Brighter Thinking

A Level Further
Mathematics for OCR A
Mechanics Student Book (AS/A Level)
Jess Barker, Nathan Barker, Michele Conway, Janet Such
Course consultant: Vesna Kadelburg
Contents
Introduction
How to use this resource

1 Work, energy and power 1

Section 1: The work done by a force
Section 2: Kinetic energy and the work–energy principle
Section 3: Potential energy, mechanical energy and conservation of mechanical energy
Section 4: Work done by a force at an angle to the direction of motion
Section 5: Power
Mixed practice 1

2 Dimensional analysis
Section 1: Defining and calculating dimensions
Section 2: Units and dimensions of sums, differences and angles
Section 3: Finding dimensions from units and derivatives and predicting formulae
Section 4: Summary of dimensions and units
Mixed practice 2

3 Momentum and collisions 1

Section 1: Momentum and impulse
Section 2: Collisions and the principle of conservation of momentum
Section 3: Restitution, kinetic energy and impulsive tension
Mixed practice 3

4 Circular motion 1
Section 1: Linear speed vs angular speed
Section 2: Acceleration in horizontal circular motion
Section 3: Solving problems involving motion in a horizontal circle
Mixed practice 4

5 Centres of mass 1
Section 1: Centre of mass of a system of point masses
Section 2: Centres of mass of standard shapes
Section 3: Centres of mass of composite bodies
Mixed practice 5

Focus on … Proof 1

Focus on … Problem solving 1

Focus on … Modelling 1

Cross-topic review exercise 1

6 Work, energy and power 2

Section 1: Work done by a variable force
Section 2: Hooke’s law, work done against elasticity and elastic potential energy
Section 3: Problem solving involving work, energy and power
Section 4: Using vectors to calculate work done, kinetic energy and power
Mixed practice 6

7 Linear motion under variable force

Section 1: Working with acceleration, velocity and displacement
Section 2: Variable force
Mixed practice 7

8 Momentum and collisions 2

 Section 1: Variable force and vector notation
Section 2: Oblique impacts and the impulse–momentum triangle
Section 3: Oblique collisions of two spheres and impulsive tensions in strings
Mixed practice 8

9 Circular motion 2
Section 1: Conservation of mechanical energy
Section 2: Components of acceleration (a general model)
Section 3: Problem solving situations
Mixed practice 9

10 Centres of mass 2
Section 1: Centres of mass by integration
Section 2: Equilibrium of a rigid body
Mixed practice 10

Focus on … Proof 2

Focus on … Problem solving 2

Focus on … Modelling 2

Cross-topic review exercise 2

AS Level practice paper

A Level practice paper
Formulae
Answers
Worked solution for chapter exercises
1 Work, energy and power 1
2 Dimensional analysis
3 Momentum and collisions 1
4 Circular motion 1
5 Centres of mass 1
6 Work, energy and power 2
7 Linear motion under variable force
8 Momentum and collisions 2
9 Circular motion 2
10 Centres of mass 2
Worked solution for cross topic review exercises
Cross-topic review exercise 1
Cross-topic review exercise 2
AS Level practice paper
A Level practice paper
Glossary
Acknowledgements
Introduction
You have probably been told that mathematics is very useful, yet it can often seem like a lot of techniques
that just have to be learned to answer examination questions. You are now getting to the point where you
will start to see where some of these techniques can be applied in solving real problems. However, as well
as seeing how maths can be useful, we hope that anyone working through this book will realise that it can
also be incredibly frustrating, surprising and ultimately beautiful.

The book is woven around three key themes from the new curriculum:

Proof
Maths is valued because it trains you to think logically and communicate precisely. At a high level, maths is
far less concerned about answers and more about the clear communication of ideas. It is not about being
neat – although that might help! It is about creating a coherent argument that other people can easily
follow but find difficult to refute. Have you ever tried looking at your own work? If you cannot follow it
yourself it is unlikely anybody else will be able to understand it. In maths we communicate using a variety
of means – feel free to use combinations of diagrams, words and algebra to aid your argument. And once
you have attempted a proof, try presenting it to your peers. Look critically (but positively) at some other
people’s attempts. It is only through having your own attempts evaluated and trying to find flaws in other
proofs that you will develop sophisticated mathematical thinking. This is why we have included lots of
common errors in our ’work it out’ boxes – just in case your friends don’t make any mistakes!

Problem solving
Maths is valued because it trains you to look at situations in unusual, creative ways, to persevere and to
evaluate solutions along the way. We have been heavily influenced by a great mathematician and maths
educator, George Polya, who believed that students were not just born with problem solving skills – these
skills were developed by seeing problems being solved and reflecting on the solutions before trying similar
problems. You may not realise it but good mathematicians spend most of their time being stuck. You need
to spend some time on problems you can’t do, trying out different possibilities. If after a while you have not
cracked it then look at the solution and try a similar problem. Don’t be disheartened if you cannot get it
immediately – in fact, the longer you spend puzzling over a problem the more you will learn from the
solution. You may, for example, never need to integrate a rational function in future, but we firmly believe
that the problem solving skills you will develop by trying it can be applied to many other situations.

Modelling
Maths is valued because it helps us solve real-world problems. However, maths describes ideal situations
and the real world is messy! Modelling is about deciding on the important features needed to describe the
essence of a situation and turning that into a mathematical form, then using it to make predictions,
compare to reality and possibly improve the model. In many situations the technical maths is actually the
easy part – especially with modern technology. Deciding which features of reality to include or ignore and
anticipating the consequences of these decisions is the hard part. Yet some fairly drastic assumptions –
such as pretending a car is a single point or that people’s votes are independent – can result in models that
are surprisingly accurate.

More than anything else, this book is about making links. Links between the different chapters, the topics
covered and the themes just discussed, links to other subjects and links to the real world. We hope that
you will grow to see maths as one great complex but beautiful web of interlinking ideas.

Maths is about so much more than examinations, but we hope that if you take on board these ideas (and
do plenty of practice!) you will find maths examinations a much more approachable and possibly even
enjoyable experience. However, always remember that the results of what you write down in a few hours
by yourself in silence under exam conditions is not the only measure you should consider when judging
your mathematical ability – it is only one variable in a much more complicated mathematical model!
How to use this resource
Throughout this resource you will notice particular features that are designed to aid your learning. This
section provides a brief overview of these features.

In this chapter you will learn how to:

calculate the work done by a force

calculate kinetic energy
use the work–energy principle

Learning objectives
A short summary of the content that you will learn in each chapter.

Before you start…

GCSE You should know how to convert 1 Convert metres to

units of distance, speed and kilometres.
time.

A Level Mathematics Student You should know how to 2 Calculate the weight of a car
Book 1 calculate the weight of an object of mass , stating the
from its mass, and know the unit unit with your answer.
of weight.

Before you start

Points you should know from your previous learning and questions to check that you’re ready to start the
chapter.

WORKED EXAMPLE

The left-hand side shows you how to set out your working. The right-hand side explains the more
difficult steps and helps you understand why a particular method was chosen.

PROOF

Step-by-step walkthroughs of standard proofs and methods of proof.

WORK IT OUT

Can you identify the correct solution and find the mistakes in the two incorrect solutions?

Key point

A summary of the most important methods, facts and formulae.

Explore
Ideas for activities and investigations to extend your understanding of the topic.
 Tip

Useful guidance, including on ways of calculating or checking and use of technology.

Each chapter ends with a Checklist of learning and understanding and a Mixed practice exercise,
which includes past paper questions marked with the icon .

In between chapters, you will find extra sections that bring together topics in a more synoptic way.

Focus on…

Unique sections relating to the preceding chapters that develop your skills in proof, problem solving and
modelling.

CROSS-TOPIC REVIEW EXERCISE

Questions covering topics from across the preceding chapters, testing your ability to apply what you have
learned.

You will find AS Level and A Level practice questions towards the end of the resource, as well as a
glossary of key terms (picked out in colour within the chapters), and answers to all questions. Full worked
solutions can be found on the Cambridge Elevate digital platform, along with a digital version of this
Student Resource.

Maths is all about making links, which is why throughout this book you will find signposts emphasising
connections between different topics, applications and suggestions for further research.

Rewind

Reminders of where to find useful information from earlier in your study.

Fast forward

Links to topics that you may cover in greater detail later in your study.

Focus on…

Links to problem solving, modelling or proof exercises that relate to the topic currently being
studied.

Did you know?

Interesting or historical information and links with other subjects to improve your awareness about
how mathematics contributes to society.

Colour-coding of exercises
The questions in the exercises are designed to provide careful progression, ranging from basic fluency to
practice questions. They are uniquely colour-coded, as shown here.
 1 A uniform rectangular lamina has vertices at and . Find the coordinates of the
centre of mass of the lamina.
10 Find the increase of elastic potential energy when a light elastic string of natural length and
modulus of elasticity is extended from to .
13 An object of mass is attached to one end of a light elastic string of natural length with its
other end attached to a fixed point, . The modulus of elasticity of the string is . is dropped from
. Find the extension of the string when the object reaches its maximum velocity.
18 A light elastic spring with natural length rests on a smooth horizontal table. One end is attached
to a fixed point and a mass is attached at the other end , held from . The modulus of
elasticity of the spring is .
10 Road surface conditions are being assessed for a horizontal bend in a road that is formed by an arc of a
circle of radious . The road surface could be made of asphalt or concrete. The coefficient of friction
between car tyres and asphalt is , and between car and concrete .
14 A vertical hollow cylinder of radius is rotating about its axis. A particle rough inner surface of the
cylinder. The cylinder and rotate with the same The coefficient of friction between and the cylinder
is .

Black – drill questions. Some of these come in several parts, each with subparts i and ii. You only need
attempt subpart i at first; subpart ii is essentially the same question, which you can use for further practice
if you got part i wrong, for homework, or when you revisit the exercise during revision.
Green – practice questions at a basic level.
Blue – practice questions at an intermediate level.
Red – practice questions at an advanced level.
Purple – challenging questions that apply the concept of the current chapter across other areas of maths.

Yellow – designed to encourage reflection and discussion.

– indicates content that is for A Level students only

 1 Work, energy and power 1

In this chapter you will learn how to:

calculate the work done by a force

calculate kinetic energy
use the work–energy principle
equate gravitational potential energy to work done against gravity
perform calculations using power.

Before you start…

GCSE You should know how to 1 Convert metres to kilometres.
convert units of distance,
speed and time.

A Level You should know how to 2 Calculate the weight of a car of mass
Mathematics calculate the weight of an , stating the unit with your
Student Book 1 object from its mass, and answer.
know the unit of weight.

A Level You should be able to use 3 A resultant force of acts on an

Mathematics Newton’s second law of object of mass . Calculate the
Student Book 1 motion: acceleration of the object.

A Level You should be able to 4 A force of acts on a particle at an

Mathematics resolve a force into angle of to the positive horizontal
Student Book 2 components at right direction. What are the horizontal and
angles to each other. vertical components of the force?

The relationship between work and energy

You have already studied the effect of a force or system of forces in A Level Mathematics.

In this chapter, you will learn the definition of the work done by a force, which is a quantity that is
measured in joules, the same units that are used for energy. You will learn about propulsive and resistive
forces. You will learn about the relationship between work done and two different types of energy: kinetic
energy and gravitational potential energy. You will also learn about power, which is the rate of doing work.

Ideas of work, energy and power are crucial in engineering, enabling engineers to design machines to do
useful work. Hydroelectric power stations work by converting the work done by falling water, first into
kinetic energy as the hydroelectric turbines rotate and then into electricity.

Fast forward
 In Chapter 6, you will learn about elastic potential energy and its conversion to kinetic
energy.
Section 1: The work done by a force
Work is done by a force when the object it is applied to moves. The amount of work done is the product of
the force and the distance moved in the direction of the force.

Some forces promote movement, while others resist it. For example, when you cycle into a breeze, your
pedalling promotes movement but the breeze acts against your movement. Forces that promote
movement are called propulsive forces and those that resist movement are known as resistive forces.

Other propulsive forces include the tension in a rope being used to drag an object across the ground and
the driving force of a vehicle engine. The driving force of an engine is often described as its tractive
force. Other resistive forces include friction, vehicle braking and resistance by moving through still air or a
liquid.

Key point 1.1

For a force acting in the direction of motion:

Work done is measured in joules .

, i.e.

For example a force of acting on an object that moves in the direction of the force does
of work. Doubling the force to over the same distance would double the amount of work
done to . Likewise, doubling the distance moved to with an unchanged force of would double
the amount of work done to .

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.1

A box is pushed across a horizontal floor by a horizontal force of . Calculate the work done
by the force.

Use the definition of work done.

State units of work done with your answer.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.2

A truck driver driving along a horizontal road applies a braking force of for . Calculate the
work done by the brakes, giving your answer in .

Convert to as you need to work in standard units.

Work done by brakes Use the definition of work done.

Change to .

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.3

A crate is lifted by a rope and pulley system. Calculate the work done against gravity.

Apply the definition of work done to the gravitational force. The

force needed to lift the crate is equal to the crate’s weight and
 work done against gravity the distance moved is height gained.

Calculate the weight of the crate, based on the usual

approximation for the acceleration due to gravity of .

Work done against gravity

Use the definition of work done.

Key point 1.2

When a mass, , is raised or lowered through a height :

work done against or by

Fast Forward

In Section 3 you will learn the equivalence of work done against gravity and gravitational
potential energy.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.4

A competitor of mass dives from a -metre-high diving board into a pool. Air resistance
averages as he descends through the air. Resistance from the water then averages
as he descends further. Calculate:
a the total work done by gravity as the diver descends metres

b the total work done against air and water resistance during this descent.

a Use to calculate the work done by gravity.

b Use to calculate the work done against

each of the resistances.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.5

A van of mass travels along a straight road. The driving force of the vehicle engine is
and resistance to motion is , on average. The van travels from one delivery to the next,
descending in height. Find:

a the work done by the vehicle engine

b the work done by gravity
c the work done against resistance.

a Convert distance to metres.

Work done by vehicle Use to calculate the work done by the vehicle
engine.

b Use to calculate the work done by gravity.

 c Work done against
Use to calculate the work done against resistance.

EXERCISE 1A

1 A parcel is dragged metres across a horizontal floor by a horizontal rope. The tension in the rope is
. Calculate the work done by the tension in the rope.
2 Susan climbs a vertical rock high. Susan’s mass is . Calculate the work done by Susan
against gravity.
3 Sunil descends a vertical ladder. His mass is and the work done by gravity is . Find the
height Sunil descends.
4 A ball of mass is dropped from a window. Calculate the work done by gravity as the ball falls
vertically to the ground below.
5 A puck slides metres across an ice rink, against a resistive force of . Calculate the work done
against resistance.
6 A cyclist travelling on horizontal ground applies a driving force of against a headwind of and
a resistance from friction of . The cyclist travels . Find:
a the work done by the cyclist
b the total work done against wind and friction.
7 A fish basket is raised from the sea floor to a fishing boat at sea level, metres above. The mass of
the basket is . The resistance to motion from the seawater is . Calculate the total work done,
against gravity and water resistance, in raising the fish basket.
8 A driving force of does of work moving a van along a horizontal road from to .
Resistance to motion averages . Calculate the work done against resistance as the van moves
from to .
Section 2: Kinetic energy and the work–energy principle
Kinetic energy is the energy an object has because it is moving.

Key point 1.3

An object of mass moving with speed has kinetic energy .

If mass is measured in and speed is measured in , kinetic energy is measured in joules.

Tip

If speed is not given in , you should convert to before you start the rest of your
calculations.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.6

A particle of mass is moving with kinetic energy joules. Calculate the speed of the
particle.

Use the formula for kinetic energy.

Substitute and rearrange to find speed.

As mass was given in and kinetic energy in joules, speed is in

. Speed is a positive scalar, so the negative option of the root
can be disregarded.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.7

A cyclist slows down from to . The combined mass of the cyclist and her bicycle
is . Calculate the loss of kinetic energy.

Let be the starting speed and be To convert to you must multiply by the
the final speed: conversion factor , which simplifies to division by .

and

Loss of kinetic energy initial kinetic energy final kinetic

energy

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.8

Calculate the increase in kinetic energy when a boat of mass tonnes changes velocity from
to . Give your answer in .

Use Pythagoras’ theorem to convert the velocity

vectors to speeds. You need the square of the
speed, not the velocity vector, for the kinetic
energy formula.
 You can write in factorised form.

Convert tonnes to
Divide by to convert joules to .

The work–energy principle is an essential idea in Mechanics that enables us to calculate the work
necessary to cause a change in kinetic energy.

Key point 1.4

The net work done by all the forces acting on a particle, including its own weight, is equal to the
change in kinetic energy of the particle.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.9

A particle of mass at rest on a smooth horizontal plane is acted on by a constant horizontal

force of . Find the speed of the particle after it has travelled metres.

Work–energy principle: since the particle is starting from rest,

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.10

Stephen is driving his car along a horizontal road at when he notices a broken-down
vehicle, just off the road, ahead. Stephen and his car have a mass of and the total
resistance to motion is assumed constant at . Stephen believes he should slow down and
that he can slow down sufficiently without applying the brakes. Calculate Stephen’s speed, in
, as he reaches the broken-down vehicle, taking account of the resistance to motion.

Assume that Stephen allows the resistance to motion to

slow his car down over . There is no driving or braking
force.
Work done against resistance Calculate the work done against resistance.

Convert the initial speed of to .

Write down the expression for loss of kinetic energy.

Work–energy principle:
work done against

Substitute for . Rearrange and solve for .

Convert back to .
EXERCISE 1B

1 Calculate the kinetic energy of a cyclist and her bicycle having a combined mass of ,
travelling at . Give your answer in .
2 Calculate the mass of an athlete who is running at , with kinetic energy .
3 Calculate the speed of a bus of mass tonnes with kinetic energy . Give your answer in
.
4 A box of mass is pulled from to across a smooth horizontal floor by a horizontal force
of magnitude . At point , the box has speed and at point the box has speed
.

Ignoring all other resistive forces, find:

a the increase in kinetic energy of the box
b the work done by the force
c the distance .
5 Calculate the loss of kinetic energy when a boat of mass tonnes reduces in velocity from
to .
6 A car driver brakes on a horizontal road and slows down from to . The mass of
the car and its occupants is .
a Find the loss in kinetic energy.
b Given that the work done against resistance to motion is , find the work done by the
brakes.
7 A child of mass descends a smooth slide, after propelling herself from the top at .
Ignoring air resistance, calculate her speed at the bottom of the slide, which is metres
lower down than the top.
8 A bullet of mass grams passes horizontally through a target of thickness . The speed of
the bullet is reduced from to . Calculate the magnitude of the average
resistive force exerted on the bullet.
9 A train with mass tonnes is travelling at on horizontal tracks, when the driver
sees a speed reduction sign. The train’s speed must be reduced to over .
Resistance to motion is approximately . Calculate the braking force required, in .
10 A package of mass grams slides down a parcel chute of length metres, starting from
rest. The bottom of the chute is metres below the top. The speed of the package at the
bottom of the chute is . Find the resistance to motion on the chute.
11 Use the equation of motion, , together with the formula, , to derive the
relation:

12 Eddy cycles up a hill. His mass, together with his bicycle, is . His driving force is and
resistance from friction is . Eddy travels metres along the road, which rises through a
vertical height of metres. His starting speed is . Find his final speed.
Section 3: Potential energy, mechanical energy and conservation of
mechanical energy
Consider an object of mass falling freely under gravity from height to height , with starting speed
and final speed .

Since the only external force acting on the object is gravity, the work–energy principle becomes:

h1 – h2
h1 v

h2

ground level

Rearranging this gives:

Each side of this equation is the sum of two terms, one of which is kinetic energy. The other term is
gravitational potential energy. Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is the energy an object has by
virtue of its position. For an object of mass raised a distance , the increase in GPE is equal to the
product of its weight, , and the distance .

Key point 1.5

Gravitational potential energy

where is the height above ground (zero) level.

Tip

You can choose any height as your ground (zero) level but it is usually best to choose the lowest
height reached by the moving object.

The principle of the conservation of mechanical energy states that, if there are no external forces other
than gravity doing work on an object during its motion, then the sum of kinetic energy and gravitational
potential energy remains constant.

Key point 1.6

If the only force acting on an object is its weight then mechanical energy is conserved:

where is the vertical height above the zero level.

This diagram may help you to understand the formula for conservation of mechanical energy more easily.
As an object descends in height it speeds up, so gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic
energy. As an object ascends in height it slows down, so kinetic energy is converted into gravitational
potential energy.
 1 mu2
mechanical energy
2 1
n 2 mw
2
obj
is conserved
o w
as ect s 1 mv2 sd
it d p e e
esc ds 2 c t s lo w d s
e n
pot end up obj t asce
e
c o n n tia i gy
s a s
ener
mgh1 k in v e r te l e n e r tic to y mgh
e tic d t g y kine verted energ 3
ene o con ential
rgy mgh2 pot
ground level

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.11

Faisal throws a ball of mass grams vertically upwards from ground level with a speed of
. Assuming no external forces apply:
a calculate the speed of the ball after it has risen metres

b calculate the maximum height gained by the ball.

Use conservation of mechanical energy over the first of

the ascent.
Take the gravitational potential energy at ground level to be
zero.
Calculate the kinetic energy of the ball at .

Use the formula for with the speed at equal to .

Calculate the speed of the ball.

b Use conservation of mechanical energy over the whole
ascent (final kinetic energy is zero).
At the maximum height, all the initial kinetic energy will have
been converted into gravitational potential energy.
Calculate the maximum height gained.

Using energy to solve problems

The principle of conservation of mechanical energy applies to the situation where the only force acting on
an object is its weight.

You have already used the work–energy principle to solve problems involving external forces, such as
friction and driving forces. You are now ready to combine the work–energy principle and the principle of
conservation of energy. Any change in the mechanical energy of a system is the result of work done by
external forces:

The formula can also be written as:

The change in the total energy of an object the work done on the object by external forces.

Tip
 External forces are any forces acting on an object other than its own weight.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.12

A package is attached to one end of an inextensible string. The string and package are being
raised by the action of a pulley. The tension in the string is . Find the height gained by the
package as it increases in speed from to .

Calculate the increase in kinetic energy.

Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy.

Calculate the work done in raising the package.

Work done on object change in total energy

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.13

Helen cycles from rest at the top of a sloping track, above the valley floor. She pedals downhill,
then continues along a horizontal track, before ascending on an uphill track and stopping. The
total distance she travels is , and the average resistance to motion is . The combined
mass of Helen and her bicycle is . Calculate the total work done by Helen, and the average
driving force she applies.

35m

10m

valley floor

Use the work–energy principle and the principle of

conservation of energy.
Helen has no kinetic energy at the start of her ride and
none at the end.
You do not need to consider her motion throughout her
ride: just at the start and at the end.
Work done against resistance Calculate the work done against resistance. The distance
used is the total distance along the road.

Let both initial and final kinetic energy be zero and

rearrange: work
done against resistance
is the loss of potential energy of Helen and
her bicycle.

Helen’s average driving force Use Helen’s work done, together with her distance
travelled ( ) to calculate her average driving force.
Conservation of energy is an important principle throughout Physics. Work done by a moving object against
resistance, which is lost mechanical energy, is converted to other forms of energy such as thermal energy
and sound. This means that total energy is still conserved.

Did you know?

The mechanical equivalent of heat was first proposed by James Joule and explains the relationship
between mechanical energy and thermal energy.

EXERCISE 1C

1 Calculate the increase in potential energy when a mass of is raised .

2 Calculate the loss of potential energy when a mass of tonnes is lowered .
3 A boy of mass gains of potential energy when climbing a vertical rope. Calculate the height
he gains.
4 A toy train loses of potential energy when it descends a spiral track losing in height. Find
the mass of the toy train.
5 Richard strikes a golf ball off an elevated tee. The golf ball has mass grams and Richard imparts an
initial speed of to the ball.
a Find the initial kinetic energy of the golf ball.
The ball lands on the green metres below the tee. Assume there is no significant air resistance.

b Calculate the loss of potential energy of the ball when it lands on the green.
c Calculate the kinetic energy of the ball when it lands on the green.

d Calculate the speed of the golf ball when it lands on the green.
6 Anita dives off a highboard into a diving pool. When Anita leaves the board she has a speed of
and she is metres above the water surface. Anita’s mass is .
a Find Anita’s kinetic energy as she leaves the board.
b Calculate Anita’s kinetic energy as she enters the water.
c Calculate Anita’s speed as she enters the water.
d What modelling assumptions have you made to simplify your calculations?
7 Wing serves a gram tennis ball with a speed of from a height metres above the level of
the tennis court. Assuming there are no resistive forces acting on the ball, calculate:
a the kinetic energy of the ball as Wing serves it
b the potential energy lost by the ball as it descends to the level of the court
c the kinetic energy of the ball as it strikes the court

d the speed of the tennis ball as it strikes the court.

8 Preeti descends a slide starting from rest. Her mass is . Overall, her change in vertical height is
and her speed at the bottom of the slide is . Calculate the work done against resistance
during her descent.
9 A package of mass is projected down a smooth sloping parcel chute with a speed of .
The bottom of the chute is vertically below the top. Assuming there are no external resistive
forces, calculate:
a the loss of potential energy of the package
 b the speed of the package at the bottom of the chute.
10 Karol slides on his sledge down a straight track of length , descending . The combined mass
of Karol and his sledge is . Karol’s starting speed is and his speed at the end of his
descent is . Calculate the average resistance to motion, , during Karol’s descent.
11 Loretta and her bicycle have a combined mass of . Loretta cycles up a straight hill ,
accelerating from rest at to at . The level of point is below the level of . Find:
a the increase in kinetic energy of Loretta and her bicycle as she cycles from to
b the increase in potential energy of Loretta and her bicycle.
During her ride, the resistance to motion is constant at parallel to the road surface and Loretta
does of work.
c Calculate the distance from to .
Section 4: Work done by a force at an angle to the direction of motion
The problems you have worked with so far have had all forces in the direction of movement, either
promoting motion or resisting it directly. But in many cases the forces causing motion are not in the
direction of motion. Examples are:
a man dragging a sledge along horizontal ground by pulling on a rope that is angled upwards
a child descending a slide under gravity; the child’s weight acts vertically downwards but she travels
down the slide at an angle to the vertical.

force, F

θ
F cosθ
object moving resolved component ofF
this way in the direction of motion

If a force is applied at an angle to the direction of motion as shown, the resolved component of the force
that does work is .

The resolved component that is perpendicular to the direction of motion, , does no work.

Key point 1.7

If a force is acting at an angle to the direction of movement:

Rewind

Resolving forces is covered in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2, Chapter 21.

Fast Forward

In Chapter 6 you will learn that the formula for work done by a force at an angle to
movement is the scalar product of the force vector and the displacement vector.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.14

Jamal is dragging his son on a sledge on horizontal ground. He is pulling a rope, attached to the
sledge, at an angle of to the horizontal. The tension in the rope is . Find the work Jamal does
dragging the sledge .

Use the definition of work done by a force acting at an angle to

the direction of motion.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.15

A girl of mass descends a straight smooth slide, starting from rest. The slide is in length
and inclined at to the horizontal. Use work and energy to calculate the speed of the girl at the
bottom of the slide.

Let be the angle between the The slope makes an angle of with the horizontal but
with the vertical.
vertical and the slope.

Work done by girl’s weight Calculate the work done by gravity. Use the component of
the weight acting down the slope.

Use the work–energy principle:

work done by gravity increase of kinetic energy

The girl is travelling at at

the bottom of the slide.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.16

A box of mass is projected with speed up a smooth inclined plane. The plane slopes
at to the horizontal. Calculate how far the box travels up the plane by considering conservation
of energy.

The slope makes an angle of The component of the weight that does work acts down the
with the horizontal but with plane, at an angle of to the weight.
the vertical.
Let gravitational potential energy at start of movement be zero (
).
At the end of the movement: Let be the distance the box travels up the plane.As the box
travels metres up the plane, its gravitational potential energy
increases.

This is equivalent to the work done against the weight of the

box:

Compare mechanical energy when the box is projected with

mechanical energy when it comes to rest:

(when the box comes to rest).

The box travels up the
plane.

EXERCISE 1D
 EXERCISE 1D
1 A force of newtons is acting at a constant to the line of movement of a particle that moves
metres. Calculate the work done by the force.
2 A force of is acting at a constant to the line of movement of a particle that moves
metres. Calculate the work done by the force. Give your answer in .
3 A particle is acted on by a force of newtons acting at a constant angle of to its direction of
movement. The force does joules of work. Find the distance moved by the particle.
4 A particle is acted on by a force of newtons acting at a constant angle of to its direction of
movement. The force does joules of work moving the particle metres. Find the value of .
5 A particle is acted on by a force of newtons acting at a constant angle to its direction of
movement. The force does joules of work moving the particle through metres. Find the
constant angle.
6 Calculate the increase in potential energy when a mass of grams is moved up a plane inclined
at to the horizontal.
7 Calculate the loss of potential energy when a mass of descends along a plane inclined at
to the horizontal.
8 A car is towed at constant speed along a horizontal straight road. The tow rope is at to the
horizontal and the tension in the tow rope is . The work done by the force is . Calculate the
distance moved by the car.
9 A block of mass is released from rest on a smooth plane inclined at to the horizontal, and
descends down the plane. Calculate:
a the loss of potential energy of the block
b the gain in kinetic energy of the block.
10 A block of mass is dragged up a smooth slope from rest at to . The distance is and
the slope is inclined at to the horizontal. The rope used to drag the block is parallel to the slope and
has a tension of . Find:
a the work done by the tension in the rope

b the change in potential energy of the block

c the speed of the block at .
Section 5: Power
Power is the rate of doing work. Average power is defined as the total work done by a force divided by the
time taken.

Key point 1.8

When the force applied is constant:

Power is measured in watts . joule per second is equal to watt.

Often you consider power in relation to a driving force but it applies equally to any force acting on an
object.

Did you know?

James Watt (1736–1819) was a Scottish engineer and scientist.

The unit of power is named after him.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.17

A crane lifts a tonne concrete block in seconds. Calculate the average power rating of
the crane during the lift, giving your answer in kW.

Calculate the work done by the crane lifting the

block against gravity.

Use the definition of power .

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.18

The engine brakes on a truck have a power rating of . Calculate the total work done in
seconds by the braking force at this average power rating, giving your answer in .

Rearrange the definition of power to make work done the

subject.

Convert your answer to .

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.19

A pump is used to raise water from a well. In one minute, litres of water is raised metres
 before being ejected into a tank at a speed of . The density of water is .
a Calculate the gain of potential energy of the water per second.

b Calculate the gain of kinetic energy of the water ejected per second.

c Calculate the power of the pump, in watts.

There are litres in , with a mass of Work out the mass of litres of water.
.
1500 litres of water has a mass of .

a Use to calculate the gain in potential energy of

the water per second.

Use to calculate the gain of kinetic energy of

b
the water per second.

c Work done by pump per second Use conservation of mechanical energy:

work done by the

The gain of total mechanical energy per second is

Therefore power the power of the pump.

You can make use of an alternative formula for power when solving problems.

From the definitions of power and work done:

This definition allows you to work out power at a specific point in time if you know the force and the speed.
This is often referred to as ‘instantaneous power’ and can be used to work out power when either the force
or the velocity varies over time.

Key point 1.9

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.20

Chris is cycling at a constant speed of on a horizontal road with a power output of .

Calculate the total resistance to Chris and his bicycle in newtons.

From , as Chris is travelling at constant speed the

resultant force is zero.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.21

Julia is riding her motorbike along a horizontal road with constant speed , at an engine
power of . Julia decides to overtake and increases to full power, . Assuming the
resistance to motion is unchanged, calculate Julia’s acceleration. Julia and her motorbike have a
combined mass of .
 Convert Julia’s speed to .

Use the definition of power, but rearrange to make tractive

force the subject.

For the motorbike: Calculate the tractive force of Julia and her motorbike
when she is travelling at constant speed.

As Julia is cruising at constant speed the resultant force is

zero. Hence calculate the resistive force.

When Julia increases to full power: When Julia increases the power, the tractive force
increases so that it is greater than the resistive force, and
she accelerates. Calculate the resultant force.
resultant force

Using Use to calculate Julia’s acceleration.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.22

A car of mass is travelling along a straight horizontal road against a resistance to motion of
, where is the speed of the car and is a constant. When the engine is producing a power of
, the car has speed and is accelerating at .
a Find the value of .

The maximum constant speed of the car on this road is .

b Find the engine’s maximum power, giving your answer in .
The car now descends a hill, which is inclined at a constant angle below the horizontal. The car
engine is working at maximum power and the vehicle moves with constant speed .
c Find the value of , to decimal place.

0.45m s–2 Let be the tractive force of the car engine.

R
12.5m s–1 Resistance varies with .
1
kv 2 N T

1250g

Rearrange the formula:

Calculate .

Use .
 Rearrange to find the value of .

b Let the new driving force be .

As the car is now moving with constant speed the

resultant force is now zero.

Rearrange to find the maximum power rating of the

car engine.

c R Let the driving force down the hill be .

36.5m
kv 21 N s–1

T˝
a°

1250g

As the car is moving with constant speed the

resultant force is zero.
Let the driving force down the hill be .

Re-arrange and solve for .

EXERCISE 1E
EXERCISE 1E
1 A -tonne truck is able to brake from to rest in . Find the average power
rating of the brakes.
2 A crane lifts a -tonne concrete block in . Find the average power of the crane.
3 A lift of mass can accommodate up to people, assumed to have combined mass no
more than . Calculate the average power required by the lift motor to raise the maximum
load through in .
4 A car engine has a maximum driving force of when travelling at . Calculate the
average power of the engine.
5 A train engine has an average power rating of . Calculate the tractive force when the train
is travelling at .
6 Find the average power exerted by a climber of mass when climbing a vertical distance of
in minutes.
7 A boat is travelling at a constant speed of . The boat has mass tonnes and the
engine is working at its maximum power output of . Calculate the work done when the boat
is displaced .
8 Find the average power of an engine that lifts bags of flour in hour. Each bag of flour
has mass .
9 A pump is used to raise water from a well that is metres deep. Water is raised at a rate of
per second, and is ejected into a pipe at a speed of .
a Calculate the gain of potential energy of the water per second.
b Calculate the gain of kinetic energy of the water ejected per second.

c Calculate the power of the pump, in watts.

10 Victoria is cycling on level ground. Victoria and her cycle have a combined mass of and
she is working at a rate of . Given that Victoria is accelerating at , find the sum of
the resistive forces acting on Victoria and her cycle at the instant when her speed is .
11 Stan is driving his -tonne truck on a horizontal road. Stan accelerates from to 65
, which is his maximum speed at power output. Find the maximum acceleration of
the truck, assuming that total resistance is constant.
12 Val is driving her van against a constant resistance to motion of . The van has mass
tonnes and engine power . At the instant when her speed is , Val’s acceleration is
. Calculate .

13 The resistance to motion of a car is , where is the speed of the car and is a
constant. The power of the car’s engine is , and the car has a constant speed of
along a horizontal road. Show that .
14 A spacecraft, Athena, of mass is moving in a straight line in space, without any resistance
to motion. Athena’s propulsion system is working at a constant rate of and her mass is
assumed to be constant. Athena’s speed increases from to in a time seconds.
a Calculate the value of .
b Calculate Athena’s acceleration when her speed is .

Checklist of learning and understanding

Gravitational potential energy:
Work–energy principle: Work done by external forces change in mechanical energy

If a force is acting at an angle to the direction of motion:

Mixed practice 1
1 A woman drags a suitcase at constant speed in a straight line along horizontal ground by
means of a plastic tether attached to the suitcase. The tether makes an angle of with the
horizontal and the tension in the tether is . Calculate the work done in moving the
suitcase .

2 A car is pulled at constant speed along a horizontal straight road by a force of inclined at
to the horizontal. Given that the work done by the force is , calculate the distance
moved by the car.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, June 2008

3 Find the average power exerted by a rock climber of mass when climbing a vertical
distance of in minutes.

4 A block is being pushed in a straight line along horizontal ground by a force of inclined at
below the horizontal. The block moves a distance of m in with constant speed. Find:

i the work done by the force,

ii the power with which the force is working.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, January 2013

5 and are two points on a line of greatest slope of a smooth inclined plane, with a vertical
distance of below the level of . A particle of mass is projected down the plane
from with a speed of . Find:
i the loss in potential energy of the particle as it moves from to ,

ii the speed of the particle when it reaches .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, June 2013

6 The power developed by the engine of a car as it travels at a constant speed of on a

horizontal road is .
i Calculate the resistance to the motion of the car.

The car, of mass , now travels down a straight road inclined at to the horizontal.
The resistance to the motion of the car is unchanged.

ii Find the power produced by the engine of the car when the car has speed and is
accelerating at .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, June 2013

7 A car of mass moves along a straight horizontal road. The resistance to the motion of
the car has constant magnitude and the car’s engine is working at a constant rate of
.

i Find the acceleration of the car at an instant when the car’s speed is .

The car now moves up a hill inclined at to the horizontal. The car’s engine continues to
work at and the magnitude of the resistance to motion remains at .

ii Find the greatest steady speed at which the car can move up the hill.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, June 2012

8 A stone of mass starts from rest and is dragged up a slope inclined at to the
 horizontal by a rope inclined at to the slope. The tension in the rope is and the
resistance to the motion of the stone is . Calculate:

a the work done by the tension in the rope

b the change in the potential energy of the stone

c the speed of the stone after it has moved up the slope.

9 A car of mass travels along a straight road inclined at to the horizontal. The
resistance to the motion of the car is , where is the speed of the car and is a
constant. The car travels at a constant speed of up the slope and the engine of the car
works at a constant rate of .

i Calculate the value of .

ii Calculate the constant speed of the car on a horizontal road.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, June 2011

10 A car of mass travels along a straight horizontal road. The resistance to the motion of
the car is , where is the speed of the car and is a constant. At the instant when
the engine produces a power of , the car has speed and is accelerating at
.

i Find the value of .

It is given that the greatest steady speed of the car on this road is .

ii Find the greatest power that the engine can produce.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, January 2013

11 The resistance to the motion of a car is , where is the car’s speed and is a
constant. The power exerted by the car’s engine is , and the car has constant speed
along a horizontal road.

i Show that .

With the engine operating at a much lower power, the car descends a hill of inclination ,
where . At an instant when the speed of the car is , its acceleration is
.

ii Given that the mass of the car is , calculate the power of the engine.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, January 2011

12 The maximum power produced by the engine of a small aeroplane of mass tonnes is .
Air resistance opposes the motion directly and the lift force is perpendicular to the direction of
motion. The magnitude of the air resistance is proportional to the square of the speed and the
maximum steady speed in level flight is .

i Calculate the magnitude of the air resistance when the speed is .

The aeroplane is climbing at a constant angle of to the horizontal.

ii Find the maximum acceleration at an instant when the speed of the aeroplane is .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, June 2010

13 The resistance to the motion of a car of mass is , where is the car’s speed
 and is a constant. The car ascends a hill of inclination , where . The power
exerted by the car’s engine is and the car has a constant speed .

i Show that .

The power exerted by the car’s engine is increased to .

ii Calculate the maximum speed of the car while ascending the hill.

The car now travels on horizontal ground and the power remains .

iii Calculate the acceleration of the car at an instant when its speed is .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, June 2008

14 A car of mass has a maximum speed of when travelling on a horizontal road.

The car experiences a resistance of where is the speed of the car and is a
constant.

The maximum power of the car’s engine is .

i Show that .

ii Find the maximum possible acceleration of the car when it is travelling at on a

horizontal road.

iii The car climbs a hill, which is inclined at an angle of to the horizontal, at a constant
speed of . Calculate the power of the car’s engine.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, January 2008

15 A space shuttle of mass is moving in a straight line in space. There is no resistance to

motion, and the mass of the shuttle is assumed to be constant. With its motor working at a
constant rate of the shuttle’s speed increases from to in a time
seconds.

a Calculate the value of .

b Calculate the acceleration of the shuttle at the instant when its speed is .

16 A car of mass has maximum power of . The resistive forces have constant
magnitude of .

i Calculate the maximum steady speed of the car on the level.

The car is moving on a hill of constant inclination to the horizontal, where .

ii Calculate the maximum steady speed of the car when ascending the hill.

iii Calculate the acceleration of the car when it is descending the hill at a speed of
working at half the maximum power.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, June 2009

17 A car of mass experiences a resistance of magnitude , where is a constant and

is the car’s speed. The car’s engine is working at a constant rate of . At an instant
when the car is travelling on a horizontal road with speed its acceleration is .
At an instant when the car is ascending a hill of constant slope to the horizontal with
speed its acceleration is .

i Show that , correct to decimal places, and find .

 The power is increased to .

ii Calculate the maximum steady speed of the car on a horizontal road.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, January 2009

18 A cyclist and her bicycle have a combined mass of . The cyclist ascends a straight hill
of constant slope, starting from rest at and reaching a speed of at . The level of is
above the level of . For the cyclist’s motion from to , find

i the increase in kinetic energy,

ii the increase in gravitational potential energy.

During the ascent the resistance to motion is constant and has magnitude . The work
done by the cyclist in moving from to is .

iii Calculate the distance .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, June 2007

19 i A car of mass 800 kg is moving at a constant speed of on a straight road down a hill
inclined at an angle to the horizontal. The engine of the car works at a constant rate of
and there is a resistance to motion of . Show that .

ii The car now travels up the same hill and its engine now works at a constant rate of .
The resistance to motion remains . The car starts from rest and its speed is
after it has travelled a distance of . Calculate the time taken by the car to travel this
distance.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, June 2014

20 A car of mass travels up a line of greatest slope of a straight road inclined at to the
horizontal. The power of the car’s engine is constant and equal to and the resistance to
the motion of the car is constant and equal to . The car passes through point with
speed .

i Find the acceleration of the car at .

The car later passes through a point with speed . The car takes to travel from
to .

ii Find the distance .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, January 2012

21 A car of mass is moving along a horizontal road against a constant resistance to motion
of . At an instant when the car is travelling at its acceleration is .

i Find the driving force of the car at this instant.

ii Find the power at this instant.

The maximum steady speed of the car on a horizontal road is .

iii Find the maximum power of the car.

The car now moves at maximum power against the same resistance up a slope of constant
angle to the horizontal. The maximum steady speed up the slope is .

iv Find .
 © OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, January 2010

22 A particle of mass grams moves along the -axis under the action of a propulsive force .
The particle’s displacement, metres, depends on time, seconds, as follows:

Find the power of force when .

23 A van of mass travels along a horizontal road against a constant resistive force of
. The van travels with constant acceleration from rest, at time , to at
time . It then travels at constant speed for before decelerating to rest
over .

The speed–time graph illustrates the motion.

Calculate the power of the vehicle engine when:

b .

Calculate the power of the van’s brakes when:

c .

speed(m s–1)

15

time (s)
O 30 150 175
 2 Dimensional analysis

In this chapter you will learn how to:

understand the concept of dimensions

use the language and symbols of dimensional analysis
understand the connections between units and dimensions
check the validity of a formula by using dimensional considerations
predict formulae by using dimensional analysis.

Before you start…

A Level You should be able 1 Simplify:

Mathematics to work with indices
a
Student Book 1 and surds.

GCSE You should be able 2 Make the subject of the formula:

to rearrange
formulae.

GCSE You should be able 3 Solve the equations:

to solve
simultaneous
equations.

GCSE You should be able 4 is inversely proportional to . If when ,

to express direct what is the value of when ?
and indirect
proportion in
mathematical
terms.

GCSE You should know 5 For a sphere of radius , give in terms of

common area and expressions for:
volume formulae.
a the volume

b the surface area.

 A Level You should be 6 What are the SI units of velocity?
Mathematics familiar with the
Student Book 1 standard SI units of
mass , length
and time .

A Level You should know the 7 What is the angle, in radians, of a sector of a circle of
Mathematics definition of a radius and arc length ?
Student Book 2 radian.

A Level You should know the 8 A particle moving in a straight line with constant
Mathematics definitions and units velocity travels in seconds. What is its velocity?
Student Book 1 of velocity and State the units.
acceleration.
9 A particle moving in a straight line with constant
acceleration increases its velocity from to
in seconds. What is the acceleration? State
the units.

A Level You should know the 10 A mass of is acted on by a constant force of .

Mathematics definition and units What is its acceleration? State the units.
Student Book 1 of force.

Chapter 1 You should know the 11 A mass of is held at a height of metres vertically
definitions of kinetic above the ground. The particle is released from rest. By
energy and equating its loss in potential energy to its gain in
kinetic energy, find its speed at the instant when it hits
potential energy the ground.
.

What is ‘dimensional analysis’?

In dimensional analysis you look at the type of unit used to measure a quantity rather than the specific
units. You use it as a mathematical way of checking that equations and formulae are correct, and are
combining ‘like’ quantities, and also to predict and establish formulae.
Section 1: Defining and calculating dimensions
The dimensions of a given quantity describe what sort of quantity you are measuring, so any distance or
length, whatever its units, has the dimension of length and has the symbol .

You can use square brackets to mean ‘the dimension of’ so .

The dimension of distance is . The diameter of a pin, the radius of a circle, the length of a running track,
the distance from London to Hong Kong are all distances that would be measured in different units, but
which are all measurements of length or distance and have the dimension .

The other common dimensions that you use in Mechanics are for mass and for time.

The mass of a spider, the mass of an elephant, the mass of a planet might all be measured in different
units – there is even a unit of mass in America called a slug – but are all measurements of mass with the
dimension .

Similarly time, whether measured in seconds, days or centuries, has the dimension .

In some branches of science, other dimensions are used, for example, the dimensions of temperature,
electric current, intensity of light and amount of matter.

Did you know?

There is a connection between dimensional analysis and the
greenhouse effect.
The concept of dimensional analysis is often attributed to
Joseph Fourier, a famous French Mathematician and
Physicist. He is probably best known for Fourier series and
Fourier analysis, which is widely used in Mathematics and
Physics, and for his work on heat flow.
Fourier is widely recognised as being the first scientist to
suggest that the Earth’s atmosphere would act as an
insulation layer – the idea now known as the greenhouse
effect.

Key point 2.1

The dimensions of quantities in Mechanics can be expressed in terms of for mass, for length
and for time.

You use square brackets to abbreviate the phrase ‘the dimension of’, so .

