural revolution. Jones's work highlighted the intricate
relationship between agricultural advancements, economic demand, and Britain's industrial
development during the studied period. By focusing on the timing of innovations and their
impact on economic growth, he aimed to shed light on the economic landscape of Britain at that
time. Ultimately, Jones's research contributes to a nuanced understanding of the complex
interplay between agriculture and industry during this critical historical phase.

One key point Jones made was that these pivotal agricultural innovations were introduced during
the late 17th and early 18th centuries. However, this period was characterized by relatively slow
population growth and only modest increases in per capita national income. Consequently, the
demand for agricultural products experienced a gradual rise. Jones's discussion revolved around
the significant challenge posed by limited economic demand within the European market of that
era. This restricted market context had implications for the pace and nature of agricultural and
economic development in Britain. Furthermore, Jones delved into the consequences of declining
investment in agriculture after a certain point in time. Reduced investment in agriculture could
have affected the overall productivity and growth of the British economy.

Conclusion:

while the argument that the primary factor behind Britain's emergence as the world's first
industrial nation was the agricultural revolution is valid, it's essential to consider the complexity
of the Industrial Revolution. This transformation was not driven by a single factor but rather by a
combination of elements, including agricultural innovations, access to raw materials, a stable
political environment, a strong financial system, and trade opportunities. These factors worked in
conjunction to propel Britain into the Industrial Revolution and reshape the world as we know it.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1) Ang, James B., et al. “Innovation and Productivity Advances in British Agriculture:
1620–1850.” Southern Economic Journal, vol. 80, no. 1, 2013, pp. 162–86.

2) Jones, E. L. “English Farming before and during the Nineteenth Century”. The
Economic History Review, vol. 15, no. 1, 1962, pp. 145–52.

3) Jones, E. L.“Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1660-1750: Agricultural

Change.” The Journal of Economic History, vol. 25, no. 1, 1965, pp. 1–18.

4) Robert Allen. ‘Tracking the English agricultural revolution in England,’ The Economic
History Review, 2nd Series, 52:2, May 1999, pp. 209-35.

5) J. D. Chambers. “Enclosures and labour supply in the Industrial Revolution”. Economic

History Review, 2nd Ser. V, 1953, pp.319-343.

6) Joseph E, Inikori, Africans and the industrial revolution in England: a study in international
trade and economic development, (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002).