Finding dimensions
A scalar quantity is a quantity that only has magnitude but not direction, whereas a vector quantity is a
quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

Vector quantities such as velocity and displacement have the same dimension as their scalar equivalents
(speed and distance).

To find the dimensions of quantities that are multiplied or divided, you combine their dimensions in the
same way as the quantities are combined.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.1

 State the dimensions of:

a velocity
b acceleration

c force.

a If an object is moving with constant State an equation for velocity.

velocity in a straight line and it
moves a distance in time , then you
have the relationship:

Write down the dimensions of the right-hand side of the

equation and simplify. The dimension of distance is and
of time is . You can use negative indices with
dimensions.

In more general terms:

has the same dimension as .

b has the same dimensions as

c State an equation for force …

and take dimensions of both sides of the equation.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.2

Find the dimensions of:

a area

b kinetic energy.

a Area formulae always involve multiplying two lengths

together or squaring a length.

b State the formula for kinetic energy.

To find the dimensions you need to multiply the dimension

of by the square of the dimensions of .

is a constant so it has no dimensions and does not affect

the calculation of dimensions.
Remove the brackets and simplify the result.

Dimensionless quantities
If all the dimensions cancel out, then the quantity is said to be dimensionless. This is true of many
quantities in Mechanics that are described as coefficients. Examples are the coefficient of restitution (which
you will meet in Chapter 3, Section 3) and the coefficient of friction.

Rewind

The coefficient of friction is covered in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2, Chapter 21. In
this chapter, you will be given the definition when required.
The limiting value of the frictional force between two surfaces is proportional to the normal reaction
force between them. This can be written , where is the coefficient of friction.

Since and are both forces:

So is dimensionless.

You can leave out dimensionless quantities when you are working out the dimensions of a formula or
expression, or you can put in the number to represent the dimensionless quantity.

Key point 2.2

‘Pure’ numbers, such as and in the formula , are dimensionless.

EXERCISE 2A
 EXERCISE 2A
1 Find the dimensions of the following quantities or state if they are dimensionless:
a linear acceleration
b acceleration due to gravity

c force
d weight
e momentum
f in the formula
g volume

h density (mass per unit volume)

i moment of a force
j pressure (force per unit area)

Tip

Once you have established the dimensions of a quantity then the dimensions will be the
same however you calculate it.

Forces all have the same dimensions however they are described, for example friction,
tension, thrust, reaction force.

2 What are the dimensions of sin ?

3 What are the dimensions of ?

4 a What are the dimensions of potential energy ?

b Are these the same as the dimensions of kinetic energy?

5 a What are the dimensions of work done?

b How does this compare to the dimensions of kinetic or potential energy?

6 The refractive index of a material is defined as where is the speed of light in a vacuum and
is the speed of light through the material. Find .

7 What are the dimensions of where is a force and is time?

8 a Given that all forms of mechanical energy have the same dimensions, find the dimensions of
mechanical energy.
b
The mechanical energy stored in an elastic string of initial length extended by a distance is
where is the modulus of elasticity of the string. Find the dimensions of .
9 Newton’s law of gravitational attraction states that the force of attraction between two masses and
which are a distance apart is where is a constant. Find the dimensions of .

10 The energy–frequency relationship for slow-moving particles is given by the formula where
is the wavelength, is the mass of the particle, is velocity of the particle and is Planck’s constant.
What are the dimensions of ?
Section 2: Units and dimensions of sums, differences and angles
Sums and differences

Key point 2.3

You can only add and subtract terms that have the same dimensions.
If two or more quantities with the same dimensions are added or subtracted, then the resulting
sum or difference will have the same dimensions.

If you add two or more lengths, then the answer is also a length with dimension . If you add and subtract
several forces the answer is also a force.

You can add minutes to hours or you can add kilometres to miles but you cannot add to
metres to give any meaningful result. You can only add or subtract quantities if they have the same
dimensions.

Only terms having the same dimensions can be added or subtracted to give a consistent formula. You can
use this principle to check whether or not a formula is dimensionally consistent. This is called an error
check.

The sum where and are speeds is also a speed and has the dimension of speed.

In dimensional terms:

The sum has the same dimensions as :

The integral is a sum and has the same dimension as , which is

For sums and differences, you should check that the dimensions of the terms that you are adding or
subtracting are the same. Then the dimensions of the answers will also be the same.

Tip

Many dimensional analysis questions look very complicated as they involve formulae, often with
indices. Do not let the look of the question put you off, it’s about applying rules!

Key point 2.4

For products and quotients you multiply or divide the dimensions.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.3

If , , , and are lengths and and are masses, check that the terms being added have
the same dimensions and find the dimensions of the expression.
a

b
 c

a The dimensions of both terms are so the dimension of

their sum is also .
b The dimensions of both terms in the numerator are , so
the dimension of their sum is also . The dimensions of
both terms in the denominator is so the dimension of
their sum is also . The dimension of the quotient is .
c The dimension of both terms of the numerator is , so the
dimension of their sum is also The dimension of both
terms of the denominator is so the dimension of their
sum is also . You divide by giving and take the
square root.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.4

Is the equation , where and are velocities, is the acceleration due to gravity and
is time, dimensionally consistent?

Checking the dimensions of each term: To check an equation for consistency you need to
find the dimensions of each term and show that they
are all of the same dimensions.
Velocity involves dividing distance by time so Find the dimensions of by squaring the dimensions
has dimensions of .

Similarly The dimensions of will be the same as those of

as they are both velocities.
The dimension of is found by multiplying the
dimensions of , (acceleration) and .

As the dimensions of the three terms are not

the same the equation is not dimensionally
consistent so cannot be correct.

Dimensions of angles and trigonometric functions

The definition of an angle in radians is the ratio:

As both arc length and radius are lengths then the dimensions of angle are . An angle is
therefore dimensionless.

All trigonometric functions are dimensionless for the same reason – they are the ratio of two quantities with
the same dimensions.

Rewind

Radians were introduced in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2.

Key point 2.5

An angle has units but is dimensionless.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.5

 What are the dimensions of angular velocity, , where is an angle in radians?

Define the quantity involved – angular velocity is rate of change of

Angular velocity
angle and has the symbol .
radians per second
where is the angle in
radians.
Equate the dimensions of all terms in the equation.

Did you know?

The metric system originated during the French Revolution of the 1790s in order to provide a
unified system of measures that used the metre and kilogram as standard units of length and
mass, respectively. SI stands for ‘Système Internationale’ d’unités, which are the units commonly
used by the scientific communities of most developed nations. The main base units are metres for
length, kilograms for mass and seconds for time. The system, sometimes known as MKS after the
units, was the result of an initiative to standardise units started in the late 1940s, at which time
the UK was using feet, pounds and seconds as standard and most of Europe were using cgs –
centimetres, grams and seconds, or mixtures of centimetres and metres, grams and kilograms,
and seconds.

Definitions of some SI units

Some common SI units have particular names.

A newton is the unit of force. newton is the force required to give a mass of kilogram an
acceleration of metre per second. Force is .
The joule is the unit of work and energy. joule is the work done (or energy transferred) to an
object when a force of newton acts on that object in the direction of motion for a distance of metre.
Work done is .
The newton metre is the unit of a moment (or torque). It is the effect of a force of newton applied
perpendicularly to a moment arm of metre. The moment of a force about a point is
to the line of action of that force.
The watt is the unit of power. watt is a rate of energy transfer or a rate of working of joule per
second.
The pascal is the unit of pressure. pascal is the pressure exerted by a force of newton acting on an
area of square metre. Pressure is force per unit area.

Explore
In this chapter, you are using , and as dimensions. These are three of the seven basic
dimensions: the other four are electrical current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of
substance and luminous intensity.
You could use other quantities as your basic dimensions if they are independent, that is, if you
cannot equate the dimensions of any one to a product of powers of the dimensions of the other
two.
For example force, momentum and time are not independent as .

Can you express quantities, such as acceleration, in terms of products of powers of density ,
length and force ?

EXERCISE 2B

In this exercise, the letters represent the following quantities:

 and for velocities
for acceleration
, , , and for distance or displacement
for angles
for force
for time
for mass

1 If , and are measurements of length, state the dimensions of:

a

b
c
2 If and are masses, are distances, and and are speeds, state the dimensions of:
a

3 If are masses and are distances, determine the dimensions of:

4 Find the dimensions of each term in the following equations and hence determine which of the
equations are dimensionally consistent.
a

d Impulse in momentum

e ( is a time, is a length and is the acceleration due to gravity)

5 a What is the dimension of angular acceleration, commonly written as ?

b Is the formula dimensionally consistent? Give a dimensional argument for your answer.

6 In simple harmonic motion (SHM) the restoring force measured towards the centre of the motion is
proportional to the displacement, , measured away from the centre of the motion.
a Write this as an equation, in terms of , and , using as the constant of proportionality.
b What are the dimensions of ?

Tip

You can derive dimensions of a quantity either from its formula or from its units. Any formula
for that quantity will have the same dimensions. The volume of an icosahedron will have the
same dimensions as the dimensions of a cube: . You only need to know that it is a volume
to state its dimensions; you do not need the specific formula.
7 Angular momentum is defined as where is the moment of inertia and is angular
velocity.
a What are the dimensions of angular momentum?

b Are these the same as the dimensions of linear momentum?

c Explain why angular momentum is sometimes call ‘moment of momentum’.

8 The rotational kinetic energy of a rigid body about an axis is defined as where is the moment of
inertia of the body about that axis and is the angular velocity.

a What are the dimensions of rotational kinetic energy?

b Are these the same as the dimensions of translational kinetic energy?

9 Young’s modulus, , for a solid is defined as . Stress is the pressure in the solid and strain is
defined as the ratio of extension to the original length.
a Write a formula for in terms of , , , and , if is the force exerted on the solid, is its cross-
sectional area, is the original length and is the extension.
b What are the dimensions of ?
10 A student writes the equation for the path of a projectile as:

a Which term in this equation is dimensionally inconsistent?

b Suggest an alteration to one variable in this term that would make it dimensionally consistent.

WORK IT OUT 2.1

A particle of mass is fixed at the midpoint of an elastic string of natural length . The string is
then fixed to two points and on a smooth horizontal surface, such that and .
When the particle is displaced through a small distance along the perpendicular bisector of
it begins to perform small oscillations. is the modulus of elasticity of the string and has the
dimensions of force. Use dimensional analysis to determine which option could give the correct
formula for the periodic time of these oscillations.

Which solution is correct? Can you identify the errors in the incorrect solutions?

Solution 1

Solution 2

Solution 3
Section 3: Finding dimensions from units and derivatives and predicting
formulae
Finding dimensions from units
This is similar to finding the dimensions of a quantity from its formula.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.6

The pascal is a unit of pressure. Pressure is force per unit area . The poiseuille is the

(very rarely used) unit of dynamic viscosity. It is equivalent to pascal seconds . What are the
dimensions of the poiseuille?

To find the dimensions of dynamic viscosity you do not

need to know its formula, or even what it is, as long as
you know its units. You are told that it is measured in
pascal seconds.
A pascal is a unit of pressure so you can find its
dimensions from the definition of pressure force per
unit area.
Simplify the dimensions of a pascal.

Then multiply by the dimension of seconds to give the

required dimensions.

You have seen that angles have units but not dimensions. This makes it difficult to predict units from
dimensions. For example, angular velocity, , has dimension but units of radians per second.
Frequency also has dimension but has units of hertz (sometimes called cycles per second).

Key point 2.6

You can predict dimensions from units or formulae but it is not always possible to predict units
from dimensions.

The tension in an elastic string of initial length that has been stretched to is given by the formula:

where is the modulus of elasticity for the string. is a physical constant, and if the string were made of a
different material, then it would have a different value. has the same units and dimensions as the
tension. Other examples of physical constants are surface tension and the gravitational constant.

Tip

Do not assume that a quantity represented by a letter is dimensionless unless you are told
specifically that it is.

Fast forward

You will study the tension in an elastic string in Chapter 6.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.7

 a What are the dimensions of , the modulus of elasticity?
b State the units of .

a The tension (force) in an elastic First state a formula involving .

string or spring of initial length that
has been stretched to is given
by the formula:

Then rearrange it to give a formula for .

Find the dimensions of each term and combine.

b The units are newtons as is As and have the same dimensions their quotient will
be dimensionless so and will have the same units,
dimensionless. i.e. newtons, which is in keeping with the dimensions.

Finding dimensions of second derivatives

You saw in an earlier example that the dimensions of acceleration are . You know that acceleration can

be written as . How do you find the dimensions of acceleration from ?

Rewind

You learned about non-uniform acceleration in A Level Mathematics Student Book 1.

Using dimensions to predict formulae

Key point 2.7

You can use dimensional analysis to predict formulae by equating the dimensions of the terms of
the proposed formula.

Tip

Remember that numerical constants, and other dimensionless quantities such as trigonometric
functions, ratios and angles, can be left out of the calculation or given the dimension .

When you use dimensional analysis to construct a formula, you need to look at all possible factors that
could affect the system, even if you then decide that the effects of some of them are negligible and so can
be omitted. For example, if you are proposing a formula for the time of oscillation of a simple pendulum the
obvious factors to include are the mass of the pendulum, the acceleration due to gravity and the length of
the string. Other considerations would be air resistance, the mass of the string and the smoothness and
shape of the mass at the end of the string, but you could reasonably assume that the effect of air
resistance on a small, smooth object is negligible and that the mass of the string is small enough to have
no real effect on the motion of the pendulum.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.8

Pressure, , is measured in newtons per metre squared. Surface tension, , is defined as force per

unit length: .

a What are the dimensions of pressure?

b What are the dimensions of surface tension?
c The pressure inside an ideal soap bubble is given by the formula where is the radius
of the sphere and is the surface tension. Find the values of and and hence find the formula for
.

a Use the units of pressure given to write an

expression for the dimensions. Newtons are units
of force or mass acceleration. Metres are units
of length. Simplify the indices to give a single
expression for the dimensions.

b Use the definitions of force and length to find the

dimensions of surface tension in the same way.

c Write down the formula given in the question.

Write the dimensional equation. Remember that

is dimensionless so can be left out.

for
for Equate the indices of , and .
for

and Put these values of and back into the given

formula and simplify.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.9

A simple pendulum consists of a particle of mass suspended at the end of an inextensible string
of length . The pendulum is initially hanging at rest and then it is displaced through a small angle
and released to make small oscillations.

Given that the formula for the periodic time, , of these oscillations is independent of for small
values of , derive a formula for using a dimensional argument.

You need to consider what is likely to depend on. The factors

where is a involved are mass, , length of pendulum, , and so it is sensible
to propose that is proportional to a product of powers of these.
constant. Other factors, such as air resistance, are likely to be negligible. If
the pendulum was in a viscous medium, such as oil, then the
resistance of the medium would also have to be considered.
The periodic time has dimension .

The dimensions of both sides of the equation must be the same

and are equal to .

is dimensionless
State the dimension of each of the terms …

then combine them as the formula states and simplify.

Equating indices of gives the value of .

 Equating indices of gives the value of .
Equating indices of gives the value of .

The values are:

Substitute these values into the equation and state a formula for
so .

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.10

A particle moves in a straight line with constant acceleration . The initial velocity of the
particle is . Derive a formula for the velocity, , of the particle after seconds.

You need to consider the change in velocity after

seconds. The only variables involved are and . is a
where is a constant. constant. Again, air resistance can be regarded as
negligible.
The dimensions of are so the The dimensions of all terms must be the same for
dimension of is also consistency.

Equate the dimensions…

… and equate indices.

or where is a State the equation and rearrange.

constant.

EXERCISE 2C
 EXERCISE 2C
1 The watt is a unit of joule per second. What are the dimensions of watts?
2 The sievert is a unit of joule per kilogram. What are the dimensions of sieverts?

3 What are the dimensions of , where is an expression for angular velocity?

4 A yank is defined to be the rate of change of force with time. What are the dimensions of yanks?

5 The area of a triangle can be written as , where and are side lengths and is an

angle. By stating the dimensions of each of the components, i.e. area, , , and sin , and combining
them, show that this formula is dimensionally consistent.
6 In a simple harmonic motion the displacement can be written as , where is the
displacement and is the amplitude (greatest distance from the centre of oscillation).
a Using a dimensional argument, explain why this formula is dimensionally consistent.
b Is it possible to determine the dimensions of from this equation?

7 The sine formula states that where is the radius of the circumcircle of a
triangle with angles , and , and side lengths , and , and is a constant. Find, using
dimensional analysis, the value of , showing the steps in your argument clearly.
8 Decibels are used to describe how loud a noise is. A formula for sound level in decibels is: sound
intensity in

where is the sound output in watts and is the threshold-level sound output in watts.

a What are the dimensions of decibels?

b A speaker has a sound output of times the threshold level. Express this in decibels.
9 a What are the dimensions of acceleration?
An equation for oscillations of a damped simple harmonic motion when a system is displaced

through a small distance is where and are constants. Given that this
equation is dimensionally consistent find:
b the dimensions of
c the dimensions of .
10 A light inextensible string of length is fixed at one end and has a particle of mass fixed at the other
end. The mass is moving at constant speed in a horizontal circle of radius and the string is fully
extended. The string makes an angle with the downward vertical. Given that tan , use a
dimensional argument to find a formula for tan in terms of , and , where is the acceleration due
to gravity.
Section 4: Summary of dimensions and units
The following exercise forms a summary of common units and dimensions.

EXERCISE 2D

1 Copy and complete the following table.

Quantity Dimension SI unit

Time

Mass

Weight newton

Length (displacement)

Area

Volume

Velocity

Acceleration

Acceleration due to gravity

Force newton

Kinetic energy joule

Gravitational potential energy

Work done ( ) joule

Moment of a force ( ) newton metre

Power watt

Momentum

Impulse ( ) newton second

Moment of inertia

Angular velocity

Density

Pressure pascal

Time period (time for one complete cycle)

Frequency hertz

Surface tension
Checklist of learning and understanding

In Mechanics, dimensions describe a quantity in terms of three basic dimensions Mass, Length
and Time. Other dimensions are used in other branches of Mathematics and Science.
You use square brackets to denote ‘the dimensions of’, so .
You can only add and subtract terms that have the same dimensions and the resulting sum or
difference will also have the same dimensions.
For products and quotients you multiply or divide the dimensions.
A formula must be dimensionally consistent to be valid.
Angles and numerical constants are dimensionless.
If two quantities are equal, then they have the same dimensions.
You can find the dimensions of a quantity from its definition, from an equation describing it or
from its units.
Quantities can have units but be dimensionless. For example, angles in radians are
dimensionless.
You cannot predict units from dimensions, as some dimensionless quantities have units.
In dimensional calculations, you can give dimensionless quantities the dimensional value .
You can use dimensional analysis to predict formulae by equating dimensions on both sides of
a proposed formula.
Mixed practice 2
1 State the dimensions of:

a , where is a length and is the acceleration due to gravity

b , where is an expression for speed.

2 Heron’s (or Hero’s) formula for the area of a triangle with sides of length , , and is
where is half the perimeter. Show, with full explanation, why
this formula is dimensionally consistent.

3 a Tension in a string is a force. What are the dimensions of tension?

b In the following formulae, is the tension in a string, is a mass, is a velocity, is a

length and is an angle. Which of the formulae is dimensionally consistent? If the formula
is inconsistent, state which term is inconsistent.

ii

iii

4 a What are the dimensions of potential energy?

b In the cgs (centimetres, grams and seconds) system a particle has potential energy of
ergs. What is this in joules?

5 In a simple harmonic motion of a mass the restoring force is proportional to the

displacement. At time , the displacement and the acceleration are given by:

Find the dimensions of:

b .

6 The radial force on a particle moving in a circle is thought to be of the form . By

writing each of the components in term of its dimensions, and equating indices, form three
equations to find the values of , and and hence find the formula for .

7 a What are the dimensions of force?

b Newton’s law of gravitational attraction states that the force of attraction, , between two
bodies of masses and is dependent on the masses, the distance between them and
the constant so that it can be written as:

Write down, with reasons, the relationship between and

c Given that the dimensions of are , use a dimensional proof to find a formula for
 .

8 a What are the dimensions of angular acceleration?

b An equation for oscillations of a damped pendulum of length displaced by a small angle

is given by , where and are constants. Given that this equation is

dimensionally consistent, find the dimensions of .

c By expressing as a product of powers of and , where is the acceleration due to

gravity, find an expression for in terms of and .

9 Surface tension is defined as force per unit length.

a What are the dimensions of surface tension?

b When liquid forms a puddle on a clean horizontal surface, the depth of the puddle has a
maximum value that can be written as:

where is a dimensionless constant, is surface tension, is the acceleration due to

gravity and is the density of water. Use dimensional analysis to find a formula for .

c If when and of water has a mass of approximately ,

find the value of .

10 Tension is a force.

a What are the dimensions of tension?

b Frequency, , has dimension . Mersenne’s law states that the fundamental frequency of
a string is of the form , where is a dimensionless constant, is the length of
the string, is the tension in the string and is the mass per unit length of the string. Use
dimensional analysis to find the values of , and and hence find the formula for .

11 a Pressure is force per unit area, measured in the unit pascal. What are the dimensions of
pressure?

b Dynamic viscosity is measured in pascal seconds. What are the dimensions of ?

c The terminal velocity of a small spherical particle, of radius and density , falling
vertically down though a medium of density and dynamic viscosity , is given by:

where is a dimensionless constant and is the acceleration due to gravity. Use

dimensional analysis to find the values of and .

12 The formula for the lifting force generated on a wing of an aeroplane is of the form
, where is a dimensionless constant, is the air density, is the air speed and
is the surface area of the wing. Use dimensional analysis to find the values of , and and
hence find the formula for .

13 Surface tension, , is defined as force per unit length.

a State the dimensions of .

b State the dimensions of density.

c The average height, , of a liquid in a capillary tube can be written as , where

 is a dimensionless constant for the liquid, is the surface tension, is the density of the
liquid, is the internal radius of the tube and is the acceleration due to gravity. Use a
dimensional argument to find the values of , and and hence find the formula for .

d In this question part use , and give your final answer to an appropriate degree
of accuracy. of water has a mass of approximately . Water rises up a vertical
capillary tube that has a diameter of . Given that and , what is
the height of water in the tube, in millimetres?
 3 Momentum and collisions 1

In this chapter you will learn how to:

understand momentum and impulse in mathematical terms with units

understand that linear momentum is conserved in a collision between
objects that are free to move
understand that impulse on a body is equal to the change in momentum
understand Newton’s experimental law for collisions
analyse and solve problems involving simple collisions in a straight line
analyse and solve problems involving simple cases of connected particles.

Before you start…

GCSE You should be able to solve 1 Solve the equations:
simultaneous equations both for two
linear equations and for one linear
and one quadratic equation.
2 Solve the equations:

GCSE You should know the equations of 3 A particle of mass is dropped from
linear motion with constant a height of metres above a pond.
acceleration. What is the speed of the particle at the
instant when it hits the water?

A Level You should understand the 4 State the units of:

Mathematics definitions and units of velocity, a velocity
Student Book 1 acceleration and force.
b acceleration

c force.

A Level You should know Newton’s second 5 A constant force of acts on a

Mathematics law: particle of mass . What is the
Student Book 1 acceleration of the particle?

Chapter 1 You should know the definition of 6 The speed of a particle of mass is
kinetic and potential energy. . What is its kinetic energy?

What are momentum and impulse?

You use and understand the concepts of impulse and momentum instinctively in everyday life. If you hit a
ball with a tennis racquet, you know that the ball will move in the direction in which you hit it, and the
harder you hit it, the faster and further it will go because it receives a greater impulse.

A ball rolling down a slope gathers momentum. A hammer hitting a nail sends the nail forward in the
direction of the blow and the hammer bounces back slightly in our hands. Events such as playing snooker
or air hockey, applying the brakes in a vehicle, pile-driving the foundations of a building, hitting or kicking a
ball, the wind blowing the sails of a boat and carrying it forward, can all be modelled using these two
concepts.
Section 1: Momentum and impulse
If you apply a force to a stationary object, the object will try to move in the direction of the force. If the
force continues to act in the same direction and there is no resistance, the object will move more and more
quickly.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.1

An object of mass is moving at on a smooth surface in a straight line and a constant force
is applied to it in the direction of the motion for seconds. If the final velocity of the object is
show that

State Newton’s second law .

The acceleration is constant, since and are both constant.

Use the equations of motion in a straight line with constant acceleration to find the
final velocity from the initial velocity
Multiply this equation through by .
Substitute for the term .

Rearrange the equation as shown.

Momentum is the product of mass and velocity and is measured in

Key point 3.1

Impulse is the product of force and time, has the symbol , and is measured in (newton seconds).

Key point 3.2

This is called the ‘impulse–momentum principle’.

Although the units for momentum and impulse appear to be different, they are in fact equivalent.

Momentum, force, impulse and velocity are all vectors and can be expressed in vector format.

Tip

1 As force, impulse and momentum are all vector quantities their direction matters, so it is
often helpful to draw a diagram. Remember to label a direction on the diagram as positive.

2 Always check the units and convert to kilograms, metres and seconds, if necessary.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.2

A football of mass is travelling along the ground at What is its momentum?

positive direction

20m s–1
 Convert the mass from to .

State the formula.

Substitute values into the stated formula.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.3

A particle of mass is at rest on a smooth, horizontal surface. It is hit with an impulse of

What is its velocity immediately after the impulse?

State the impulse–momentum principle.

Work out the change in momentum by subtracting the initial

momentum from the final momentum.

Equate the impulse to the change in momentum.

Modelling
When you make a mathematical model you look at a simplified situation. Initially, you model all objects as
point masses and do not take into account their size or what they are made of. As you learn more about the
situation you can make better models and can put in more accurate data.

Focus on …

You will learn more about mathematical modelling in Focus on … Modelling 1.

Tip

You don’t have to draw a complicated diagram, as long as it is clear. For example, in Worked
example 3.4 the boats could be replaced by dots.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.4

A toy sailing boat of mass is blown along by a constant wind acting horizontally with a force of
If the boat is initially at rest, find its velocity after seconds.

positi ve direction
0.2N

t =0 t = 10

0m s–1 vm s–1

State the values you are given and convert to .

Define any unknowns.

State the formula.
 Substitute the values and calculate. As you are asked for
velocity, you must also state the direction.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.5

A football of mass is travelling in a straight line along the ground at when it is kicked
along the line of motion and starts to move with a speed of Calculate the impulse given to
the football by the footballer’s kick if:

a the ball is now moving in the opposite direction

b the ball continues to move in the same direction.

a
20m s–1 Draw a diagram to illustrate the situation.
before

25m s–1
after

+ve Choose a positive direction.

Check the units and change to .

State the values you know. has a negative sign as the
football is moving in the negative direction after it is kicked.
To find the impulse you need to find the change in
momentum.
Substitute the values and calculate.

The impulse is negative, which tells you that it is in the

opposite direction to the original direction of the ball. This
in means the ball was moving towards the footballer, who then
the opposite direction to the kicked it back along the line of motion. You need to give the
approaching ball. direction as well as the magnitude of the impulse.

b
20m s–1
before

25m s–1
after
Draw a new diagram to illustrate the second situation.
+ve

Check the units and change to .

State the values you know. now has a positive sign as it is
moving in the positive direction.
To find the impulse you need to find the change in
momentum.

Substitute the values and calculate.

in the The impulse is positive, which tells you that it is in the same
same direction as the initial direction as the original direction of the ball. This means the
ball was moving away from the footballer, who then kicked it
movement of the ball. in the same direction.

Tip
 Remember that velocity and impulse are vector quantities so you must show the direction by
using plus and minus signs and use these in your calculations.

EXERCISE 3A

1 Calculate the momentum of the following in Make sure you change to standard units
before you start, if necessary.

a A rocket of mass and velocity

b A cat of mass and velocity
c A marble of mass and velocity
d A car of mass and velocity

e A rhino of mass tonnes running at

2 A bullet of mass is fired from a rifle. Its momentum is as it leaves the rifle. What is its
velocity?

3 A car is moving at a velocity of Its momentum is What is its mass in metric tonnes?

4 What impulse is generated by an engine that exerts a force of for ?

5 What impulse is generated by an engine that exerts a force of for minutes?

6 The table shows the velocity in of a particle of mass before and after an impulse is applied
to it. Calculate the impulse in each case. The arrow indicates direction and the first one is done for
you.

Positive direction
Initial velocity Final velocity Impulse

7 A sailing boat of mass is stationary on the sea when it is blown by a wind that exerts a constant
force of What is the speed of the boat, in , after minutes?

8 A motor boat, of mass , is moving in a straight line at a speed of The drag of the water
produces a constant force of in the direction opposite to the direction of motion of the boat. How
long does it take for the speed of the boat to halve?

9 A gyrfalcon of mass is flying at with a following wind that exerts a constant force of
in the direction in which the gyrfalcon is flying. What is the gyrfalcon’s speed, in , later?

10 A gyrfalcon of mass is flying at into a wind that exerts a constant force of in the
direction opposite to the flight of the gyrfalcon. What is the gyrfalcon’s speed, in , later?

11 A football of mass is kicked along the ground and hits a vertical wall at right angles. As it hits the
wall, its speed is and it bounces straight back with a speed of What is the impulse of
the wall on the ball?

12 A bowling ball of mass is rolled along the ground and hits a vertical wall at right angles. As it hits
the wall, its speed is and it bounces straight back with a speed of What is the impulse
of the wall on the ball?
13 A motorbike of mass slows down from to in . What is the magnitude, in
newtons, of the constant braking force?

14 A motorbike of mass accelerates from to in . What is the magnitude,

in newtons, of the constant accelerating force produced by the engine?
Section 2: Collisions and the principle of conservation of momentum
In a game of snooker, if the cue ball hits a stationary red ball it exerts a force on the red ball that causes it
to move along the line of the collision. From Newton’s third law, there is an equal and opposite reaction
force on the cue ball. As the time for which the collision force acts is the same for both balls – i.e. the time
the two balls are in contact – then the impulse on the two balls is also the same but in
opposite directions.

impulse on cue ball impulse on red ball

= −I N s = +I N s

positive direction

Total impulse on the two balls along the line of the collision is

As the total impulse is zero, there is no change in total momentum, which means that linear momentum is
conserved in a collision between two objects when they are both free to move.

This is called ‘the principle of conservation of linear momentum’. We can see this by considering the
following argument.

Did you know?

Cannon on Spanish galleons were originally mounted on the
highest part of the ship to give the best possible advantage
over the enemy. It was soon realised that the impulse of the
cannon’s recoil on the ship at such a height was making the
ship unstable and likely to capsize, so the cannon were
moved down to the lower decks.

Consider a collision between two objects, and , of mass and , moving with velocities and in
the same straight line. If their respective velocities after the collision are and then:

Rearranging gives:

is the total momentum before the collision and is the total momentum after the
collision.

Key point 3.3

If there are no external impulses then total momentum before collision total momentum after
collision

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.6

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.6

A ball of mass is moving at when it collides with a second ball of mass moving
towards it on the same straight line with a velocity of . If the second ball now moves in the
opposite direction at , find:

a the final speed of the ball of mass

b in terms of , the magnitude of the impulse on the ball of mass .
positive direction Draw a clear diagram with the positive direction
marked and values in standard units.
3m 10 m s–1 6 m s–1 2m

initial

3m v m s–1 2m 6 m s–1

a Let the final velocity of the mass be Define the unknown.

Total momentum before collision total Use the principle of conservation of linear
momentum after collision momentum.

State the formula.

Substitute the values, remembering that direction is
indicated by sign.
Solve for .
The ball of mass moves at in the direction
of its initial motion.

So the final speed is Note that you were asked for speed, so you do not
include the minus sign with your answer.
b Find the impulse on the mass. The impulse on the two balls is equal and opposite so
it is sensible to find the impulse on the mass as
you are given its velocities. This will give the correct
answer even if you have made a mistake calculating
the velocity of the mass . However, you can use
the impulse on the ball of mass to check your
answer.

The impulse on the ball of mass is If you are asked for the magnitude, you do not give
equal and opposite so is the minus sign with your answer.
in the negative
direction. Its magnitude is

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.7

A snooker cue ball of mass travelling at hits a red ball of mass travelling in the
same direction at . If the red ball continues to move in the same direction but at find:
a the magnitude of the impulse on the red ball
b the magnitude of the impulse on the cue ball

c in terms of , the speed of the cue ball after the collision.

positive direction Draw diagrams to show the situation clearly.

Make sure that you label a direction as positive.
0.16kg 10m s–1 0.17kg 6 m s–1 The masses and are written as
and
initial
 impulse on cue ball impulse on red ball

collision

0.16kg v m s–1 0.17kg 9 m s–1

a For the red ball only, work out the impulse by

finding the change in momentum.

The impulse on the red ball is , in the

direction of the motion.

b The impulse on the cue ball is equal and The impulse on the cue ball is equal and
opposite and so it is . opposite to the impulse on the red ball. The
magnitude is the modulus of this so you omit the
The magnitude of this is .
minus sign in the answer. Only omit the minus
sign if you are asked for the magnitude,
otherwise leave it in as it indicates direction.
c The impulse on the cue ball State the values you know and define the
Let the final speed of the cue ball be unknown quantity.

State the formula and the values.

Put impulse equal to the change in momentum.

Here you do need to write the minus sign.
Rearrange to find The final speed is positive
showing that the cue ball continues to move in
the same direction but is slower than before.

WORK IT OUT 3.1

Two particles of masses and collide. Their speeds before the collision are and
, respectively, and they are moving in the same direction, which is taken as the positive
direction. After the collision, their speeds are and , respectively.

Solutions 1, 2 and 3 give three possible sets of values for and . Which solution is possible?
Explain why the other two solutions are not possible.

Solution 1 Solution 2 Solution 3

Masses that combine

In some situations, two objects ‘move off together’ or ‘coalesce’ after a collision. This means that they
combine into one object, rather like two raindrops running down a window that combine to form a single
drop. When objects coalesce in a collision, their masses are added together after the collision.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.8

 A toy truck of mass is travelling at when it hits a stationary toy truck of mass . If the
two trucks move off together, what is their speed immediately after the collision?

positive direction Draw a diagram with masses, speeds and the

positive direction labelled.
2 kg 10 m s–1 3 kg 0 m s–1

initial

5 kg v m s–1

Total momentum before collision total Use the principle of conservation of linear
momentum after collision momentum.
State the formula.

Let be the speed of the combined trucks. Define the unknown quantity.
Substitute the values and calculate.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.9

A cat, of mass , is sitting on a toy train of mass that is free to move on a straight
horizontal track. The train is at rest when the cat jumps off the train. The direction of the cat is
horizontal and in the direction of the track. The velocity of the cat is . What is the velocity of
the train immediately after the cat jumps off?

positive direction Draw a diagram.

cat 0 m s–1 cat 2 m s–1

train 0 m s–1 train v m s–1

initial

Apply the principle of conservation of

linear momentum.
Solve for

The velocity of the train is in the opposite

direction to the cat’s jump.

Further examples: multiple collisions and using change in kinetic energy

Harder examples often involve multiple collisions. Here you need to split the problem into parts and treat
each collision as a separate event. As usual, you need to draw clear diagrams and set out your working
clearly.

Rewind

Change in kinetic energy is considered in Chapter 1.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.10

Three particles, , and , of masses , and , are moving with velocities ,

and , respectively, as shown in the diagram.
positive direction

m 2.5m s–1 2m 2 m s–1 3m 1 m s–1

initial P Q R

collides with the mass , which then goes on to collide and coalesce with particle . The
combined particle moves with speed .
a What is the speed of after the first collision?
b What is the kinetic energy lost by in the collision with ?
a Collision 1: Always draw a diagram to show the situation. Both
positive direction collisions need two sets of diagrams. Label the
speeds clearly, with their directions, and mark the
positive direction. The signs of the final answers will
m 2.5m s–1 2m 2 m s–1 give the direction of the motion.

initial P Q Draw the diagram for the first collision.

Let be the speed of and be the

speed of after the collision.
m v1 m s–1 2m v2 m s–1

P Q

Collision between and : Use the principle of conservation of momentum.

Total momentum before collision total State the formula.
momentum after collision

Simplify by dividing through by . You now have one

equation in two unknowns so you need more
information to solve for the two velocities.
Collision between and : Draw the diagram for the second collision.
positive direction

2m v2 m s–1 3m 1 m s–1

initial Q R

5m 1.5m s–1

Total momentum before collision total Use the principle of conservation of linear
momentum after collision momentum.

Solve for

b Substituting into equation To find the loss in kinetic energy of you need to
find the velocity of after the collision with .

State the formula for kinetic energy.

Find the initial

 … and the initial

… and subtract.

Modelling in collision questions

If you are dealing with collisions between spheres, unless you are told otherwise, you assume that:
the spheres are smooth
the impulse during the collision acts along the line of centres
none of the spheres is spinning.

Fast forward

You will look at oblique collisions in Chapter 8.

EXERCISE 3B

1 Use the conservation of linear momentum to fill in the following table. and are the masses in
of two particles moving in the same straight line with initial speeds and , respectively. The
particles collide and their speeds after their collision are and , respectively. The speeds are given
in and the signs indicate direction.

2 A ball, , of mass travelling at collides with a stationary ball, , of mass . Ball is

brought to rest in the collision. What is the speed of ball immediately after the collision?

3 A ball, , of mass moving at collides with a ball, of mass moving towards it at a

velocity of in the same straight line. If ball then moves in a direction opposite to its original
at a velocity of , what is the final speed of ball ?

4 A cat of mass jumps onto a stationary toy train of mass that is free to move on a straight
horizontal track. The speed of the cat in the direction of the track immediately before it lands on the
truck is . What is the speed of the cat and the train, in the direction of the track, immediately
after it lands?

5 A croquet ball of mass is at rest when a croquet mallet hits it with a force, instantly producing an
impulse of .

a What is the exact speed of the ball at the instant it leaves the croquet mallet?
b The ball immediately hits another croquet ball of mass that is at rest. If the second ball moves
off at , what is the speed of the first ball immediately after the collision?
6 A particle, , of mass is moving with speed towards particle , of mass , which is
moving towards in the same straight line, at a speed of . The particles coalesce. What is the
magnitude and direction of the speed of the combined particles?

7 Particle , of mass is moving with speed towards particle . Particle is moving towards
particle , in the same straight line, with speed . The two collide and after the collision the two
particles move in opposite directions, each with speed . What is the mass of particle ?
8 A truck of mass is travelling along a straight track at a speed of when it collides with a
second, stationary, truck of mass , which then starts to move with speed . What is the
speed of the first truck immediately after the impact?

9 A skateboard of mass is moving at when it hits a ball of mass which is at rest.

Immediately after the collision the skateboard moves at in the same straight line and in the
same direction. What is the speed of the ball immediately after the collision?

10 A football of mass moving at hits a second football of mass moving directly towards
it, in the same straight line, at . After the collision the two footballs both have a speed of
but in opposite directions. Find the value of What assumption have you made about the two
footballs?

11 A particle of mass is moving along a straight line with speed It collides with another
particle, , of mass moving towards on the same straight line at a speed of . After the
collision the particles coalesce and move at a speed of .

a Find expressions for the two possible values of , in terms of .

b If in each case the magnitude of is , find the two possible values of .
Section 3: Restitution, kinetic energy and impulsive tension
In this section you will consider examples of three different types of collisions: a perfectly elastic collision, a
perfectly inelastic collision and one that is neither perfectly elastic nor perfectly inelastic. In a perfectly
elastic collision, no kinetic energy is lost from the system. The kinetic energy of the individual spheres
may change but the total of their kinetic energies will remain the same. Consider the example shown in the
diagram.

positive direction

2kg 10m s–1 3kg 6 m s–1

initial

2kg 5.2m s–1 3kg 9.2m s–1

, so momentum is conserved.

so there is no loss in kinetic energy.

In a perfectly inelastic collision, the spheres coalesce.

positive direction

2kg 10m s–1 3kg 6 m s–1

initial

5kg 7.6m s–1

Newton discovered that the outcome of a collision depends on the material that the objects are made of.
The next example is of a collision that is neither perfectly elastic nor perfectly inelastic.
 positive direction

2kg 10m s–1 3kg 6 m s–1

initial

2kg 7 m s–1 3kg 8 m s–1

Again momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is lost. The loss in kinetic energy is slightly lower than if
the particles had coalesced.

Newton discovered, by carrying out a series of experiments, that there is a constant ratio between the
speed of approach and speed of separation of the spheres before and after the collision that is independent
of the masses of the two spheres but depends on the materials from which the spheres are made. The
constant is called the coefficient of restitution.

Key point 3.4

Newton’s experimental law of collisions states that:

or

where is a constant called the coefficient of restitution.

The value of varies depending on the material properties of the objects involved in the collision.

For a perfectly elastic collision and there is no loss of total kinetic energy.

If the spheres coalesce then , the collision is inelastic, and there is maximum loss of kinetic energy.
This is sometimes called a perfectly inelastic collision, but for this course the phrase inelastic collision will
be used.

In other collisions, for which , the total kinetic energy of the system decreases.

Applying Newton’s experimental law

Consider a collision between two particles of masses and with initial velocities and and final
velocities and .

positive direction

m1 u1 m2 u2

initial

m1 v1 m2 v2
 Did you know?
Some collisions are called 'super elastic' because they cause a gain in kinetic energy in the
system, usually due to another mechanism that causes potential energy to be released as kinetic
energy.
The study of these super elastic collisions is outside the scope of this course but information can
be found on the internet.

Checking that kinetic energy is not gained during collisions can be a useful error check.

Applying Newton’s experimental law (NEL) gives:

Unless the spheres will not separate. Similarly, unless the spheres will not collide.

Tip

When using Newton’s experimental law be careful to get the velocities in the correct order with
the correct signs. Use a clearly labelled diagram showing directions clearly.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.11

Two spheres of masses and are moving towards each other with speeds and ,
respectively. After the collision, they move away from each other with speeds and ,
respectively.
a What is the value of the coefficient of restitution between the two spheres?

b In terms of , what is the kinetic energy loss for the particle of mass ?

positive direction Draw a clear diagram. There is no need to put

units on the diagram as long as you have checked
that the units are consistent. For example, use
3m 4 5 2m
either grams and kilograms but not a mixture.
initial

2.5 3m 2m 3.5

a Newton’s experimental law: State Newton’s experimental law.

State the values. Remember that signs indicate

direction. Do not leave this step out as it helps to
prevent errors with signs.
Remember that the final velocities go on the top
line.

b Find the initial

… and the initial

… and subtract.

Tip
 Always check that is positive and between and . If it isn’t, check that you have substituted
correctly and have the fraction the correct way up.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.12

Two spheres, and , of masses and respectively, are moving towards each other with
velocities and respectively. They collide and the kinetic energy lost in the collision is
.
a What are the speeds and directions of and immediately after the collision?
b What does this tell you about the coefficient of restitution between and ?

positive direction Draw a clear diagram and choose a direction to

be positive.
0.4 6 m s–1 3 m s–1 0.5

initial A B

0.4 v1 m s–1 0.5 v2 m s–1

a Total momentum before collision total Use the principle of conservation of momentum.
momentum after collision State the formula.

Multiply through by to simplify the numbers.

Find the before the collision.

Find the after the collision by subtracting
the amount of lost from the initial .
Write an expression for the after the
collision and equate this to .

By solving the system of two equations, we find You now have two equations, one linear and
that and . The speeds of and one quadratic , for the two unknown
velocities. You need to solve these
are both in the direction of A’s initial simultaneously.
motion.
b As the velocities have the same value and are in You now need to state the value of , the
the same direction this means that the particles coefficient of restitution, and comment on your
answer.
coalesce (become one) so .

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.13

Two spheres of mass and are moving in the same direction in the same straight line with
velocities and , respectively. The coefficient of restitution between the spheres is .
What are the velocities of the spheres immediately after the impact?

Draw a clear diagram. Show the positive direction.

Convert units as necessary.
 positive direction

0.3 5 m s–1 0.5 4 m s–1

initial

0.3 v1 0.5 v2

State the values you are given.

Total momentum before collision total Use the principle of conservation of momentum.
momentum after collision Substitute into the equation and simplify.

Newton’s experimental law: State Newton’s experimental law.

State the known values with their signs.

Substitute in the values and simplify.

Substitute into :
Multiply through by to make the numbers easier and
solve.

both in the
same direction as the initial motion.
Check back in : You should check your answers by substituting back
into the unsimplified conservation of momentum
equation .

Collisions between a moving object and a fixed object

If a body hits a fixed wall, momentum is not conserved because the wall cannot usually move. However,
Newton’s experimental law still holds, so you can calculate velocities for impacts involving a fixed object
using the coefficient of restitution.

positive direction

initial

u m

wall

v m

Consider a particle of mass moving with velocity on a smooth horizontal plane as it collides
with a fixed wall at right angles and bounces back off the wall with a velocity of . The coefficient of
restitution between the wall and the particle is .

Explore

Newton’s cradle is a set of spheres suspended from a frame. You can find videos on the internet
showing it in action.
Can you explain the behaviour of Newton’s cradle when one sphere is set in motion?

What happens if two (or more) of the spheres are displaced at the same time?

Newton’s experimental law states that:

(as the wall does not move), and , so the equation reduces to:

or

where and are the velocities of the particle before and after the collision with the wall.

The impulse of the wall on the particle is equal to change in momentum of the particle:

Key point 3.5

If an object, , moving with velocity , collides at right angles with a fixed object, then
rebounds with velocity where is the coefficient of restitution between and the fixed
object.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.14

A football of mass moving with velocity hits a fixed wall at right angles. If the
coefficient of restitution between the football and the wall is , find:
a the speed at which the ball rebounds from the wall
b the magnitude and direction of the impulse of the ball on the wall
c the loss in kinetic energy of the football.

Always draw a diagram so you don’t get confused with

signs. Always show the positive direction with an arrow.
 positive direction

before

25 m s–1

wall

v1

after

a Newton’s experimental law: You cannot use conservation of momentum as the wall is
not free to move but you can use Newton’s experimental
law.
Substitute in the numbers.

So the ball rebounds with speed

.
b The impulse of the ball on the wall is equal and opposite to
the impulse of the wall on the ball.
The impulse of the wall on the ball To find impulse you need force time or change in
is: momentum. As the wall does not move, you can only find
the change in momentum of the football.
Find the impulse of the wall on the ball.
The impulse of the ball on the wall is equal and opposite to
this.
Therefore the impulse of the ball on
the wall is towards the wall.
c Initial To find the loss in kinetic energy you subtract the final
from the initial the ball.

Final

Loss in

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.15

Small spheres , of mass , and , of mass are lying in a smooth horizontal groove, which is a
straight line ending in a vertical wall that is at right angles to the groove. is projected with
velocity towards , which is initially at rest. The coefficient of restitution between and is
then hits the wall and rebounds. The coefficient of restitution between and the wall is
a What is the velocity of as it rebounds off the wall?
b State, with reasons, whether or not there will be any further collisions between and .

positive direction Draw a clear diagram of the first collision only. Do

not try to cram both collisions into one diagram. It
can help to label , , and on the diagram to
3m u1 = u m s–1 2m u2 = 0m s–1
get Newton’s law the correct way round.
initial P Q

3m v1 2m v2
a Total momentum before 1st collision total Use the principle of conservation of momentum.
momentum after 1st collision
State the equation.

Substitute in the values given and divide through by

as every term contains . There is no need to
define the unknowns if they are clearly shown on the
diagram.
Newton’s experimental law: State the principle and the equation.

Substitute in the values and simplify.

Substitute into : Substitute the expression for into .

Find .
positive direction Now deal with the collision with the wall.
Draw a new diagram.
initial
0.84u 2m

Q wall

v3 2m

Newton’s experimental law: Momentum is not conserved as the wall is fixed so

you use Newton’s experimental law.
State the equation.
Put in the values and solve for Don’t forget to
include with your answer.
The final velocity of is away Explain that the minus sign indicates direction and
from the wall. state that direction.

b From , To find out if there are any further collisions you

need to know the velocity of after the first collision
and then compare the final velocities of and .

The final velocity of is

towards the wall.
As is moving towards the wall and is The direction of and is important as well as the
moving away from the wall they will be speed. Here the two particles are moving towards
each other so they will collide again whatever their
moving towards each other so there will be speeds.
at least one further collision.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.16

A ball of mass is dropped from rest at a height of onto a smooth horizontal surface. It
instantly bounces back vertically and reaches a height of .
a What is the impulse of the ball on the ground at the instant of the collision? Take as and
leave your answer in surd form.
 b Taking as , calculate the coefficient of restitution between the ball and the ground from the
information given, leaving your answer in surd form.

positive direction To find impulse you either need to know force and time or
change in momentum. Momentum depends on velocity so
you need to find the velocity at which the ball hits the
ground and then the velocity at which the ball leaves the
ground. To find the velocities you can either use energy
2m equations or the equations for motion with constant
v 1.5m acceleration.

a As the ball falls: First you need to find the velocity, , at which the ball hits
the ground. This example uses the work–energy principle.

By equating gain in kinetic energy to loss in potential

energy you can find the value of .

is negative as it is in the
downward direction.
As the ball bounces up: You can use energy equations again to find the velocity at
which the ball leaves the ground.

By equating the loss in to the gain in , you can find

the value of .

Impulse on the ball is Knowing the values of and , you can use the relationship
between impulse and momentum to find the impulse of the
vertically ground on the ball.
up
The impulse of the ball on the This is equal and opposite to the impulse of the ground on
ground is therefore the ball.
vertically down.
b State the formula.

Substitute the values and simplify.

Range of values of
The value of determines the final velocities of the colliding bodies and enables you to calculate whether
further collisions will occur.

Rewind

You learned about gravitational potential energy, mechanical energy and the principle of
conservation of mechanical energy in Chapter 1.

Tip

If two objects moving in the same straight line are going to collide, then there are two
possibilities: either they are moving towards each other from opposite directions, or one is
 following the other and the follower is travelling faster than the object it is following.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.17

A sphere, , of mass , moving at a velocity of , hits a sphere, , of mass , which is

at rest on a smooth horizontal surface. The coefficient of restitution between and is . then
hits a smooth vertical wall at right angles and rebounds. The coefficient of restitution between
and the wall is . Find the range of values of for which there is a further collision between and
.
positive direction Draw a diagram for the first collision with the
positive direction labelled.
2m 6 m s–1 4m 0 m s–1

initial P Q

2m v1 m s–1 4m v2 m s–1

Use the principle of conservation of linear

momentum.

Simplify the equation.

Use Newton’s experimental law.

Simplify the equation.

and Solve and simultaneously and check your

answers in equation .
The speed of after the collision with the wall Use Newton’s experimental law for the collision
between and the wall.

is following . The speed of is Now consider what is actually happening. If there is

away from the wall and the speed of is to be another collision then must be moving in
the same direction as and it must be moving
away from the wall. If collides with faster than .
then:

Impulses transmitted through strings

If two particles, and , on a smooth horizontal surface, are joined by a light inextensible string that is
initially not under tension, and is projected horizontally, the string will become taut. There will be an
instantaneous impulse transmitted through the string that will pull into movement. When this situation is
modelled mathematically an assumption is made that starts to move in the direction of the string and
that the component of the velocity of along the string equals the velocity of .

The impulse is equal to the magnitude of the change in momentum of each of the particles along the
string.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3.18

Two particles, , of mass , and , of mass , are initially at rest on a smooth horizontal plane.
and are joined by a light, non-elastic string that is initially slack. is projected horizontally,
away from , with a speed of . After the string becomes taut, and move at the same
velocity. Calculate:
a the speed of and immediately after the string becomes taut
b the impulse on and .

+ve Draw a clear diagram and show the direction you have chosen to be
0 12m s–1 positive.

2kg 4kg

A B

2kg 4kg

v v

a Conservation of linear As soon as the string becomes taut, you can apply the principle of
momentum: conservation of momentum to the whole system to find the
common velocity of and .

b Apply the impulse–momentum principle for just one of the particles.

The magnitude of the impulse will be equal in magnitude but in
opposite directions for and .
It is easier to use for the impulse calculation.

You can check your answer by also calculating the change in

momentum of .

EXERCISE 3C

1 A small sphere, of mass , moving on a smooth horizontal plane with speed hits a vertical wall at
right angles and rebounds. The coefficient of restitution between the sphere and the wall is . Find:

a the speed of the sphere after the collision

b the magnitude of the impulse of the wall on the sphere
c the loss in kinetic energy of the sphere if:
i and
ii and

iii and
iv and
v and .
2 A mass, , moving at collides with a second mass of , , moving towards it on the
same straight line with speed . The coefficient of restitution between the two masses is . Find
the speeds and directions of and after the collision.

3 A particle , of mass , moving at , collides with a particle , of mass , moving towards

it at a speed of on the same straight line. After the collision, moves in the opposite direction
with a speed of . Find:

a the speed and direction of after the collision

b the coefficient of restitution between and .
4 A small, smooth sphere of mass , at rest on a smooth horizontal floor, is hit with a blow of
 impulse and immediately hits a vertical wall at right angles. If it rebounds with velocity
, find:

a the coefficient of restitution between the wall and the sphere

b the magnitude of the impulse of the wall on the sphere
c the loss in kinetic energy of the sphere.
5 A small, smooth sphere of mass , at rest on a smooth horizontal floor, is hit with a blow of impulse
and immediately hits a vertical wall at right angles. If it rebounds with velocity , find
expressions, in terms of , and , for:

a the coefficient of restitution between the wall and the sphere

b the magnitude of the impulse of the wall on the sphere
c the loss in kinetic energy of the sphere.
6 A small smooth ball-bearing, , of mass and moving with velocity , collides with another
small, smooth ball-bearing, , of mass , moving in the same direction with velocity . After
the collision, and are moving in the same direction, with velocity and with velocity
.

a Find the value of

b Find the value of , the coefficient of restitution between and .

c What is the total loss of kinetic energy in the collision?
7 A particle, , of mass grams, is moving at when it hits a vertical wall, at right angles to the
wall, and rebounds. The coefficient of restitution between the wall and the particle is . The particle
then hits another smooth particle, , of mass grams, which is initially at rest. After the collision,
is at rest. What is the coefficient of restitution between and ?

8 A small sphere, , of mass , moving in a straight line with velocity , collides with another
small sphere, , of mass , which is moving directly towards , along the same straight line, with
velocity . The coefficient of restitution between the spheres is .

a Find the magnitude and direction of the velocities of the two spheres immediately after the
collision.
b What is the magnitude of the impulse on ?
9 A particle of mass is dropped from a height of onto a smooth horizontal surface and bounces
back vertically up to a height . The coefficient of restitution between the ball and the surface is .
Taking as , find the value of .

10 Two small spheres, , of mass and , of mass , are moving directly towards each other
along a smooth horizontal surface, with velocities and , respectively. The coefficient of
restitution between the two spheres is .

a Find the magnitude and direction of the velocities of the two spheres immediately after the
collision.
b What is the total loss of kinetic energy in the collision?
11 Two particles, and , each of mass , are moving on a smooth horizontal surface in the same
direction, in the same straight line, with speeds and , respectively, when they collide. If
the coefficient of restitution between the two particles is , find the speed and direction of the two
particles immediately after the collision.

12 A ball of mass is dropped from a height metres onto a smooth horizontal surface and bounces
back vertically up to a height metres. The coefficient of restitution between the ball and the surface
is . Find the ratio of to .
13 Two particles, and , each of mass , are moving on a smooth horizontal surface in the same
direction, in the same straight line, with speeds and , respectively, when they collide. At
the instant of collision, each particle receives an impulse of .

a Find the magnitude and direction of the velocities of the particles immediately after the collision.
b Calculate the coefficient of restitution between the two particles.
14 Two smooth spheres, and , each of mass grams, move towards each other along the same
straight horizontal line and collide when they are moving with speeds and , respectively.
Immediately after the collision moves with velocity away from .

a What is the velocity of immediately after the collision?

b What is the coefficient of restitution between the two spheres?
c Find the magnitude of the impulse exerted on in the collision.
15 A small ball of mass is dropped from rest at a height of onto a smooth horizontal surface. It
instantly bounces vertically up and reaches a height of . What is the impulse of the ground on the
ball at the instant of the collision? Take as .

16 A ball bearing, , of mass is thrown vertically down with a speed of from a height of . It
bounces back and just reaches its original height. Find the coefficient of restitution between and the
ground. Take as .

17 Two particles , of mass , and , of mass , are at rest on a smooth horizontal plane. is hit
with a blow of impulse in the direction . collides with , which then hits a smooth vertical
wall at right angles. The coefficient of restitution between and is and the coefficient of
restitution between and the wall is . Find the range of values of for which there is at least one
more collision between and . Give your answer as a fraction.

18 Three particles, of mass , of mass and of mass , are at rest in the same
horizontal line on a smooth horizontal surface. is projected along the plane towards at a velocity
of and the coefficient of restitution between and is . then collides with . The
coefficient of restitution between and is . Find the range of values of for which there is a further
collision between and . Give your answer as a fraction.

19 Two masses, , of , and , of , are initially at rest on a smooth horizontal plane. and are
joined by a light, non-elastic string that is initially slack. is projected horizontally, away from , with
a speed of . After the string becomes taut, and move at the same velocity. Find:

a the speed of and immediately after the string becomes taut

b the magnitude of the impulse on and .

Checklist of learning and understanding

The units of impulse and momentum are equivalent.

In general terms, if two objects of mass and are moving with velocities and in a
straight line and they collide, then, if their velocities after the collision are and , the total
momentum remains constant.
This is called the principle of conservation of linear momentum.
Newton’s experimental law of collisions states that:

or

where is a constant called the coefficient of restitution and . The value of varies
depending on the material properties of the objects involved in the collision.
For a perfectly elastic collision, and there is no loss of total kinetic energy.
If the colliding objects coalesce, then , and there is loss of kinetic energy. This is
sometimes called a perfectly inelastic collision.
In all other collisions the total kinetic energy of the system decreases and .
If an object, , moving with velocity collides with a fixed object, which is at right angles to
the plane of movement of , then the object rebounds with velocity where is the
coefficient of restitution between and the fixed object.
Mixed practice 3
1 Two particles and are projected directly towards each other on a smooth horizontal
surface. has mass and initial speed , and has mass and initial speed
. After a collision between and , the speed of is and the direction of its
motion is reversed. Calculate:

a the change in the momentum of

b the speed of after the collision.

2 A particle of mass is travelling with speed on a smooth horizontal plane
towards a stationary particle of mass (see diagram). The particles collide, and
immediately after the collision has speed and has speed .

10m s–1

0.8kg m kg
P Q

a Given that both particles are moving in the same direction after the collision, calculate .

b Given instead that the particles are moving in opposite directions after the collision,
calculate .
3 A roller skater of mass is moving in a straight line with speed when she collides
with a roller skater of mass moving in the opposite direction along the same straight line
with speed . After the collision the roller skaters move together with a common speed in
the same straight line. Calculate their common speed, and state their direction of motion.

4 A particle of mass is moving at when it collides with a particle , of mass ,

moving in the same direction, in the same straight line at . The two particles coalesce
to form a particle moving in the same straight line. What is the velocity of ?

5 9 m s–1 2 m s–1 2.75m s–1

P mkg Q 0.8kg R 0.4kg

Three particles , and , are travelling in the same direction in the same straight line on a
smooth horizontal surface. has mass and speed , has mass and speed
and has mass and speed (see diagram).

i A collision occurs between and , after which and move in opposite directions, each
with speed . Calculate
a the value of ,
b the change in the momentum of .

ii When collides with the two particles coalesce. Find their subsequent common speed.

© OCR, AS GCE Mathematics, Paper 4728, January 2010

6 Particles and , of masses and respectively, are moving in the same direction
along the same straight line on a smooth horizontal surface. is moving with speed
and is moving with speed immediately before they collide. In the collision, the
speed of is reduced by and its direction of motion is unchanged.

i Calculate the speed of immediately after the collision.

ii Find the distance at the instant seconds after the collision.

© OCR, AS GCE Mathematics, Paper 4728, January 2012

7 Two particles and are moving in opposite directions in the same straight line on a smooth
horizontal surface when they collide. has mass and speed . has mass
and speed . Immediately after the collision, the speed of is .

i Given that and are moving in the same direction after the collision, find the speed of
.

ii Given instead that and are moving in opposite directions after the collision, find the
distance between them after the collision.
© OCR, AS GCE Mathematics, Paper 4728, June 2010

8 6 m s–1

mkg 0.5kg
Q P

Fig. 1

i A particle of mass is projected with speed on a smooth horizontal surface

towards a stationary particle of mass (see Fig.1). After the particles collide, has
speed in its original direction of motion, and has speed more than . Show
that .
4 m s–1 2 m s–1

mkg 0.5kg
Q P
Fig. 2
ii and are now projected towards each other with speeds and ,
respectively (see Fig.2). Immediately after the collision the speed of is with its
direction of motion unchanged and has speed more than . Find another
relationship between and in the form , where and are constants.
iii By solving these two simultaneous equations show that , and hence find

© OCR, AS GCE Mathematics, Paper 4728, June 2009

9 A railway wagon of mass and moving with speed collides with railway wagon
which has mass and is moving towards with speed . Immediately after the
collision the speeds of and are equal.

i Given that the two wagons are moving in the same direction after the collision, find their
common speed. State which wagon has changed its direction of motion.

ii Given instead that and are moving with equal speeds in opposite directions after the
collision, calculate
a the speed of the wagons,

b the change in the momentum of as a result of the collision.

© OCR, AS GCE Mathematics, Paper 4728/01, June 2008

10 Two uniform spheres, and , have the same radius. The mass of is and the mass of
. The spheres and are travelling in the same direction in a straight line on a
smooth horizontal surface, with speed , and with speed , where .
collides directly with and the impulse between them has magnitude . Immediately
after the collision, the speed of is .

i Calculate
subsequently collides directly with a stationary sphere of mass and the same radius
as and . The coefficient of restitution between and is .
 ii Determine whether there will be a further collision between and .
© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, June 2009

11 A small sphere of mass is dropped from rest at a height of above horizontal ground.
It falls vertically, hits the ground and rebounds vertically upwards, coming to instantaneous
rest at a height of above the ground.

i Calculate the magnitude of the impulse which the ground exerts on the sphere.
ii Calculate the coefficient of restitution between the sphere and the ground.
© OCR, AS GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, January 2010

12 2 m s–1 3 m s–1

0.18kg m kg

Two particles of masses and move on a smooth horizontal plane. They are moving
towards each other in the same straight line when they collide. Immediately before the impact
the speeds of the particles are and respectively (see diagram).

i Given that the particles are brought to rest by the impact, find .

ii Given instead that the particles move with equal speeds of after the impact, find
a the value of , assuming that the particles move in opposite directions after the
impact,

b the two possible values of , assuming that the particles coalesce.

© OCR, AS GCE Mathematics, Paper 4728/01, June 2007

13 Two spheres of the same radius with masses and are moving directly towards each
other on a smooth horizontal plane with speeds and respectively. The spheres
collide and the kinetic energy lost is . Calculate the speed and direction of motion of each
sphere after the collision.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, January 2010

14 A particle of mass is moving with speed on a smooth horizontal surface when it collides
with a stationary particle of mass . After the collision the speed of is , the speed of is
and the particles move in the same direction.

i Find in terms of .

ii Show that the coefficient of restitution between and is .

subsequently hits a vertical wall which is perpendicular to the direction of motion. As a

result of the impact, loses of its kinetic energy.

iii Show that the speed of after hitting the wall is .

iv then hits . Calculate the speeds of and , in terms of , after this collision and state
their directions of motion.
© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, June 2010
 4 Circular motion 1

In this chapter you will learn how to:

model motion of a particle moving in a horizontal circular path at a constant speed

link linear speed and angular speed of a particular moving in a horizontal circular
path
find the acceleration and forces acting on a particle moving in a horizontal circular
path
solve problems relating to motion in a horizontal circular path.

Before you start…

GCSE You should know how to 1 A circle has radius Calculate the length of
calculate arc length for a the arc of a sector if the angle subtended at the
given proportion of a circle.
centre is

GCSE You should know how to 2 Find the vector that translates
write column vectors and
A Level
what they mean.
Mathematics
Student Book 1

GCSE You should be able to work 3 A point lies on a circle of radius at

with trigonometric ratios. the origin. Find the angle made with the positive
A Level
Mathematics -axis of the straight line that goes through the
Student Book 1 origin and the point

A Level You should be able to work 4 An object is accelerating with a constant

Mathematics with simple rates of change acceleration of . Find an expression for its
Student Book 1 related to speed, distance
and time using calculus. velocity and displacement given that the initial
velocity is and the initial displacement is

A Level You should be able to work 5 How many radians are the same as
Mathematics in radians as an angular
Student Book 2 measure.

What is different about motion in a circle?

In your work on kinematics so far you have considered the velocity of a particle as a vector quantity with a
magnitude (speed) and direction. When a particle moves in a circular path the direction of the velocity is
constantly changing. You can consider a new way of measuring how the particle is moving over time. To do
this you look at how the angle changes with respect to time.
 Fast forward

Students studying only to AS Level should also see Chapter 9, Section 1, about motion in a
vertical circle.
Section 1: Linear speed vs angular speed

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.1

A particle is moving at a constant rate anticlockwise along a circle centre of radius . The
particle takes to make one revolution of the circle.

a What angle (in radians) does the particle move through in

b What is the arc length traced out by the particle every second?

a P It is a good idea to draw a diagram first.

5cm

Write down the angle in a full turn and divide to find the angle turned
through in

b Start with the formula for arc length and then substitute the angle
value found in part a

Rewind

Kinematics is covered in Pure Core Student Book 1.

Rewind

Arc length is covered in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2.

Let be the centre of a circle of radius and let be a fixed point on the circumference. At time the
particle is at an angle of measured in radians anticlockwise from the radius If the particle is
travelling at a constant angular speed around the circle then the rate of change of the angle with
respect to time is a constant and is denoted by , i.e. , where is measured in radians per second.

P A

θ r
v
O
ω

As it is equal to the arc length, the distance the particle has travelled along the circumference is given
by . Given that linear speed (or tangential speed) is a change in distance with respect to change
in time you can relate this to the angular speed by:
You can remove from the differentiation since it is a constant.

Key point 4.1

For a particle moving in a circular path of radius , centre and with constant angular speed :

Tip

Sometimes is denoted by , which is . This gives the formula for linear speed as .

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.2

Two marbles are moving in two clockwise circles both centred at the origin . One circle has radius
and the other has radius Both marbles have a constant angular speed of
Calculate:

a the linear speed for each marble

b the time taken for each marble to complete one full circle.

a It is a good idea to draw a diagram first.

2cm

O 5cm

You know that

b You know that angular speed is the amount of turn with

respect to time. Both particles have the same angular
speed and, consequently, will take the same time to
complete one full circle.

Consider the angle in a full turn.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.3

A particle moves in a circular orbit of radius at a constant frequency of revolutions per

minute.

a How many revolutions does the particle complete in

b What is the angular speed of the particle in radians per second?

c What is the linear speed of the particle?

 a You know that . The particle will travel
through a smaller angle in than in

b Angular speed is the angle turned through in so

consider what proportion of a full turn has taken place in
from part a.
c You know that

Tip

It is important to make sure that you are using the right units for angular speed, linear speed,
distance and time.

WORK IT OUT 4.1

Two particles and are moving in two clockwise circles, both centred at , of radius and
, respectively. Particle moves at a linear speed of and particle moves at an
angular speed of . Determine which particle has the greater angular speed.

Which is the correct solution? Can you identify the errors made in the incorrect solutions?

Solution 1

Angular speed:
Particle A angular speed:

Therefore, particle has a greater angular speed.

Solution 2

Angular speed

Particle angular speed:

Therefore, particle has a greater angular speed.

Solution 3

Angular speed:

Particle angular speed:

Therefore, particle has a greater angular speed.

EXERCISE 4A

1 A particle is travelling around a circular path with angular speed and linear speed . The radius of
the circular orbit is .
a i If and find
 ii If and find
b i If and find

ii If and find
c i If the radius of the circular path is and linear speed per min, find

ii If the radius of the circular path is and linear speed per hour, find
d i If the particle makes revolutions every second of a circular path of radius find

ii If the particle makes revolutions every minute of a circular path of radius find
2 a A particle takes to move around in a circle at a constant linear speed of . Find:
i the angular speed in
ii the radius of the circle in .
b A marble completes revolutions every with a linear speed of . Find:
i the angular speed in
ii the radius of the circle in .
c A ball takes to move round a circle at a constant linear speed of . Find:
i the angular speed in
ii the radius of the circle in .
3 A particle is travelling around a circular path of radius at a constant linear speed of .
Calculate the angular speed.
4 A cyclist rides clockwise around a circular track of radius at a linear speed of .
a Find the angular speed in .

b How long does it take for one circuit?

5 A spinning disc of radius completes one revolution every
a What is the angular speed of the spinning disc in

b What is the linear speed at the edge of the spinning disc?

c What radius would the spinning disc need to have a linear speed of at its edge?
6 Two gear wheels and , one of radius and one of radius , are connected. If the angular
speed of wheel is , what is the angular speed of
7 An athlete runs at along the inside path of the track shown in the diagram.

64m
100m

a How long does it take to complete one circuit?

b What is the angular speed of the athlete as he runs around the circular parts of the track?
8 Metis is a moon of Jupiter. It completes one orbit approximately every . The orbit has an average
distance from Jupiter of approximately .
a What assumptions do you need to make to be able to calculate the angular speed of Metis in its
orbit?
b Making these modelling assumptions, determine:
i the angular speed of Metis in
ii the linear speed of the moon in .
Section 2: Acceleration in horizontal circular motion
When a particle moves in a circular path there must be a resultant force that keeps the particle moving in a
circle, otherwise the particle would stop turning and continue to move in a straight line.

Rewind

Recall Newton’s laws of motion, which you used in A Level Mathematics Student Book 1.

If there is a force acting on the particle to keep it in a circular orbit, by Newton’s second law, there must be
an acceleration.

The diagram shows a particle moving in a horizontal circle in the plane.

The direction of the velocity is along the tangent to the circle.

The direction of the acceleration is towards the centre of the circle.

The formula for acceleration is given by where is the linear speed and the angular speed. (The
proof of this result is beyond the scope of this section.)

y
v

P
a
r
θ x
O A

Since , you can write and, since , you can write . This means that you have a
relationship between and any two of the three variables and

Applying Newton’s second law, and resolving radially to a particle of mass moving in a
horizontal circular path, the force that gives rise to the circular motion is proportional to the acceleration,
and is in the same direction. This force is often referred to as the centripetal force.

Tip

Sometimes acceleration is written as where is .

Focus on …

In Focus on … Proof 1, you will investigate the connection between the equations for linear
motion with constant acceleration in a straight line and motion in a circle involving angular
equivalents of and

Key point 4.2

For a particle moving in a circular path of radius , centre and with constant angular speed ,

the acceleration is given by or , towards the centre of the circle.

This will appear in your formula book.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.4

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.4

A ball of mass is attached to a light inextensible string of length . One end of the string is
fixed on a smooth horizontal table and the ball moves in a circular path with linear speed

a What is the acceleration of the ball?

b What is the tension in the string?

a a It is a good idea to draw a diagram first, labelling the direction

of the acceleration.

T
150cm

Convert to .

You know that .

towards the centre of the circle
b The resultant force directed towards the centre of the circular
motion comes from the tension in the string and using
Newton’s second law.

Rewind

When modelling with a rope, you can make the modelling assumptions that it is light and
inextensible in order to produce a simple mathematical model of the situation, as you did in A
Level Mathematics Student Book 1.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.5

A toy car of mass moves at an angular speed of around a circular path of radius .
What is the centripetal force required to keep the toy car travelling in this circular path?

a It is a good idea to draw a diagram first.

F
20m

EXERCISE 4B

1 A particle of mass is travelling around a circular path. is angular speed, is linear

speed, is the radius of the circular orbit and is the magnitude of the acceleration.
a i If and find
 ii If and find
b i If and find

ii If and find

c i If and the force keeping the particle in a circular motion is

ii If and the force keeping the particle in a circular motion is

d i If and the force keeping the particle in a circular motion is

ii If and the force keeping the particle in a circular motion is , find

2 a A ball of mass is attached to a light inextensible string of length . One end of the
string is fixed on a smooth table and the ball moves in a circular path with linear speed

i Find the acceleration due to the circular motion.

ii Find the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the ball.
b A car of mass is travelling in a circular path of diameter with a linear speed of

i Find the acceleration due to the circular motion.

ii Find the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the car.

c A particle of mass is attached to a light inextensible string of length that is fixed
at the other end so that the particle is moving in a circular path on a smooth table at a
constant rate of revolution every
i Find the acceleration due to the circular motion.
ii Find the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the particle.
3 A particle of mass is travelling around a circular path of radius and makes full
circles every minute. Calculate the force keeping the particle in circular motion, to significant
figures.

4 A car of mass travels along a horizontal road that is an arc of a circle with radius .
The maximum speed at which the car can travel on this circular bend without slipping
outwards from the centre is . Calculate the acceleration and the maximal friction
force on the car towards the centre of the arc of the circle.

5 Calculate the tension required in a light inextensible string of length to keep a particle of
mass moving in a horizontal circular path if:

a the linear speed of the particle is

b the angular speed is .
6 Emily sits on a roundabout, rotating at a constant angular speed , halfway between the
centre and the edge. If Emily moves to a position that is of the radius from the edge, what
effect does this have on the force that Emily experiences acting towards the centre of the
roundabout? Provide calculations to support your argument.

7 A car travels at a constant speed along a bend in the road that is formed by an arc of a circle
of radius .

a What is the greatest linear speed in at which the car can travel around the bend
without moving off at a tangent, if the coefficient of friction between the tyres of the car
and the surface of the road is estimated as ?

b Comment on whether this seems a sensible estimate for the value of the coefficient of
friction.

Rewind
 You will have used the coefficient of friction in A Level Mathematics Student
Book 2.

8 A marble is on a rough horizontal disc at a distance of from its centre. When the disc is
rotating at a constant speed of the particle is on the point of moving tangentially
outwards from the centre. Calculate the coefficient of friction between the marble and the
disc.

9 Two particles and of mass and respectively are attached to opposite ends of a
light inextensible string of length . Particle rests on a rough horizontal spinning table
which has coefficient of friction and the string passes through a smooth hole in the centre
of the table. Particle hangs freely below the table. Particle is moving in a circular path with
constant angular speed about the centre of the table. Find the linear speed of particle , if the
system is in equilibrium with particle on the point of tangential displacement out from the
centre of the spinning table, and particle hanging below the table.

Tip

Remember that it is the resultant force acting horizontally towards the centre of the
circular motion that you use for the force in

10 Road surface conditions are being assessed for a horizontal bend in a road that is formed by
an arc of a circle of radius . The road surface could be made of asphalt or concrete. The
coefficient of friction between car tyres and asphalt is , and between car tyres and
concrete

a What assumptions need to be made?

b Calculate the maximum safe linear speed, in , at which a car could travel around the
bend without slipping for:
i a surface made from asphalt
ii a surface made from concrete.
c If the surface is wet, the coefficient of friction between the car tyres and asphalt is reduced
to and that between car tyres and concrete is reduced to . What are the maximum
safe limits now?
d Given that concrete is more expensive than asphalt, which road surface would you use for
the bend in the road?
11 Let the position of a particle in the diagram have coordinates Let be the
constant angular speed of so that the angle measured from the line anticlockwise at
time is Show that:
 y

P
r
θ
x
O A

a the position vector of is given by

b the linear (tangential) velocity of is

c the acceleration of is given by

d the acceleration is along a radius, directed towards the centre , and of magnitude
e Use the scalar product to show that the velocity vector is perpendicular to the radius.

Rewind

Scalar product is covered in A Level Mathematics Student Book 1.

Explore
In A Level Mathematics, you may have seen various ways to convince yourself of how the
trigonometric functions are differentiated. Using the following:
www.cambridge.org/links/moscmec6001, you can start with your knowledge of motion in a circle
to help you to understand the derivatives of sine and cosine.
Section 3: Solving problems involving motion in a horizontal circle
The examples you have seen so far in this chapter have all had a single horizontal force keeping a particle
in a circular path. You are now going to consider situations where the forces are not necessarily acting
horizontally but the particle is still moving in a horizontal circular path with a constant angular speed. This
will require you to consider the components of a force.

One example of this type of motion is the conical pendulum, shown in the diagram. The particle is
attached to a light inextensible string that makes an angle of with the downward vertical, and it is moving
in a horizontal circle at a constant angular speed

θ
T

r O ω

mg

Focus on …

You will learn about a simple pendulum in Focus on … Modelling 2.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.6

A particle, , of mass is attached to the lower end of a light inextensible string with the upper
end fixed at . When the particle moves in a horizontal circular path, the string traces out the
curved surface of a cone and makes an angle of with the downward vertical. The centre of the
circular path lies directly below the point at a distance of .
a Find the tension in the string.
b Find the angular speed of the particle.

B It is a good idea to draw a diagram

first.
60° T
2m Resolve forces vertically to form an
equation involving
A Resolve forces horizontally and use
Newton’s second law to form an
equation involving the centripetal
0.2g acceleration, .

Use the value of acceleration with

the equation for circular motion to
calculate the angular speed.
a Resolve the forces vertically. The
particle is not moving in the
vertical direction.

b Resolve the forces horizontally in

the direction of the acceleration.
 Find the radius of the circular
motion using trigonometry.
You can then substitute the values
for and into the equation to find

Rewind

Resolving forces is covered in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2, Chapter 21.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.7

A particle, , of mass is attached to two light rods and , as shown in the diagram,
where and all lie in the same vertical plane. The lengths of and are
and metres respectively.

0.25m

0.07m
φ
θ
C 0.24m P

The particle is moving in a horizontal circle with linear speed

a Calculate the tension in the rod .

b Calculate the magnitude of the force in the rod and determine if the rod is in tension or
compression.

It is a good idea to draw a diagram first showing the

forces acting on .

a Resolve the forces at vertically.

Resolve the forces horizontally in the direction of the

acceleration. Use

0.25
0.07
θ
C P
0.24
 A It is a good idea to find the trigonometric ratios for the
angles in the question.
0.4
0.32
φ
C P
0.24

When the values are substituted you have a pair of

simultaneous equations to solve.
You can find the tension by eliminating .
b You can substitute the value you found for into one of
the equations to find

Magnitude of the force in rod is

The force is directed towards and You initially assumed that was acting towards . As
rod is therefore in compression. the value of is negative it means that the direction
must have been incorrect and the rod is in compression.

Rewind

Recall from A Level Mathematics Student Book 1 that a rod can be under tension or
compression.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.8

The fixed points and are in a vertical line with above and above . A particle of
mass is joined to , and to a particle of mass , by three light rods where the length of
rod is and the length of rod is . Particle moves in a horizontal circle with centre .
Particle moves in a horizontal circle with centre , at the same constant angular speed as , in
such a way that and are coplanar. The rod makes an angle of with the downward
vertical, rod makes an angle of with the downward vertical and rod is horizontal (see
diagram).

a Calculate the angular speed .

b Find the tension in the rod
c Find the force in the rod and determine if the rod is in tension or compression.

30°
2m

Q
B
1m
45°
C P
 a It is a good idea to draw a diagram first showing the forces
Q
acting on .

45° T1

2g

Resolve the forces horizontally in the direction of the

acceleration to get an equation that involves the tension in
the rod
You can find the tension in the rod by resolving the
forces vertically at .
You need to find the radius of the circular motion for . This
will involve finding the horizontal distance , which is
made up of two parts.

You can then substitute the expression for and the radius
of the circular motion into a rearranged equation to find

b A It is a good idea to draw a diagram first showing the forces

acting on
T2
30°
Q
T3
45° T1

3g

Resolving the forces at vertically allows you to find the

tension in the rod

c Resolve the forces horizontally in the direction of the

acceleration and use the values you found for and
to find , the tension in

The rod is in tension. Since the value of the tension is positive, the rod is in
tension.

Banked tracks
Another example of horizontal circular motion is motion on a banked track. The two figures show an
inward banked track, also known as camber.
 RN
RN cosθ

θ
RN sin θ
C
r

C r

mg
θ θ

You can consider how cars move around bends that are banked at an angle to the horizontal, as shown in
Worked examples 4.9 and 4.10.

Did you know?

The camber of a road or a cant of a railway track allows the vehicles to turn safely through a
curve at higher speeds compared with a level surface.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.9

A remote-control toy car travels around a bend of radius on a track which is banked at an
angle of to the horizontal. If the car is travelling at and there is no friction between the
car and the track, find the angle .

R It is a good idea to draw a diagram first. Remember the reaction

force is always perpendicular to the road or track.

mg
θ 14m
a

Resolve the forces horizontally to form an equation involving

and
Resolve the forces vertically to form an equation involving ,
and .

Hence Divide the first equation by the second to eliminate the unknowns
and

Use to write an expression for . Make sure that all units

are consistent.
Substitute and solve for

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.10

A racing car travels at a constant speed around a bend in a road of radius . The road is
banked at an angle to the horizontal with sin . If the coefficient of friction between the
tyres of the car and the road is find:

a the maximum linear speed at which the car can be driven around the bend

b the minimum linear speed at which the car can be driven around the bend.

It is a good idea to draw a diagram first. Remember the reaction

a R force is always perpendicular to the road.
In this case, the greatest speed is the speed that is possible
before slipping outwards from the centre, so friction acts towards
F the centre.
mg
θ
55m

The maximum frictional force is proportional to the normal

reaction force.
Resolve the forces vertically to form an equation involving ,
and

You are told that . Recall how to find exact values for
5
4 and using right-angled triangles.
θ
3

Resolve the forces horizontally to form an equation involving

and

Using .

b R In this case, the least speed is the speed that is possible before
F
slipping inwards towards the centre, so friction acts away from
the centre.

mg
θ
55m

The maximum frictional force is proportional to the normal

reaction force.
Resolve the forces vertically to form an equation involving
and .

Resolve the forces horizontally to form an equation involving

and .
 Tip

If a particle is moving in a circular orbit on a rough inclined plane, then the direction of friction
depends on the speed at which the particle is moving. A slowly moving particle will be on the
point of slipping down the inclined plane and so friction will act up the inclined plane.

EXERCISE 4C

Unless otherwise instructed, when a numerical value for the acceleration due to gravity is needed,
use .

1 A particle of mass is moving in a horizontal circle at a constant angular speed

attached to a light inextensible string of length that makes an angle of with the
downward vertical.

a i If and , find the tension in the string.

ii If and , find the tension in the string.

b i If and , find the tension in the string.

ii If and , find the tension in the string.

c i If and find

ii If and find
d i If and find the angle

ii If and find the angle

2 Here are incomplete force diagrams for some simple conical pendulums. Each consists of a
light, inextensible string of length suspended from a point and a bob of mass at point
. The bob moves in a horizontal circle centred vertically below and the string forms an
angle with the downward vertical. moves with a constant angular speed and the
tension in the string is

a Find the angle .

A

θ 25m
T

5g
ω = 4 rads−1

b Find the angular speed .

 A

30° 1m
T

0.2g
ω unknown

c Find the tension in the string.

A

13m
12m T

10g
ω unknown

d Find the mass of the bob.

A

25° 1.2m
T = 56N

mg
ω = 16 rads−1

3 A particle is moving in a horizontal circle at a constant angular speed of , attached to

a light inextensible string of length . Find the angle the string makes with the
downward vertical to significant figures.

Explore
Watch the video at www.cambridge.org/links/moscmec6002 and use the ideas
introduced and explored in this chapter to create a mathematical model of this
situation.

4 A particle travels around a bend of radius , with the surface banked at an angle to the
horizontal, where sin . Show that, if the surface is smooth, the particle will not slip if it
travels with a linear speed of .

5 A smooth bead of mass is threaded onto a light inextensible string. The two ends of the
 string are attached to fixed points and , where is vertically below . The string is taut
and the bead rotates about the axis . The bead moves with a constant angular speed in a
horizontal circular path of radius . Given that angle is and angle is ,
calculate:

a the tension in the string

b the angular speed.
Y

30°

0.8m
B
60°

6 A bend in a road is in the form of a horizontal circular arc of radius , with the road surface
banked outward at an angle , where to the horizontal. Show that, if there is a frictional
force of acting up the slope, a car of mass is moving at a linear speed of
to significant figures.

10000N

a m s−2

mg

7 In the diagram the fixed points and are in a vertical line, with above at a distance of
. particle of mass is attached to two light inextensible strings, so that is
and is . The particle rotates at a constant angular speed of with both
strings and taut.

a Find the tension in in terms of and

b Find the tension in in terms of and
c Calculate a lower bound for the angular speed given that remains taut.
A

θ
1.44m

1.80m
P

1.08m
B

8 Fixed points and are in a vertical line with above and above particle of
mass is joined to , to and to a particle of mass , by three light rods where the
length of rod is and the length of rod is . Particle moves in a horizontal circle
with centre Particle moves in a horizontal circle with centre at the same constant
 angular speed as , in such a way that and are coplanar. Rods and both
make an angle of with the downward vertical and rod is horizontal (see diagram).
a Calculate the angular speed .

b Find the tension in the rod

c Find the magnitude of the force in the rod and state whether the rod is in tension or
compression.
A

30° 2 m

B Q
1m
30°
C P

9 A hemispherical bowl of radius is fixed with its rim horizontal. bead of mass is
moving in a horizontal circle around the smooth inside surface of the bowl. The centre of the
circle is below the centre of the sphere of which the bowl forms a part.

a Find the magnitude of the reaction force between the bowl and the bead in terms of and

b Find the linear speed of the bead in terms of and

10 The fixed points and under , lie in the same vertical plane. A particle of mass is
joined to the point by a light rod of length and to the point by a light rod that is
horizontal. The particle moves in a horizontal circle with centre at a constant angular
speed .
a If the angle the rod makes with the downward vertical is , calculate the tension in
the rod .
b Calculate a lower bound for which would mean that the rod is in tension.
c If the angular speed of is , calculate the magnitude and direction of the force in
the rod .
11 A conical pendulum consists of a light inextensible string of length , with the string
fixed at and a small ball of mass at The ball moves in a horizontal circle, with centre
vertically below the point with constant linear speed . Find the tension in the string
and the radius of the circle.

12 A car moves in a horizontal circular path of radius , banked at to the horizontal. The
coefficient of friction between the car tyres and the track is Find the maximum and
minimum speeds at which the car can be driven around the circular path.

13 A car has a linear speed of and is on the verge of slipping when driven in a horizontal
circular path of radius that is banked to the horizontal at angle Show that the coefficient of

friction is

Checklist of learning and understanding

For a particle moving in a horizontal circular path of radius and at a constant angular speed
:
linear speed is given by
acceleration is given by , or and is directed towards the centre of the circular
motion.
Mixed practice 4
Unless otherwise instructed, when a numerical value for the acceleration due to gravity is needed,
use

1 A particle of mass moves in a circle of radius with constant speed

a Find the angular speed of the particle.

b Find time it takes for one revolution.

c Find the force acting on the particle to keep it in a circular path.

2 A particle of mass moves with a constant linear speed of in a horizontal circle of

radius on a rough table with coefficient of friction The particle is travelling at the
maximum speed that will keep it in a circular path.

a Draw a diagram to display the forces acting on the particle and its acceleration.

b If the radius of the horizontal circle is , find the linear speed.

3 A particle of mass is attached to a light inextensible string of length . The string is

fixed on a smooth horizontal table and the ball moves in a circular path with constant angular
speed

a What is the acceleration of the ball?

b What is the tension in the string?

4 A car of mass moves at a linear speed of around a circular path of radius

. What is the frictional force required to keep the car travelling in this circular path?

5 A light rod , of length , has one particle of mass attached at and a second particle of
mass attached at The rod is held fixed at a point and is free to rotate in a horizontal
circle with a constant angular speed about the point Given that the tensions in parts
and of the rod are equal, show that the length is

6 Two particles, and , are connected by a light inextensible string that passes through a
smooth hole in a smooth horizontal table. Particle , of mass , moves on the table with
constant angular speed in a circle of radius around the hole. Particle , of mass ,
hangs vertically in equilibrium under the table, as shown in the diagram. Find the angular
speed of .

7 A small smooth ring of mass is threaded onto a light inextensible string of length . The
two ends of the string are fixed at the points and , where is vertically below at a
distance of . The ring is moving with constant linear speed in a horizontal circle with centre
and radius .

a Find the tension in the string in terms of and

 b Find the linear speed in terms of and .

c How did you use the assumption that the ring was smooth?

8 A car of mass moves around a bend that is banked at a constant angle of to the
horizontal. The car is modelled as a particle moving in a horizontal circle of radius at a
constant angular speed. Calculate the linear speed of the car in if:

a there is no sideways frictional force on the car

b the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the surface is and the car is on the
point of

i slipping down the slope

ii slipping up the slope.

9 O 5m

3m ω
P
4m
0.2kg

0.1kg
Fig. 1

A particle of mass is moving on the smooth inner surface of a fixed hollow hemisphere
that has centre and radius . moves with constant angular speed in a horizontal circle
at a vertical distance of below the level of (see Fig. 1).

i Calculate the magnitude of the force exerted by the hemisphere on .

ii Calculate .

A light inextensible string is now attached to . The string passes through a small smooth hole
at the lowest point of the hemisphere and a particle of mass hangs in equilibrium at the
end of the string. moves in the same horizontal circle as before (see Fig. 2).

O 5m

3m

0.1kg
Fig. 2

iii Calculate the new angular speed of .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, January 2010

10 A particle of mass is attached to points and on a fixed vertical axis by two light
inextensible strings of equal length. Both strings are taut and each is inclined at to the
vertical (see diagram). The particle moves with constant speed in a horizontal circle of
 radius

i Calculate the tensions in the two strings.

The particle now moves with constant angular speed and the string is on the point
of becoming slack.

ii Calculate .

A
60°

P
0.4m
0.5kg

60°
B

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, June 2008

11 One end of a light inextensible string of length is attached to the vertex of a smooth cone of
semi-vertical angle . The cone is fixed to the ground with its axis vertical. The other end of
the string is attached to a particle of mass which rotates in a horizontal circle in contact
with the outer surface of the cone. The angular speed of the particle is (see diagram). The
tension in the string is and the contact force between the cone and the particle is

i By resolving horizontally and vertically, find two equations involving and and hence
show that .

ii When the string has length , calculate the greatest value of for which the particle
remains in contact with the cone.

45° l

ω m

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, June 2010

12 A particle , of mass , is attached to fixed points and by light inextensible strings,

each of length . and are apart with vertically above . The particle moves in a
horizontal circle with centre at the midpoint of

i Find the tension in each string when the angular speed of is .

ii Find the least possible speed of .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, June 2012

13 A circular cone is fixed so that the apex of the cone is sitting on a horizontal surface and the
axis of the cone is perpendicular to the horizontal surface. The angle the cone makes with the
horizontal surface is . A particle , of mass , moves on the inner surface of the cone. The
particle is joined to by a light inextensible string , of length . The particle moves in a
horizontal circle with constant linear speed and the string is taut. The inside of the cone is
smooth.
 a Show that the reaction force between the particle and the inner surface of the cone can be
written in the form

b Find the tension in the string, in terms of and .

c Show that the motion of the particle is only possible when .

14 A vertical hollow cylinder of radius is rotating about its axis. A particle is in contact
with the rough inner surface of the cylinder. The cylinder and rotate with the same constant
angular speed. The coefficient of friction between and the cylinder is .

i Given that the angular speed of the cylinder is rad and is on the point of moving
downwards, find the value of .

0.5m

0.4m

The particle is now attached to one end of a light inextensible string of length . The other
end is fixed to a point on the axis of the cylinder (see diagram).

ii Find the angular speed for which the contact force between and the cylinder becomes
zero.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, June 2013

Fast forward

Students studying only to AS Level should also see Chapter 9, Section 1, about
motion in a vertical circle.
 5 Centres of mass 1

This chapter is for A Level students only.

In this chapter you will learn how to:

find the centre of mass of arrangements of particles, uniform rods and

symmetrical uniform laminas
find centres of mass of two- and three-dimensional objects of standard
shape
find centres of mass of composite bodies, including bent wires.

Before you start…

GCSE You should be able to add and subtract vectors and to

multiply a vector by a scalar. 1

Where does mass act?

The particle model you have used in earlier chapters assumes that mass is all located at a single point with
no volume. This approximation works well for small objects. More complex objects may consist of two or
more particles located in different places, or a combination of one-, two- or three-dimensional objects. For
example, mass may be spread along a rod, throughout a two-dimensional shape such as a circular disc, or
throughout a solid object such as a cube. For many purposes, such as when modelling linear motion, a
complex shape or rigid body can be modelled as though its mass is located at a single point, called the
centre of mass. In this chapter, you will learn how to find the centre of mass of a range of different
objects.

Fast forward

In Chapter 10 you will see that the location of the centre of mass of a complex object determines
how it responds to forces that are applied to it, including its own weight. You will use your
knowledge of the centre of mass, together with your knowledge of moments, to work out angles
when objects are suspended in space. You will also work out whether objects placed on an
inclined surface will rest in equilibrium, or topple over or slide.
Section 1: Centre of mass of a system of point masses
Centre of mass of two particles
The centre of mass of two identical particles lies at the midpoint of a straight line drawn between them.

centre of mass is at
x1 + x2
2
m m
O
x1
x2

If the masses of the particles are different, then the centre of mass does not lie at the midpoint. It is closer
to the larger mass. You find the position of the centre of mass, , by calculating a weighted average:

m1 x1 + m2 x2
x=
centre of mass is at
m1 + m2
m1 m2
O
x1
x2

For example, if , , and , then

The centre of mass divides the straight line joining the particles in the ratio .

Several particles arranged in a straight line

m1 m2 mn
O
x1
x2
xn

You now extend the formula for two masses to masses:

If you write instead of , the formula may alternatively be written:

Key point 5.1

A combination of particles having masses arranged in a straight line, at positions

, can be modelled as a single object of mass , with position where:

and:

Rewind

You worked with moments in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2. The formula given in Key
point 5.1 equates the sum of the moments of mass of particles with the moment of mass of a
combined particle acting at the centre of mass.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.1

 WORKED EXAMPLE 5.1

Three point masses are attached to a light bar of length . These have mass , and
and are attached at the bar at , the midpoint of the bar, and , respectively. Find the distance
of the centre of mass from .

0.15kg 0.25kg 0.35kg Draw a diagram with masses and lengths from in standard
A B units.
0.25m
0.5m
The modelling assumption that the bar is ‘light’ means that
you do not need to include its mass.
Use the formula for an arrangement of particles.
is the total mass.

The distance of the mass from is zero.

In Worked example 5.1 the centre of mass is from . The system of three particles has the same
moment of mass as a single particle of mass placed from .

0.75kg
A B
0.317m

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.2

A light rod of length has three masses attached to it. A mass is attached from .A
mass is attached from , and an unknown mass, , is attached at end . Find the value
of given that the centre of mass of the system is from point .

Start by calculating the total mass.

Use the formula for point masses arranged in a straight
line.

Particles arranged in a plane

If particles are arranged in a plane, you can find the position of the centre of mass separately for and .
Vectors give you a nice way of combining these calculations.

Key point 5.2

If you have particles with masses , at position vectors , you

can model these as a single mass , with position vector .

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.3

Three particles are arranged in a plane. Particle has mass and is placed at . Particle
has mass and is placed at . Particle has mass and is placed at .

Find the - and -coordinates of the centre of mass.

 Start by calculating the total mass.

Use the formula for point masses in a plane.

Multiply the position vector of each point mass by the mass placed there:

Divide the result by the total mass.

EXERCISE 5A

1 A light rod of length has a mass of placed from and a mass of placed at .
Find the distance of the centre of mass from .
2 A light rod of length has a mass of placed at one end . A mass is placed from
the other end , and the centre of mass lies in the middle of the rod. Find .
3 A light rod has masses and placed at each end, and the centre of mass lies from the
mass. Find the length of the rod.
4 Masses , and are placed , and from one end, , of a light rod. The
centre of mass lies from . Find the value of .
5 Three point masses have position vectors in the plane as shown in the diagram. Find the centre
of mass of the three masses combined.
y

( 66)
1.5kg

( 23)
2kg ( 62)
1.2kg

O x

6 Four point masses have position vectors in the plane as shown in the diagram. Find the centre of
mass of the four masses combined.
y
( 67)
( 16) m kg
2m kg
( 64)
3m kg

( 31)
m kg
O x

7 Four point masses have position vectors in the plane as shown in the diagram. Find the centre of
mass of the four masses combined.
 y
m kg 2
7 () 2m kg 7
()
6
m kg 4
4()
m kg
2 ( 41)
O x

8 Three point masses, , and are placed in a plane at , , and ,

respectively, from an origin at . Find the position vector of the centre of mass relative to

9 Three point masses, , and , are placed in a plane at , at , and at

, respectively, from an origin at . The centre of mass is at . Find the values of

and .
Section 2: Centres of mass of standard shapes
Centre of mass of uniform rod
An inflexible body having its mass spread along a straight line is called a rod. Its shape is defined by its
length; its cross-sectional area is zero. A uniform rod has constant mass per unit length ( in standard
units).

Rewind

You have learned to work with uniform rods in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2.

Key point 5.3

The centre of mass of a uniform rod lies at its midpoint.

Centre of mass of a uniform lamina of standard shape

A lamina is a two-dimensional object. An important modelling assumption used in calculations is that the
lamina has zero thickness. A uniform lamina has constant mass per unit area ( in standard units).

A compact disc is close in shape to what is meant by a lamina, as its cross-sectional area is much greater
than its thickness.

Key point 5.4

The centre of mass of a symmetrical uniform lamina lies on any axis of symmetry.
If there is more than one axis of symmetry, then the centre of mass lies at the intersection of
these.

The diagrams show the locations of the centre of mass of a uniform rectangular lamina and a uniform
circular lamina, in relation to their axes of symmetry; (A circular lamina has an infinite number of lines of
symmetry; only two are shown here.)

centre of mass

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.4

Calculate the coordinates of the centre of mass of the uniform rectangular lamina with vertices at
,( ), and .

(5, 9) Draw a sketch.

The centre of mass lies at the intersection of the lines of

symmetry shown.
(2, 3) (9, 7)

(6, 1)

Find the average of the -coordinates and the average of the -

 coordinates.

The centre of mass of a uniform triangular lamina lies at the intersections of the medians. A median of a
triangle joins a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side.

In the case of a lamina in the shape of an equilateral triangle, the medians are all axes of symmetry.

centre of mass

In any triangle, all three medians intersect at the same place, even when they are not axes of symmetry.
The intersection of the medians divides each median in the ratio (moving from side to apex). This
intersection is the location of the centre of mass of a uniform triangular lamina.

2c
b a
2a 2b
c

centre of mass

Key point 5.5

The medians of a triangle intersect at , where , ,

are the vertices of the triangle.

Focus on …

You will prove the formula for the centre of mass of a uniform triangular lamina in Focus on …
Proof 2.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.5

Find the distance of the centre of mass of the uniform triangular lamina from

6cm 6cm

A B

It is an isosceles triangle with angles , , .

Drop a perpendicular from meeting at .
 C

6cm
(6 sin 45°)cm
G
45°
A X B

Calculate the height of the triangle, .

The required distance is . The centre of mass, , divides the median in the ratio
.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.6

Calculate the coordinates of the centre of mass of the uniform triangular lamina having

vertices at , and .

Use the coordinates of the vertices.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.7

Calculate the coordinates of the centre of mass of this uniform triangular lamina.

8cm
5cm

θ
x
6cm

Vertices are at: , and Use the coordinates of the vertices.

To find :
Use the cosine rule to find .

Use the value of you found.

Give your values here to at least significant figures so
that you can give the final coordinates to significant
figures.

You can find the centre of mass of a lamina in the shape of a sector of a circle. This includes half and
quarter discs. You are given the formula in the formula book.

Key point 5.6

The centre of mass of a sector of a circular disc, having radius and angle radians at the
centre of the circle is from the centre of the sector, on the axis of symmetry.
This will appear in your formula book.
 Rewind

Radian measure is introduced in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2, Chapter 7.

Tip

The angle that appears in the formula is , which is half the angle at the centre of the sector.
Make sure you know that the angle at the centre of the sector is , so you remember to halve
the angle at the centre of the sector before using the formula.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.8

Find the centre of mass of a uniform quarter disc of radius . Find the distance , where is at
the centre of the quadrant and is the centre of mass.

O
G

5cm

The angle at the centre of the sector is but the formula requires that
the angle at the centre is .

Use the standard formula:

Work in radians.

Centre of mass of a uniform wire

A wire is a one-dimensional but flexible solid object. The centre of mass of a uniform straight wire lies at its
midpoint.

A wire can be bent into several straight sections. You can combine the sections as though there are point
masses at the centre of each section. Wires and rods can be combined together into a framework.

Key point 5.7

The centre of mass of a uniform wire bent to form an arc of a circle, having radius and angle
radians at the centre of the circle, is from the centre of the sector.
This will appear in your formula book.

Tip

As with a sector of a circle, is the angle at the centre, measured in radians, so you must halve
this angle before making use of the formula.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.9

A length of uniform wire is bent to form an arc of a circle of radius . Find the angle, , made
by the arc at the centre of the circle, and the distance of the centre of mass from , the centre of
the circle.

Draw a diagram.
8cm

arc
θ 5cm
O G

8cm

Use the formula for arc length to find .

Work in radians and use the formula.

EXERCISE 5B

1 A uniform rectangular lamina has vertices at , , and . Find the coordinates of the
centre of mass of the lamina.
2 A uniform square lamina has three of its vertices at , and . Determine the coordinates of
the centre of mass.
3 A uniform lamina is in the shape of an equilateral triangle of side . It is placed with one vertex at
and one edge along the -axis. Determine the coordinates of the centre of mass.
4 Find the centre of mass of a uniform triangular lamina with vertices as follows:
a , and
b , and
c , and
d , and

e , and
5 A uniform semicircular lamina has radius . Find the distance from the centre of the circle to the
centre of mass.
6 Find the coordinates of the centre of mass of the following uniform triangular laminas by first finding
the coordinates of the vertices.
a y

4cm

x
6cm
 b y

5cm 5cm

x
6cm

c y

4cm

x
3.5cm 1.5cm

d y

9cm
6cm

x
8cm

7 A length of uniform wire is bent to form an arc of a circle. The radius of the corresponding circle is
, and the arc makes an angle of at its centre. Find the distance of the centre of mass from the
centre of the circle.
8 A length of uniform wire is bent to form an arc of a circle. The arc is of length , and makes an
angle at the centre of the corresponding circle of . Find the distance of the centre of mass from the
centre of the circle.
9 The centre of mass of a length of uniform wire bent to form an arc of a circle is from the centre of
the circle, where is the radius of the circle. Find numerically the angle made by the arc at the centre
of the circle, giving your answer in radians to decimal places.
Section 3: Centres of mass of composite bodies
Key point 5.8

A composite body is one made from a combination of shapes.

For a composite body:

Rewind

You met this formula in Section 1, Key point 5.2.

You have already used a similar formula to find an equivalent centre of mass of a system of particles.

The same approach can be applied to calculating the centre of mass of a composite body made from any
combination of the shapes you have worked with so far. This time you work from the centres of mass of the

component parts .

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.10

A uniform rod , of mass and length , has three masses attached to it. A mass is
attached from and a mass is attached from . A mass is attached at point .
The centre of mass of the system is from . Find the length .

For the uniform rod As the rod is uniform its centre of mass is at its midpoint.
0.5m 0.5m
C
A B
3kg 2kg 4kg
5kg
4m

Measure distances from and use:

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.11

A composite body is made from a uniform rectangular lamina of mass with side lengths
and placed with one vertex at and one of its longer sides along the -axis. Point masses,
, and , are added at , and , respectively. Find the centre of mass
of the composite body.

As the rectangular lamina is uniform its

For the uniform rectangular lamina
centre of mass is at its geometric centre.
Find the total mass.
 y

m kg

40cm
2m kg

2m kg

3m kg
x
25cm

Use:

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.12

A composite body consists of a uniform rectangular lamina with dimensions by

and a uniform circular lamina with diameter joined on. A diameter of the circular lamina
coincides with edge of the rectangle as shown. The mass density per unit area is the same for
the rectangular and circular laminas. Find the distance of the centre of mass of the composite
lamina from and .

D C

20cm

A 30cm B

y In this question you are not given the coordinates of the

vertices. You can introduce the coordinate system with the
D (0, 20) C (30, 20) origin at and the axes along and .

marks the position of the centre of the circle and the

E (30, 10) horizontal dashed line shows the axis of symmetry.

x
A (0, 0) B (30, 0)

For the composite body, The centre of mass lies on the axis of symmetry at .

Use the composite body formula.

As the composite lamina is uniform, mass is directly
proportional to area so you can work with areas.

The centre of mass of the Check that the -coordinate of the centre of mass is sensible.
composite body is from
and from .

When part of a larger shape has been cut out, you can use the usual formula for a composite lamina. This
time is the mass of the original lamina before removal of the part of mass and .
 WORKED EXAMPLE 5.13

The rectangular uniform lamina has had a square cut out. Find the distance of the
centre of mass of the composite lamina from and .
D C Let be the -axis and be the -axis.
Let be .
4cm
5cm 2cm

2cm

A 7cm B

The mass of the lamina and the square cut out

are directly proportional to area, so you can
work with areas.
Check with the diagram to make sure that the
centre of mass looks sensible.

A wire can be bent into several straight sections. You combine the sections as though there are point
masses at the centre of each section.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.14

A uniform wire of length is bent to form three sides, , and of a rectangle as shown.
Find the distance of the centre of mass from the straight line passing through .

Let be the -axis and be the -axis.

D 45cm C
Let be .

30cm

A 45cm B

The centres of mass of and are As the sections of wire are uniform, the centres of
from . mass are at the midpoints.

As the wire is uniform, its mass is directly

proportional to length.

The centre of mass is from the straight The centre of mass of the wire does not lie on the
line passing through . wire itself.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.15

A uniform wire is bent into a framework consisting of a semicircular arc of radius together
with the diameter joining . Find the distance of the centre of mass from .

Let be the -axis.

Let the -axis pass through the midpoint of .
 3cm
A B

As the wire is uniform mass is proportional to length.

Use , where and Use the formula for the centre of mass of a uniform
arc of wire.

The centre of mass of the arc is from

Combine the straight edge and the arc.

The centre of mass of the framework is

from .

Centres of mass of standard three-dimensional figures

You need to know how to use formulae for centres of mass of a solid hemisphere, hemispherical shell, solid
right cone or pyramid and conical shell. The formulae are all given in the formula book.

Solid hemisphere, radius from centre

Hemispherical shell, radius from centre

Solid cone or pyramid of height above the base on the line from centre of base to vertex

Conical shell of height above the base on the line from centre of base to vertex

Did you know?

You may know about beds that can be folded up by hand into a wall cupboard when not in use.
The design of the folding mechanism means that little lifting force is needed. This is remarkable
when you consider the significant weight of the bed, including the mattress and bedding. How is
it possible to achieve this? The answer lies in ‘counter-weighting’, which enables the bed to be
fairly well balanced in all positions. Counter-weighting relies on an understanding of how mass is
spread over the object to be lifted and a means of counteracting its weight in all positions. To
start with, you would need to know the location of the centre of mass of the object to be lifted.

Fast forward

In Chapter 10 you will learn how to find the centre of mass of a solid hemisphere and a solid cone
by integration.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.16

A uniform conical shell of perpendicular height and radius is joined to a uniform disc of
radius . The mass per unit area of the shell and the circular base are the same.

Find the distance of the centre of mass of the composite shell from the base.
 Let the centre of the circular base be .
Let the main axis of the cone be the -axis.

24cm

10 cm

Curved surface area of cone

As the shell and base are uniform and have the same mass
per unit area, mass is proportional to surface area.

The centre of mass of a conical shell is above the base

on the line from centre of the base to vertex.
Cancel and simplify:

Note: The centre of mass lies along the central line of symmetry for all of these standard solids.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.17

A solid hemisphere of radius is joined to a solid cone of radius and height . Both solids are
uniform with the same mass per unit volume. The base of the cone coincides with the base of the
hemisphere. Show that the centre of mass is from the vertex of the cone.

Draw a diagram.
Let the vertex of the cone be .
Let the main axis of the cone be the -axis.

3r r

As the solids are uniform, mass is proportional to

volume.

For the cone, The centre of mass of a uniform solid cone is

from the centre of its base.

For the hemisphere, The centre of mass of a uniform hemisphere is

from the centre.

, as required. Cancel and simplify.

WORK IT OUT 5.1
 A brooch is modelled as a lamina in the shape of a sector of a circle, together with an arc of wire
on the curved edge of the sector, as shown. The angle at the centre of the sector is radians,
the mass of the sector is and the mass of the arc of wire is .

O
π 200g
r cm 3

300g

Form an equation that could be used to find the distance of the centre of mass of the brooch, ,
from . Which solution is correct? Can you identify the errors made in the incorrect solutions?

Solution 1

Solution 2

Solution 3

Did you know?

You can see the Moon moving across the night sky as it revolves around the Earth, but the Earth
and Moon together revolve around the Sun. In order to calculate the orbit of the Earth around the
Sun, astronomers sometimes calculate the position of centre of mass not just of the Earth, but of
the Earth and Moon taken together. The centre of mass of the Earth and Moon taken together
actually lies within the Earth, about below the surface. This centre of mass moves as the
Moon rotates. This moving centre of mass causes deviation in the path of the Earth from a
smooth curve around the Sun. The Earth wobbles in its orbit.

EXERCISE 5C

1 Find the centres of mass of the uniform laminas in the following diagrams.
a y

x
O

b y

x
O

c y

x
O

d y

x
O

e y

x
O

f y

x
O
 g y

x
O

h y

x
O

2 A composite body is made from a uniform rod of mass and length with three point
masses, , and attached to it. has mass and is . has mass and is
. has mass and is . Find the distance of the centre of mass of the composite body
from .
3 A composite body is made from a rectangular lamina of mass with side lengths and
together with point masses, each, added at and , as shown. Find the distance of the
centre of mass of the composite body from and .
D C

X
8cm Y
5cm
20cm
12cm
10cm

A 30cm B

4 When a point mass of is added to a uniform rod of mass and length metres, it moves
the position of the centre of mass. Find where the additional mass must be added to move the centre
of mass to metres from .

5 A composite body is made from a rod of length and mass that has a disc of mass
attached to end , with its centre placed at the end of the rod. A point mass of is attached to end
of the rod. Find the value of if the centre of mass is to be from .
6 A length of uniform wire is bent to form three sides of a rectangle , and
. is the base of the rectangle and the rectangle is open at . Find the distance of the
centre of mass from .
7 Three uniform rods are joined together to make a right-angled triangular framework. Edge is of
length , edge is of length and edge is of length . The rods have equal mass
density per unit length. Calculate the distance of the centre of mass from and .
8 A uniform triangular lamina of mass has vertices at , and .A mass is
attached to the lamina at and a mass is attached at . Find the coordinates of the centre
of mass of the composite body.
9 A uniform composite lamina consists of a rectangle and a semicircular lamina. is of length
and is of length . The rectangular lamina and the semicircular lamina have the same
mass per unit area. The semicircular lamina has diameter and is joined on so its diameter
coincides with (see diagram). Find the distance of the centre of mass from .
D C

20cm

A 30cm B

10 A shop sign consists of a uniform horizontal rod together with a lamina in the shape of a
trapezium, as shown in the diagram. The rod is in length and has a mass of . The lamina has
a mass of and hangs with vertical. Find the distance of the centre of mass of the shop sign
from edges and .

A 1.5m B
Dave’s
Mountain 0.6m
Bikes

0.3m 0.9m C

11 A garden ornament is made from a solid cylinder with a solid hemisphere placed on top. The radius of
the cylinder is , its height is , and it mass is . The hemisphere has radius and mass
. The main axis of the cylinder passes through the centre of the hemisphere. The ornament is
placed on level ground with the hemispherical part uppermost. Find the height of the centre of mass
of the ornament above the ground.

12 A solid uniform frustum of a cone has been made from a solid cone of base radius and height
. A cone of height has been removed from the vertex end, as shown in the diagram.
Calculate the distance of the centre of mass of the frustum from the base.

30cm
50cm

frustum

15cm

13 A hat is modelled as a conical shell together with a brim, both made of the same uniform fabric. The
conical shell has a radius of and a slant height of . The brim is an annulus (a plane
figure made by cutting out a concentric disc from a larger disc) with inner radius and outer
radius . The diagram shows the shape of the hat. Find the vertical distance of the centre of
 mass of the hat above its brim.

14 A uniform solid is made from a solid hemisphere and a solid cone. The hemisphere and cone have the
same base radius and the centre of the circular plane face of the hemisphere coincides with the
centre of the circular base of the cone. The centre of mass of the composite solid lies in the plane of
the join. Show that the height of the cone is given by .

Checklist of learning and understanding

A combination of point masses etc. arranged on a straight line at ,

can be modelled as a single mass , with position , where
.
A combination of point masses etc. arranged in a plane at positions
can be modelled as a single mass , with position

vector:

The centre of mass of a uniform rod lies at its midpoint.

The centre of mass of a symmetrical uniform lamina lies on any axis of symmetry. If there is
more than one axis of symmetry the centre of mass lies at the intersection of these.
The centre of mass of a uniform triangular lamina lies at the intersection of its medians. The
medians intersect at where , and are the
vertices of the triangle.
The centre of mass of a uniform sector of a circle, having radius and angle radians at the
centre of the circle, is from the centre of the sector.
The centre of mass of a uniform wire bent to form an arc of a circle, having radius and angle
radians at the centre of the circle, is from the centre of the circle.
The rule for combination of point masses may be extended to composite bodies comprising
point masses, wires, and laminas. , where

The centre of mass of a solid hemisphere radius lies from the centre.

The centre of mass of a hemispherical shell radius lies from the centre.

The centre of mass of a solid right cone or pyramid of height lies above the base on the
line from the centre of the base to the vertex.

The centre of mass of a conical shell of height lies above the base on the line from the
centre of the base to the vertex.
Mixed practice 5
1 A uniform rod , of mass and length , has three masses attached to it. A mass
is attached at the end and mass is attached at the end . A mass is attached at a
point on the rod.

Find the distance if the centre of mass of the system is from point .

2 Three particles are attached to a light rectangular lamina . Take as the -axis and
as the -axis, as shown.

C B

R
x
O A

Particle has mass and is attached at .

Particle has mass and is attached at .

Particle has mass and is attached at .

Find the coordinates of the centre of mass of the system.

3 Four tools are attached to a board. The board is to be modelled as a uniform lamina and the
four tools as four particles. The diagram shows the lamina, the four particles , , and ,
and the - and -axes.

The board has mass and its centre of mass is at the point .

Particle has mass and is at the point .

Particle has mass and is at the point .

Particle has mass and is at the point .

Particle has mass and is at the point .

Find the coordinates of the centre of mass of the system of board and tools.

A
C
B

D
x
O A
4 A uniform lamina consists of a rectangular lamina and a lamina in the shape of
an isosceles triangle joined together along , as shown. ,
and . Find the distance of the centre of mass of the lamina
from .

5cm

E C

4cm

A 6cm B

5 A uniform square lamina of side has a half disc, with as diameter, cut out. Find
the distance of the centre of mass of the remaining lamina from .

8cm
D C

8cm

A B

6 A lamina is made from a uniform rectangular lamina, with side lengths and ,
together with a uniform lamina in the shape of a quarter disc of radius , as shown.

9cm

E C

18cm

A 9cm B

Find the coordinates of the centre of mass of the lamina, taking as , as and
as .

7 A composite body is made from a uniform rod, of length and mass , together with a
semicircular arc of wire of diameter , its ends fixed to the ends of the rod, of mass .
Find the distance of the centre of mass from the rod, giving your answer to significant
figures.
 wire

0.5m

8 A composite body is made from two uniform rods, of length , joined together at right
angles. Rod has mass and rod has mass . A length of wire of mass , is
bent to form a quarter circle of radius and is joined to the rods at and . Find the
distance of the centre of mass from , giving your answer to significant figures.

Y
wire

1.2m

O 1.2m X

9 Two uniform right-angled triangular laminas are joined together to form one shape , as
shown. , and . Find the distance of the centre of mass of the
combined shape from and , giving your answers to significant figures.

6cm

A C
12cm 9cm
B

10 A child’s toy is a uniform solid consisting of a hemisphere of radius joined to a cone of

base radius . The curved surface of the cone makes an angle of with its base. The two
shapes are joined at the plane faces with their circumferences coinciding (see diagram). The
distance of the centre of mass of the toy above the common circular plane face is .
Calculate the value of .

65°
5cm

[The volume of a sphere is and the volume of a cone is .]

11 A uniform conical shell has mass , height and base diameter . A uniform hollow
cylinder has mass , length and diameter . The conical shell is attached to the
cylinder, with the circumference of its base coinciding with one end of the cylinder (see
diagram). Calculate the distance of the centre of mass of the combined object from the vertex
of the conical shell.

0.6 m 1.4m

1.6m

0.5kg 0.75kg
 FOCUS ON … PROOF 1

Is there a connection between the equations for linear motion with constant acceleration in a straight line
and for motion in a circle involving angular equivalents of and ? Can you prove an equivalent set of
equations for constant angular acceleration?

The linear equations, sometimes known as the SUVAT equations, are:

where is the initial velocity, is the final velocity, is the acceleration, is the displacement and is the
time taken.

You obtain equation (1) by applying calculus to basic definitions.

Angular displacement is usually represented by the symbol . Angular velocity is the rate of change of
angle and is denoted by the symbol or ; angular acceleration, which is the rate of change of angular
velocity, is denoted by or (to distinguish it from linear acceleration ).

Again, you use the basic definition to obtain the equation. You use for the initial angular velocity and
for the final angular velocity after the constant acceleration has been acting for time .
Questions

1 Show, by integration, that the equivalent of equation (3) for motion in a circle with constant
acceleration is:

2 Find the angular equivalents of equations , and .

3 A particle is moving with constant acceleration of . Initially its angular velocity is .

What is its angular velocity after ?

Although there is a distinction between a velocity vector and its magnitude, which is called speed, there is
not an appropriate word to make the same distinction between an acceleration vector and its magnitude.
You call them both acceleration and allow the context to tell you whether you are referring to a scalar or a
vector quantity.

When you are dealing with Cartesian coordinates, the directions with which you relate the acceleration are
obvious . When you refer to a particle moving in a circle with constant acceleration,
you are referring to a scalar quantity because the direction of the acceleration is changing so cannot be a
constant vector relative to Cartesian coordinates.
 FOCUS ON … PROBLEM SOLVING 1

It is very easy to think of Mechanics in separate blocks, rather like the chapters in this book, but sometimes
you have to use more than one principle to solve a problem in Mechanics. The best way to solve a
Mechanics problem is to split the problem up into a series of logical steps. In this Focus on … section, you
are going to look at problems involving more than one principle.

Consider this problem:

A small, smooth sphere of mass is free to move in a smooth vertical groove, which is in the shape of a
circle of radius . At the sphere is at rest at a point at the lowest point of the groove when it is hit
with a blow of impulse in a direction that is a tangent to the circular groove at . What is the speed of
the sphere when it reaches the highest point of the groove? Take as .

Visualising
You need to have a clear picture in your mind of what is happening not the maths but the actual physical
situation. Without this picture you cannot represent what is happening on a diagram. You need to put as
much relevant information as you can on the diagram so that it makes sense to you. You may need more
than one diagram.

Step 5
Step 2 Step 4 Step 6
State and use
Step 1 Draw a Step 3 Use impulse = State the
the principle of
diagram - change in answer clearly
Interpret Define any conservation of
change units momentum to the required
the situation unknowns energy to find the
if necessary to find the degree of
velocity at the top
initial velocity accuracy
of the groove

Step 1
Consider the connections to find the principles needed. You need to work out the connection between
impulse, height and velocity. Impulse produces momentum and velocity so you need to use the impulse
momentum principle to find initial velocity. As the sphere rises, it slows down and the principle of
conservation of energy will give us the relationship between velocity and height.

Step 2
v A′

1m
2m

I A u

Step 3
Let be the initial velocity of the particle.

Let be the velocity of the particle at the highest point.

Step 4
Step 5

Step 6
The speed of the sphere at the top of the groove is (3 d.p.)

So look at the problem and make a plan. Remember that you may need to use more than one principle to
solve a Mechanics problem.

Questions

1 A particle of mass is at rest on the edge of a smooth horizontal table which is high. It is hit
with an impulse of in a horizontal direction away from the table and at right angles to the edge of
the table. How far from the edge of the table does the particle land?

A particle of mass is at rest at a point in a smooth, horizontal groove when it is hit with a blow
2
of impulse . The groove is in the shape of a circle of radius . In how many seconds does the
particle return to ?

A particle of mass is dropped from rest and falls a vertical distance of to the horizontal ground.
3
The constant air resistance acting on the particle during the fall is . When it hits the ground, it
rebounds with velocity . Given that the coefficient of restitution between the particle and the
ground is , find the magnitude of . Use and give your answer to an appropriate degree
of accuracy.
 FOCUS ON … MODELLING 1

A fairground game of ‘test your strength’ involves a competitor using a hammer to hit one side of a
platform, which is balanced on a pivot. As the force of the hammer sends one side of the platform down,
the other side rises up and sends a ball up a vertical tube towards a bell. If the ball hits the bell, then you
win a prize.

In this Focus on … section we are going to look at how we can model this situation and how we can then
improve the model to make it more realistic.

Model 1
vertical tube

hammer u
A
22N s
22N s pivot
2kg

In this model, the ball is assumed to be a particle, i.e. its mass acts at one point.

The impulse generated by the hammer is instantaneous and is . All of the impulse is transmitted via
the pivot to a ball which is of mass . The vertical tube is smooth and the bell is above the ground.
Does the ball reach the bell?

Let be the initial velocity of the particle.

We need to use the impulse–momentum principle to find and then energy equations to find .

The final velocity of the particle is :

Loss in

The ball hits the bell.

How do we make a better model?

How realistic is Model 1? What assumptions have we made? Which physical details have we left out?

We have assumed that:

the contact of the hammer is instant
it takes no time for the platform to reach the ground
the vertical tube is smooth
the initial direction of the ball would be vertical if it were free to move.

We have left out:

the length of the platform
the height of the ball above the ground when it leaves the platform
 the radius of the ball.

Let’s do the calculation again with the following changes.

Model 2
The platform is of length and is supported at its centre by a pivot of height . The impulse
transmitted to the ball is and is at right angles to the platform. The ball is at the end of the platform
at the base of the tube. The radius of the ball is .

Questions

1 Find the component of the initial velocity of in the vertical direction.

2 Work out the total height it now needs to rise through to reach the bell.

3 Does the ball still reach the bell?

Model 3
To improve the model further, we need to look at the possibility of friction between the ball and the tube
that it moves through. Frictional forces exist between most surfaces in contact and should be included to
make this model more realistic.

Question
4 A constant frictional force of acts on the ball whilst it is in the tube. Calculate the height to which
the ball now rises.
CROSS-TOPIC REVIEW EXERCISE 1

1 The terminal velocity of a falling object is reached when the upward force on the object (the
drag) is equal to the weight of the object. The formula for the drag force is of the form:

where is a dimensionless constant, is the density of the atmosphere, is the terminal

velocity and is the exposed area of the falling object. Use dimensional analysis to find the
values of and and hence find a formula for the drag force.

2 A small toy boat of mass is sailing in a straight line with initial velocity . It is acted
on by a constant wind with force for .
a What is the total impulse on the boat in these ?

b Hence, what is its final velocity?

3 A group of children are playing on a playground roundabout that is spinning at a constant rate
of revolutions per minute. A small parcel of mass is at rest on the roundabout at a
distance of from the centre. If the parcel is at rest, what is the frictonal force acting on the
parcel? You can model the roundabout as a horizontal disc and the parcel as a point mass.
4 A particle, , of mass is attached to one end of a light inextensible string of length .
The other end of the string is attached to a fixed point , vertically above .

is hit with a blow of impulse in a horizontal direction. Find the angle that the string
makes with the vertical when the particle first comes to rest.
5 A car of mass is going up a hill at an angle to the horizontal where . The car
is travelling against a constant frictional force of with a constant speed of . What
is the power output of the car’s engine as it goes up the hill? (Take )

6 Prove by induction that

7 Two smooth spheres, and , both of mass , are at rest on a smooth horizontal table that
is high. The line joining and is at right angles to the edge of the table. is from
the edge of the table and is from the edge of the table. is projected towards at
. is brought to rest by the collision and subsequently moves to the edge of table and
falls off it. What is the time from the collision to the moment that hits the ground? (Take
)

8 Two particles, of mass and of mass , are on a smooth horizontal plane. is

moving at and at . The particles collide and coalesce to form a new particle ,
which then hits a vertical wall at right angles. The coefficient of restitution between and the
wall is . What is the velocity of as it leaves the wall?
9 A uniform circular lamina , with equation , has the circle
 removed from it. What are the coordinates of the centre of mass of the new shape?
10 Brinell’s test evaluates the hardness of a material using a Brinell hardness number . The
test involves forcing a steel or tungsten carbide sphere into the material being tested and
measuring the diameter of the indentation. The formula is:

where is the applied force, is the diameter of the sphere and is the diameter of the
indentation.
a What are the dimensions of force?
b What are the dimensions of BHN?

11 Particles and , both of mass , are joined by a light inextensible string of length . is
moving in a circle on a smooth horizontal surface at a constant speed of . The string
goes through a small, smooth hole in the surface and hangs at rest at a distance below it.
Find the value of . (Take )
A

12 A conical pendulum consists of a particle , of mass , attached by a light inextensible

string, of length , to a point The particle moves in a horizontal circle at a constant
speed of so that the string describes a cone. What is the volume of the cone?
B

1.5m

13 A square lamina with vertices at coordinates , , and has a smaller square

lamina, made of material of double the mass per unit area of the first lamina, added to it. The
coordinates of the vertices of the second square are , , and What are the
coordinates of the centre of mass of the combined shape?
 6 Work, energy and power 2

This chapter is for A Level students only.

In this chapter you will learn how to:

calculate the work done by a variable force when displacement is along the
-axis
understand and use Hooke’s law for elastic strings and springs
calculate the work done extending an elastic string
calculate the work done extending or compressing an elastic spring
include elastic potential energy in problems involving conservation of energy
use vectors to calculate work done, kinetic energy and power.

Before you start…

Chapter 1 You should know that work done is the 1 Calculate the work done by gravity
product of force and displacement in the when a stone of mass falls
direction of motion and that work done vertically .
is measured in joules.

Chapter 1 You should know that kinetic energy is 2 Calculate the change in kinetic
energy when a boy of mass
defined as and is measured in
increases his running speed from
joules. to .

Chapter 1 You should know that the work done by 3 Find the horizontal resistive force
a force acting on an object causes a that causes an ice hockey puck of

change in its kinetic energy. This is the mass to reduce speed from
work–energy principle. to over .

A Level You should be able to integrate a 4 Find .

Mathematics function between limits, and , to
Student Book 2 find a quantity:

Extending your knowledge of work and energy

The weight of an object is approximately constant close to the Earth’s surface and the change in
gravitational potential energy caused by a change in height can be accurately modelled as the work done
by or against constant weight. When a rocket is fired into space its weight reduces as its distance from the
centre of the Earth increases. Weight is an example of a force that varies with distance.

Rewind

You learned about the work done by a constant force and the work–energy principle in Chapter
1. You also learned about conservation of mechanical energy. These ideas are crucial to
understanding how energy is converted to useful work.

Other forces can vary. In this chapter, you are going to learn how to work with forces that vary with
distance. A particularly important example is the force in an elastic spring or string, which increases with
extension (Hooke’s law). As a spring is extended, you do work against an increasing tension. The work is
stored as elastic potential energy. Springs have many practical uses. In mountain bikes springs called shock
absorbers are used to help smooth out the effects of unevenness in the road surface. When your bike hits a
bump, the spring compresses. The compression absorbs some of the energy that would otherwise pass
straight through to the rider. There is elastic potential energy in the spring. If you hit a bump too hard you
can break your shock absorber – you have gone beyond its elastic limit.

Force, displacement and velocity can all be expressed as vector quantities. Work done, the product of force
and distance, can be defined more precisely as the scalar product of vector force and vector displacement.
Power can likewise be determined from the scalar product of vector velocity and vector force.

Fast forward

You will learn about Hooke’s law in Section 2. You will learn to work with the scalar product in
Section 4.
Section 1: Work done by a variable force
You know that for a constant driving force acting in the direction of motion:

If the force is always parallel to the motion but the magnitude of the force is changing you need to use
integration to find the work done.

Key point 6.1

If an object is moved in a straight line from a position to a position by the action of a

variable force that depends on displacement, , work done is defined as:

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.1

Find the work done by a force that displaces an object from to .

Let and .

Integrate and substitute the limits of integration.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.2

A car of mass moves from rest at on a horizontal surface. The driving force is constant at
and resistance to motion is modelled as The car moves to

a Find the work done by the driving force and the work done against resistance as the car travels
from to

b Find the speed of the car at .

a The work done by the driving force As the driving force is constant, you can use the
definition of the work done by a constant force.

Use integration to find the work done against the

variable resistive force.
Let and .

Integrate and substitute the limits of integration.

b Use the work–energy principle.

Car moves from rest .

Rearrange to find the car’s final speed.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.3

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.3

An object is moving in a horizontal straight line against a resistive force that is directly proportional
to its distance from its starting point, . If the work done against resistance as the object
travels from the origin, , to a point away, , is :

a find the magnitude of

b state the units of .

a Use the definition of work done by a force that depends on

displacement.
Integrate between the given limits to find an expression for
work done in terms of .

Use the given value for work done to calculate .

b Since is a force , must
have units .

EXERCISE 6A
 EXERCISE 6A
For questions to , calculate the work done by force moving an object along the -axis from to
. Use the formula:

work done

5 The work done by a force moving an object from to is . Find the value of

6 The work done by a force moving an object from to is ln Find an exact value for

7 A particle moves along the -axis under the action of a force newtons, where is measured
in from Find the work done by the force moving the particle from to .
8 A vehicle of mass moves along a horizontal road with driving force . It starts from rest at
and experiences a resistance to motion of . Find the speed of the vehicle when it reaches
.
9 A particle of mass moves along a horizontal axis with driving force The particle starts from
rest at and experiences a resistance to motion of Find the speed of the particle when it
reaches .
10 A piston of mass moves in a straight line inside a cylinder against a resistance of ,
where is measured in metres. When the speed of the piston is , and when
the speed of the piston is . Find the value of
11 A truck of mass tonnes experiences a resistance to motion of , where is the distance
travelled after the brakes are applied. The truck is travelling at when the driver applies the
brakes with a constant braking force of . Find how far the truck travels before coming to rest.
12 A vehicle of mass starts from rest at and moves in a straight line parallel to the -axis.
There is a driving force of and a resistive force of . Derive an expression to represent
work done after the vehicle has travelled . Numerically find the value of when the vehicle is
travelling at
Section 2: Hooke’s law, work done against elasticity and elastic
potential energy
Robert Hooke was an English experimental scientist, born in 1635. He found that the extension caused
when stretching an elastic string obeyed a simple rule. The same rule applied to the extension or
compression (reduction in length) of an elastic spring The rule is known as Hooke’s law. Hooke measured
the force required and found that, providing the object was not deformed past its elastic limit:

when stretching:
when compressing: .

Elastic strings may be extended but not compressed. Elastic springs may be extended and compressed.
Extension or compression must occur within the elastic limit of the string or spring.

When an elastic string is stretched beyond its elastic limit it does not return to its original length when the
force is removed.

As you stretch or compress an elastic object, you do work against elasticity and this work is stored as
elastic potential energy:

You can use this extended definition of mechanical energy to solve problems about the motion of objects
attached to elastic strings or springs.

Rewind

In Chapter 1 you learned that when gravity is the only force acting on an object:

total mechanical energy kinetic energy gravitational potential energy

Hooke’s law for elastic strings and springs

When an elastic string or spring is extended from its natural length, there is a tension in the string or
spring in the opposite direction to the extending force.

string
extended

string tension force causing

fixed here extension

natural length, l

When an elastic spring is compressed from its natural length, there is a thrust in the spring in the opposite
direction to the compressing force.

natural length, l
spring
compressed

spring
fixed here thrust force causing
compression

You can relate the extension or compression of an elastic spring, to the tension or thrust in the spring, ,
by the formula:
where is the natural length of the spring. The modulus of elasticity, , is the force required to double
the length of the spring, assuming that such an extension does not cause the spring to exceed its elastic
limit. If a spring does exceed its elastic limit, then Hooke’s law no longer applies. The same formula applies
to the extension of an elastic string. The modulus of elasticity, , is measured in .

Did you know?

In A Level Physics you may see an alternative formula for Hooke’s law, , with being the
stiffness of the object being compressed or extended.

Key point 6.2

Hooke’s law for an elastic string or spring is:

A low value for means that the string or spring is quite flexible and easy to extend or compress.
A high value for means the string or spring is quite stiff and difficult to extend or compress.

An important assumption is that the elastic string or spring is ‘light’, that is, its mass can be ignored. If
the string were not ‘light’ then the tension or thrust through the string or spring could vary along its
length.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.4

A light elastic spring, which has modulus of elasticity and natural length , has one end
attached at a fixed point A horizontal force, of magnitude , is applied to the spring causing a
compression. The spring rests in equilibrium. Find the distance that the spring is compressed from
its natural length.

natural length
1.8m

A 40N

Since the spring is in equilibrium there is zero resultant force.

Rearrange the formula for Hooke’s law to make extension the

subject.
The compression of the spring is less than its natural length. This is
a simple check of validity.
The compression of the spring
is

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.5

A light elastic string is attached to a fixed point and hangs vertically, in equilibrium, with an object
of mass attached to its lower end. The string has natural length and the object is resting
below the point of suspension. Find the modulus of elasticity of the string.

Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the particle.

 T 1.3 m

0.4 g

Convert grams to kilograms.

Since the string is in equilibrium there is zero resultant force.

Rearrange the formula for Hooke’s law to make the subject.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.6

An object of mass is attached to the end of a light elastic string of length . The other end
of the string is fixed to point . The object is held at and released. The modulus of elasticity of
the string is . Find the extension of the string when the object reaches its maximum speed, and
hence its distance below at this time.

Using
To start with the object falls under gravity for . There is no
tension in the string.
As the string extends beyond its natural length the increasing
tension in the string reduces the acceleration.

When Speed reaches its maximum value when .

Use Hooke’s law for .

Rearrange to find the extension.

So the object is below when Find the total distance fallen.

it reaches maximum velocity.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.7

An object of mass is attached to the lower ends of two light elastic strings. One string is of
natural length with modulus of elasticity The other string is of natural length with
modulus of elasticity . The free ends of the strings are attached to a point and hangs in
equilibrium vertically below Find the distance .
 A
natural
natural length
length 0.4m
0.5m

T1 T2

10g

Let the tensions in the strings be

and
The mass hangs in equilibrium so there is zero resultant
force on .

Let distance be metres. Use for the tensions in the strings.

in each case.

Substitute your expressions for tension.

Rearrange to find the value of .

Work done extending an elastic string

The force required to extend an elastic string or spring varies with the extension of the string. This means
that you cannot find the work done by multiplying force and distance. You need to integrate to find the
work done against a variable force.

Key point 6.3

Work done extending an elastic string from extension to is given by:

The same formula is used to calculate the work done compressing an elastic spring from compression to
compression .

PROOF 1

An elastic string has modulus of elasticity and natural length . Prove that the work done extending
from extension to extension is .

The string is extended from to . Integrate your expression for

from to .
Take the constants out of the integration.

Substitute the limits.

Tip

When calculating the work done against elasticity, make sure you take the difference of the
 squares of the extensions, not the square of the difference:

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.8

Find the work done when a light elastic string of natural length and modulus of elasticity
is stretched from a length of to .

Work out the starting and ending extensions.

Use the formula for work done against elasticity.

Substitute in the values.

Elastic potential energy

The work done extending a light elastic string or spring is stored as elastic potential energy. When the
string or spring is released, it will contract towards its natural length and elastic potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy.

Similarly, the work done compressing a spring is stored as elastic potential energy. When the spring is
released it will expand towards its natural length, converting elastic potential energy to kinetic energy.

Key point 6.4

Elastic potential energy (EPE) is the energy stored in a string or spring extended by , or in a
spring compressed by .

Key point 6.5

Using the principle of conservation of energy, when an object is acted on only by its weight and
the force in an elastic string or spring:

where is gravitational potential energy, is elastic potential energy and is kinetic

energy.

Rewind

In Chapter 1 you learned that work done against gravity is stored as gravitational potential
energy and that when the only force acting on an object is its weight, the sum of kinetic and
gravitational potential energy is conserved.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.9

A light elastic spring with natural length rests on a smooth horizontal table. One end is
attached to a fixed point A and a mass is attached at the other end , held from . The
modulus of elasticity of the spring is .
a Find the elastic potential energy in the spring.
The spring is released and moves horizontally away from .
b Find how fast the mass is travelling when the spring reaches its natural length.
a

Convert centimetres to metres.

b When the spring reaches its natural length, all its EPE has been
converted to .

and .

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.10

One end of a light elastic string of natural length and modulus of elasticity is attached to
a fixed point . A particle of mass is attached to the other end of the string. is released
from rest at and falls vertically. Assuming there is no air resistance, find:
a the extension of the string when is at its lowest position
b the acceleration of at its lowest position.

a Use the principle of conservation of energy:

Let the lowest point be the zero level for .

Then
, where is the height fallen.
is stationary at and at its lowest position:

At the string is not extended, so .

Take to represent extension, as usual.

Substitute in the given values and rearrange the quadratic

equation.

Solve the quadratic, taking the positive solution for . This

is the maximum extension of the string.

b At the maximum extension of the string, take upwards as

positive, and use

Use Hooke’s law for the tension.

When Use the value for the maximum extension found in part .

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.11

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.11
A light elastic spring, of natural length , has one end fixed to a horizontal surface with the
other end vertically above. A sphere of mass rests on the top of the spring, which is in
equilibrium, above the surface.

0.8kg

12cm

a Show that modulus of elasticity of the spring is .

The spring is compressed a further .

b Find the maximum speed of the sphere in the subsequent vertical motion.

a The sphere rests in equilibrium so the resultant

force is zero.

Use Hooke’s law .

, as required
b Use the principle of conservation of mechanical
energy for the upward movement.
Let be the final compression of the spring: Let the at the start of the upward movement
be zero .
, where is the distance moved:
starting compression − final compression

Simplify, substituting .
Rearrange to express in terms of a quadratic in
.
Complete the square to find the stationary point
for .
The maximum speed arises at the equilibrium
compression of the spring.

Focus on …

You will use an alternative method of finding the maximum speed in Focus on … Problem solving
2.

WORK IT OUT 6.1

A light elastic string has one end attached to a fixed point and the free end attached to a
particle of mass . Particle is released from rest at and falls a distance metres,
where is the natural length of the string and is its extension. David wants to work out an
expression for ’s kinetic energy. Which of the following energy equations should he use?

Which solution is correct? Can you identify the errors in the incorrect solutions?

Solution 1
 Solution 2

Solution 3

EXERCISE 6B

1 Calculate the tension in a light elastic string when it is extended from a natural length of by
. The modulus of elasticity is

2 Calculate the thrust in a light elastic spring that is compressed from its natural length of to
. The modulus of elasticity is .

3 A light elastic string of natural length is extended by . The tension in the string is . Find
the modulus of elasticity.

4 A light elastic spring is compressed from its natural length of . The thrust in the spring is and
the modulus of elasticity is . Find the compression of the spring.

5 A light elastic string is attached to a fixed point and hangs vertically, in equilibrium, with an object of
mass attached to its lower end. The string has natural length and the modulus of elasticity
is . Find the extension of the string.

6 A light elastic string is attached to a fixed point and hangs vertically, in equilibrium, with an object of
mass attached to its lower end. The string has natural length and the object is resting
below the point of suspension. Find the modulus of elasticity of the string.

7 A light elastic spring of natural length has one end attached to a fixed point on a smooth
horizontal surface. A horizontal force is applied to the other end of the spring causing a compression
of . The modulus of elasticity of the spring is . Find the magnitude of the force causing the
compression.

8 A light elastic spring of natural length has one end attached to a fixed point on a smooth
horizontal surface. The spring is extended by a horizontal force of magnitude . The modulus of
elasticity is . Find the extension of the spring.

9 Find the elastic potential energy stored in a light elastic spring of natural length and modulus of
elasticity when it is compressed to a length of .

10 Find the increase of elastic potential energy when a light elastic string of natural length and
modulus of elasticity is extended from to .

11 A light elastic string of natural length is extended from to . The work done against
elasticity extending the string is . Find the modulus of elasticity of the string.

12 A light elastic spring having modulus of elasticity and natural length is compressed from its
natural length. The elastic potential energy stored within the spring is . Find the length of the
compressed spring.

13 An object of mass is attached to one end of a light elastic string of natural length with
its other end attached to a fixed point, . The modulus of elasticity of the string is . is dropped
from . Find the extension of the string when the object reaches its maximum velocity.
14 One end of a light elastic string of natural length and modulus of elasticity is attached to a
fixed point A particle of mass is attached to the other end of the string. is released from
rest at and falls vertically. Assuming there is no air resistance, find:
a the extension of the string when is at its lowest position
b the acceleration of at its lowest position, stating the direction.

15 A light elastic string has natural length , modulus of elasticity and extension Show that the work
done extending from to can be expressed as the change in string tension multiplied by
the mean extension of the string.

16 A particle of mass is attached to the free end of an elastic string of natural length . The
other end is attached to a fixed point, The particle is held below and released. Given the
modulus of elasticity of the string is , find how far the particle is from when it comes to
instantaneous rest.

17 An object of mass is attached to the lower ends of two parallel light elastic strings. One string is
of natural length with modulus of elasticity The other string is of natural length with
modulus of elasticity . The free ends of the strings are attached to a point , and hangs in
equilibrium vertically below . Find the distance .

18 A light elastic spring with natural length rests on a smooth horizontal table. One end is attached
to a fixed point and a mass is attached at the other end held from The modulus of
elasticity of the spring is
a Find the elastic potential energy in the spring.
The spring is released and moves horizontally away from
b Find how fast the mass is travelling when it is from .
Section 3: Problem solving involving work, energy and power
More complex problems may combine the work–energy principle and the principle of conservation of
energy. You may be working with any of the propulsive or resistive forces you have met in Chapter 1,
Sections 1 and 2.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.12

An object, , of mass , is attached to the ends of two light elastic strings with the same natural
length, , but different modulus of elasticity. One of the strings is attached to a point and the
other is attached to point on the same horizontal level as , such that the distance is .
hangs in equilibrium. The distance is and is . Calculate the modulus of elasticity of
each of the strings.

2m Draw a clearly labelled diagram.

A B
α β
TA TB
1.5m 0.9m

2g
Use the cosine rule to find angles , , and , . Keep
significant figures at this stage.

Resolve horizontally and get an expression for in terms of

.

Resolve vertically and then substitute for

Rearrange to make the subject and calculate .

Now calculate .
But

Use Hooke’s law.

Use Hooke’s law for each string to find each modulus of

elasticity.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.13

A light elastic string, of natural length , has one end fixed to point on a rough plane inclined
at to the horizontal. The string has modulus of elasticity . A particle of mass is
attached to the free end of the string. is released from rest at and descends the plane to ,
where it comes to rest. Given that the coefficient of friction between and the plane is :

a find the distance

b determine whether the particle remains stationary at or starts to travel back up the plane.

R Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on

T
as it slides down the plane from .

F
P

30° 2.1 g
a Work done by gravity – work done against Use the work–energy principle:
tension – work done against friction
net work done change in kinetic energy
increase in kinetic energy

Work done by gravity – work done against The particle is at rest at and at so the
tension – work done against friction increase in kinetic energy is zero.

Work done by gravity The distance travelled down the slope by is the
natural length, , plus the extension in the
string .
Let be the frictional force.

µ While is moving, µ , where

Substitute for in the work–energy equation.

Simplify to get a quadratic equation and take the

positive value for the extension.

b At Find the tension in the string when it is at its

maximum extension.

Calculate the total force parallel to the plane

without friction.
Using the expression for from part a.

Consider the resultant force up the plane.

the particle will start to travel back up the

plane.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.14

One end of a light elastic string, of natural length and modulus of elasticity , is
attached to a fixed point on a smooth plane inclined at an angle to the horizontal, where
.

A particle , of mass , is attached to the other end of the string. is released from rest at
and travels down the plane without reaching the bottom. Find the maximum speed of as it travels
down the plane.
 R Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on as it
slides down the plane from .
T

α mg

Let the extension of the elastic string be

.
Component of weight of parallel to the
plane is
At maximum speed:
has maximum speed when acceleration is zero
because there is no resultant force parallel to the plane.

and Use Hooke’s law.

is the extension of the string.

has travelled from when it Distance from is natural length plus extension.
reaches its maximum speed.
is constant.
Let (when is travelling at its maximum
speed)

( moves from rest)

Substitute and rearrange to find .

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.15

a A car of mass moves along a straight horizontal road. The resistance to motion is ; the
engine is working at and the car is moving with constant speed. Find the constant speed of
the car in .

b The same car now moves up a hill inclined at to the horizontal. The car’s engine continues
working at and the resistance to motion is unchanged. Find the new, constant, speed of the
car up the hill, in .
R
a Draw a clearly labelled diagram.
is the constant tractive force.
580N T

1150g
 Convert kilowatts to watts.

Rearrange the formula to find the speed.

Convert to .
b When travelling uphill: Draw a clearly labelled diagram.
R Use to represent new tractive force.

T'
580N
4°

1150g

The component of the car’s weight acting

parallel to the road surface is , as the
road surface is inclined at to the horizontal.

Rearrange to find the tractive force.

Rearrange to find speed.

Convert to .

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.16

A car and driver of combined mass accelerate from rest up a road inclined at to the
horizontal, with average resistance to motion of . The car engine is working at a constant rate
of . The car reaches a speed of after it has travelled . Calculate the time taken.

To find the time taken when the vehicle engine is

operating at constant power you can find the total
work done and use the definition:

Work done by engine – work done against Mechanical energy is increased because the car is
resistance accelerating up a hill. This increase in mechanical
energy comes from the car engine. But some of the
work done by the engine is expended on resistance to
motion.

Work done by engine = work done against Calculate the total work done by the car’s engine.
resistance (car moves from rest)
Let (at the start of the travel)
Work done against resistance
 Convert kilowatts to watts.

s Divide the work done by the engine’s constant power

output.

EXERCISE 6C

1 A block of mass is being pushed in a straight line along horizontal ground by a force of
inclined at above the horizontal. The block moves a distance of in . Find:
a the work done by the force
b the power with which the force is working.

2 Darius is pulling a wheeled suitcase of mass up a plane inclined at to the horizontal. The
strap he is holding is taut, with tension , and angled at to the horizontal. The resistance to
motion is
a Calculate the increase in the suitcase’s kinetic energy as it moves up the slope.
Darius trips slightly and releases the strap. The suitcase comes to rest before rolling back down the
slope against the same resistance to motion.
b Find the speed of the suitcase after it has travelled down the slope from rest.

3 A block of mass is projected up an inclined plane at and comes to rest after travelling
up the plane. Given that the resistance to motion up the plane is constant at , find the
inclination of the plane, to the nearest degree.

4 A parcel of mass is projected up a smooth plane inclined at to the horizontal with a speed
. Find:
a the speed of the parcel after it has travelled up the plane
b how far the parcel travels up the plane before it stops moving.

5 A car and driver of combined mass accelerate from rest down a road inclined at to the
horizontal, with average resistance to motion of . The car engine is working at a constant rate of
. The car reaches a speed of after it has travelled ; calculate the time taken.

6 A package of mass is projected up a rough plane inclined at to the horizontal. The speed of
projection is and the resistance to motion is constant at . Calculate the speed of the
package when it returns to its starting point.

7 An object of mass is attached to the ends of two light elastic strings having the same modulus of
elasticity. One of the strings has natural length and the other has a natural length of . The
longer string is attached at and the shorter string is attached at on the same horizontal level. The
object hangs below a point on the same level as and , from and from . Find
the modulus of elasticity of the strings.

8 A light elastic string , of natural length , is fixed at point on a rough plane inclined at to
the horizontal. The string has modulus of elasticity . A particle of mass is attached to end
and the particle is released from rest to descend the plane from to The particle descends m
from
a Show that the coefficient of friction between the particle and the inclined plane is .
b Find the acceleration of the particle at
9 A car of mass moves along a straight horizontal road. The resistance to motion is constant,
, and the car’s engine is working at a constant rate of
a Find the acceleration of the car when the car’s speed is .
The road now ascends a constant slope inclined at to the horizontal. The car’s engine continues
 working at and the resistance to motion remains
b Find the greatest steady speed of the car as it ascends the hill.

10 A car of mass is ascending a hill inclined at to the horizontal. The power exerted by the
engine is and the car has a constant speed of It is assumed that resistance to motion is
where is the car’s speed and is a constant value.
a Show that
The power of the engine is now increased to .
b Calculate the maximum speed of the car while ascending the hill.
Section 4: Using vectors to calculate work done, kinetic energy and power
Force, displacement and velocity are all vector quantities. This means that you can use your ability to
manipulate vectors to solve problems connected with work and energy.

Rewind

In Chapter 1 you learned about work, kinetic energy and the work–energy principle.

Using the scalar product to calculate work done by a constant force

If a constant force is directed at an angle to the direction of motion then:

ce ce
fo r fo r

θ θ
starting final
position position
distance

You can use the scalar product to find the work done by a force.

Tip

The work done by a force is a scalar quantity.

Key point 6.6

The work done by a constant force that causes a displacement is given by the formula:

This is the scalar product of the force and displacement vectors.

Rewind

Remember the definition of the scalar product that you learned in Pure Core Student Book 1:

, where is the angle between vectors and .

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.17

A force is acting on an object that moves from , with position vector , to with
position vector . Find the work done by the force.

Displacement final position – starting position

Calculate the scalar product of force and displacement.

Work done is a scalar quantity.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.18

An object, of mass , is at rest at when a constant force causes the object to move to
. has position vector and has position vector . Given that no other forces
 act on the object, use the work-energy principle to find the speed of the object at .

Calculate the work done by the force.

The work–energy principle states that the work done by

a propulsive force is equivalent to the increase in kinetic
energy.

Tip

Work done on an object by a propulsive force is positive in sign.

Work done on an object by a resistive force is positive in sign.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.19

A force is acting on an object that moves from , with position vector , to with
position vector . Find the work done by the force and state whether the force is propulsive
or resistive.

Displacement = final position − starting position

Calculate the scalar product of force and displacement.

Work done is negative in sign so the applied force is
resistive.

Using the scalar product to calculate kinetic energy

You have previously learned how to calculate the kinetic energy of a moving body in terms of its speed. If
instead of working with speed (a scalar quantity) you are working with a velocity (a vector quantity), you
can calculate by using the scalar product.

where is the velocity vector.

This means that a velocity vector, rather than speed, can be used to calculate the kinetic energy of a
moving object.

Rewind

In Chapter 1, Section 2, kinetic energy is defined as

, where is mass and is speed.
If mass is measured in and speed in then kinetic energy is measured in joules .

Key point 6.7

The kinetic energy of an object of mass moving with velocity is defined as

where is the scalar product of velocity with itself.

 Tip

Remember that we use bold letters to represent vectors and italic letters to represent their
magnitudes; so is the magnitude of

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.20

A rocket of mass tonnes is moving with velocity . Find the kinetic energy of the
rocket, giving your answer in .

Find using the scalar product.

tonnes is .

Equations of motion can also be written in vector form, using scalar products.

Rewind

In A Level Mathematics Student Book 1, Chapter 20, you learned to use the formula for motion
in a straight line with constant acceleration: where and represent starting and
final velocity, is constant acceleration and is displacement.

Key point 6.8

If an object is moving with constant acceleration, , then:

and represent final velocity, starting velocity and displacement, respectively, in vector
form.
The formula can also be written:

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.21

A small object of mass accelerates across a horizontal surface due to the action of a force that
is acting at an angle to the resulting displacement. The driving force is , and the
displacement is . Given that the starting speed is , find the final speed of the
object.

Use to find the acceleration vector.

Substitute in the formula

Using the scalar product to calculate the power of a driving force

If driving force and velocity are both given in vector form, then power is the scalar product of the driving
force and velocity vectors.

Rewind

In Chapter 1 you learned that power can be expressed as driving force speed, given that the
driving force is acting in the direction of motion.

Key point 6.9

The power of an engine producing a driving force on a vehicle moving with velocity
can be calculated from the formula:

Tip

The power of a propulsive force acting on an object is positive in sign.

The power of a resistive force acting on an object is negative in sign.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.22

A vehicle is moving under the action of a driving force in a horizontal plane with velocity
. Given that no other forces are acting on the vehicle, find the power of the vehicle
engine.

Use the formula for power using the scalar product .

Evaluate the scalar product to find the power of the vehicle
engine.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6.23

A vehicle of mass is moving in a horizontal plane, at time seconds, , with velocity

a Find the power, in , of the vehicle engine when .

b Find the work done, in , by the vehicle engine between and seconds.

a Find the velocity of the vehicle when .

When
Differentiate to find the acceleration vector.

Use to find the tractive force of the vehicle

engine when
 Evaluate the scalar product to find the power of the
vehicle engine.

b Net work done by propulsive The driving force is variable but the total work done
can be calculated using the work–energy principle.

Calculate the starting and final velocities.

EXERCISE 6D
 EXERCISE 6D
1 a Calculate the work done when:
i a force causes a displacement of

ii a force causes a displacement of

iii a force causes an object to move from , with position vector , to with
position vector .
b The work done by a force causing a displacement is . Calculate .

c The work done by a force causing a displacement is . Calculate .

2 a Calculate the kinetic energy when:

i an object of mass is moving with a velocity

ii an object of mass is moving with velocity .

b Use work and energy to calculate the final speed when:
i a particle having mass and starting velocity is acted on by a force of
causing a displacement of

ii a particle having mass and starting velocity is acted on by a force of

causing a displacement of .
c An object of mass is moving with speed after being acted upon by a force of
causing a displacement of . Find the starting speed of the object.

3 a Calculate the power when:

i an object acted on by a driving force of is travelling with velocity

ii an object acted on by a driving force of is travelling with velocity

b A particle acted on by a driving force of is moving with velocity
Find the value of , given the power is
c A particle acted on by a driving force of is moving with velocity
Find possible values of , given the power is

4 An object is acted on by a force and is moving parallel to the vector . Given the work
done is , find the displacement vector.

5 A particle of mass is displaced while moving with acceleration . Find the

change in kinetic energy due to action of the force.

6 A particle is displaced while moving with acceleration . The starting

velocity is . Find the final speed of the particle.

7 A vehicle engine is providing a driving force of as the vehicle travels with velocity
. Find the power of the vehicle engine at this time.

8 A vehicle engine is providing a driving force of as the vehicle travels parallel to

with engine power . Find the velocity of the vehicle.

9 A particle of mass is moving with velocity .

a Find the force acting on the particle when .

b Find the power exerted by the force when .

c Find the work done by the force between and .

10 A particle of mass at rest at is acted on by a force

a Find the velocity of the particle when .

b Find the power exerted by the force when .

c Find the work done by the force between and .
Checklist of learning and understanding

For a variable force that depends on displacement, , work done is defined as:

Hooke’s law for an elastic string or spring is: where is the modulus of elasticity

Work done against elasticity is:

Elastic potential energy is:

which is the scalar product of the force and displacement

vectors

joules, where is the scalar product of velocity with itself

When an object moves with constant acceleration:
, the scalar product of vector force and vector velocity
Mixed practice 6
1 An object, moves under the action of a force, is displaced from , having
position vector , to , having position vector . Calculate the change in kinetic
energy of as it moves from to .

2 A body, , of mass moves under the action of a force . At time , the velocity of
is , where

a Find in terms of .

b Calculate the rate at which the force is working when .

c By considering the change in kinetic energy of , calculate the work done by the force
during the time interval .

3 A body of mass , moves under the action of a force , at time where

. When , velocity is

a Determine the acceleration of

b Determine the velocity of when .

c Calculate the rate at which the force is working when giving your answer to decimal
place.

4 A small object of weight is attached to one end of each of two parallel light elastic
strings. One string is of natural length and has modulus of elasticity ; the other string
is of natural length and has modulus of elasticity . The upper ends of both strings are
attached to a horizontal ceiling and hangs in equilibrium at a distance m below the ceiling
(see diagram). Find

dm

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730/01, June 2013

5 A particle of mass moves in the plane with acceleration .

a Find the force acting on the particle when , giving your answer to
significant figures.

When the particle has velocity .

b Find the power of force when , giving your answer to significant figures.

6 A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light elastic string of natural length
and modulus of elasticity . The other end of the string is attached to a fixed point
on a smooth horizontal surface. is held at rest at a point on the surface from . The
particle is then released. Find

i the initial acceleration of

 ii the speed of at the instant the string becomes slack.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730/01, June 2008

7 One end of a light elastic string, of natural length and modulus of elasticity , is
attached to a fixed point . A particle of weight is attached to the other end of the
string. is released from rest at a point vertically below Subsequently just reaches

i Find

ii Find the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of when it has travelled from
its point of release.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730/01, June 2014

8 One end of a light elastic string, of natural length and modulus of elasticity , is
attached to a fixed point . A particle of mass is attached to the other end of the
string. is released from rest at and falls vertically. Assuming there is no air resistance, find

i the extension of the string when is at its lowest position,

ii the acceleration of at its lowest position.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, January 2012

9 One end of a light elastic string, of natural length and modulus of elasticity is
attached to a fixed point on a smooth plane inclined at an angle to the horizontal, where
. A particle of mass is attached to the other end of the string. is released
from rest at and moves down the plane without reaching the bottom. Find

i the maximum speed of in the subsequent motion,

ii the distance of from when it is at its lowest point.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, June 2012

10 A particle , of mass , is in equilibrium suspended from a fixed point by a light elastic

string of natural length 3 m and modulus of elasticity . Another particle , of mass ,
is released from rest at and falls freely until it reaches and becomes attached to it.
i Show that the speed of the combined particles, immediately after becomes attached to
is

The combined particles fall a further distance before coming to instantaneous rest.

ii Find a quadratic equation satisfied by and show that it simplifies to .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730/01, January 2013

11 A light elastic string of natural length has modulus of elasticity One end of the
string is attached to a fixed point and the other end is attached to a particle of weight
. The particle is released from rest at the point which is vertically below It
comes instantaneously to rest at , which is vertically above .

i Verify that the distance is .

ii Find the maximum speed of during its upward motion from to .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, January 2010

12 A vehicle of mass is supplied with a constant power of to move it along a straight

horizontal road against a variable force that may be approximated as where
 represents the distance from a fixed point on the road and Initially the vehicle is at
from travelling with speed . After , the vehicle is at , from ,
travelling with speed . Find the value of .

13 A vehicle of mass moves along a horizontal road with driving force . It starts from
rest and experiences a resistance to motion of . Find the speed of the vehicle after it has
travelled .

14 A truck of mass tonnes experiences a resistance to motion of , where is the

distance travelled after the brakes are applied. The truck is travelling at when the
driver applies the brakes with a constant braking force of . Find how far the truck travels
before coming to rest.

15 A

A particle , of mass , is in equilibrium suspended from the top of a smooth slope

inclined at an angle to the horizontal, where sin , by an elastic rope of natural
length and modulus of elasticity (see diagram). Another particle , of mass , is
released from rest at and slides freely downwards until it reaches and becomes attached
to it.

i Find the value of , where is the speed of immediately before it becomes

attached to , and show that the speed of the combined particles, immediately after
becomes attached to , is .

The combined particles slide downwards for a distance of , before coming instantaneously
to rest at .

ii Show that .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, January 2011

16 A bungee jumper of weight is joined to a fixed point by a light elastic rope of natural
length and modulus of elasticity . The jumper starts from rest at and falls
vertically. The jumper is modelled as a particle and air resistance is ignored.
i Given that the jumper just reaches a point below , find the value of

ii Find the maximum speed reached by the jumper.

iii Find the maximum value of the deceleration of the jumper during the downward motion.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, June 2010

17 A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light elastic string of natural length and
 modulus of elasticity . The other end of the string is attached to a fixed point . The
particle is held at rest at and then released. When the extension of the string is , the
particle is moving with speed .

i By considering energy show that .

ii Hence find

a the maximum extension of the string,

b the maximum speed of the particle,

c the maximum magnitude of the acceleration of the particle.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, January 2009

18 A space vehicle of constant mass tonnes is fired vertically upwards from sea level on the
Earth's surface. The weight of the vehicle varies but can be modelled approximately as
where represents its mass in kilograms, represents its distance in metres from the centre
of the Earth, and is a constant.

a Explain why , where is the radius of the Earth in metres.

b Given that the radius of the Earth is approximately , find an approximate value
for

c Find an approximation for the work done against gravity by the rocket in propelling the
space vehicle as it climbs from sea level to a height of above sea level.

19 A particle of mass has the following displacement vector relative to an origin given
by:

a Derive an expression for , the force acting on particle .

b Find an expression for the magnitude of .

c Use the scalar product to find the kinetic energy of particle .

d Show that the power of force is zero for all values of .

 7 Linear motion under variable force

This chapter is for A Level students only.

In this chapter you will learn how to:

solve equations of motion of a particle when the velocity is given as a function

of displacement
solve equations of motion of a particle when the acceleration is a function of
velocity or displacement
use connected rates of change to solve linear motion problems
set up and solve problems which can be modelled as linear motion of a particle
acting under a variable force.

Before you start…

A Level You should be able to calculate 1 A particle of mass is moving in a straight
Mathematics the force acting on a particle line along a smooth plane with constant
Student Book 1 moving in a straight line. acceleration . Calculate the force
acting on the particle.

A Level You should know the 2 A particle is moving along the -axis in the
Mathematics relationship between positive -direction. At time the
Student Book 2 acceleration , velocity particle is metres from the origin and its
and displacement for velocity is given by for . When
variable acceleration as a , is from the origin.
function of time. a Find the magnitude and direction of the
acceleration when .

b Find the displacement of when

A Level You should be able to separate 3 Solve the differential equation .

Mathematics variables to solve differential
Student Book 2 equations.

Chapter 3 You should be able to use the 4 A particle of mass is moving with a
impulse and conservation of constant speed of when it hits a
linear momentum formulae for stationary particle of mass . After impact
two particles colliding. both particles move in the same direction
with speed .
a Find speed of each particle after impact.

b Find the magnitude of the impulse given to

the stationary particle.
 Pure Core Student You should be able to use an 5 Find the particular solution, given that when
Book 2 integrating factor to solve , for
linear differential equations.

Why do we need to study variable force?

In A Level Mathematics you extended your work on linear motion of particles to include variable
acceleration, where acceleration, velocity and displacement all vary with time. This enabled you to solve
problems using connections in the rates of change, as shown here.

D
I
I displacement (x) F
N F
T ∫ v dt dx E
E dt R
G velocity (v) E
R dv N
A ∫ a dt dt T
T acceleration (a) I
E A
T
E

By Newton’s second law of motion you know that , and consequently, if acceleration varies with
time, then force also varies with time. This enables you to work with force as a function of time in linear
motion.

Acceleration, velocity, displacement and force are not always defined as a function of time. For example,
the force of gravity acting on a rocket as it leaves the Earth decreases with displacement, the force
between two charged particles varies with their distance apart, and the force in a stretched string or
compressed spring depends on the displacement. This means that you will need to revisit a mathematical
model given for a particular situation and apply your knowledge of connected rates of change for problems
that can be modelled as linear motion under variable force.

Section 1 extends the work on variable acceleration that you have completed at A Level.

Section 2 uses all the processes developed in Section 1 and brings in Newton’s second law.
Section 1: Working with acceleration, velocity and displacement
When acceleration, , velocity, , and displacement, , are given as functions of time you can use
the following formulae to solve problems:

However, sometimes acceleration and velocity are functions of displacement, for example when using
Hooke’s law. This means that these relationships cannot be applied in the same way.

Rewind

You worked with Hooke’s law in Chapter 6.

Velocity as a function of displacement

When velocity is given as a function of displacement, , you can find the associated acceleration
function by differentiating with respect to . You can use the chain rule to derive a relationship for :

and given that , .

Rewind

Related rates of change are dealt with in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2.

Key point 7.1

When velocity is given as a function of displacement, you can use the relationship:

to find an expression for acceleration.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.1

A particle is travelling along the -axis in the positive -direction with velocity . Given
that measures the displacement from the origin, find:

a the velocity when

b the magnitude and direction of the acceleration when

c the displacement when

b Velocity is given in terms of displacement, so you can use the

formula in Key point 7.1 to find .

To use the formula you need to find .

 When
Hence the magnitude of is

Acceleration is in the negative -

direction.
c

Given that velocity is a function of displacement and that , we can use these to find a
relationship between time and displacement, via velocity:

Separating variables gives .

Hence .

Rewind

Separation of variables is dealt with in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2.

Key point 7.2

If velocity is a function of displacement then:

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.2

A particle is moving along the -axis in the positive -direction. Initially the particle is from
the origin. The velocity of is given by where is the displacement in metres from the
origin.

a Find the time at which is from the origin.

b Find as a function of

a The velocity is given as a function of displacement and

we wish to find a time so we can use the formula given
in Key point 7.2.
Integrals of this form require the use of partial fractions.

Equating the numerators:

 When Substitute in the boundary condition to find the value of
Hence: the constant. Since at , we will choose the
modulus in the logarithm functions to be and ln
. However, this does mean our solution is only valid for
.

We can use the laws of logarithms to help simplify the

right-hand side.

We can use inverse function for natural logarithm to

b
rearrange to make the subject.

This solution is only valid for . As

increases (remembering that we are talking about
motion) the velocity tends to infinity as tends to .

Tip

When working with the logarithm functions as the result of an integral, we need to correctly
identify the branch of the result we need. This then gives conditions on when the solution we
have found is valid.

Acceleration as a function of displacement

When acceleration is given as a function of displacement, , you can use the relationship from Key point
7.1, , to find velocity as a function of displacement.

Starting with you can separate variables to give:

Hence .

You can then rearrange to make the subject.

Key point 7.3

If acceleration is given as a function of displacement then:

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.3

 WORKED EXAMPLE 7.3

The acceleration of a particle moving in a straight line is given by . The particle is

travelling along the -axis in the positive -direction and initially and .
a Find an expression for as a function of .
b Find an expression for as a function of

a The acceleration is given as a function of displacement and you

want to find the velocity, so you can use the formula given in Key
point 7.3.
In order to find an expression for as a function of you need to
substitute in the boundary condition to find the value of .

In order to rearrange to make the subject you need to square root

the function in . However, you can see it is a perfect square.

Only the positive solution is required because the particle is

moving in the positive -direction.

b Recall that .

In order to perform this integration, you need to separate

variables.

In order to find an expression for as a function of you need to

substitute in the boundary condition to find the value of .

Acceleration as a function of velocity

When acceleration is given as a function of velocity, , you can use to find in terms of by

separating variables:

Key point 7.4

If acceleration is given as a function of velocity then:

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.4

A particle starts moving from along the -axis in the positive -direction. At it is
travelling at . Given that its acceleration is with a direction towards the origin and
:
a find the initial velocity of the particle
b express its displacement as a function of time.

The acceleration is given as a function of velocity and you wish to

 find the initial velocity. So, you can relate the acceleration to time
a
by using the formula given in key point 7.4.

You are told that the direction of acceleration is towards the origin
so .

Substitute in the boundary condition to evaluate .

Substitute in and solve to find the initial velocity.

b You want to find displacement as a function of time, so you can use

to relate the function you have found to displacement.

You can integrate with respect to to find an expression for .

To find , substitute the boundary conditions, and .

Substitute for and simplify to express displacement as a function

of time.

An alternative approach when acceleration is given as a function of velocity is to use from Key
point 7.1.

After separating variables:

You can then find in terms of .

Key point 7.5

If acceleration is given as a function of velocity then:

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.5

A particle is travels along the -axis in the positive -direction after starting at the origin at rest.
 Its acceleration is given by

a Find the displacement from the -axis when is travelling at .

b Find the velocity of as tends to infinity.

a The acceleration is given as a function of velocity and you wish

to find the displacement. You can use the formula given in Key
point 7.5.

Recognise that this integral is of the form and hence

find by inspection.

Substitute in the boundary conditions to find the unknown value

.
Hence

Substitute to calculate displacement from the origin.

Rearrange to make the subject.

b

Only the positive solution is required.

v=2 1 – –2x
e
2

x
O

As tends to infinity, the

velocity tends to .
This is because as ,

Hence

EXERCISE 7A

all involve a particle moving along the -axis in the positive -direction. Assume that all units are
units.

1 Given , find a general expression for in terms of when:

b
2 Given , find a general expression for in terms of when:
a
b
3 Given find a general expression for in terms of when:
a
b
4 Given , find a general expression for in terms of when:

5 Given , find a general expression for in terms of when:

6 Given , what is when

7 Given and when what is when

8 Given , and when , then , what is the velocity when

9 Given , and when , what is when

10 Given and when find when .

11 Given and when , find when .

12 A particle is moving along the -axis in the positive -direction. The particle is initially at the origin
and at time the particle is from the origin. The particle is accelerating in the positive -
direction with .

a State, giving a reason for your answer, the value of at which the maximum speed of occurs.
b Given that the maximum speed of is , find an expression for in terms of .
13 A particle is moving along the -axis in the positive -direction. After the particle passes
through the origin and its velocity is given by .

a Find the distance and direction of the particle from the origin when the particle is accelerating at
.
b Find the time taken for the particle to travel from the origin to in the positive -direction.
14 A particle is moving along the -axis in the positive -direction. At , the particle is travelling
at . Acceleration is given by . Find the displacement of when it is travelling at .

Tip

Recall that expressions involving products can often be integrated using integration by
parts.

15 A particle is travelling in a straight line away from a fixed point . At time the particle is from
and travelling with velocity given by . After is from the fixed point .
a State the magnitude and direction of the acceleration for when it is away from .
b Express as a function of .
c State a bound on the distance travels from , giving reasons for your answer.

Tip
 Recall that integrals with a factorisable polynomial denominator require splitting into partial
fractions in order to integrate.

16 A particle moves right and left along the -axis periodically with maximum displacement from
the origin. Its velocity changes based on its displacement. Suggest a function that could model this
movement and hence find general expressions for its acceleration with respect to and velocity with
respect to time.

Explore
Underground Mathematics has reproduced some examples of exam questions from the
Cambridge Assessment Group Archives. Have a go at this question from 1966:
www.cambridge.org/links/moscmec6003
Section 2: Variable force
In Section 1 you worked with variable acceleration to solve kinematic problems. This was an extension to
the work you completed in A Level Mathematics on variable acceleration. In this section, you will use the
relationships found in Section 1 to solve problems involving forces using Newton’s second law.

Since the mass of an object will be assumed constant in this section, the theory of variable acceleration
extends naturally to an object moving under a variable force.

Force as a function of time

For a particle of mass travelling in a horizontal line acting under a force, , you can use Newton’s
second law and knowledge of connected rates of change to form a differential equation.

and

Separating variables gives

Hence

Fast forward

Integrating a force over a time period gives rise to a change in momentum, which is equal to an
impulse. You will study this in Chapter 8.

Key point 7.6

If force is given as a function of time, using Newton’s second law and you can find the
velocity of the particle using:

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.6

A particle of mass starts at the origin and travels along the -axis in the positive -direction
with initial speed . At time the particle is from the origin, and for a
single force acts against the direction of motion magnitude .

a Find the velocity of when .

b Find the displacement of when

a You have the force given as a function of time, so you can use Key point
7.6, noting that the force is acting in the opposite direction.

Substitute in the boundary condition to evaluate .

You now have the equation for as a function of

 Substitute .

b You want to find the displacement and your function from part a relates
velocity to time. Use to relate displacement to time.

Integrate.

Substitute in the boundary condition to evaluate .

You now have the equation for as a function of

Substitute .

Force as a function of displacement

Using and you get .

Separating variables gives .

Key point 7.7

To find velocity as a function of displacement, rearrange to make the subject.

Rewind

This links the change in kinetic energy to the work done by or against a variable force, as seen
in Chapter 6.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.7

A particle of mass is initially at rest at the origin and then moves along the -axis in the
positive -direction under the action of a single force. When is the force is given by
.
a Show that .
b Calculate the maximum speed reached by

a Make sure units are the correct standard units.

Since you are given the force as a function of displacement you

can use Key point 7.7.

Integrate and substitute in the boundary condition to evaluate .

You now need to rearrange to get the format given in the

 question.

b Maximum speed occurs when is maximised. This happens

when .

Force as a function of velocity

When force is given as a function of velocity, there are two alternative differential equations you can form,
depending on how the acceleration is written.

Using ,

Separating variables gives

Hence

Using ,

Separating variables gives .

Hence

The choice of form for acceleration depends on the demands of the problem being solved.

Key point 7.8

If force is given as a function of displacement, using Newton’s second law either or

can be used to find or :

and

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.8

A particle of mass is travelling along the -axis in the positive -direction. Initially the particle
is at rest at the origin, until acted upon by a single force in the positive -direction, where
.
a Find in terms of and calculate the velocity when .
b Calculate the displacement of when .

a Given that you have force as a function of velocity and

you require velocity in terms of time, you can use the
first formula from Key point 7.8.
Recall that integrals of this form require partial
fractions.

When , hence

When , hence
 When Substitute in the boundary condition to evaluate .

Hence
Rearrange to make the subject.

b Given that you have force as a function of velocity and

you require velocity in terms of displacement, you can
use the second formula from Key point 7.8.
You should recognise that this integral is of the form
and hence find by inspection the integral.

When Substitute in the boundary condition to evaluate .

Substitute in to calculate

Note: it is also possible to use your answer to part a

and to find . However, this would give

, which is a far more involved function to

integrate.

Vertical motion
If a particle is moving in a vertical straight line then its weight must also be taken into account when using
Newton’s second law.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.9

A ball of mass is released from rest and falls vertically downwards. The ball experiences a
single resistive force against its motion that is proportional to the speed of the object.

a Find an expression of the velocity at time for the ball.

b What is the long-term behaviour of the velocity of the ball?
c Find the distance the object falls after .

a If the resistive force is proportional to the speed, you need a

constant of proportionality to make this relationship into an
equation.
where is a constant of
proportionality.

R = kvN

mg N
Use Newton’s second law with the weight of the particle and
the resistive force.

You require velocity as a function of so you need to use .

Manipulate the differential equation into a form that you can

integrate.

The integrating factor is Since , and are all constant, you can solve this differential
equation by separating the variables, but notice that it is also in
the form . This type of differential equation can
You now have be solved using an integrating factor.
Once you have found the integrating factor you can then find a
general solution for the differential equation.

where is a constant of
integration.
At so: Use the initial conditions in the question to find the constant of
integration.

and hence

Therefore After some manipulation, you have found as a function of .

where is a constant of
proportionality.
b As , you have . In the long term you need to look at what happens to as
.
c To find distance fallen as a To find the distance as a function of time you need to use the
function of time : relationship and integrate to derive a function of in terms
of .
 where is a constant of
integration.

At so: Once integrated, you again have to find the constant of integration
using the initial conditions.

Therefore Finally, you can write the distance the ball has fallen as a function
of .

Rewind

The integrating factor method for solving differential equations is dealt with in A Level
Mathematics Student Book 2.

Explore
In Worked example 7.9, you looked at a model of an object under a resistive force proportional to
its speed. Explore a model of a falling object where the resistive forces are proportional to .
You might like to experiment by dropping from a height various objects that have different cross-
sectional areas from their plan view.
Can you find out the same information about the falling object as you did in Worked example 7.9?

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.10

A parachutist falls from a plane and moves in a vertical straight line towards the ground. The
parachutist is acted upon by a single resistive force of magnitude where is the mass,
is the speed and is the time since falling of the parachutist. Calculate the velocity of the
parachutist after . Give your answer to significant figures.

The resistive force is equal to a function involving mass, speed

and time.
5mv
R= N
t +1

mg N
The weight of the particle and the resistive force act
vertically. Use Newton’s second law to form the equation of
motion.

You require velocity as a function of time so need .

You can manipulate the differential equation into a form that
 you can integrate.

The integrating factor is: You have formed a differential equation of the form
. This type of differential equation requires
an integrating factor to solve it.
You now have
Once you have found the integrating factor, you can then find
a general solution for the differential equation.

where is a constant of
integration.
At , so You can use the initial conditions in the question to find the
constant of integration.

Therefore

At : You can then substitute into the equation you have found
to calculate the velocity to significant figures.

Power under a variable force

Rewind

Recall that power is measured in watts and defined as . You used this in Chapter 1.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7.11

A car of mass is travelling in a straight horizontal line. It has a power output of and
resistance to motion magnitude . When the car passes point it is travelling at .
Calculate the speed of the car when it has travelled a further .

Convert .

Recall the formula for power from Chapter 1. Use

this to find an expression for the driving force .

Hence

Draw and label a diagram to show all forces acting

on the car.
 RN
a

120
R = 0.15v2 N F= N
v

mg

Use Newton’s second law to form the equation of

motion.

Use to form a differential equation.

Recognise that this integral is of the form

and hence find by inspection.

When Substitute in the boundary conditions and evaluate

.

When : Substitute and solve to find .

EXERCISE 7B
 EXERCISE 7B
1 A particle of mass moves along the -axis in the positive -direction. A single horizontal force
acts on the particle away from the origin such that . Given that the particle starts at
rest at the origin and that , find velocity as a function of time.

2 A particle of mass moves horizontally from a fixed point on a smooth horizontal plane. At time
, is metres and a single force acts on the particle in the direction of motion. Given
that when the particle is from the origin the speed of the particle is , find its displacement
as a function of velocity.
3 A particle of mass is travelling along the -axis in the positive -direction. At time the
particle is metres away from the origin, from where it starts with velocity . The particle
moves under a single force against the direction of motion. Find the speed and direction of
the particle when .
4 A particle of mass is travelling in a horizontal line across a smooth horizontal plane away from
a fixed point . At time the particle is from with velocity . Given the particle
starts from with velocity and moves under the act of a single force in the
direction of motion, find the speed of when .
5 A particle of mass moves along the -axis in the positive -direction under the motion of a
single force against the direction of motion. Given the particle starts at rest at the origin
and after the particle has a displacement of from the origin with velocity , what
is the speed and direction of when
6 A particle of mass is travelling along the -axis in the negative -direction. It has velocity
at a displacement of from the origin when it is acted upon by a single force in
the positive -direction. Find the displacement and direction of from the origin when .
7 A particle of mass is travelling along the -axis in the positive -direction. Initially, the particle is
at the origin with speed and moves under the act of a single force in the positive -
direction such that at time it is from the origin. Find the displacement of as a
function of velocity.
8 A particle of mass travels in a horizontal straight line away from a fixed point . At time
, the particle is from . The particle moves under the act of a single force in the
direction of motion, . Given that the particle starts at with velocity show that
.

9 A single force acts on a particle of mass in the direction of motion. At time

is from a fixed point after initially starting at with velocity . Find
velocity as a function of displacement.
10 A particle of mass travels along the -axis in the positive -direction under the action of a force
in the direction of motion and with resistance to motion magnitude . The
particle starts at the origin with velocity and after time the particle is from
the origin. Find the velocity of as a function of time.
11 A stone of mass is released from rest and falls freely under gravity with resistance to motion
. After the stone has fallen and has velocity .
a Find the stone’s velocity as a function of time.

b Find its displacement as a function of time.

The stone falls until it hits the ground.
c How long is the stone falling before it hits the ground?
d What is the velocity of the stone when it hits the ground?
 Tip

If it is not possible to separate the variables, try the integrating factor method for solving
differential equations that is given in Pure Core Student Book 2.

Checklist of learning and understanding

For a particle moving in a straight line with variable acceleration:

if velocity is a function of displacement, then

if velocity is a function of displacement, then

if acceleration is a function of displacement, then

if acceleration is a function of velocity, then

if acceleration is given as a function of velocity, then .

For a particle moving in a straight line under a variable force:

if force is given as a function of time, then from Newton’s second law you can find the velocity
of the particle using .

if force is given as a function of displacement, then from Newton’s second law you can find the
velocity of the particle using and rearranging to make the subject

if force is given as a function of velocity, then from Newton’s second law you can use either
or to find or .

Then and

if the linear motion of the particle is vertical, then its weight has to be taken into account when
using Newton’s second law to form the equation of motion.
Mixed practice 7
1 A particle is moving in a straight, horizontal line such that at time it is away
from a fixed point . Velocity is given by and the particle starts from the point .

a Find an expression for the acceleration of in terms of displacement.

b Hence calculate the acceleration of when it is from .

c Find an expression for the displacement of in terms of time.

d Hence calculate the displacement of from after .

2 A particle is moving along the positive -axis in the positive -direction with acceleration
given by . At time the particle is from the origin and when
passed through the origin it had speed . Show that .

3 A particle is travelling in a horizontal straight line away from a fixed point . At time
it is from , moving with velocity . Acceleration is given by
and the particle started at the origin with velocity . Calculate the
displacement and direction of acceleration of from the origin when it is instantaneously at
rest.

4 A particle is travelling along the -axis in the positive -direction. At time the
particle is from the origin with velocity . The particle passes through the
origin at time . Given that find:

a an expression for time in terms of displacement

b an expression for displacement in terms of time and hence the displacement of when

c an expression for the acceleration of

d the magnitude and direction of the acceleration when

5 A particle of mass is projected horizontally with speed from a fixed point on a

smooth horizontal surface. moves in a straight line and, at time after projection, has
speed and is from . The only force acting on has magnitude and is
directed towards .

i Show that .

ii Hence show that .

iii Find , given that when .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730/01, June 2007

6 is a fixed point on a horizontal plane. A particle of mass is released from rest at

and moves in a straight line on the plane. At time after release the only horizontal force
acting on has magnitude:
 The force acts in the direction of motion. velocity at time is .

i Find an expression for in terms of , valid for , and hence show that is three times
greater when than it is when .

ii Sketch the graph for .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, June 2010

7 A duck of mass is travelling with horizontal speed when it lands on a lake. The
duck is brought to rest by the action of resistive forces, acting in the direction opposite to the
duck’s motion and having total magnitude , where is the speed of the duck.
Show that the duck comes to rest after travelling approximately from the point of its
initial contact with the surface of the lake.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, June 2006

8 A stone of mass falls freely under gravity, from rest, until it has travelled a distance of
. The stone then continues to fall in a medium which exerts an upward resisting force of
, where is the speed of the stone after the instant that it enters the resisting
medium.

i Show by integration that .

ii Find how far the stone travels during the first in the medium.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, January 2009

9 A motor-cycle, whose mass including the rider is , is decelerating on a horizontal straight

road. The motor-cycle passes a point with speed and when it has travelled a
distance of beyond its speed is . The engine develops a constant power of
and resistances are modelled by a force of opposing the motion.

i Show that .

ii Find the speed of the motor-cycle when it has travelled beyond .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, June 2009

10 A particle of mass is released from rest at a fixed point and falls vertically. The particle
is subject to an upward resisting force of magnitude of where is the velocity of
the particle when it has fallen a distance of from .

i Write down a differential equation for the motion of the particle, and show that the

equation can be written as .

ii Hence find an expression for in terms of .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730/01, January 2008

 8 Momentum and collisions 2

This chapter is for A level students only.

In this chapter you will learn how to:

find the impulse of a variable force

apply the principles of impulse, conservation of momentum and Newton’s
experimental law in two dimensions using vector notation
calculate the result of oblique impacts.

Before you start…

Chapter 3 You should know the relationship 1 A force of acts on a mass for .
between force, impulse and What is the change in momentum of the mass
momentum. during those ?

Chapter 3 You should know the principle of 2 A particle of mass travelling in a straight
conservation of momentum and line on a horizontal surface hits a vertical wall
Newton’s experimental law. with speed and rebounds with speed . What is
the coefficient of restitution between the wall
and the particle?

A Level You should understand how to 3 Draw a sketch of a triangle to show the sum of
Mathematics combine vectors, including two vectors and .
Student drawing triangles to find the sum
Book 1 of two vectors.

A Level You should be able to resolve a 4 The force acts at to the horizontal. What
Mathematics vector into two perpendicular are the horizontal and vertical components of
Student components and be able to find ?
Book 2 the magnitude of a vector from its
components.

A Level You should be able to integrate 5 Find .

Mathematics simple functions and apply limits.
Student
Book 1

Variable forces and oblique impacts

In Chapter 3 you learned about momentum and impulse involving constant forces and direct collisions.
Collisions are not restricted to situations where two objects are moving in the same straight line; collisions
can also occur when the objects are moving at an angle to each other. These are called oblique collisions.
You see this in tennis matches when the racket head does not meet the tennis ball straight on but sends it
in a completely different direction. In this chapter, you will analyse more realistic situations such as those
involving variable forces or oblique impacts.
Section 1: Variable force and vector notation
For a constant force acting for time , the impulse of the force is and this is equal to the
change in momentum.

Key point 8.1

For a constant force, ,

Rewind

You learned about impulse and momentum in Chapter 3.

A graph of force against time for a constant force will be a horizontal line and the impulse is given by the
area between the force line and the time axis.

force

I = Ft

time
t

Not all forces are constant. The more you stretch an elastic band, the greater the force trying to pull it
back. The force increases with the extension of the band.

If the force is not constant, you may need to find the impulse using integration.

Key point 8.2

The impulse, , of a variable force acting for a time is:

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.1

The force–time graph for the force acting on a mass of is shown.

The mass, , is initially moving in a straight line with velocity and the force is acting along
the same straight line in the direction of motion.

force,F (N)

time, t (s)
O 4 10

Calculate the speed of after:

a
b

a Let be the speed of after First define the unknown quantity.

.

Use

Total impulse in the first The impulse in the first is the area under the graph
between and

Use change in momentum final momentum initial

momentum

Use

Therefore
You could use this result to help you to calculate the answer for
part but it is safer to start again in case you have made an
error.
b Let be the speed of after Define the unknown.
.

Total impulse in the first The impulse in the first is the area under the graph
is: between and , which is a trapezium of height and
sides and .

Use and solve for .

Therefore

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.2

A smooth sphere of mass is acted on by a variable force in the direction of

motion of the sphere.

a Find the magnitude of the impulse between and .

b When the speed of the sphere is . What is the speed of the sphere after ?

a Impulse To find the change in momentum you need to integrate

from to
Integrate between and
Substitute in the limits and calculate .

b Let the speed of the sphere after be Define the unknown quantity.
.

Write an expression for the change in momentum.

Equate to the impulse and work out .

Therefore

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.3

A particle, , of mass , is acted on by a variable force , which is defined as:

 Find the speed of after if the speed is when .

To find the increase in momentum of you need to

know the total impulse on during the .
Change to

Let the speed of after be Define the unknown.

Integrate the force between and to find the
total impulse on in that time.

Use
Solve for .

Vector notation
The same principles and equations that you learned in Chapter 3 can be applied when velocity and impulse
are given in vector format.

Explore
Rockets are an example of a momentum–impulse problem where there is a constantly changing
situation because fuel is expelled from the back of the rocket, so the mass of the rocket
decreases. Look up the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation on the internet.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.4

A toy sailing boat of mass is blown along by a constant wind, which produces a force
on the boat. If the boat is initially at rest, find its velocity after .

F = i + 2j Draw a diagram with arrows to show the direction of

motion.

0.8kg u 0.8kg v

t=0 t = 10

Convert to to .

Let final velocity be Write an expression for the final velocity vector.
 The formula for impulse can be written with and
as vectors.
Substitute in the values.

Equate the values of both sides of the equation and the

values of both sides of the equation to form two scalar
equations. You should not write and in these
equations.
Solve to find the components of .
State the value of in vector format.

Alternative method: You may find it easier to work with column vectors.

Convert to .

Write an expression for the final velocity vector.

Let final velocity

The formula for impulse can be written with and

as vectors.
Substitute in the values.

Equate the values (top line) and the values (bottom

line) of both sides of the equation.
You should not write and in these equations.
Solve to find the components of .
State the value of the velocity vector in the format of
the question.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.5

A particle , of mass , is moving with velocity when it collides with particle , of

mass , which is moving with velocity . If the particles coalesce during the collision:
a find the velocity of the combined particle after the collision
b find the total loss in kinetic energy as a result of the collision.

a Use the principle of conservation of linear

Let the final velocity of the combined particle momentum in vector format.
be

Substitute in the values. It is easier to work with

column vectors.

Equate the components to find .

Equate the components to find .

Give the answer in the original format.

b You need to be able to find , which is a scalar

 quantity.
Find the square of the magnitude of the velocity
of (i.e. the square of the speed of ) …
… and the square of the magnitude of the
velocity of (i.e. the square of the speed of ).
The initial is the sum

Find the square of the magnitude of the velocity

of the combined particle …

… and use this to find the final of the

combined particle.
Loss in initial final .

EXERCISE 8A

1 Find the impulse generated by the forces shown by the solid lines between and .
a force(N)

time(s)
O 5 10

b force(N)

time(s)
O 10

c force(N)

time(s)
O 3 6 10

d force(N)

time(s)
O 3 5 6 10

–3

2 A particle of mass is moving in a straight line on a smooth horizontal plane, when it is acted on by
 a force in the same straight line. If the speed of the particle is when , find the speed of
the particle after for each of the forces shown in the diagrams in Question 1.
3 Fill in the gaps in this table.
Mass Initial velocity Final velocity Constant force Time

4 A particle , of mass , is moving with velocity when it collides with particle , of

mass , which is moving with velocity . If the particles coalesce during the collision, find
the velocity of the combined particle after the collision.
5 A particle , of mass , is moving with velocity when it collides with particle , of
mass , which is moving with velocity . If the velocity of after the collision is
, find the velocity of after the collision.
6 A particle , of mass , moving in a straight line on a smooth horizontal plane, is acted on in the
same straight line by a force for , such that .
a Find the total impulse of the force on between and .
b If the speed of is when , find the speed of when .
7 A particle , of mass , is moving with velocity when it collides with particle , also of
mass , which is moving with velocity . The two particles coalesce.
a Find the velocity of the combined particle after the collision.
b What is the loss in kinetic energy as a result of the collision?
8 A mass, , of , moving in a straight line on a smooth horizontal plane at , is acted on by a
force along its line of motion. is defined as:

a Find the magnitude of the total impulse on :

i between and

ii between and
b Hence find the speed of when
9 At time a particle , of mass , is moving in a straight line at a constant speed of on a
smooth horizontal plane when it is acted on by a force in the same straight line.
a Find the total impulse on :
i between and

ii between and
b What is the speed of when
10 At time , a particle , of mass , is moving in a straight line at a constant velocity of on
a smooth horizontal plane when it is acted on by a force acting in the same straight
line. At time later, the particle is moving with velocity . Find the value of .
Section 2: Oblique impacts and the impulse–momentum triangle
So far, you have considered direct impacts with objects moving along their line of centres or hitting walls at
right angles. You are now going to look at oblique impacts.

Consider a football, of mass , kicked along the ground so that it hits a wall at an angle of magnitude .
If the wall is smooth and has a coefficient of restitution equal to the ball will bounce back at the same
angle at which it hit the wall, as shown in the diagram.

θ θ
u v

Rewind

You looked at coefficient of restitution in Chapter 3.

The impulse that the smooth wall exerts on the ball will be perpendicular to the wall. The vector diagram
shows what happens when . The component of the velocity parallel to the wall, , is unchanged by the
impact. The velocity perpendicular to the wall, , has the same magnitude after the collision, but is in the
opposite direction, . The velocity of approach and the velocity of rebound therefore have the same
magnitude of , but are in different directions.

before impact after impact

a a

θ θ
b - b e= 1
u v

If the coefficient of restitution is not equal to but the wall is still smooth:

the impulse is again perpendicular to the wall so has no effect on the component of the velocity
parallel to the wall
the impulse changes the magnitude of the component of the velocity perpendicular to the wall.
before impact after impact
a a

θ φ
b v –eb e < 1
u

The velocity, , perpendicular to the wall is changed by the impact with the wall to The magnitude of
the angle that the direction of motion of the football makes with the perpendicular to the wall will change.

Rewind

You learned about collisions at right angles to walls in Chapter 3.

Before the impact the football is travelling towards the wall with speed at an angle to the
perpendicular with the wall where .

After the collision the football is travelling away from the wall with speed at an angle to
the perpendicular with the wall where .

If we compare these two we can see that .

The impulse acting on the football is perpendicular to the wall and is equal to the change in momentum in
that direction. In this case, taking the direction away from the wall as positive:

We can apply this principle to all impacts of spheres with smooth surfaces.

Key point 8.3

When an object moving at velocity collides at an angle with a smooth, flat surface and
rebounds:

The impulse acts at right angles to the surface and is equal to the change in momentum in
that direction.
The component of the velocity parallel to the surface remains unchanged.
The component of the velocity perpendicular to the surface is multiplied by , where is the
coefficient of restitution between the object and the surface.

before impact after impact

u cos θ u cos θ

θ θ
u sin θ - eu sin θ
u v

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.6

An exercise ball, , of mass , is moving in a straight line at on a smooth horizontal

surface when it collides with a smooth wall. The line of motion of the ball makes an angle of
with the wall. If the coefficient of restitution between the wall and the ball is , find the speed and
direction of the ball when it rebounds from the wall. Give your speed correct to decimal places
and the angle correct to decimal place.

before impact after impact Draw a clear diagram showing the component of velocity
a a parallel to the wall unchanged and the component of velocity
40° φ perpendicular to the wall changed to . You can write the
components in as and or and
b v - eb
5m s- 1

Resolve to find the values of and and work

out .

Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find .

Use trigonometry to find the angle.

 WORKED EXAMPLE 8.7

A smooth vertical wall is parallel to the direction. A smooth sphere of mass moving with
velocity on a smooth horizontal plane collides with the wall and rebounds with velocity
. If the coefficient of restitution between the wall and the sphere is , find the values
of and

As the velocity is given as a vector, you know the components of

the velocity so there is no need to resolve.

There is no impulse parallel to the wall so there is no change of

speed parallel to the wall.
Perpendicular to the wall, use the relationship

Note that here you include the minus sign in since you are
modelling the motion in the positive direction. A negative answer
tells you the sphere is now moving in the negative direction.
You were asked for the values of and so you do not need to
write the answer as a vector.

Finding the impulse

In Worked example 8.6, the impulse on the ball was acting perpendicular to the wall, as in the diagram.

a a
40° φ

b - eb
v
5m s- 1
I
e = 0.6

Taking the direction away from the wall as the positive direction, the perpendicular component of impulse
is the change in momentum perpendicular to the wall, which equals

There is no component of impulse parallel to the wall.

An alternative approach is to use vectors to find from an impulse–momentum vector triangle. The vector
triangle needs to show the final momentum as the resultant of and . In vectors or
or as shown in the diagram. The easiest way to get the sides in the correct
order is to draw the initial and final momentum from the same point.
 I

mu

mv

The double arrows on the side of the triangle indicate that it is the resultant of and , as you would
expect.

In Worked example 8.6, the mass of the ball was and was and you found that
and .

Therefore and . Using these values, the triangle would

look like this:

40°

10 kg m s- 1

I
26.7°

8.58 kg m s- 1

and .

Tip

In a problem involving a simple impact with a wall, when the impulse acts at right angles to the
wall, then the method of splitting into components works best but in some problems drawing the
impulse–momentum triangle can save pages of calculation. These are usually problems with a
single moving object being hit so that it is deflected through a given angle, or collisions with a
rough wall when you are specifically told that the impulse is not perpendicular to the wall.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.8

A small smooth sphere of mass is moving in a horizontal plane at to a smooth vertical wall
when it collides with the wall. The speed of the sphere immediately before the collision is .
The coefficient of restitution between the sphere and the wall is

60° θ
10m s- 1 v
I

a Find the magnitude and direction of the sphere’s velocity immediately after the collision.
b Find the impulse of the wall on the sphere.

This is an oblique collision between a sphere moving

horizontally and a vertical wall so can you solve it by
resolving parallel and perpendicular to the wall.
Draw clear diagrams with arrows showing the direction and
values of the velocities before and after the collision, split
a 10 cos 60 v cosθ into the components of their speeds parallel and
60° θ perpendicular to the wall.

10m s- 1

v sin θ vm s- 1
10 sin 60 I
initial final

Let the speed of the sphere after Define any unknown values.
the collision be at angle to
the wall.
The component of the initial velocity parallel to the wall
remains unchanged in the collision, as there is no impulse in
that direction.
Find the component of the velocity perpendicular to the wall
using

Calculate the value of from its components.

Find and hence .

b Convert to .

Use impulse change in momentum .

Decide on a direction to be positive – it is usually best to take
away from the wall as positive – and substitute in the values.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.9

A cricket ball of mass is travelling horizontally at speed of when it is hit by a cricket

bat. It leaves the bat, horizontally, at a speed of travelling at to the line of its original
path as shown in the diagram. What is the magnitude of the impulse of the bat on the ball?

30m s–1 40m s–1

40°

bat

Convert to .
Calculate and .

Draw a momentum–impulse triangle, remembering

to keep the directions of the two velocities and to
draw and coming away from the same point.
You need to find the obtuse angle in the triangle.
 mv

40°

140° I

mu

Use the cosine rule to find .

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.10

A sphere of mass is moving with velocity in the positive direction when it is hit with a
blow of impulse in the positive direction. What is the speed and direction of the sphere
immediately after the impulse?

j Draw the impulse–momentum triangle, remembering to multiply the

velocity by the mass to get the momentum. You are given the magnitude
and direction of the impulse and the magnitude and direction of
Remember to show and coming away from the same point.
i mv
15

θ
mu = 20

Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find .

Divide by to find the speed.

Use trigonometry to find the angle.

Immediately after the State the final speed and direction of the sphere.
collision the sphere
moves with speed
at to the
positive direction.

Focus on …

You will use an impulse–momentum triangle to solve a problem involving conservation of energy
in Focus on … Problem solving 2.

EXERCISE 8B

1 A smooth vertical wall is parallel to the direction. A sphere of mass moving with velocity
on a smooth horizontal plane collides with the wall and rebounds with velocity
.
 a If the coefficient of restitution between the wall and the sphere is , find the values of and .
b What is the magnitude of the velocity of the sphere when it rebounds from the wall?
2 A smooth vertical wall is parallel to the direction. A sphere of mass moving with velocity
on a smooth horizontal plane collides with the wall and rebounds with velocity
.
a If the coefficient of restitution between the wall and the sphere is , find the values of and .
b What is the loss of kinetic energy of the sphere as a result of its collision with the wall?
3 A particle, , of mass is moving in a straight line at on a smooth horizontal surface when it
collides with a smooth vertical wall. The line of motion of the particle makes an angle of with the
wall.
a What is the component of the speed of the particle parallel to the wall?

b What is the component of the speed of the particle perpendicular to the wall before the collision?
c If the coefficient of restitution between the wall and the particle is , find the component of the
speed perpendicular to the wall immediately after the collision.
d Find the speed and direction of the particle when it rebounds from the wall. Give your speed correct
to places and the angle correct to place.
4 A sphere of mass is moving in a straight line at on a smooth horizontal surface when it
collides with a smooth vertical wall. The line of motion of the sphere makes an angle of with the
wall. If the coefficient of restitution between the wall and the sphere is , find the speed and
direction of the sphere when it rebounds from the wall. Give your speed correct to places and
the angle correct to place.
5 A particle, of mass , is moving in a straight line at on a smooth horizontal surface when it
collides with a smooth vertical wall. The line of motion of the sphere makes an angle of with the wall.
a What is the component of the velocity of the particle parallel to the wall, immediately before the
collision?
b What is the component of the velocity of the particle parallel to the wall, immediately after the
collision?

c What is the component of the velocity of the particle perpendicular to the wall, immediately before
the collision?
d If the coefficient of restitution between the wall and the sphere is , what is the component of the
velocity of the particle perpendicular to the wall, immediately after the collision?
e Find the magnitude of the velocity of the particle immediately after the collision.
f Show that the loss in kinetic energy as a result of the collision is .

6 A small smooth ball of mass is moving in a straight line at on a smooth horizontal surface
when it collides with a smooth vertical wall. The line of motion of the ball makes an angle of with
the wall. If the coefficient of restitution between the wall and the sphere is
a find the speed and direction of the ball when it rebounds from the wall

b find the impulse of the wall on the ball.

7 A sphere of mass is moving in the positive direction with speed when it receives a blow of
impulse acting in the negative direction. Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the
sphere immediately after the impact.
8 A sphere of mass is moving in the positive direction with speed when it receives a blow of
impulse acting in the direction. Find the change in kinetic energy of the sphere as a result of
the impulse.
9 A football of mass is travelling horizontally at speed of . The football is then kicked, and it
immediately moves horizontally, at a speed of , travelling at to the line of its original path,
as shown in the diagram. What is the magnitude of the impulse of the kick?
 20m s–1

30°
25m s–1

10 A snooker ball of mass hits a vertical side cushion of a snooker table at a speed of at an
angle of to the cushion, as shown in the diagram. The impulse of the cushion on the ball is
perpendicular to the side of the table and the coefficient of restitution between the ball and the side
cushion is .
a At what speed and angle to the side of the table does the ball leave the side cushion of the table?
b What is the kinetic energy lost by the snooker ball as a result of the collision?
side cushion
35°

5m s–1

11 A snooker ball of mass hits a vertical side cushion of a snooker table at a speed of at an
angle of to the cushion as shown in the diagram. The impulse of the cushion on the ball is
perpendicular to the side of the table and the coefficient of restitution between the ball and the side
cushion is . The ball then hits the side cushion that is at right angles to the original cushion. The
coefficient of restitution between the ball and this side cushion is also . At what speed and angle to
the side of the table does the ball leave the second side cushion?
side cushion
θ

u
side cushion
Section 3: Oblique collisions of two spheres and impulsive tensions in
strings
You are now going to consider the oblique impact of two moving spheres.

When two smooth spheres collide, the force of the collision will act along the line joining the centre of the
spheres – at right angles to the tangent at the point where they meet, as shown in the diagram.

A B

2 kg I I 3 kg line of centres

Did you know?

In a standard game of snooker all the balls are the same size
and weight, but in coin-operated pool and barbilliards machines
the white cue ball is a different weight and size from the rest of
the colours. This is so that the machine can detect if it goes
down a pocket and can return it.

Key point 8.4

When two smooth spheres collide, the impulse is along the line of centres of the spheres.

You can apply the principle of conservation of momentum and Newton’s experimental law to the
components of velocity along the line of centres.

There is no change in the components of velocity perpendicular to the line of centres as there is
no impulse in that direction.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.11

A sphere, of mass , is moving on a smooth horizontal surface with velocity when

it collides with a second sphere, , of equal size and mass , moving on the same surface with
velocity . The line of centres of the two spheres at the moment of collision is parallel to
the direction and the coefficient of restitution between the two spheres is . Find the velocities of
and immediately after the collision.

Let the velocity of after the collision Define any unknowns. Put both and in component form
be and let the velocity of so you have four unknowns.
after the collision be
i Draw a clear diagram.
5 1

4 3

2 kg 3 kg
I I line of centres
A B

b d

a c
 Deal with the components of the velocity perpendicular to
the line of centres first. These components remain
unchanged.
Apply the principle of conservation of linear momentum to
the components along the line of centres. State the equation
and substitute the values you know.

Apply Newton’s experimental law. State the equation and

substitute the values you know.

Solve and simultaneously to find and

Give the velocities of and in vector format.

Tip

If you are not given the velocities in component form, then you have to resolve the velocities
parallel and perpendicular to the line of centres before you start the calculation.

Rewind

You learned how to resolve a force into components in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.12

Two smooth spheres, and , of masses and , respectively, collide. Immediately before the
collision, is moving at at an angle above the line of centres, where . is moving

at towards , at an angle below the line of centres, where , as shown in the

diagram. The coefficient of restitution between the two spheres is
a What are the magnitudes and directions of the velocities of the two spheres immediately after the
collision?

b What is the magnitude of the impulse on ?

A B

4 kg 1 kg
θ line of centres
φ

4m s–1 3m s–1

a Calculate the components of the initial velocities for

and

Put the components of the initial velocities above the

relevant sphere and the final components below, so you
don’t get confused.
The components of the velocities perpendicular to the line
of centres remain unchanged and can be put on the
diagram as final velocity components immediately.
 2.4 1.8

3.2 2.4
A B

4
θ line of centres
φ
4 kg 1 kg

a 1.8

b
3.2

positive direction

Apply the principle of conservation and momentum along

the line of centres.

Apply Newton’s experimental law along the line of

centres.

Solve the simultaneous equations.

The components of the velocity of Find the velocity of using Pythagoras’ theorem and the
are and direction using trigonometry.
so

at an angle of to
the line of centres
The components of the velocity of Find the velocity of using Pythagoras’ theorem and the
are and so direction using trigonometry.

at an angle of to
the line of centres
b Use impulse = change in momentum.
The impulse on the spheres is along the line of centres
and the impulse on is equal and opposite to the impulse
on . If one is easier to work out than the other you
choose that one. In this case, there is nothing to choose
between them.
For : Substitute in the numbers and state the magnitude of the
impulse. Be careful with the signs.

along the line of

centers

Impulsive tensions in strings

In the diagram, the particles and , of masses and respectively, are joined by a light,
inextensible string that is straight but not under tension. Particle is initially at rest and particle is
projected at an angle of to the string with speed
before string is taut 4√2 m s- 1
45°
B A
1.5 kg 0 2.5 kg
A
B v1
v1
after string is taut
v2

The diagram shows the velocities of and at the instants before and after the string becomes taut.

Rewind

In Chapter 3 you saw that when two particles are attached to the ends of a light elastic string
and one is set in motion, an impulsive force was generated in the string when it becomes taut.

When the string becomes taut, there will be an impulse on both and generated by the tension in the
string and the velocities of and will change. The new velocity of along the string will be the same as
the component of the new velocity of along the string and in the same direction. The component of the
velocity of perpendicular to the string will be unchanged as the impulsive tension in the string acts along
the string.

You can find and by using the principle of conservation of momentum.

Parallel to :

Perpendicular to :

starts to move along the length of the string with speed and then starts to move with speed
at an angle to the line of the string.

Impulsive ₁ . This will be the same for both and .

Key point 8.5

For particles connected by a light inextensible string, you need to split the velocities into
components parallel and perpendicular to the string.
You then apply the principle of conservation of momentum parallel and perpendicular to the
string.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.13

A light, inextensible string has particles and , each of mass , attached to either end. The
string and particles rest on a smooth table. The particle at is hit with an impulse of at an
angle of to the string, which is straight but not taut and at rest. What is the velocity of after
the impulse at the instant the string becomes taut?

Convert to .
Calculate the initial speed of using impulse = change in
momentum.

Draw a clear diagram showing the velocity of immediately

before the string starts to move and the components of the
velocities of and , parallel and perpendicular to the
 20m s–1 string, immediately afterwards.
before
30°
B A v1
v1 after

v2

Parallel to the line of the string:

The velocity of after the impulse is

along .

EXERCISE 8C

1 A smooth sphere, , of mass , is moving on a smooth horizontal surface with velocity

when it collides with a second smooth sphere, , of mass , moving on the same surface with
velocity . The line of centres of the two spheres at the moment of collision is parallel to
the direction and the coefficient of restitution between the two spheres is . Find the velocities of
and immediately after the collision.
2 A smooth sphere, , of mass , is moving on a smooth horizontal surface with velocity
when it collides with a second smooth sphere, , of mass , moving on the same surface with
velocity . The line of centres of the two spheres at the moment of collision is parallel to
the direction and the coefficient of restitution between the two spheres is . Find the velocities of
and immediately after the collision.
j 3j

3i i

5kg 2kg

P Q

3 A smooth sphere, , of mass , is moving on a smooth horizontal surface with velocity

when it collides with a second smooth sphere, , of mass , which is at rest. The line of centres of
the two spheres, at the moment of collision, is parallel to the direction and the coefficient of
restitution between the two spheres is . Find the magnitude and direction of the velocities of and
immediately after the collision.
4 Two smooth spheres, and , of masses and , respectively, collide as shown in the diagram.
Immediately before the collision, is moving at at an angle above the line of centres, where
. is initially at rest. The coefficient of restitution between the two spheres is . Find the
magnitude and direction of the velocities of and immediately after the collision.

5m s–1

A B

5 A smooth sphere, , of mass , is moving at on a smooth horizontal surface when it collides

with a second smooth sphere, , of mass , moving on the same surface with velocity . At the
moment of collision, is moving at to the line of centres and is moving at to the line of
centres towards , as shown in the diagram. If the coefficient of restitution between the two spheres
is , find the magnitude and direction of the velocities of and immediately after the collision.
 6m s–1 3m s–1

30° 40°

A B

6 A smooth plastic ball, , of mass , is moving at on a smooth horizontal surface when it

collides with a smooth metal ball, , of mass , moving on the same surface with velocity .
At the moment of collision, is moving at to the line of centres and is moving at to the line
of centres towards , as shown in the diagram. If the coefficient of restitution between the two
spheres is , find the magnitude and direction of the velocities of and immediately after the
collision.

30° 30°

6m s –1
10m s–1
P Q

7 A particle , of mass , is attached by a straight, light inextensible string to a particle of mass

is initially at rest and is projected with speed so that, when the string is about to
move, is moving at to the string, as in the diagram. Find:
a the speed of immediately after the string becomes taut
b the magnitude of the impulsive tension in the string.

5m s–1
45°
B A
8 A particle , of mass , is attached by a light inextensible string to a stationary particle of mass
. The string is initially straight but not under tension. is hit with a blow of impulse to
the string and away from , as in the diagram Find:
a the initial speed of as a result of the impulse
b the speed of immediately after the string becomes taut.

5m s–1
45°
B A
9 A particle , of mass , is attached by a light inextensible string to a stationary particle of mass
. is projected with speed so that, when the string is about to move into tension, is
moving at to the string, as in the diagram. Find:
a the magnitude and direction of the speed immediately after the string becomes taut
b the magnitude of the impulsive tension in the string
c the loss in kinetic energy in the system as a result.

5m s–1
45°
B A

Checklist of learning and understanding

The impulse, , of a constant force acting for a time is .

The impulse, , of a variable force acting for a time is .

The impulse of a force acting on a body is equal to the change in momentum.

When an object moving at speed collides at an angle with a smooth, flat surface and
rebounds:
the impulse acts at right angles to the surface and is equal to the change in momentum in
that direction
the component of the velocity parallel to the surface remains unchanged
the component of the velocity perpendicular to the surface is multiplied by , where is
the coefficient of restitution between the object and the surface.
For particles connected by a light inextensible string, you need to split the velocities into
components parallel and perpendicular to the string.
You then apply the principle of conservation of momentum in directions parallel and
perpendicular to the string, for the situations before and after the string becomes taut.
Mixed practice 8
1 A particle of mass is moving in a straight line with speed when it is deflected
through an angle by an impulse of magnitude . The impulse acts at right angles to the
initial direction of motion of (see diagram). The speed of immediately after the impulse
acts is . Find the value of and the value of

8m s–1

6m s–1 P θ

I Ns

2 A particle of mass is moving horizontally with speed when it receives an

impulse of magnitude , in a direction which makes an angle with the direction of
motion of . Immediately after the impulse acts moves horizontally with speed . The
direction of motion of is turned through an angle of by the impulse (see diagram). Find
and .

INs

3m s–1

θ° 60°
4m s–1 P

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, January 2010

3 A particle of mass is moving in a straight line with speed . An impulse of

magnitude applied to deflects its direction of motion through an angle of , and
reduces its speed to (see diagram). By considering an impulse–momentum triangle, or
otherwise,

i show that ,

ii find the angle that the impulse makes with the original direction of motion of .

2.5m s–1

6.3m s–1 P θ

2.6N s

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, January 2009

4 A small ball of mass is moving with speed when it receives an impulse of

magnitude . The speed of the ball immediately afterwards is . The angle between
the directions of motion before and after the impulse acts is . Using an impulse–momentum
 triangle or otherwise, find .

5 A ball of mass is moving with speed in a straight line when it is struck by a bat.
The impulse exerted by the bat has magnitude and the ball is deflected through an
angle of (see diagram). Find

i the direction of the impulse,

ii the speed of the ball immediately after it is struck.

22m s–1

15N s

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, January 2011

6 A particle of mass is moving on a smooth horizontal surface with speed , when

it is struck by a horizontal blow in a direction perpendicular to its direction of motion. The
magnitude of the impulse of the blow is . The speed of after the blow is .

i Find the value of .

Immediately before the blow is moving parallel to a smooth vertical wall. After the blow
hits the wall and rebounds from the wall with speed .

ii Find the coefficient of restitution between and the wall.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, January 2012

7 Two uniform smooth spheres and , of equal radius, have masses and respectively.
They are moving on a horizontal surface when they collide. Immediately before the collision
the velocity of has components along the line of centres towards and
perpendicular to the line of centres. is moving with speed along the line of centres
towards (see diagram). The coefficient of restitution between the spheres is .

i Find, in terms of , the component of the velocity of along the line of centres
immediately after the collision.

ii Given that the speeds of and are the same immediately after the collision, and that
, find .

A B

4m s–1 6kg 3kg 8m s–1

vm s–1

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730/01, January 2008

8 Two uniform smooth spheres and of equal radius, have masses and , respectively,
 They are moving on a horizontal surface, and they collide. Immediately before the collision,
is moving with speed at an angle to the line of centres, where and is
moving along the line of centres with speed (see diagram). The coefficient of
restitution between the spheres is Find the speed and direction of motion of each sphere
after the collision.

A B

5kg 3kg
15m s–1
α

10m s–1

9 Two uniform smooth spheres and of equal radius are moving on a horizontal surface when
they collide. has mass and has mass . Immediately before the collision is
moving with speed along the line of centres, and is moving with speed at an
angle to the line of centres, where (see diagram). Immediately after the collision
is stationary. Find

i the coefficient of restitution between and ,

ii the angle turned through by the direction of motion of as a result of the collision.

A B

θ
2.8m s–1
0.1kg 0.4kg

1m s–1

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730/01, June 2014

10 Two uniform smooth spheres and of equal radius are moving on a horizontal surface when
they collide. has mass and has mass . Immediately before the collision is
moving with speed along the line of centres, and is moving away from with speed
at an acute angle to the line of centres, where (see diagram).

The coefficient of restitution between the spheres is Find

i the velocity of immediately after the collision,

ii the angle turned through by the direction of motion of as a result of the collision.

A B

θ
3m s–1 0.1kg 0.2kg

1m s–1

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730/01, June 2013

11 Two uniform smooth spheres and , of equal radius and equal mass, are moving towards
each other on a horizontal surface. Immediately before they collide, has speed
along the line of centres and has speed at an angle of to the line of centres (see
diagram).

After the collision, the direction of motion of is at right angles to its original direction of
 motion. Find

i the speed of after the collision,

ii the speed and direction of motion of after the collision,

iii the coefficient of restitution between and .

A B
30°
0.3m s–1
0.6m s–1

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730/01, January 2013

12 Two uniform smooth spheres and , of equal radius, have masses and respectively.
They are moving on a horizontal surface when they collide. Immediately before the collision,
has speed and is moving towards at an angle of to the line of centres, where
has speed and is moving towards along the line of centres (see
diagram). As a result of the collision, ’s loss of kinetic energy is s direction of motion
is reversed and s speed after the collision is . Find

i the speed of after the collision,

ii the component of s velocity after the collision, parallel to the line of centres, stating with
a reason whether its direction is changed to the left or to the right,

iii the value of ,

iv the coefficient of restitution between and .

A B
2kg m kg
2m s–1
α

5m s–1

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, June 2012

13 Two uniform smooth spheres and , of equal radius, have masses and
respectively. They are moving in opposite directions on a horizontal surface and they collide.
Immediately before the collision, each sphere has speed in a direction making an angle
with the line of centres (see diagram). The coefficient of restitution between and is

i Show that the speed of is unchanged as a result of the collision.

ii Find the direction of motion of each of the spheres after the collision.

A B
u m s–1
2m kg
α
α
m kg
u m s–1

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, January 2012

14 A particle , of mass , is attached by a light inextensible string to a particle , of mass
. is initially stationary and is projected with speed so that when the string is
about to move into tension, is moving at to the string. Find, correct to three significant
figures:

i the speed of immediately after the string becomes taut

ii the magnitude of the impulsive tension in the string.

 9 Circular motion 2

In this chapter you will learn how to:

work with a particle moving in a circle with variable speed

model the motion of a particle moving in a circle in a vertical plane
use the principle of conservation of mechanical energy to solve problems
involving a particle moving in a vertical circle.

If you are following the A Level course, you will also learn how to:

work with the radial and tangential components of the acceleration

solve problems involving moving particles where only part of their path is a
vertical circle.

Before you start…

1 A cyclist is travelling at along a road
Chapter 1 You should know the
principle of conservation when he reaches an incline making an angle of
of mechanical energy with the horizontal. If the cyclist does not
(using kinetic energy pedal to maintain his speed, how far along the
and gravitational road will he reach, assuming there is no
potential energy). resistance?

Chapter 4 You should be able to 2 A particle moves in a circular orbit of radius

at a constant angular speed of .
model motion in a
What is the linear speed of the particle?
horizontal circle.

3 A ball is hit at an angle of to the horizontal

A Level You should be able to
Mathematics model motion of a at a speed of from a height of above

Student Book 1 particle under constant the ground. Calculate the maximum height
above the ground reached by the ball.
acceleration using the
equations of motion.

A Level You should be able to 4 A box is on the point of sliding down a

plane inclined at to the horizontal. Find the
Mathematics label the forces acting
Student Book 2 on an object resting on normal reaction between the box and the

an inclined plane at an inclined plane.

angle to the horizontal.
2kg

30°

What is circular motion with variable speed?

In Chapter 4 you considered the speed of a particle moving in a horizontal circle as constant, however the
velocity was not since the direction of the tangential vector (the velocity vector) changes as the particle
moves in a horizontal circle.

An important example of circular motion with variable speed is when a particle is moving in a vertical
circle. You can consider what is happening to a particle when it moves around a vertical circle, from an
initial speed to a final speed .

v m s–1

change
O in vertical
height

u m s–1
Section 1: Conservation of mechanical energy
Key point 9.1

You can use the principle of conservation of mechanical energy to determine the speed of a
particle at any point in a vertical circular orbit.

Rewind

You learned about the conservation of mechanical energy in Chapter 1.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.1

A smooth bead of mass is threaded onto a smooth circular wire of radius and centre fixed
in a vertical plane. The bead is projected from its lowest point with speed .

12 m s–1

Find the speed of the bead when it reaches its highest point in its motion.

and the vertical distance bead Write down any information that may be helpful
travels, , is . from the diagram. Include the zero level for
gravitational potential energy.
Set the gravitational potential energy to equal
zero at the horizontal line passing through the
lowest point of the vertical circle, .
At the point : Calculate the gravitational potential energy and
kinetic energy of the bead at .

At the point : Calculate the gravitational potential energy and

kinetic energy of the bead at .

Since energy is conserved: By the principle of conservation of mechanical

energy, the total energy at is equal to the total
energy at .
You can rearrange to make the subject.

If you want to find the forces acting on a particle as it moves in a vertical circle, you can use the principle
of conservation of mechanical energy to find the speed at any point and then apply Newton’s second law
.
Acceleration towards the centre of circular motion is , so you can calculate the force towards the centre.

Focus on…

In Focus on … Problem solving 1 you solve a problem involving the impulse–momentum principle
as well as conservation of mechanical energy to find the speed of a particle moving in a vertical
circular orbit.

Acceleration towards the centre of motion is known as a radial acceleration.

v m s–1

r
v2 m s–2
r
O

u2 m s–2 u m s–1
r

Rewind

You learned about acceleration in horizontal circular motion in Chapter 4.

Key point 9.2

Once you know the speed of a particle at a particular point in a circular path, you can:

find the acceleration towards the centre by using

use Newton’s second law to find the force towards the centre of the circle.

Fast forward

The linear speed of the particle moving in a vertical circle is changing, so there is a
component of acceleration (and hence also a force) acting on the particle in the direction
tangential to the circle. You will find out about this in Section 2.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.2

A smooth bead of mass is threaded onto a smooth circular wire of radius and centre fixed
in a vertical plane. The bead is projected from its lowest point with speed .
 O

12 m s–1

What is the magnitude of the normal reaction force of the wire on the bead when the bead is in the
same horizontal line as the centre of the circle?

Write down any information that may

be helpful on the diagram.

O R C

2m
mg

and the vertical distance the bead travels, , Decide on the zero level for
is . Set the gravitational potential energy to equal zero at gravitational potential energy. You
first need to find the speed of the
the horizontal line passing through the lowest point of the bead at the point when the bead is
vertical circle, . Let denote the position of the bead on in the same horizontal line as the
the circular wire and the normal reaction force of the wire centre of the circle.
on the bead.
At the point : Calculate the gravitational potential
energy and kinetic energy of the bead
at .

At the point : Calculate the gravitational potential

energy and kinetic energy of the
beadat the new point .

Since energy is conserved: By the principle of conservation of

mechanical energy, the total energyat
is equal to the total energy at .

Using towards the centre :

is equal to the resultant force
towards the centre of the circular
motion. It is the normal reaction of the
wire on the bead that provides this
force.
When a point in the circular motion is being considered whose radius is at an angle to the horizontal,you
need to include in the component of the weight towards the centre. This is shown in Worked
example 9.3.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.3

A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light inextensible string of length . The
other end of the string is attached to a fixed point and is free to rotate in a vertical circle. The
particle is hanging in equilibrium at its lowest point when it is projected with a horizontal speed of
.
a Find an expression for the tension in the string when it makes an angle of with the downward
vertical through .

b Find the range of values of for which the particle will perform a complete circle.

a Set the gravitational potential energy to equal Write down any information that may be
zero at the horizontal line passing through the helpful and draw a diagram. Include the zero
level for gravitational potential energy.
lowest point of the vertical circle. Call this point .

Note that only the radial acceleration is

marked on the diagram since this is all you
need to solve the problem, but there will also
a be a tangential component.
uP m s–1
O
T
θ
P
θ

0.2g

Let the particle be at position in its circular Include any extra labels that might be helpful
orbit when it makes an angle of with the when trying to refer to position in the circular
orbit.
downward vertical.
At the lowest point, : Calculate the gravitational potential energy
and kinetic energy of the particle at .

At the point : Calculate the gravitational potential energy

and kinetic energy of the particle at , where
is the vertical height above point .

Since energy is conserved: By the principle of conservation of

mechanical energy, the total energy at is
equal to the total energy at .
You now have an expression for the
tangential speed at
Use this speed in the formula for acceleration
in circular motion.
Resolving the forces in the radial direction of the You can now resolve the forces in the same
circular motion, direction as the tension.
 Rearrange to find an expression for tension in
terms of and
b For the particle to make a full circle the speed For the particle to move in a full circle the
must be large enough so that the string is taut at string must have some tension in order to
keep the string taut.
the highest point in the circular motion.

You want when : At the highest point in the movement the

angle made with the downward vertical is
.

You can rearrange to find . This will give a

lower bound for the value that the initial
speed can take in order for the particle to
complete a full circle.

Key point 9.3

If a particle connected to a light inextensible string moving in vertical circles is to complete full
circles, the tension in the string must be greater than or just equal to zero at the highest point of
the vertical circular orbit.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.4

A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light rod of length . The other end of the
rod is attached to a fixed point and is free to rotate in a vertical circle. The particle is hanging in
equilibrium at its lowest point when it is projected with a horizontal speed of . Find:
a an expression for the speed of the particle when the rod is at an angle of with the upward vertical
through
b the set of values of for which the particle will perform a complete circle.

a , length of rod is and initial speed is Write down any information that may be
. helpful from the diagram. Include the zero
level for gravitational potential energy.
Set the gravitational potential energy to equal
zero at the horizontal line passing through the
lowest point of the vertical circle. Call this point .

Note that only the radial acceleration is

marked on the diagram since this is all you
need to solve the problem, but there will also
u P m s–1 be a tangential component.
a
O θ
T

0.4 m P

0.1g
 Let the particle be at position in its circular Write down helpful information from the
orbit when it makes an angle of with the upward question. Include any extra symbols that
might be helpful when trying to refer to
vertical through position in the circular orbit.
At the lowest point, : Calculate the gravitational potential energy
and kinetic energy of the particle at , where
is the vertical height at (the bottom of
the circle is taken to be height ).

At the point : Calculate the gravitational potential energy

and kinetic energy of the particle at , where
is the vertical height above point .

Since energy is conserved: By the principle of conservation of

mechanical energy, the total energy at is
equal to the total energy at .

b For the particle to make a full circle the speed Unlike a string, a rod cannot go slack.
must be greater than zero when the particle is at Therefore, the speed of the particle at the
highest point must be greater than zero for
the highest point in the circular orbit.
the particle to move in complete vertical
circles.

You want when , At the highest point in the movement the

angle made with the downward vertical is .

You can rearrange to find . This will give a

lower bound for the value that the initial
speed can take in order for the particle to
complete a full circle.

Key point 9.4

If a particle connected to a light rod moving in vertical circles is to complete full circles, the
speed of the particle must be greater than zero at the highest point of its circular orbit. The same
condition is true if the particle is representing a bead threaded onto a smooth circular wire.

WORK IT OUT 9.1

A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light inextensible string of length . The
other end of the string is attached to a fixed point . The particle hangs in equilibrium with the
string taut at position . The particle is then set in motion with a horizontal speed of so
that the particle moves in a vertical circle. What conditions are necessary for the particle to
complete the vertical circle? Which solution is correct? Can you identify the errors in the incorrect
solutions?
 Solution 1

The particle will complete vertical circles if the speed at the top of the circle is greater than zero.

Solution 2

The particle will complete vertical circles if the initial speed .

Solution 3

The particle will complete vertical circles if the speed of the particle is enough to keep the string
taut at the top of the circle.

EXERCISE 9A

Unless otherwise instructed, when a numerical value for the acceleration due to gravity is needed, use
.

1 A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light inextensible string of length . The other
end of the string is attached to a fixed point . The particle hangs in equilibrium with the string taut at
position . The particle is then set in motion with a horizontal speed of so that the particle
moves in a vertical circle.
O
rm

T P

A mg
ums –1

a i If and , find the speed of the particle when angle is .

ii If and , find the speed of the particle when angle is .
b i If and , find the acceleration towards centre when angle is .
ii If and , find the acceleration towards centre when angle is .

c i If , and , find the tension in the string when angle is .

ii If , and , find the tension in the string when angle is .
d i If and , find the angle made between and the downward vertical when the
speed of the particle is .
ii If and , find the angle made between and the upward vertical when the speed
of the particle is .
2 A smooth bead is threaded onto a smooth circular wire fixed in a vertical plane, with centre and
radius . The bead is projected from the lowest point with initial speed .
a If , find the speed of the bead when it passes through the general point where makes
an angle of with the downward vertical.
b If , find the greatest height reached by the bead above the lowest point of the circular
wire.
c If , find the speed of the bead when it passes through the point that is level with the
centre .
 d If , find the speed of the bead when it passes through the highest point of the circular
wire.

O
rm

bead

B
u m s–1

3 A smooth bead is threaded onto a smooth circular wire fixed in a vertical plane, with centre and
radius . The bead is projected from the lowest point with initial speed . Determine if the bead
will make a full circle and, if not, find the maximum vertical height reached by the bead, when the
initial speed is given by:
a

c
4 A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light rod of length . The rod is free to
rotate in a vertical plane about . The particle is held at rest with horizontal and then released.
a Calculate the speed of the particle as it passes through the lowest point.
b Find the tension in the rod at this lowest point.
5 A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light inextensible string of length . The
particle is hanging in equilibrium at the lowest point when it is set in motion with a speed of .
If the string remains taut during the particle’s motion, write an expression for the speed of the particle
when makes an angle of with the downward vertical .
6 A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light rod of length . The other end of the rod
is attached to a fixed point and it is free to rotate about . The rod is hanging vertically with
below when the particle is set in motion with a horizontal speed of . Find the minimum value
of for which the particle will perform a complete circle.
7 A light inextensible string of length has a particle of mass attached at one end. The other
end is attached to a fixed point and the particle describes complete vertical circles, centre .
Given that the speed of the particle at the lowest point is times the speed of the particle at its
highest point, find the tension in the string when the particle is at the highest point.
8 A light inelastic string of length has one end attached to a fixed point . A particle of mass
is attached to the other end. The particle is held with horizontal and the string taut.
a If the particle is released from rest, what is the maximum speed and where will this occur in the
circular orbit?
b If the particle is projected vertically downwards with speed , find the tension in the string
when makes an angle of with the horizontal.
c Given that the string will break when the tension in the string is , find the angle between the
string and the horizontal when the string breaks.
9 A smooth hemispherical bowl, centre and of radius , is fixed on a horizontal surface such that
the top of the bowl is parallel with the horizontal surface. A smooth marble of mass is held in
place on the inner surface such that, for the plane containing the centre and the marble, the line
makes an angle with the downward vertical. The particle is released from rest.
a Calculate the speed of the particle as it passes through the lowest point.
b Calculate the normal reaction force acting on the marble when the marble passes through the
lowest point.
c If the model is refined to include friction, calculate the constant frictional force such that the marble
comes to rest directly below the centre and nowhere else before.

Explore
As you have seen, you can model motion in a vertical circle using energy. However, sometimes
you just need to think about the limiting factors for an object to be able to move in a vertical
circular path. This idea will help you tackle this problem from NRICH:
www.cambridge.org/links/moscmec6004.
 Section 2: Components of acceleration (a general model)
In the previous section, you used the conservation of mechanical energy to find the speed of a particle
moving in a vertical circular orbit and used this to calculate the force directed towards the centre of motion
(the radial direction).

You also need to be able to model the motion of the circular orbit and determine the tangential and radial
components of the acceleration, not just the acceleration directed towards the centre.

The formula for acceleration of a particle moving in a circular orbit in Chapter 4 was based on the fact that
the angular speed of the particle was constant. If you now consider that the angular speed is given by a
function of time, you can create a general model for particles moving in a circular orbit.

r
θ
x
O

If you no longer have a constant linear or angular speed, you need to consider the angle as a function of
time, . So you can say that the position vector is given by:

Rewind

Remember, here angular speed is not constant.

Differentiating with respect to time gives the velocity vector for angular speed:

Rewind

You used vectors in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2.

You can see that the magnitude of the velocity is . If you differentiate again with respect to
time you get the acceleration vector for angular speed:
The two most important directions as a particle moves in a circular path are the radial direction and the
tangential direction. Now that you have found the velocity and acceleration vectors, you can look for the
radial and tangential components of each.

Did you know?

You can prove that the velocity vector is tangential to the circular path by using the displacement
vector and the scalar product.

For the velocity vector, you have a vector of magnitude moving only in the direction , which

is the tangential direction.

For the acceleration vector, there are two parts.

The first part is a component of the vector in the direction , with magnitude and this is

the tangential component of the acceleration.

The second part gives the radial component of the acceleration as (since is the radial

vector).

If you want to find the magnitude of the acceleration vector, since the radial and tangential components
are perpendicular, you can use Pythagoras’ theorem.

Rewind

This model is a more sophisticated model for circular motion, when angular speed is not
constant. However, if you did have constant angular speed, is equal to a constant, then

and the vector equation for the acceleration would simplify to the case you studied in

Chapter 4.

Key point 9.5

is the tangential (or transverse) component of the acceleration and or

is the radial component of the acceleration.

Formula book
Radial acceleration is or towards the centre.

Tangential acceleration is .
Using the notation developed in A Level Mathematics Student Book 1 you can refer to as and

as where the dot denotes differentiation with respect to time.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.5

An athlete is running around the circular part of a running track of radius . He increases his
speed uniformly from to in a second period.

a Find an expression for the tangential and radial parts of the athlete’s acceleration over this time
period.
b What is the magnitude of the acceleration seconds after the athlete starts to increase his speed?

a The acceleration of the athlete will If a particle is moving in a circular path where speed is not
constant then you need to look at the components of the
be given by in the tangential acceleration in the radial and tangential directions.
direction and in the radial
direction.

The athlete’s speed changes You can calculate the athlete’s tangential component of the
uniformly from to over acceleration by using the uniform increase in speed from
to in seconds.
seconds.

is the change in speed per change in time and this will

give the tangential component of the acceleration.

You can integrate to get an expression for in termsof .

At , so You can use the initial conditions to find the constant of

integration.

You can now substitute into to find the radial

component of the acceleration.
b At : You can substitute the value for time into each component of
Radial acceleration is the acceleration.

Tangential acceleration is

Thus: To find the magnitude of the acceleration, you calculate the

magnitude of the vector.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.6

A smooth bead of mass is threaded onto a smooth circular wire fixed in a vertical plane, centre
and radius The bead is projected from its lowest point on the circular wire with speed .
a Find the speed of the bead when it passes through the point marked on the diagram.
b Find the radial and transverse components of the acceleration of the bead at .
 O r
θ
P

mg
A

a The bead is at position in its circular orbit when it Write down any information that
makes an angle of with the downward vertical at . Set maybe helpful from the diagram.
Include where you will be measuring
the gravitational potential energy to equal zero at the
your gravitational potential energy
horizontal line passing through the lowest point of the from.
vertical circle at .
To find the speed of the bead, you can
use the principle of conservation of
mechanical energy.
At the point : Calculate the gravitational potential
energy and kinetic energy of the bead
at .

At the point : Calculate the gravitational potential

energy and kinetic energy of the bead
at .

Since energy is conserved: By the principle of conservation of

mechanical energy, the total energy
at is equal to the total energy at .
You can rearrange to find

b At the point : You need to find the components of

the acceleration of the bead in the
radial and tangential directions.

v2 v It is more convenient, for this part, to

O r use rather than for the velocity at
θ .
P dv
θ dt

mg

For the radial direction you can use

your calculation from part to find
Using , .

For the tangential component, use

the force acting on the bead in
tangential direction, with
so Newton’s second law.

EXERCISE 9B
 EXERCISE 9B
Unless otherwise instructed, when a numerical value for the acceleration due to gravity is needed, use
.

1 A particle is moving in a circular path of radius .

a The particle’s speed uniformly increases from to in seconds.

i If , , and , find an expression for the tangential and radial parts of the
acceleration.
ii If , , and , find an expression for the tangential and radial parts of the
acceleration.
b The particle’s speed uniformly decreases from to in .
i If , , and , find an expression for the tangential and radial parts of the
acceleration.

ii If , , and , find an expression for the tangential and radial parts of the
acceleration.
c The particle’s tangential component of the acceleration is given by .
i If , find an expression for the linear speed of the particle if at .
ii If , find an expression for the linear speed of the particle if at , .
2 A car is driven around a roundabout of radius . Its speed increases uniformly from to
in seconds.
a Find expressions for the radial and tangential acceleration of the car.
b Find the magnitude of the acceleration after seconds.
3 A rally car travelling at is accelerating around a circular bend of radius . If the speed of the
car is increasing at a rate of , find the magnitude of the acceleration of the car after seconds.
4 A particle of mass describes complete vertical circles while attached to one end of a light
inextensible string of length . The other end of the string is fixed at the point . If the speed of
the particle is at the highest point in the circular orbit, find the magnitude of the tangential
acceleration when the string is horizontal.
5 A smooth bead of mass is threaded onto a smooth circular wire fixed in a vertical plane with
centre and radius . The bead is projected from its lowest point on the circular wire with a speed
of . Find an expression for the magnitude of the acceleration when the bead and the centre of
the circular wire are in the same horizontal line.
6 One end of a light inextensible string of length is attached to a fixed point and the other end is
attached to a particle of mass . With the string taut and horizontal, the particle is projected
with a velocity of , vertically downwards. The particle begins to move in a vertical circle with
centre . While the string remains taut, the angular displacement of from its initial position is
radians and the speed of is . Find, in terms of , the radial and tangential components of the
acceleration of .
 Section 3: Problem solving situations

Leaving a circular path

Sometimes a particle will only follow a circular path for a short period of time. Once it is no longer moving
in a circle, it will need to be modelled as a particle moving freely under gravity.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.7

A smooth solid hemisphere with radius and centre is resting on a horizontal table with its flat
face in contact with the table. A particle of mass starts to slip from rest at the highest point
on the hemisphere.

a If the hemisphere stays in a fixed position, find an expression for the normal reaction force of the
particle to the surface of the hemisphere if the angle between and is .

b Find the angle between and when the particle leaves the surface of the hemisphere.
c Once the particle leaves the hemisphere, how could you model its subsequent movement?

d Find the distance away from the centre of the hemisphere when the particle first hits the table.

A
P

a , and . Write down any information that may be helpful

from the diagram. Include where you will be
Set the gravitational potential energy to equal measuring your gravitational potential energy
zero at the horizontal line passing through the from.
point .

At the point : Calculate the gravitational potential energy and

kinetic energy of the particle at .

At the point : Calculate the gravitational potential energy and

kinetic energy of the particle at .

Since energy is conserved: By the principle of conservation of mechanical

energy, the total energy at is equal to the total
energy at .

Once you have calculated the speed you can use

Newton’s second law and to find the
normal reaction force by resolving
perpendicularly to the surface of the hemisphere.
b When the particle leaves the surface, . The angle when the particle leaves the surface will
be the instant when the normal reaction force
between the particle and the surface is zero.
So the angle between and is
c You can model the particle as a projectile When the particle is no longer moving in a circular
falling freely under gravity. path it is now free to move as if it were a
projectile, falling freely under gravity.
d The particle leaves the surface when You first need to calculate the horizontal distance
. the particle travels before it leaves the surface of
the hemisphere.
The horizontal distance between and this
point is given by

Once the particle leaves the surface of the When the particle leaves the surface of the
hemisphere it falls under gravity. Let the hemisphere it can be modelled as a projectile.
positive vertical direction be in the direction You need to set up a direction for the horizontal
to and the positive horizontal direction be and vertical components of the velocity and
displacement for a projectile.
away from :

Acceleration due to gravity

Using You can use the equations of motion for a particle

moving with a constant acceleration to calculate
horizontal and vertical components of velocity and
displacement and the time of flight.
You have a quadratic equation in and so can use
the quadratic formula to find the positive value for
Using the quadratic formula: .

which gives seconds

The horizontal distance travelled from the point
where the particle leaves the surface of the
hemisphere is given by :

Total horizontal distance from is given by: Finally, you can combine the horizontal distances
travelled by the particle before leaving the surface
and after leaving the surface of the hemisphere.

Key point 9.6

When the normal reaction force between the particle and a surface is equal to zero, a particle
loses contact with the surface.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9.8

A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light inextensible string of length metres. The
other end of the string is attached to a fixed point such that the particle hangs in equilibrium
directly below at . The particle is set in motion with a horizontal speed of . At the point ,
the string first goes slack.
a Find the vertical height of above the starting position where the string first goes slack.
At the point when the string first goes slack, the particle is released from the string.
b Find the maximum height the particle reaches above its starting position.

θ uP m s–1

l
T
P

A 2 glm s–1

mg

a Set the gravitational potential energy to equal Write down any information that may be helpful
zero at the horizontal line passing through the from the diagram. Include where you will be
measuring your gravitational potential energy
point . Let be the angle formed between
from. Include any extra labels that might be
and the downward vertical . Let be the helpful when trying to refer to position in the
tension in the string. circular orbit.

At the point : Calculate the gravitational potential energy and

kinetic energy of the particle at .

At the point : Calculate the gravitational potential energy and

kinetic energy of the particle at .

Since energy is conserved: By the principle of conservation of mechanical

energy, the total energy at is equal to the total
energy at .

Once you have calculated the speed you can use

Newton’s second law and to find the
tension by resolving in the radial and
tangential directions.

When the string goes slack there is no tension in

the string.
You can rearrange to make the subject and
calculate a value for .

The vertical height above where the string You can find the vertical height using .
first becomes slack is:

b When the particle is released from the string

the particle can be modelled as a projectile.

For the motion of the particle, take the upward It is important to define a direction to the
vertical as the positive direction. projectile motion.
 The maximum height reached by the projectile
is when the final vertical velocity equals zero.
Using :

You can find the total vertical distance travelled

by the particle by combining the projectile
motion with the motion in its circular path.

WORK IT OUT 9.2

A smooth solid hemisphere with radius and centre is placed in a fixed position on a
horizontal plane with its flat face in contact with the horizontal plane. A particle of mass
starts to move from rest from the highest point. When has turned through an angle of , if the
particle is still on the surface of the hemisphere, find an expression for , the normal reaction
force of the hemisphere on the particle. Which solution is correct? Can you identify the errors in
the incorrect solutions?

Solution 1

At :

Solution 2
 At :

Solution 3

At :

EXERCISE 9C

Unless otherwise instructed, when a numerical value for the acceleration due to gravity is needed, use
.

1 A smooth solid hemisphere with radius and centre is resting on a horizontal table with its
flat face in contact with the table. A particle of mass is projected from a point , the highest
point of the hemisphere, parallel with the horizontal surface at an initial speed of

a i If and , find the speed of the particle if the angle between and is .
ii If and , find the speed of the particle if the angle between and is .
b i If , and , find the normal reaction force acting on the particle at the surface
 of the hemisphere if the angle between and is .

ii If , and , find the normal reaction force acting on the particle at the
surface of the hemisphere if the angle between and is .
c i If and , find the angle between and when the particle leaves the surface
of the hemisphere.
ii If and , find the angle between and the horizontal when the particle leaves the
surface of the hemisphere.
d i If and , find the speed of the particle when it leaves the surface of the
hemisphere.
ii If and find the speed of the particle when it leaves the surface of the hemisphere.
u m s–1

A
P

2 A particle of mass is released from rest at the top of a smooth track which forms a quarter of
circle, centre of radius , followed by a drop of to the ground.
O

50cm

2m

a Calculate the speed of the particle as it leaves the quarter circle part of the track.
b What is the total horizontal distance that the particle travels before it hits the ground?
3 A smooth piece of track is constructed so that it is in the shape of a circular arc. The arc
has a radius of and subtends an angle of at its centre . The points and are on a
line that is parallel to a horizontal surface, which is vertically below the point , and
all lie in the same vertical plane. A particle is released from rest at
a Find the speed of the particle as it leaves the arc .
b Find the time taken for the particle to hit the ground after it has left
c Find the horizontal distance that the particle travels after it leaves the track before it hits the
horizontal surface.
 P 2m OXY
X
30°

Y
5m

4 A smooth piece of track is constructed so that it is in the shape of a circular arc. The arc
has a radius of and subtends an angle of at its centre . The points and are on a
line that is parallel to a horizontal surface, which is vertically below point parallel to a
horizontal surface. , and all lie in the same vertical plane. A particle is released from rest
at
a Find the speed of the particle as it leaves the arc .
b Find the time taken for the particle to hit the ground after it has left
c Find the horizontal distance that the particle travels after it leaves the track before it hits the
horizontal surface.
P 3m
X OXY
60°

Y
2m

5 A smooth piece of track is constructed so that it is in the shape of a circular arc. The arc
has a radius of and subtends an angle of at its centre . The points and are on
a line that is that is parallel to a horizontal surface, which is vertically below from the point
parallel to a horizontal surface. , and all lie in the same vertical plane. A particle is
released from rest at
a Find the speed of the particle as it leaves the arc
b Find the time taken for the particle to hit the ground after it has left
c Find the horizontal distance the particle travels after it leaves the track before it hits the
horizontal surface.
P 0.5m
X OXY
120°

Y
4m

6 A smooth piece of track is constructed so that it is in the shape of a circular arc. The arc
has a radius of and subtends an angle of at its centre . The points and are on a
line thatis parallel to a horizontal surface, which is vertically below from the point parallel to
a horizontal surface. , and all lie in the same vertical plane. A particle is released from
rest at
 a Find the speed of the particle as it leaves the arc .
b Find the time taken for the particle to hit the ground after it has left
c Find the horizontal distance the particle travels after it leaves the track before it hits the
horizontal surface.
P 0.3m
X OXY

Y
2m

7 A smooth solid hemisphere with centre and radius is fixed with its flat surface in contact with
a horizontal plane. A particle is released from rest on the surface of the hemisphere, such that
makes an angle of with the upward vertical. The particle leaves the hemisphere at Find
the angle between and the upward vertical.
8 A smooth sphere of centre and radius is fixed to a horizontal table. A particle of mass
is released from rest at a point on the surface of the sphere such that the acute angle formed
between and the line perpendicular to the horizontal surface going through is . Find the
speed of the particle when it leaves the surface of the sphere.
9 A light inextensible rope of length is attached at one end to a horizontal beam above
the horizontal ground and at the other end to a seat. A horizontal platform above the
horizontal ground has an acrobat of mass holding the rope taut while sitting on the seat
attached to the rope. The acrobat is released from rest and follows a circular arc. After the acrobat
has travelled through an angle of , measured from the starting position, the acrobat releases
herself from the seat.
a What angle does make with the downward vertical when held taut by the acrobat on the
platform?
b Calculate the tension in the rope when the acrobat is directly below .
c Calculate the speed and direction of the acrobat as she leaves the rope.
10 A marble of mass is attached to one end of a light inextensible string of length . The
other end of the string is attached to a fixed point such that hangs in equilibrium. The marble
is set in motion with a horizontal speed of Let be the angle makes with the downward
vertical at If the string does not become slack:
a find an expression for the speed of
b find an expression for the tension in the string in terms of
c show that the marble does not make full circles.
11 A smooth rubbish chute is built in two sections, and , each in the shape of an arc of a circle.
The arc has a radius of and subtends an angle of at its centre . The arc has a
radius and subtends an angle of at its centre . The points and and all lie
in the same vertical plane with and on the same vertical line.
a If a bag containing rubbish of mass is released from rest at calculate the speed at which
the bag enters the arc
A large container to collect the rubbish bags from the chute is positioned below
b Calculate the speed at which the rubbish bag reaches the large container below
c Determine whether or not the rubbish bag of mass will lose contact with the chute before it
reaches
 OAB

60°

45°

OBC

Checklist of learning and understanding

For a particle moving in a circular path of radius with varying angular speed, you can find
the velocity of the particle at any point in the path using the principle of conservation of
mechanical energy. This is assuming that the particle is only subject to weight and a central
force.
The acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circular motion and you can use this
to find the force in the same direction.
If a particle connected to a light inextensible string moving in vertical circles is to complete
full circles, then the tension in the string must be greater than or equal to zero throughout
its circular orbit.
If a particle connected to a light rod moving in vertical circles is to complete full circles,
then the speed of the particle must be greater than zero throughout its circular orbit.

is the tangential (or transverse) component of the acceleration and is the radial
component of the acceleration.
When a particle loses contact with a surface, the normal reaction force between the particle
and the surface becomes zero.
Mixed practice 9
Unless otherwise instructed, when a numerical value for the acceleration due to gravity is needed,
use

1 A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light inextensible rope of length

metres. The other end of the rope is attached to a fixed point The particle hangs in
equilibrium with the rope taut at position . The particle is then set in motion with a horizontal
speed of so that the particle moves in a vertical circle. Find the maximum height the
particle reaches above .

2 A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light inextensible string of length .

The other end of the string is attached to a fixed point The particle hangs in equilibrium
with the string taut at position . The particle is then set in motion with a horizontal speed of
so that the particle moves in a vertical circle. Find the tension in the string when the
particle is in the same horizontal line as the fixed point

3 A smooth solid hemisphere with radius and centre is resting on a horizontal table with
its flat face in contact with the table. A particle of mass is projected from the highest
point parallel with the horizontal surface at an initial speed of . When makes an
angle of with the horizontal, find the speed of the particle.

4 A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light rod of length The other end of
the rod is attached to a fixed point The particle is hanging in equilibrium at its lowest point
when it is projected with a horizontal speed of Using the principle of conservation of
mechanical energy, find the speed of the particle when the angle is made with
downward vertical .

5 One end of a light inextensible rope of length is attached to ball of mass and the
other end is attached to a fixed point . The particle is hanging in equilibrium at when it is
set in motion with a horizontal speed of Calculate the tension in the rope when
makes an angle of with the downward vertical .

6 A hollow circular cylinder is fixed with its axis horizontal. The inner surface of the cylinder is
smooth and has a radius of A particle of mass is projected horizontally with
speed from the lowest point so that moves in a vertical circle centre which is
perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The angle is .

O
θ
P

A
5 m s–1

i While is in contact with the inner surface of the cylinder, the speed is Find an
equation for by using the principle of conservation of mechanical energy.

ii For what value of will the particle leave the inner surface of the cylinder?

7 A light inextensible string of length of length has one end attached to a fixed point and
the other end attached to a particle of mass . moves in a vertical circle with centre
 and radius . When is at the highest point on the circle it has a speed of Determine
the tension in the string when is at its lowest point in the circular orbit.

8 A light rod of length is freely hinged to a fixed point while at the other end is attached
to a particle of mass . The particle starts at rest from a point vertically below and is
projected horizontally with speed The particle moves in complete circles. Find the set
of values of for which this happens.

9 A particle of mass is attached to a fixed point by a light inextensible string of length

The particle is projected horizontally with speed from the point vertically
below . The particle moves in a complete circle. Find the tension in the string when

i the string is horizontal,

ii the particle is vertically above

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, January 2011

10 A smooth sphere of radius and centre has a particle of mass sitting at rest at the
highest point of the sphere. The particle is projected horizontally with speed and the
subsequent motion of is down the sphere. loses contact with the sphere when makes
an angle of with the upward vertical.

i Find an expression for in terms of and (the acceleration due to gravity).

ii Determine the minimum value of in terms of and for which leaves the surface of the
sphere the instant it is projected.

11 A light rod of length has a particle of mass attached at the point . The rod is free
to rotate in a vertical plane about a fixed point The greatest force acting along the rod is
.

i At which point in the particle’s circular orbit does the force along the rod reach this
greatest value?

ii Find the speed of the particle at the point where the force acting along the rod is greatest.

iii Find the magnitude of the force acting along the rod when the speed is .

12

O
θ R v

A hollow cylinder has internal radius . The cylinder is fixed with its axis horizontal. A particle
of mass is at rest in contact with the smooth inner surface of the cylinder. is given a
horizontal velocity in a vertical plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, and begins to
move in a vertical circle. While remains in contact with the surface, makes an angle of
with the downward vertical, where is the centre of the circle. The speed of is and the
magnitude of the force exerted on by the surface is (see diagram).

i
Find in terms of and and show that

ii Given that just reaches the highest point of the circle, find in terms of and and
show that in this case the least value of is .
 iii Given instead that oscillates between radians, find in terms of and

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, June 2009

13

O
θ° 2m

A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light inextensible string of length .

The other end of the string is attached to a fixed point . With the string taut the particle is
travelling in a circular path in a vertical plane. The angle between the string and the
downward vertical is (see diagram). When the speed of is

i At the instant when the string is horizontal, find the speed of and the tension in the
string.

ii At the instant when the string becomes slack, find the value of .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730/01, January 2008

14

O 0.5m
θ 3 m s–1

P
v m s–1

One end of a light inextensible string of length is attached to a fixed point A particle
of mass is attached to the other end of the string. With the string taut and horizontal,
is projected with a velocity of vertically downwards. begins to move in a vertical
circle with centre . While the string remains taut the angular displacement of is radians
from its initial position, and the speed of is (see diagram).

i Show that

ii Find, in terms of the radial and tangential components of acceleration of

iii Show that the tension in the string is and hence find the value of at the
instant when the string becomes slack, giving your answer correct to decimal place.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, January 2009

15 One end of a light inextensible string of length is attached to a fixed point A particle
of mass is attached to the other end of the string. is projected horizontally from the
point vertically below with speed . starts to move in a vertical circle with
centre The speed of is when the string makes an angle with the downward
vertical.
 i While the string remains taut, show that and find the tension in the
string in terms of .

ii For the instant when the string becomes slack, find the value of and the value of .

iii Find, in either order, the speed of when it is at its greatest height after the string
becomes slack, and the greatest height reached by above its point of projection.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, June 2011

16 A particle is attached to a fixed point by a light inextensible string of length .A

particle is in equilibrium suspended from by an identical string. With the string taut
and horizontal, is projected vertically downwards with speed so that it strikes
directly (see diagram). is brought to rest by the collision and starts to move with speed

0.7 m O
6 m s–1 P

0.7 m

i Find the speed of immediately before the collision. Hence find the coefficient of
restitution between and

ii Given that the speed of is when makes an angle with the downward vertical,
find an expression for in terms of , and show that the tension in the string is
, where is the mass of .

iii Find the radial and transverse components of the acceleration of at the instant that the
string becomes slack.

iv Show that , where is the speed of when it reaches its greatest height
(after the string becomes slack). Hence find the greatest height reached by above its
initial position.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, June 2010

Rewind

Recall how to find the coefficient of restitution from Chapter 3.

 10 Centres of mass 2

This chapter is for A Level students only.

In this chapter you will learn how to:

use integration to find centres of mass of rods of variable density, uniform

laminas
and uniform solids of revolution
apply your knowledge of centres of mass to problems of equilibrium, including
suspension
of a lamina and toppling or sliding of a lamina acted on by several forces.

Before you start…

A Level You should be able 1 Evaluate:
Mathematics to integrate
Student Book 2 functions of the
type: .

A Level You should 2 Find the moment of a force of acting at the point
Mathematics understand the
Student Book 2 moment of a force with position vector about the point with position
and be able to
calculate moments. vector .

A Level You should be able 3 A particle rests on a horizontal rough surface. A

Mathematics to use the horizontal force is applied such that the particle is on
Student Book 2 coefficient of friction the point of sliding. Find the value of the frictional force,
and the inequality in terms of µ, given that the mass of the particle is .
.

Centres of mass, safety and stability

An object placed on a horizontal plane may topple over. An object placed on a rough inclined plane may
topple over or slide. If an external force is applied to an object on a rough plane (horizontal or inclined) the
object may topple over or slide. By analysing the forces on an object, including its weight, and the
moments of those forces, you can determine whether the object will remain stationary, topple over or slide.
You can assess the stablility of objects, such as a tractor on a hillside, and consider the safety implications.

Did you know?

Ships contain ballast below the waterline that lowers the centre of mass of the vessel. The ballast
has to be adjusted carefully depending on the weight and distribution of the cargo, to ensure the
ship is stable in a range of conditions at sea. The Hoegh Osaka left Southampton on 3 January
2015 but while still in the Solent it developed a severe list (tilt). The rudder and propeller were
out of the water and the Captain could not control the ship. The crew were evacuated to safety
and the tonne vessel was grounded on a sandbank to prevent capsize. The calculations
that should have led to a safe distribution of ballast and cargo were inaccurate and the centre of
mass of the loaded vessel was too high. This is a very practical example of the need for an
accurate method for assessing the location of the centre of mass of a three-dimensional body.
Section 1: Centres of mass by integration
The centre of mass of an object can be found by integration.
When a rod has variable density that can be expressed as a function you can use integration to find
the centre of mass.
When a lamina has a shape that can be expressed as a function you can use integration to find the
centre of mass.
You can also use integration to find the centre of mass of a symmetrical solid of revolution defined by
function . The centre of mass will lie on the axis of revolution.
It is usually better to use standard results, if possible. If the shapes are non-standard, or the mass density
is not uniform, integration is needed. You will also be expected to use integration to derive some of the
standard results.

Tip

You learned about density in GCSE. It is usually the mass per unit volume of a solid object, and is
measured in .

When working with a one-dimensional object such as a rod, density is mass per unit length,
measured in .

Rewind

You learned in Chapter 5, Section 1, how to find the centre of mass of a composite body in one
dimension.

Centre of mass of a rod of variable density

Rods may be designed to be non-uniform. For example, it may be desirable to reinforce a rod where it is
expected to be subject to the greatest force.

Key point 10.1

The centre of mass of a rod of length metres with variable density function is given by:

Tip

Rods are assumed to be one-dimensional.

Tip

is the mass of the rod.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.1

A metal bar metres long is modelled as a rod with mass density function . Find
the distance of the centre of mass from the denser end.

Use the formula for centre of mass. Let be the position of the
centre of mass from one end of the bar.
 Substitute in the density function and the limits.

Integrate.

The centre of mass is The rod is denser where , because is at this end
from the denser end. but at the other end.

Centre of mass of a uniform lamina defined by a function

If a lamina is not a standard shape, you may be able to model the shape using a mathematical function.

y = f(x)

x
O a

In this example, the region represents a uniform lamina. is defined by the function and the lines
.

Key point 10.2

The coordinates of the centre of mass of a uniform lamina defined by and the lines
are given by integration:

Tip

Because the lamina is uniform, mass is proportional to area. You can work with area rather than
mass.
 Tip

These formulae can be derived by imagining the region to be divided into many small
rectangles and summing along the -axis.

It is often convenient to use these rearrangements of the formulae:

where is the area of the lamina.

Tip

The formula for is the same for a rod of variable density and for a lamina defined by .

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.2

A lamina has three straight edges along the lines and .

The fourth edge is a curve modelled by , as shown.

Find the -coordinate of the centre of mass of the lamina.

f (x) = x2 + 4

x
O 2

Substitute for the function multiplying out the expression for

.

Integrate.
Check that the value of looks sensible.

You can use integration to find the centre of mass of a right-angled isosceles triangle, as in Worked
example 10.3.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.3

Use integration to find the centre of mass of the uniform triangular lamina shown.

6 f (x) = 6 –x

x
O 6

The lamina is in the shape of an isosceles triangle so the

centre of mass lies on its axis of symmetry.
Use the formula for the centre of mass of a lamina by
integration.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.4

In the right-angled uniform triangular lamina , Ĉ and .

Use integration to find the centre of mass of the lamina. State the distances of the centre of mass
from and .

A Draw the triangle. Let be the -axis and be the -axis.

C B
a

Find the equation of edge .

Gradient of

Use , with your equation for .

Integrate from to .

Substitute limits to find .

You could use integration to find , but in this case consider that you
 could have chosen to be the -axis and the -axis, then and
would be swapped over.
Find using the formula for the area of a triangle. There is no need for
integration here.
You can check this result using the coordinates of the vertices.

The centre of mass lies

from and from
.

Rewind

Recall from Chapter 5 that the centre of mass of a triangular lamina lies at the intersection of its
medians.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.5

Use integration, together with the inverse function , to find the -coordinate of the centre of
mass of the uniform lamina defined by the straight lines , and .

8 f (x) = x 3

x
O 2

The technique here is to find the -coordinate of the centre of mass of

the uniform lamina defined by the inverse function bounded by ,
and .

y
f - 1 (x) = 3√x
2

x
O 8
This will be the -coordinate of the centre of mass of empty figure
defined by and
 The denominator represents The -coordinate of the centre of mass of the required lamina can
the area of the ‘inverse’ then be calculated by subtraction.
lamina which is The area of the bounding box is , the area between and the -
axis is and the area between and the -axis is .

You can check this answer using the formula given in Key point 10.2.

Rewind

Finding inverse functions is covered in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2, Chapter 2.

Centre of mass of a uniform solid of revolution

A solid of revolution is the solid three-dimensional shape formed by rotating a function about an axis. In
the diagram, the -axis is the axis of revolution. The centre of mass lies on the axis of revolution.

y
2

x
O 1 2 3
–1

–2

The formula can be derived by imagining the solid to be divided into many small discs and summing along
the -axis.

Rewind

Finding the volume of a solid of revolution is covered in Pure Core Student Book 2.

Key point 10.3

The position of the centre of mass of a uniform solid of revolution with radius defined by is:

where is the volume of the solid of revolution.

It can be more convenient to use the formula in the form:

where is the volume of the solid.

 Tip

Since the solid is uniform, you can work with volume rather than mass.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.6

The region is bounded by the curve for , the -axis and -axis.

is rotated through radians about the -axis to produce a solid of revolution. Show by
integration that the centre of mass of the solid has -coordinate .

y The region is a quarter disc of radius , centre

2
The solid of revolution is a hemisphere.
y = √4 –x2
The formula book gives a formula for the centre of mass of a hemisphere,
but you are required to ‘show by integration’ so you cannot just quote this
result.
R

x
O 2

Use the formula for the centre of mass of a volume of revolution by

integration.

Cancel and expand the brackets in the numerator.

Write down the integrals and substitute the limits.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.7

Use integration to show that the centre of mass of a uniform solid right circular cone of height lies
from its base.

Let be the radius of the cone.

You can generate the solid cone by rotating a right-angled
triangular region about the -axis.
 y

x
O h

Find the equation of the hypotenuse.

Use the formula for the centre of mass of a solid of revolution.

Cancel

Integrate and substitute limits.

Simplify.

The centre of mass is from the

vertex.

The centre of mass is from

the base of the cone.

In Worked example 10.7, you could have used to generate the cone as a solid of revolution.

This would have led directly to but the integration would have required more steps.

y =r – r x
h
r

x
O h

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.8

The region is bounded by the line for the -axis and -axis.
 y

2 R

x
O 2 4

is rotated through radians about the -axis to produce a solid of revolution. Calculate the -
coordinate of the centre of mass of the solid.

Use the formula for the centre of mass of a volume of revolution by

integration.
The solid formed is a frustum of a cone.

Cancel and expand the brackets in the numerator.

Write down the integrals and substitute the limits.

When integrating to find the centre of mass, you may need to use any of the integration techniques you
have already learned.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.9

The region is bounded by the curve and .

is rotated through radians about the -axis. Find the -coordinate of the centre of mass of the
solid formed.

Use the formula for the centre of mass of a volume of

revolution.
You need to express using a double angle identity:

Substitute for .

You need to integrate by parts.

Integrate using integration by parts and being careful with

and signs.
 Substitute limits.

Check your solution using your calculator, if possible.

EXERCISE 10A

1 Use integration to find the centre of mass of a rod of length metres with mass density function:
.

2 A javelin is modelled as a rod of length metres of mass density

, where is measured from the tail end. Calculate the distance of
the centre of mass of the javelin from its tail end.

3 A uniform triangular lamina is in the shape of a right-angled triangle  and

.

C
5

A B
x
O 8

a Find the equation of the line passing through .

b Use integration to find the coordinates of the centre of mass of the lamina.
4 Use integration to find the centre of mass of a uniform lamina bounded by and .

5 Use integration to show that the distance of the centre of mass of a uniform solid cone of height
metres and base radius metres is from its vertex.

6 A uniform triangular lamina is bounded by the line , and the positive - and -axes. Use
integration to find the centre of mass of the triangular lamina.

7 The shape of a solid toy can be modelled by rotating the graph of , where is
measured in , through about the -axis.
 y

x
O 5

Assuming the solid formed is uniform, find the centre of mass of the toy.

8 The region bounded by the line and is rotated though about the -axis to
form a truncated cone (frustum). Use integration to find the centre of mass of the frustum.

9 A uniform lamina is bounded by the curve , the line and the -axis. Find:

a the area of the lamina in terms of

b the -coordinate of the centre of mass of the lamina
c the -coordinate of the centre of mass of the lamina in terms of .
10 A uniform lamina is bounded by the curve and the -axis, Find the -coordinate
of the centre of mass of the lamina.

11 A uniform lamina is defined by the positive -axis, the positive -axis and the curve with equation:

Use integration to find the position of the centre of mass of the lamina, in terms of .

12 The region bounded by the line and is rotated though radians about the -
axis to form a solid figure. Use integration to find the -coordinate of the centre of mass of the solid.
Section 2: Equilibrium of a rigid body
A rigid body is a single or composite object consisting of particles, rods, wires, laminas and solids that is
fixed in shape. It is in equilibrium if the resultant force acting on the body is zero and the resultant moment
acting on the body is also zero.

Suspension of a lamina from a point

The moment of the weight and reaction about the point of suspension are both zero, as the line of action of
both forces passes through the point of suspension.

reaction

A point of
suspension
vertical

G
centre
of mass
weight

Key point 10.4

If a rigid body is freely suspended, it will hang with its centre of mass vertically below the point of
suspension.

You can apply this principle to solve problems.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.10

A uniform lamina has its centre of mass at the point as shown. is a point on the edge of
the lamina at . Find the angle between the line and the vertical when the lamina is freely
suspended from .

A (2, 12)

G (5, 8)

x
O

The lamina will hang with the centre of mass vertically below .
Draw a vertical line through and the line . There is no need
to rotate the diagram.
 y

A (2, 12)

θ G (5, 8)

ve
r ti
ca
l

x
O

Let the angle between and be .

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.11

A composite lamina of mass is made from a uniform rectangular lamina and a uniform
isosceles triangular lamina abutting as shown.

E D
13cm
10cm C

13cm
A 12cm B

a Find the distance of the centre of mass from and from .

The lamina is freely suspended from .
b Find the angle between and the vertical.
The lamina remains suspended from but now has a point mass attached at . The lamina now
hangs with horizontal.
c Find the exact value of .

If a perpendicular is drawn from to it makes two

triangles.
a The mass of each component is directly proportional to area
so you can work with area.

Let the -axis pass through and the -axis pass through
.
Let vertex be .
Remember that the centre of mass of an isosceles triangular
lamina is one-third the distance from the centre of the base
to the opposite vertex.
Draw in the vertical through , which passes through the
centre of mass .
 b D

l
ca
r ti
ve 5cm

G
2 2 cm
3

Calculate .

c E D
2 2 cm
3 12cm
C

A B

Mg kMg

Take moments about the midpoint of , to work out the

value of .
As the lamina is hanging in equilibrium the resultant moment
is zero.

An object may be attached to a point or surface by a hinge. The hinge allows the object to rotate, like
hinges connecting a door to its door frame. There is always a reaction force at the hinge, but this can often
be eliminated from calculations by choosing a suitable point about which to take moments so that the
moment of the reaction force is zero. If you need to calculate the reaction force at the hinge it can be
useful to resolve the reaction force into perpendicular components.

Rewind

Taking moments is covered in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2, Chapter 22.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.12

A uniform rectangular lamina , , is smoothly pivoted at to a

horizontal surface. It rests in equilibrium against a fixed smooth block of height . The mass of
the lamina is . makes an angle of with the horizontal. Calculate:

a the magnitude of the force exerted by the block on the lamina

b the magnitude and direction of the reaction on the lamina at the hinge.

Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the

lamina.

The reaction of the hinge on the lamina has been

resolved into components and , parallel to the
edges of the lamina.
The reaction, , of the smooth block on the lamina
is normal to edge .
The weight of the block has been resolved into
 C components parallel to the edges of the lamina.

12
cm
cm
R

18
B

4g
°
45

co
sin

s
45
4g
D

10 cm
Q P
45°
A

a The lamina is in equilibrium.

Take moments about , thus eliminating the
reaction force from the calculation.
Since the rod is in equilibrium the anticlockwise
moment is equal to the clockwise moment.
The centre of mass of the lamina is from
and from .

b There is zero resultant force parallel to .

There is zero resultant force parallel to .

Use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the

magnitude of the reaction at the hinge.

The reaction force is at to . Use trigonometry to find the direction of the

reaction at the hinge.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.13

A piece of uniform wire of length is bent to form three sides of a rectangle, , and
, and then freely suspended from a hinge at . Calculate the angle between and the
vertical.

1cm
A

18cm

B
1cm

Let the midpoint of be The wire is symmetrical so .

and the centre of mass be at .
Since the wire is uniform, mass is proportional to length, so you
 can work with length to find the centre of mass.
Calculate using

Add a vertical line to the diagram from passing through .

1cm
A
Let be angle between and vertical.
vertical

θ
O G

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.14

A composite lamina of mass is made from two rectangular laminas joined as shown. There is
an axis of symmetry passing between the midpoints of and .

F E
D

10cm 7.5cm

C
8cm
A 12cm B

a Find the distance of the centre of mass from and from .

The lamina is freely suspended from a hinge at .

b Find the angle between and the vertical.

The lamina remains suspended from but now has a point mass attached at . The lamina now
hangs with horizontal.
c Find the exact value of .

a Area of larger rectangular The mass of each component is directly proportional to area so you
lamina can work with area.
Area of smaller rectangular Work out the distances of the centres of mass of each rectangle
lamina
from and , using vertex as
.

F E
b D
The centre of mass will be vertically below when the lamina is
Gθ suspended. Draw in the vertical through , which passes through .
10cm 7.5cm
ical

C
ve rt

8cm
A 12cm B
 Use trigonometry to calculate the required angle.

c The weight of the lamina acts at . Take moments about the

midpoint of , to work out the value of .

Tip

In part a of Worked example 10.13 the location of the centre of mass in the -direction could
have been found directly since it will lie on the line of symmetry.

Explore
If a point on the rim of a lamina is attached to a fixed point, and the lamina is free to rotate, it will
hang with its centre of mass vertically below the point of attachment. But what is there to stop it
resting with its centre of mass vertically above the point of attachment? In this ‘upside-down’
situation forces and moments sum to zero, as required for equilibrium. Why, in practice, does the
lamina hang with the centre of mass below the point of attachment?

Toppling of a lamina when there is sufficient friction to prevent sliding

If a lamina is placed on a rough inclined plane, it may slide down the plane or it may topple over.

A lamina will be in stable equilibrium if a vertical line through the centre of mass of the lamina lies within
its line of contact (the line from the top-most point of contact to the bottom-most) with the plane. It will not
topple.

stable
equilibrium

A lamina will be in unstable (limiting) equilibrium if its centre of mass lies vertically above the end of its
line of contact with the plane. It is about to topple.

limiting
equilibrium

A lamina will topple if its centre of mass lies vertically above a point on the inclined plane outside its line of
contact with the plane.

toppling
 Key point 10.5

If there is sufficient friction at the surface to prevent sliding, the lamina topples if its centre of
mass lies vertically above a point on the inclined plane outside its line of contact with the plane.

Tip

Use a diagram to find the position of the centre of mass of the lamina above its line of contact
with the inclined plane.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.15

A rectangular lamina measures by . It rests with one of its shorter sides on an inclined
plane. Friction between the lamina and the inclined plane is sufficiently large to prevent sliding.
Find the maximum inclination of the plane to the horizontal that will allow the lamina to rest in
equilibrium.

Draw a sketch, showing the angle between the plane and the horizontal.
When the lamina is in unstable equilibrium with its centre of mass
G vertically above its line of contact with the plane, the inclination of the
plane is maximised.
5c

θ
m

m
4c θ
horizontal

Use trigonometry to find an upper bound for .

The inclination of the

plane must be no more
than

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.16

A rectangular lamina, measuring by , has a square removed from one corner as shown.

15cm

3.5cm

7.5cm

O x
A

a Find the centre of mass of the lamina.

The lamina is placed on a rough inclined plane and rests in limiting equilibrium on the point of toppling
about point
b Find the angle of inclination of the plane to the horizontal.

a The centre of mass of the missing Find the area of the lamina by subtraction.
square lies at:
Use , to find the centre
of mass of the composite lamina.
 b Draw a sketch.
The centre of mass is resting above . The lamina is
in unstable equilibrium.

e
an
G

pl
d
θ ne
c li
in

θ
A horizontal

Calculate the angle made by the plane with the

horizontal using trigonometry.

Toppling or sliding of an object on an inclined plane

If a force is applied to an object resting on a rough surface, the turning moment may cause the object to
topple before it slides. In other cases, the resultant force may be sufficient to cause the object to slide
before it topples.

Consider the forces acting on an object resting in stable equilibrium on a rough inclined plane.

G
n o c ti o n

n
ti o
re a

fr i c
rm
al

weight

The weight acts vertically downwards through , the centre of mass. The normal reaction and friction are
both considered to act at the point on the inclined plane that the weight passes through.

Tip

If the object is about to topple, its centre of mass lies vertically above the end of its line of
contact with the plane – so the normal reaction and frictional force both act at the point that the
object would topple about.

Rewind

You met the coefficient of friction in A Level Mathematics Student Book 2, Chapter 21.

Remember:

In the limiting case where the object is about to slide:

µ .

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.17

 WORKED EXAMPLE 10.17
A uniform solid cylinder is resting in equilibrium with its end on a rough plane inclined at a variable
angle to the horizontal. The cylinder has diameter and height .
a Assuming the plane is sufficiently rough to prevent sliding, find the maximum value of that would
allow the cylinder to continue to rest in equilibrium.
The coefficient of friction between the cylinder and the plane is .

b As is increased, show that the cylinder will slide before it topples.

0.6m Draw a diagram showing the forces.

When the cylinder is in unstable equilibrium, its centre of mass

lies directly above the outer edge of its base.
1.8m The centre of mass of the cylinder lies on its axis of symmetry at a
R height of above the base.
α

F
α

W
a

b The cylinder slides down the Consider the component of the weight acting parallel to the plane.
plane if: The cylinder slides down the plane if the component of the weight
acting down the plane exceeds the limiting value of friction,
Resolve perpendicular to the plane to find the magnitude of in
terms of , and use

The cylinder starts to slide

when exceeds but
does not topple until
exceeds .

An object resting on a horizontal plane may topple over if an applied force causes a resultant turning
moment.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.18

A cardboard box in the form of a cuboid and its contents, with a combined mass of , rests in
equilibrium on a rough horizontal plane. The contents of the box are evenly distributed and the
centre of mass of the box lies at its geometric centre. The diagram shows a vertical cross-section
through the centre of the box, .

T Z 0.18m Y

0.245m

W X
A horizontal force of magnitude acts on a horizontal line through . The coefficient of friction
between the box and the plane is µ . As gradually increases from zero, the box slides before it
topples if µ . Show that .

Take moments about : The box will topple about if the moment of exceeds the
moment of the weight of the box. At the point of toppling the
normal reaction from the surface acts through .

Resultantforce to The box will slide if there is a resultant force parallel to the plane
surface.

The box will slide before it topples if:

WORKED EXAMPLE 10.19

A uniform solid cube, of side and mass , rests on a rough horizontal plane. The
diagram shows a vertical cross-section through the centre of mass of the cube. A force, ,
is applied at the midpoint of , acting at an angle of above the horizontal as shown such that
.

A 10m D
H
5m
10m θ

5m

B C

a Assuming that the cube would not slide but is on the point of toppling about , find an expression
for in terms of and .
b Assuming that the cube would not topple but is on the point of sliding along the plane, show that:
where µ is the coefficient of friction between the cube and the plane.

c Find an inequality for µ if the cube is to slide before it topples.

a Take moments about The cube will topple about if the moment of exceeds
the moment of the weight of the box. At the point of toppling
the normal reaction from the surface acts through .

b Resolve perpendicular to the The cube is on the point of sliding if the resultant force
surface,and let the normal reaction parallel to the plane surface is zero.
at the surface be :

Resolve // to surface:

Rearrange to make the subject:

friction takes its limiting value, µ newtons.

The cube will slide before it topples if

c

EXERCISE 10B

In questions the -axis lies in a horizontal plane and the -axis in a vertical plane.

1 A lamina with centre of mass at the point is freely suspended from the point . Find
the angle between and the line .

2 A lamina with centre of mass at the point is freely suspended from the point . Find
the angle between and the line .

3 A lamina with centre of mass at the point is freely suspended from the point . Find the
angle between and the line .

4 A lamina with centre of mass at the point is freely suspended from the point .
Find the angle between and the line .

5 A uniform rectangular lamina with side lengths and is freely suspended from one
vertex. Find the angle between the longer side and the vertical.

6 A uniform rectangular lamina with side lengths and is freely suspended from one
vertex. Find the angle between the shorter side and the vertical.

7 A uniform lamina in the shape of an equilateral triangle of side has an equilateral

triangle of side removed from vertex as shown.

15cm 10cm 15cm

A B
25cm

a Find the distance of the centre of mass from

The lamina is freely suspended from
b Find the angle between and the vertical.
8 A rectangular lamina, measuring by , has a quarter disc removed from one corner as
shown.

D 15cm C
2.5cm
E
7.5cm

A 10cm B

a Find the distance of the centre of mass of the lamina from and .
 The lamina is placed on an inclined plane so that its centre of mass is vertically above the point
and rests in equilibrium.
b Find the inclination of the plane to the horizontal.
9 A uniform rectangular lamina has mass . The side measures and the side
measures A uniform circular lamina, of mass , and radius , is fixed to the
rectangular lamina to form a sign. The centre of the circular lamina is from and , as
shown.

D P C

20cm

40cm
10cm
20cm

A 60cm B

a Find the distances of the centre of mass from and .

The sign is freely suspended from , the midpoint of .
b Calculate the angle between and the vertical when the sign hangs in equilibrium.
10 A uniform solid cylinder of height and radius rests with one of its plane faces on
a rough plane inclined at to the horizontal. There is sufficient friction between the cylinder and
the plane to prevent slipping. Calculate the value of if the cylinder is on the point of toppling.

11 A solid cone of base radius and height rests with its circular base on a rough plane
inclined at to the horizontal. There is sufficient friction between the cone and the plane to
prevent slipping. Calculate the value of if the cone is on the point of toppling.

12 A solid cone of base radius and height metres rests with its circular base on a rough plane
inclined at to the horizontal. There is sufficient friction between the cone and the plane to
prevent slipping. Calculate the exact value of , given the cone is on the point of toppling.

13 A piece of wire of length is bent to form an arc of a quarter-circle, and then suspended
freely from .

a Calculate the angle between and the vertical.

The arc of wire remains in suspension at when a force, , is applied to the arc at its midpoint
along a tangent, upwards. The mass of the arc of wire is .
b Find the magnitude of required to maintain the arc of wire in equilibrium with , the axis of
symmetry, horizontal.
14 A uniform rectangular lamina of mass of mass rests with on horizontal ground,
which is rough enough to prevent slipping. measures and measures . A force, ,
is applied to the lamina at at an angle of below the horizontal. Find the magnitude of , in
terms of , if the lamina is on the point of toppling about .

D C
30°

F
20cm

ground
A 30cm B

15 A uniform rectangular lamina of mass rests with on a horizontal rough plane.

measures and measures . The coefficient of friction between the plane and the
block is A horizontal force, , is applied to the lamina at .
 D C
F

50cm

A 25cm B

a Find the value of if the lamina is on the point of slipping along the plane.
b Find the value of if the lamina is on the point of toppling about

16 a The region bounded by the -axis, the line and the curve , for , is
occupied by a uniform lamina. Find, in exact form, the coordinates of the centre of mass of this
lamina.
y

0.5

x
O 1 ln 4 2

b The region bounded by the -axis, the line and the curve , for , is
occupied by a second uniform lamina. By using your answer to part a, calculate, to significant
figures, the -coordinate of the centre of mass of the second lamina.
y

ln 4
1

O x
1 2

17 i B 8 cm C

6 cm

A 17 cm D

Fig. 1
A uniform lamina is in the form of a right-angled trapezium.
(see Fig. 1). Taking and -axes along and
respectively, find the coordinates of the centre of mass of the lamina.
 C
ii D

7 cm

30°
A

Fig. 2
The lamina is smoothly pivoted at and it rests in a vertical plane in equilibrium against a
fixed smooth block of height . The mass of the lamina is . makes an angle of
with the horizontal (see Fig. 2). Calculate the magnitude of the force which the block exerts on
the lamina.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, June 2008

Checklist of learning and understanding

The centre of mass of any symmetrical uniform lamina or solid lies on its axis or axes of
symmetry.
The centre of mass of a rod of variable density, , can be found by integration:

The centre of mass of a uniform lamina with shape defined by is found by integration:

The centre of mass of a uniform solid of revolution is found by integration:

If a rigid body is freely suspended, it will hang with its centre of mass vertically below the point
of suspension.
If there is sufficient friction at the surface to prevent sliding, the position of the centre of mass
of a lamina above its line of contact with the inclined plane allows you to work out whether it
will topple.
You can use your knowledge of friction and moments to determine whether a body placed on a
rough surface will slide or topple.
Mixed practice 10
1 A uniform rod of mass and length metres is suspended from two cables fixed to the
rod at and . The rod hangs horizontally, with metres and .A
packet, modelled as a point mass, is placed on the rod at . Calculate:

a the distance given is the centre of mass of the combined rod and packet

b the tensions in the cables at and .

2 The diagram shows a uniform lamina in the shape of two rectangles attached together,
and , as shown. measures , measures , measured and
measures .

y
D C

F E
7cm
4cm

x
A 5cm 4cm B
W

a Find the position of the centre of mass from and from .

The lamina is freely suspended from .

b Find the angle between and the vertical when the lamina is in equilibrium.

3 A uniform rectangular lamina has mass . is long and is long. A

uniform square lamina of mass and side length is attached onto the rectangular
lamina with one edge along the middle of the shorter side of the rectangular lamina. The
diagram shows the system.

D 4cm C
2cm

4cm 8cm

2cm
A 10cm B

a Explain why the centre of mass is from .

b Find the distance of the centre of mass from .

The composite body is freely suspended from .

c Find the angle between and the vertical when the body hangs in equilibrium.

4 A straight rod has length . The rod has variable density, and at a distance from its
mass per unit length is given by , where is a constant. Find the distance from

of the centre of mass of the rod.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4731/01, June 2013

5
A 12cm B 30°

9cm
15cm

A uniform right-angled triangular lamina with sides

is freely suspended from a hinge at vertex . The lamina has mass and is held in
equilibrium with horizontal by means of a string attached to . The string is at an angle of
to the horizontal (see diagram). Calculate the tension in the string.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, January 2009

6 A
C
θ°

4cm

PN

A uniform semicircular arc is freely pivoted at . The arc has mass and is held in
equilibrium by a force of magnitude applied at . The line of action of this force lies in the
same plane as the arc, and is perpendicular to . The diameter of has length and
makes an angle of with the downward vertical (see diagram).

i Given that , find the magnitude of the force acting on the arc at .

ii Given instead that , find the value of .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, June 2013

7 A O C
6cm

B
Fig. 1

i A uniform piece of wire, , forms a semicircular arc of radius . is the midpoint of

(see Fig. 1). Show that the distance from to the centre of mass of the wire is ,
correct to significant figures.

D
3grams
5grams

C
Fig. 2

ii Two semicircular pieces of wire, and , are joined together at their ends to form a
 circular hoop of radius . The mass of is and the mass of is .
The hoop is freely suspended from (see Fig. 2). Calculate the angle which the diameter
makes with the vertical, giving your answer correct to the nearest degree.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, June 2010

8 A uniform solid is made of a hemisphere with centre and radius , and a cylinder of
radius and height . The plane face of the hemisphere and a plane face of the
cylinder coincide. (The formula for the volume of a sphere is .)

i Show that the distance of the centre of mass of the solid from is .

ii The solid is placed with the curved surface of the hemisphere on a rough horizontal
surface and the axis inclined at to the horizontal. The equilibrium of the solid is
maintained by a horizontal force of applied to the highest point on the circumference of
its plane face (see diagram). Calculate

a the mass of the solid,

b the set of possible values of the coefficient of friction between the surface and the
solid.

2N

0.6m

0.6m

45°

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, January 2011

9 A straight rod has length . The rod has variable density, and at a distance from its
mass per unit length is , where is a constant. Find, in an exact form, the distance of the
centre of mass of the rod from .

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4731, June 2011

10 The region bounded by the -axis, the -axis, the line , and the curve
, is occupied by a uniform lamina. Find, in an exact form, the
coordinates of the centre of mass of this lamina.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4731, June 2010

11 a
The region bounded by the -axis, the line and the curve , is
occupied by a uniform lamina. Find, in exact form, the coordinates of the centre of mass of
this lamina.

x
O 2
 b The region bounded by the -axis, the line and the curve , for , is
occupied by a second uniform lamina. By using your answer to part a, calculate, to
significant figures, the -coordinate of the centre of mass of the second lamina.

x
O 1

12 i A uniform semicircular lamina has radius . Show that the distance from its centre to its
centre of mass is , correct to significant figures.

ii 20 cm
B C

F
8 cm
4 cm

A E O G D
12 cm

Fig. 1

A model bridge is made from a uniform rectangular board, , with a semicircular

section, , removed. is the mid-point of . and
the radius of the semicircle is (see Fig. 1).

a Show that the distance from to the centre of mass of the model is , correct to
significant figures.

b Calculate the distance from to the centre of mass of the model.

iii
C

10°
A

Fig. 2

The model bridge is smoothly pivoted at and is supported in equilibrium by a vertical

wire attached to . The weight of the model is and makes an angle of with the
horizontal (see Fig. 2). Calculate the tension in the wire.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729/01, January 2008

 FOCUS ON … PROOF 2

This section is for A Level students only.

In Chapter 5, the formulae for the centres of mass of uniform triangular laminas were stated and used
without proof. This Focus on … section explores why the centre of mass lies at the intersection of the
medians. It then shows how you can set up proofs of the formulae, based on this fact and making use
of vector arguments.

Consider the statement: the centre of mass of a uniform triangular lamina lies at the intersection of the
medians.

You learned that the centre of mass of a uniform lamina lies on any axis of symmetry. A uniform
triangular lamina does not have an axis of symmetry unless it is isosceles. In the diagram the lamina
has been divided into many trapezia parallel to . You can approximate these trapezia as uniform
rods having centres of mass lying on , the median from to . Since the centres of mass of all of
the rods lie on it follows that the centre of mass of the whole lamina lies on . The same
argument would apply if you started from the other two vertices, so the centre of mass must lie at the
intersection of the medians, known as the centroid.

Questions

1 Prove that the intersection of the medians of a triangle lies at a point that is two-thirds of the
distance along the medians measured from the vertices.

Vectors can be very useful in geometry and you can use them in proofs.

b
X
N A
M

O a

Let the midpoint of be and the midpoint of be . Consider the medians and . Let the
intersection of these be .

You can use vectors to find alternative expressions for the position of .

lies part-way along and ; you use and to indicate this; you are trying to prove that
 .

Use the vectors a and b, together with the constants and , to find two alternative vector expressions
for .

You may now equate coefficients of a and b in the two expressions to get two simultaneous equations.
Solve these to find values for and .

You should be able to prove that point is two-thirds along the medians from the vertices.
2
Prove that for a uniform triangular lamina:

Consider a triangle having vertices with position vectors and .

Let the midpoint of be and the centre of mass be . Remember that the centre of mass, , of
the triangle lies on , such that is .
The position vector of the centre of mass, G, is then given by:

Find vector expressions for and in terms of and substitute them to prove the
formula.
 FOCUS ON … PROBLEM SOLVING 2

This section is for A Level students only.

Alternative approaches

Focus on … Problem solving 1 set out a step-by-step method for solving a Mechanics problem.

You know that there are different methods for solving a quadratic equation such as factorisation,
completing the square or the quadratic formula. You choose the method that takes you most quickly to the
result(s) you need.

Here, the focus is on two Mechanics problems that can be approached in different ways.

Problem 1

An elastic string of unstretched length has one end fixed at point . A bob is attached to the other end
and dropped from . Find the maximum speed of the bob in the subsequent motion.

Method 1

You can use conservation of energy to derive an expression for in terms of the extension of the elastic
string, .

You need to be very careful with your definitions of distances. If you do this successfully you will derive
the equation:

You can find the value of for which is maximised by completing the square:

When , takes its maximum value of .

In a simple question this approach may be ‘a sledgehammer to crack a nut’.

A side benefit of this approach is that you can use the expression for to find the maximum extension
of the string, by solving .

Method 2

When speed is maximised, acceleration is zero, likewise the resultant force.

Resultant force:

This takes you straight to .

You can substitute your value of into the energy equation to find :
 This approach involves less algebra and quickly gets you to .

To carry on and find the maximum extension of the string you would need to set in the general
energy equation:

You will need to solve a quadratic equation.

The common theme is application of the principle of conservation of energy: .

Problem 2

A small smooth sphere sliding across a smooth surface is acted on by an impulse directed towards the
centre of the sphere. The speed of the sphere is increased from to and its direction of motion is diverted
through angle . Values for , and are given. Find the magnitude, , and direction, , of the impulse.

vm s–1

u m s–1
α
β

I Ns

Method 1

You can use an impulse-momentum triangle:

mv
I

α β
mu

You can use the cosine rule to find the value of from values given for , and .

You will have an expression for in terms of , unless the value of is also given.

You can use the sine rule in the vector triangle and hence find :

You must take care with your vector triangle. Make sure that the directions of the arrows on the sides
make sense.

Don’t forget to put momentums in the triangle rather than velocities to make the triangle dimensionally
consistent.

Little algebraic rearrangement is necessary in this solution.

Method 2

You can resolve the final velocity into components and use conservation of momentum.

to

to

These are simultaneous equations and you need to eliminate either or .

You obtain:

Substitute the values for , and to obtain and hence .

You must take care to resolve velocities and to apply conservation of momentum correctly.

Simultaneous equations are a standard technique, but you need to take care with your rearrangements.

Questions

1 An elastic string is fixed at one end at the point . A bob of mass is attached to the other end of
the string. The string has natural length and its modulus of elasticity is . The bob is held
next to and dropped. Find:

a the maximum speed of the bob as it descends

b the maximum extension of the string.
Solve this problem by both of the methods described for Problem 1 and compare your answers.

2 A smooth sphere of mass is sliding across a smooth horizontal floor with a speed when it
receives an impulse acting towards its centre. The sphere slows to a speed of and its direction
of motion is diverted through . Find the magnitude and direction of the impulse.

Solve this problem by both of the methods described for Problem 2 and compare your answers.
 FOCUS ON … MODELLING 2

The simple pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of an inextensible string of length fixed at one end with a mass attached to
the other end; you can call the mass the bob. The bob will hang in equilibrium immediately below the fixing
unless it is displaced. If the bob is displaced out of the vertical and then released, it will swing back and
forth along the arc of a circle.

θ l

mg

Assuming that any resistances to motion are negligible, you can derive an equation of motion of the
pendulum bob. You need to consider the transverse acceleration of the pendulum bob, and apply Newton’s
second law:

This equation of motion simplifies to:

Like free fall under gravity, the equation of motion of a pendulum bob is independent of mass. Thus the
solution of the equation would be the same for a bob and a bob.

It would be possible to solve by numerical methods, but the theory of the simple pendulum
relies on some of your work on complex numbers in Pure Core Student Book 2. You also learned that

so that, when close to , all terms are vanishingly small except the first. Thus, if is
close to then .

Now the equation of motion for the pendulum bob can be approximated to:

This is now similar in form, but not the same as, the equation for simple harmonic motion:

So the pendulum equation can be solved using your knowledge of simple harmonic motion.
Questions

1 Use the theory of simple harmonic motion to write down an expression for how varies with time, in
terms of and , given that the pendulum bob is displaced so that the string makes an angle with
the vertical and then released.
2 Work out the period of oscillation for a simple pendulum of length , as a multiple of .

3 Sketch a graph of angular displacement against time, i.e. against , given that a bob, attached to an
inextensible string of length , is displaced to radians from the vertical and then released.

4 Assume that Differentiate to find an expression for . Also, derive an expression for the
transverse velocity from the angular velocity .

5 Find the maximum value for the transverse velocity to significant figures.

How accurate is the model?

To get an idea of the accuracy of the model you can compare the velocity calculated using the simple
harmonic motion approximation to the velocity calculated using conservation of mechanical energy.

Question
6 a With and , as previously, calculate from the energy equation, to
significant figures.
b Find the percentage error predicted in by the SHM model.
c Repeat Questions for pendulums with these different starting displacements:
i

ii
CROSS-TOPIC REVIEW EXERCISE 2

1 A particle , of mass , is moving in a straight line with velocity at time . It is acted

on by a force , in the direction of the line of motion of , which is defined as:
for

for .
a Find an expression for in terms of for .

b If the velocity of is when , find the velocity of when .

c A particle, , of mass , is acted on by a force for . When , the

particle has velocity . Find the velocity of when .

2 A particle of mass is moving in a straight line with speed . An impulse of

magnitude deflects through an angle , and reduces its speed to (see diagram).

By considering an impulse–momentum triangle:

a Show that .

b Find the angle that the impulse makes with the original direction of motion of .

3m s–1

P θ

6.5m s–1
4N s

3 A small ball is moving across a horizontal plane floor when it strikes a smooth vertical wall.
The coefficient of restitution between the ball and the wall is . Just before impact the
direction of motion of the ball makes an angle of with the wall. Immediately after impact
its direction of motion makes an angle of with the wall.
a Find the fraction of the kinetic energy of the ball that is lost in the impact.
b Find the value of .

4 A light rod of length metres has one end freely hinged at a fixed point and a particle
of mass attached to the other end. The rod is set in motion and makes complete circles
about . The speed of at the top of the circle is half of its speed at the bottom of the circle.
Find the maximum speed of in terms of .
5 A region is defined by the curve , the line and the -axis. A uniform solid is
formed by rotating through radians about the -axis.

a Show that the volume of the solid is .

b Show further that the -coordinate of the centre of mass of the solid is .

6 A particle of mass is moving in a straight line on a smooth horizontal surface. A

horizontal force then acts on the particle for . This force acts in the direction of motion
of the particle and at time seconds has magnitude newtons. When , the velocity
of the particle is .
a Find the magnitude of the impulse of the force on the particle between and .

b Hence find the velocity of the particle when .

c Find the value of when the velocity of the particle is .

7 Two smooth uniform spheres and of equal radius have masses and . They are
moving on a smooth horizontal plane when they collide. Immediately before the collision the
speed of is and the speed of is . When they collide, the line joining their
 centres makes an angle with the direction of motion of and an angle with the direction of
motion of , as shown in the diagram. It is given that and .

a Find the components of the velocities of and perpendicular and parallel to the lines of
centres immediately before the collision.
The coefficient of restitution between and is .

b Find the speed of each sphere after the collision.

2m s–1

A B
β
α
1.5kg 0.75kg

3m s–1

8 A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light inextensible string of length

metres. The other end of the string is attached to a fixed point . The particle is hanging in
equilibrium at point , directly below , when it is given a horizontal speed of . When
has turned through an angle and the string is still taut, the tension in the string is .
a Find an expression for .
b Find the height above at the instant when the string goes slack.
c Find the maximum height above reached by before it starts to fall down again.

O 0.5m
θ
T P

4.5m s–1
A

9 A smooth sphere lies at rest on a smooth horizontal plane. A second identical sphere ,
moving on the plane, collides with the sphere . Immediately before the collision the direction
of motion of makes an angle with the line joining the centres of the spheres. Immediately
after the collision the direction of motion of makes an angle with the line joining the
centres of the spheres. The coefficient of restitution between the spheres is .

Show that .

R S
α
β

10 A uniform solid consists of a hemisphere of radius and a cylinder of base radius and height
, fixed together so that the bases coincide. The solid can rest in equilibrium with any point on
the curved surface of the hemisphere in contact with a horizontal plane. Find in terms of .
11 A particle is placed at the highest point on the outer surface of a fixed smooth hemisphere
of radius and centre . The hemisphere is placed with its plane face on a horizontal surface.
The particle is projected horizontally from with speed and initially moves along the
surface of the sphere. The particle leaves the sphere at point , where makes an angle
with the upward vertical through , as shown.
a Find an expression for in terms of and .
After the particle leaves the surface of the hemisphere, it strikes the horizontal surface with

speed .

b Find the value of .

P

Q
a
a
θ

12 A child’s toy is formed by joining two solid cones so that their circular bases coincide. The
cones have the same uniform mass density and the same base radius. The heights of the
cones are and .

1.5 h h

a Find the distance of the centre of mass of the toy from the vertex of the larger cone.
The toy is now placed on horizontal ground with the sloping surface of the smaller cone in
contact with the ground. The object rests in equilibrium but is on the point of toppling.

b Find the radius of the base of the cones as an exact multiple of .

13 Tw uniform smooth spheres and , of equal radius, have masses and respectively.
The spheres are moving on a horizontal surface when they collide. Before the collision, is
moving with speed in a direction making an angle with the line of centres and is
moving towards with speed in a direction making an angle with the line of centres
(see diagram). After the collision, moves with velocity in a direction perpendicular to
the line of centres and moves with velocity in a direction making an angle of with
the line of centres. The coefficient of restitution between and is .

i Show that and find .

ii Find the values of and .

A B
2m kg m kg
α β
am s
–1 bm s–1

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730/01, June 2015

14

O
0.6m
θ P

vm s–1

4m s–1

A hollow cylinder is fixed with its axis horizontal. The inner surface of the cylinder is smooth
and has radius . A particle of mass is projected horizontally with speed
from the lowest point of a vertical cross-section of the cylinder and moves in the plane of the
cross-section, which is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. While remains in contact
with the surface, its speed is when makes an angle with the downward vertical at
, where is the centre of the cross-section (see diagram). The force exerted on by the
surface is .
i Show that and find an expression for in terms of .

ii Find the speed of at the instant when it leaves the surface.

© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4730, June 2012
15 D (a + 5)cm C

5cm

A 5cm B

The diagram shows the cross-section through the centre of mass of a uniform solid prism. The
cross-section is a trapezium with and perpendicular to . The lengths of
and are each and the length of is .
i Show the distance of the centre of mass of the prism from is

The prism is placed with the face containing in contact with a horizontal surface.

ii Find the greatest value of for which the prism does not topple.
The prism is now placed on an inclined plane which makes an angle with the horizontal.
lies along a line of greatest slope with higher than .

iii Using the value for found in part ii, and assuming the prism does not slip down the
plane, find the greatest value of for which the prism does not topple.
© OCR, GCE Mathematics, Paper 4729, June 2012
 AS LEVEL PRACTICE PAPER

Time allowed: 1 hour and 15 minutes

The total mark for this paper is 60.

The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by . Unless otherwise instructed, when a numerical value
is needed, use .

1 A smooth bead is threaded onto a smooth circular wire with centre and radius metre.The circular
wire is fixed in a vertical plane. The bead is projected from its lowest point on the wire with speed .
Calculate the maximum vertical height, in metres, above the point of projection that the bead
reaches. [3 marks]

2 The string on a guitar is plucked, creating a wave. The velocity, , of the wave depends upon the mass
of the string, its length, and the tension in the string so that .

a Write down the dimensions of tension. [1 mark]

b Find and given that is a dimensionless constant. [3 marks]
c Comment on whether it was necessary to state that is a dimensionless constant in part b.
[1 mark]
3 A car of mass moves along a horizontal road against a constant resistive force of
.

a Find the maximum speed, in , at which the car can move if the engine cannot exert more than
[2 marks]
A tow rope is now attached to the car, which pulls a trailer of mass The resistance to motion for
the trailer is and the resistance to car’s motion has not changed. Let be the tension in the
rope and, at the instant the speed is , the engine is working at .

b Find the driving force for the car. [2 marks]

c What modelling assumptions have been made about the tow rope? [2 marks]

d Use Newton’s second law to write an expression for the acceleration of the car in terms of .
e Find the tension in the tow rope. [3 marks] [3 marks]

4 A particle is attached to one end of a string of length The other end of the string is attached to a
fixed point A second particle of the same mass is attached to one end of another identical string,
while the other end of the string is attached to the first particle The whole system moves with a
constant angular speed of rad about the downward vertical through The upper string
makes an angle of with the downward vertical through and the lower string makes an angle of
with the downward vertical through .

α
P

β Q

a State two assumptions that you should make about the string in order to model the circular motion
of and [1 mark]

b By considering the forces and the circular motion at show that

 c By considering the forces and the circular motion at and part b show that [4 marks]
[4 marks]

5 Two small spheres, and of masses and , respectively, are attached to opposite ends of a
light inextensible string of length . They are placed next to each other on a horizontal table and
sphere is projected vertically upward with a speed of

v m s–1
A

A B B

starting position after A has been

projected vertically
upward

a Find the speed of sphere at the instant the string becomes taut. [2 marks]
b Comment on how the modelling assumption ‘the two spheres are placed next to each other will
affect your answer to part a. [2 marks]
c Show, using that the law of conservation of momentum, that, at the instant immediately after the
string becomes taut, the velocity of is [2 marks]
d State the magnitude of the impulse in the string. [1 mark]
e Calculate the maximum height that sphere reaches above the horizontal table when it first
comes to instantaneous rest. [3 marks]
f Calculate the loss in kinetic energy due to the tightening of the string. [3 marks]
6 Two smooth spheres, and with masses and respectively, are moving on a smooth
horizontal surface. The spheres are moving towards each other and before they collide each sphere is
moving at a speed of . After the collision moves with a speed of in the opposite
direction to its initial motion.

5 m s–1 5 m s–1

X Y

a State the direction in which the sphere moves after the collision. [1 mark]
b Calculate the coefficient of restitution between the two spheres. [5 marks]
7 A particle of mass slides down a slope at to the horizontal. The particle increases its speed
from to while sliding down of the slope.

a Calculate the gain in kinetic energy of the particle. [2 marks]

b Calculate the work done against the resistance to motion. [4 marks]

There is a constant frictional force between the particle and the slope, and this force is the only
resistance to motion.

c Calculate the coefficient of friction between the particle and the slope to significant figures.
d For what value of the coefficient of friction (to significant figures) would the particle [3 marks]
slide down the slope at a constant speed? [3 marks]
 A LEVEL PRACTICE PAPER

Time allowed: 1 hour and 30 minutes

The total mark for this paper is 75.

The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by . Unless otherwise instructed, when a numerical value
is needed, use .

1 A ball is released from rest and falls from a height of metres above a horizontal table. Given that the
ball rebounds to a height metres, find an expression for the coefficient of restitution in terms of
and .

[3 marks]

2 The force that two objects, of masses and , exert on each other is given by , where
is the distance in metres between the two objects and is a constant. Find the dimensions of .

[3 marks]
3 A light elastic spring with natural length rests on a smooth horizontal table. One end is attached
to a fixed point while the other end is attached to a particle of mass . The particle is held
away from . The modulus of elasticity of the spring is . Find the elastic potential energy in the
spring.
[3 marks]

4 A particle of mass is attached to one end of a light elastic string of modulus of elasticity and
natural length The other end of the string is attached to a fixed point on a smooth table so that
the particle is moving in a horizontal circle with centre .
a Find an expression for the force towards the centre of motion, if is the radius of the circular
motion.
[2 marks]

b Given that the particle is moving at revolutions per second, find an expression for the radius of
the circular motion.
[4 marks]

c For metre, sketch a graph of against .

[2 marks]

If the tension in the metre elastic string reaches the string will break.

d Comment on your sketch from part c with reference to the values of that can be chosen for this
model.
[2 marks]

5 A particle is moving along the -axis, initially starting at the origin . At time seconds, the velocity
of is in the direction of increasing, where:

for and for . When , is at .

a Sketch a graph of against for .
[2 marks]

b Calculate the acceleration of at .

[2 marks]
c Calculate the total distance travelled by in the first .
[3 marks]

6 A light elastic string of modulus of elasticity and natural length is attached to two points,
 and which are apart in a horizontal line. Two particles, and each of mass , are attached
to fixed points of the string such that the unstretched lengths of and are each The system
is in equilibrium with the angle equal to , both denoted by .
4m
A B
α α

X Y

a Show that the tension in is given by and in is given by .

[3 marks]

b Show that .
[6 marks]

c Verify that is a solution to the equation found in part b.

[1 mark]
7 A smooth sphere with centre and mass is moving with speed when it collides with a
second smooth sphere with centre and mass moving at a speed of . The velocities of the
spheres immediately before impact are inclined at angles of and , respectively, to the direction
at the moment of impact.

A B
60°

2v m s–1 v m s–1

The coefficient of restitution between the spheres is

a Calculate the speed and direction of the spheres after impact.
[5 marks]

b Calculate the loss of kinetic energy as a result of the impact.

[2 marks]
8 An aeroplane of mass travels vertically downwards while moving in a quarter circle and then
travels horizontally.

90m s–1
350m

350m

60m s–1

The circle has radius and the linear speed of the plane reduces uniformly from to
during the seconds it takes the plane to turn through the quarter circle. Let be the time
after the plane enters the quarter turn.
a Find expressions for the radial and tangential components of the acceleration of the plane during
the turn.
[4 marks]
 b While the plane is in the turn, there is a constant resistive force. Calculate the energy lost due to
resistances to motion in the turn, in .
[2 marks]

When the plane is halfway through the quarter circle, it releases a parcel. The plane is vertically
above the horizontal ground. The particle is modelled as a projectile once it has been released.

c Calculate the speed with which the parcel is released.

[4 marks]
d Calculate the time taken for the parcel to reach the ground.
[3 marks]

9 A solid object is formed by rotating the area under the curve around the . axis between the
lines and with .
a
Show that the distance of the centre of mass from is .
[5 marks]

A solid object is created in this way, with and The solid shape is placed on a rough
inclined plane, at an angle of to the horizontal, with the largest flat face of the shape in contact with
the inclined plane, and does not slide.

b Find the angle at the point of toppling, to significant figures.

[2 marks]

c At what angle would the solid object slide down the inclined plane, if the coefficient of friction
between the object and the inclined plane is
[2 marks]
d Given that the coefficient of friction between the inclined plane is will the shape topple or slide
as the angle is increased?
[1 mark]
10 A car of mass starts at and moves along a horizontal road with a driving force and a
variable resistance to motion force that is proportional to the square of the distance from . At the
instant when is a distance of from the resultant force is .
a If metres is the distance , find an equation for the resultant force in terms of the distance .
[2 marks]

b Find the work done, in , by the car when the car has travelled a distance of metres.
[3 marks]
c Given that the car starts from rest at , find the speed of the car when it is at a distance of
metres from the point
[4 marks]
 FORMULAE

The following formulae will be given on the AS and A Level assessment papers:

Kinematics

Motion in a straight line Motion in two dimensions

Newton’s experimental law

Between two smooth spheres

Between a smooth sphere with a fixed plane surface

Motion in a circle

Tangential velocity is

Radial acceleration is or towards the centre

Tangential acceleration is

Centres of mass

Triangular lamina: along median from vertex

Solid hemisphere, radius from centre

Circular arc, radius , angle at centre from centre

Sector of circle, radius , angle at centre from centre

Solid cone or pyramid of height above the base on the line from centre of base to vertex

Conical shell of height above the base on the line from centre of base to vertex
Answers
All answers are given to significant figures, where appropriate.

Chapter 1
Before you start…
1

Exercise 1A
1

5
6 a

Exercise 1B
1

4 a

6 a

10

11 Proof
12

Exercise 1C
1

5 a

d
6 a

d Model Anita as particle leaving the surface of the springboard and entering the water, no resistance
to motion.

7 a

8
9 a

10
11 a

Exercise 1D
1

8
9 a

b
10 a

Exercise 1E
1

8
9 a

10

11

12

13

14 a

Mixed practice 1
1

3
4 i

ii
5 i

ii
6 i

ii

7 i

ii
 8 a

c
9 i

ii
10 i

ii
11 i Proof

ii

12 i

ii
13 i Proof

ii

iii
14 i Proof

ii

iii
15 a

b
16 i

ii

iii
17 i

ii
18 i

ii

iii

19 i Proof

ii
20 i

ii
21 i

ii

iii

iv
22
23 a

c
Chapter 2
Before you start…
1 a

5 a

10

11 if

Exercise 2A
1 a

f Dimensionless

2 Dimensionless

3 Dimensionless

4 a
 b Yes
5 a

b The same

6 Dimensionless

8 a

10

Exercise 2B
1 a

c
2 a

3
4 a Consistent

b Not consistent

c Consistent

d Consistent

e Not consistent
5 a

b Consistent

6 a

7 a

b , not the same

c
8 a

b The same

9 a

b
10 a

b Change the to

Work it out 2.1

Solution 2 is correct.

Exercise 2C
1

5 Proof
6 a Proof

b Yes. As the angle must be dimensionless, must have the inverse dimension of , so the dimension of
can be determined as .

8 a Dimensionless

9 a

10

Exercise 2D
1 Quantity Dimension SI unit

Time

Mass

Weight

length
(displacement)

Area

Volume

Velocity

Acceleration
 Acceleration due to
gravity

Force

Kinetic energy

Gravitational
potential energy

Work done

Moment of a force newton metre

Power
watt

Momentum

newton second
Impulse

Moment of inertia

Angular velocity

Density

Pressure

Periodic time (time

for one complete
cycle)

Frequency

Surface tension

Mixed practice 2
1 a

2 Proof
3 a

b i Inconsistent, is the incorrect term.

ii Consistent

iii Inconsistent, is the incorrect term.

4 a

b
5 a

6 and

7 a

b as the two masses must make a similar contribution to the attractive force.

8 a

9 a

c if
10 a

11 a

12
13 a

d
Chapter 3
Before you start…
1

3 if

4 a

Exercise 3A
1 a

6 Positive direction
Initial velocity Final velocity Impulse

10
11 away from the wall

12 away from the wall

13

14

Work it out 3.1

Solution is the only possible answer.

Exercise 3B
1

4
5 a

6 in original direction of travel

10 . The balls being spherical, the balls being the same size, the impact being along the line of
centres, the contact being smooth.

11 a

Exercise 3C
1 i ii iii iv v

2 Both change direction. Velocity of is and of is

 3 a

4 a

c
5 a

6 a

8 a Velocity of is and of is , moving in opposite directions to each other.

9
10 a Velocity of A is and of is , both in the original direction of motion.

11 Velocity of is and of is , both in the original direction of motion.

12
13 a Velocity of is and is , both in the original direction of motion.

14 a

15

16

17

18

19 a

Mixed practice 3
1 a
 b
2 a

3 in the direction of the second roller skater

4 in the direction of initial motion

5 i a

ii
6 a

b
7 i

ii
8 i Proof

ii

iii
9 i and has changed direction
ii a

b
10 i

ii As there are no more collisions

11 i

ii
12 i
ii a

13 and away from each other

14 i

ii Proof

iii Proof

iv Speed of is away from the wall and speed of is towards the wall.
Chapter 4
Before you start…

Work it out 4.1

Solution 3 is correct.

Exercise 4A
1 a i

ii

b i

ii
c i

ii

d i

ii
2 a i

ii
b i

ii

c i

ii

4 a

5 a

7 a

b
8 a Its orbit is circular and its angular speed is constant.
 b i

ii

Exercise 4B
1 a i

ii

b i

ii

c i

ii

d i

ii

2 a i

ii

b i

ii

c i

ii

4
5 a

6 Emily will feel an increase in force by a factor of .

7 a

b No, it is not a sensible estimate; it is too small. This is a very low speed to drive around a bend of
radius.

9
10 a Assume the only friction force acting on car is from road surface. Assume car is on point of slipping
away from centre.

b i

ii

c For asphalt, reduce max safe speed from to when wet.

For concrete, reduce max safe speed from to when wet.

d Depends on where the road is to be built. For example, in a city with a low speed limit asphalt would
be cheaper and suitable.
11 a Proof
 b Proof

c Proof

d Proof

e Proof

Exercise 4C
1 a i

ii
b i

ii
c i

ii
d i

ii

2 a

4 Proof
5 a

6 Proof

7 a

c
8 a

c , compression

9 a

10 a

c , away from the centre so the rod is in compression.

11 ,
12 Max speed , min speed

13 Proof

Mixed practice 4
1 a

c
2 a mg N

F = 0.6mg N
r
v2
a= r

mg N

b
3 a

5 Proof

6
7 a

c There was no frictional force acting.

8 a
b i

ii
9 i

ii

iii
10 i in and in

ii
11 i Proof

ii
12 i in and in

ii
13 a Proof

b
 c Proof
14 i µ

ii
Chapter 5
Before you start…

Exercise 5A
1

Exercise 5B
1

4 a

6 a

9
Work it out 5.1
Solution 1 is correct.

Exercise 5C
1 a

3 from , from

7 from and from

10 from and from

11

12

13

14 Proof

Mixed practice 5
1

6
7

10

11

Focus on … Proof 1
1 Proof

Focus on … Problem solving 1

1

Focus on … Modelling 1
1

3 Yes, the ball hits the bell.

Cross-topic review 1
1
2 a

6 Proof

8 away from the wall

9
10 a

11

12
13
Chapter 6
Before you start…
1

Exercise 6A
1

10

11

12 Work done

Work it out 6.1

Solution 2 is correct.

Exercise 6B
1

10
11

12

13

14 a

b upwards

15 Proof

16

17

18 a

Exercise 6C
1 a

b
2 a

3
4 a

8 a Proof

b
9 a

b
10 a Proof

Exercise 6D
1 a i

ii

iii

c
2 a i

ii
 b i

ii

c
3 a i

ii

c or

8
9 a

c
10 a

Mixed practice 6
1
2 a

3 a

4
5 a

b
6 i

ii
7 i

ii upwards
8 i
 ii
9 i

ii
10 i Proof

ii Proof
11 i Proof

ii

12

13

14
15 i , Proof

ii Proof
16 i

ii

iii
17 i Proof
ii a

c
18 a is the weight of a mass of at sea level, where is the acceleration due to gravity. The
variable weight model gives as the weight of a mass of at sea level.

c
19 a

d Proof
Chapter 7
Before you start…
1

2 a directed towards the origin

3 where is a constant

4 a

Exercise 7A
In all of the following answers represents a constant.

1 a

2 a

3 a

4 a

5 a

10

11

12 a

13 a from origin in the negative -axis direction

14
15 a directed in the negative -direction

c As , so

16 , where is a constant

Exercise 7B
1

3 in the positive -direction

5 in the negative -direction

6 in the positive -direction

8 Proof

10

11 a

Mixed practice 7
1 a

2 Proof

3 or

At

The particle is accelerating in the negative -direction. When , so accelerating in the

 positive -direction
4 a

d in the positive -direction

5 i Proof

ii Proof

iii

6 i

ii v

5.76

1.92

t
O 12 24

7 Proof
8 i Proof

ii
9 i Proof

ii

10 i

ii
Chapter 8
Before you start…
1

3
a b

a +b

4 Horizontal , vertical

Exercise 8A
1 a

2 a

6 a

7 a

8 a i

ii

9 a i

ii

10

Exercise 8B
1 a

b
2 a

3 a

d at to the wall

4 at to the wall
5 a

f Proof
6 a to the wall

7 at to the positive i direction

9
10 a at

11 speed

Exercise 8C
1

3 at at

4 at to line of centres, along the line of centres

5 at at

6 at at

7 a

b
8 a

b
 9 a at to the string

Mixed practice 8
1

3 i Proof

ii

4
5 i to the initial direction

ii
6 i

ii

7 i

ii

8 at an angle of above the horizontal away from in the opposite direction to

its initial motion.
9 i

ii

10 i to the right along the line of centres

ii

11 i

ii to the left along the line of centres

iii
12 i

ii to the left

iii

iv
13 i Proof

ii has below the line of centres. moves up perpendicular to line of centres.

14 a

b
Chapter 9
Before you start…
1

Work it out 9.1

Solution 3 is correct.

Exercise 9A
1 a i

ii
b i

ii

c i

ii
d i

ii
2 a

3 a No, maximum height

b No, maximum height

c No, maximum height

4 a

6 for a full circle to occur.

8 a when hangs vertically below

9 a
 b

Exercise 9B

1 a i Tangential , radial

ii Tangential , radial

b i Tangential radial

ii Tangential ,

c i

ii

2 a Radial component ,

tangential component .

6 Radial component , tangential component is .

Work it out 9.2

Solution 2 is correct.

Exercise 9C
1 a i

ii

b i

ii

c i

ii
d i

ii
2 a

b
3 a

c
4 a

c
5 a

6 a

9 a

c in the direction to the horizontal

10 a

c Proof
11 a

c It will lose contact with the chute.

Mixed practice 9
1

5
6 i

ii

8
9 i

ii
10 a

b
11 a When is vertically below

c
12 i , proof

ii , proof

iii

13 i and

ii
14 i Proof

ii Radial tangential

iii rads

15 i

ii

iii
16 i

ii , proof

iii

iv Proof,
Chapter 10
Before you start…
1

2 clockwise

Exercise 10A
1

3 a

5 Proof

9 a

10

11

12

Exercise 10B
1

6
7 a

8 a from , from

b
 9 a from , from

10

11

12
13 a

14

15 a

16 a

17 i

ii

Mixed practice 10
1 a

2 a from , from

3 a Proof

5
6 i

ii
7 i Proof

ii
8 i Proof

ii a

b µ

10
11 a

b
12 i Proof

ii a Proof

iii

Focus on … Proof 2
1 Proof

2 Proof

Focus on … Problem solving 2

1 a

2 at to original direction of motion

Focus on … Modelling 2
1

3 θ

π
24

t
O π 2π

–π
24

4 a

5
6 a

c i from SHM model. from the energy equation (the bob is going
slower than the SHM model predicts).

ii from SHM model. from the energy equation (the bob is going
slower than the SHM model predicts).

Cross-topic review 2
1 a
 b

c
2 a Proof

3 a

5 a Proof

b Proof
6 a

7 a Sphere A:

Sphere B:

b Speed of , speed of

8 a

9 Proof

10

11 a

12 a

13 i

ii

14 i Proof
 ii
15 i Proof

ii

iii

AS Level practice questions

1
2 a

c It was necessary since the dimensions of would affect the solution found in part b.
3 a

c Light and inextensible.

e
4 a Light and inextensible

b Proof

c Proof
5 a

b It will affect how high above the horizontal can move before the string goes taut. The speed of
will be larger if is not directly above .

c Proof

6 a is moving in the opposite direction to its initial motion.

b
7 a

A Level practice questions

1
2

4 a

c r
5

–1 O 1 2 k

d Asymptote at so that the string does not break, so .

5 a v
4

O 2 4 t

6 a Proof

b Proof

c Proof

7 a Sphere Sphere : to the direction before the impact.

8 a

d
9 a Proof

c
 d it will slide.

10 a

c
Chapter 1 worked solutions
1 Work, energy and power 1
Worked solutions are provided for all levelled practice and discussion questions, as well as Cross-topic
review exercises. They are not provided for drill questions.

EXERCISE 1A

6 a

EXERCISE 1B

4 a

6 a

8 average force

9
10

11

12

EXERCISE 1C
 EXERCISE 1C
5 a

6 a

d Model Anita as particle leaving the surface of the highboard and entering the water at a single
instant, no resistance to motion. No account taken of bending of highboard.

7 a

9 a

10

11 a

EXERCISE 1D
 EXERCISE 1D
8

9 a

10 a

EXERCISE 1E

9 a

10

11
12

13

14 a

MIXED PRACTICE 1

2 , so

4 i

ii

5 i

ii

6 i

ii

7 i

so

ii

8 a
 b

9 i

ii

10 i

ii

11 i

ii and

12 i

ii

13 i

ii

iii

14 i

ii

iii
15 a

16 i

ii

iii

17 i

ii

18 i

ii

iii

19 i

ii
20 i

ii

21 i

ii

iii Constant speed:

iv

22

23 a

b
c
Chapter 2 worked solutions
2 Dimensional analysis
Worked solutions are provided for all levelled practice and discussion questions, as well as Cross-topic
review exercises. They are not provided for drill questions.

EXERCISE 2A

4 a

5 a

b This is the same as the dimensions of and .

6 so dimensionless.

8 a

9 Force

10

EXERCISE 2B

1 a

2 a

b
 c

4 a

b
,

So, not consistent.

e so not consistent.

5 a as is dimensionless.

6 a

7 a

b so not the same.

Called moment of momentum as it is momentum length

8 a

b
9 a , ,

10 a

So, dimensionless and therefore inconsistent.

b Change the to .

EXERCISE 2C
 EXERCISE 2C

5 , and are dimensionless.

6 a

b Yes. As the angle must be dimensionless, must have the inverse dimension of , so the dimension of
can be determined as .

8 a is dimensionless.

which is dimensionless.

b Let this be decibels

9 a

10

Index of

MIXED PRACTICE 2

1 a

because the difference of two lengths is also a length.

Similarly,
 so the equation is dimensionally consistent.
3 a
b i

Inconsistent: is inconsistent.

ii

iii

4 a

b Conversion table:

CGS MKS Factor

has conversion factor

5 a as cosine is dimensionless

as cosine is dimensionless

7 a

b as the two masses must make the same contribution to the force.

c , , , ,
8 a Angular acceleration

If consistent the dimensions of all terms are the same.

9 a

Equating indices:

Solving:

Substitute:

10 a

Equating indices:

11 a

b
 c

12

Equating indices:

13 a

d
Chapter 3 worked solutions
3 Momentum and collisions 1
Worked solutions are provided for all levelled practice and discussion questions, as well as Cross-topic
review exercises. They are not provided for drill questions.

EXERCISE 3A

7 +ve
10N

600 0 600 v

t=0 t 1 = 300

Change in momentum

Change in momentum

8 10N +ve

600 8 600 4

t=0 t =t

Change in momentum

Impulse or minutes

9 0.6N +ve

1.2 15ms–1 1.2 v

t=0 t = 10

Impulse Change in momentum

10 +ve 0.6N

1.2 15ms–1 1.2 v

t=0 t = 10

Impulse Change in momentum

11
+ve

0.5 20ms–1

I R

15ms–1 0.5

Change in momentum

away from the wall.

12
+ve

2 15ms–1

10ms–1 2

change in momentum

Impulse away from the wall.

13 +ve

250 25 250 15

t=0 t = 20

Change in momentum

Impulse

Force is in direction opposite to the motion.

14 +ve

200 5 200 20

t=0 t = 20

Change in momentum

Impulse

EXERCISE 3B
2 +ve

1.5 3 2 0

A B

1.5 0 2 v

A B

3 +ve

2 8 10 2.5

A B

6 2 2.5 v

4 +ve

3.5 20 1.5 0

5 v

5 a Collision 1:

0.45 0

3N s

0.45 v

b Collision 2:

+ve

2
450 63 400 0

450 v 400 3
6 +ve

0.7 8 6 0.9

A B

1.6 v

7 +ve

0.8 8 6 m

A B

4 0.8 m 4

8 +ve

600 60/3.6 800 0

600 v 800 30/3.6

9 +ve

2 14 0.2 0

2 12 0.2 v
10 +ve

0.38 v 8 0.42

0.75v 0.38 0.42 0.75v

Assuming: the balls are spherical and the same size, the impact is along the line of centres, the contact
is smooth.
11 a +ve

m 5 3 3

A B

Case 1 m+3 v1

Case 2 v2 m+3

Case 1:

Case 2:

b Case 1 Case 2

EXERCISE 3C

2 +ve

3kg 4 5 2kg

P Q
e=1
2

3 v1 2 v2

Momentum:

Newton’s experimental law:

 Subtract

and both change direction. Speed of is . Speed of is .

3 a Momentum:

+ve

0.5 5 3 1

A B

0.6 0.5 1 v

towards .

b Newton’s experimental law:

4 +ve

1.5kg 16m s–1

12m s–1 1.5kg

a After the impulse let the velocity of the sphere be .

b Impulse change in momentum or away from

the wall.

c Loss in

5 a Velocity towards wall.

+ve

J
m

v
 b Impulse or away from wall.

c Initial Final

6 a +ve

4 v 2.5 10

A B

4 13.75 2.5 v

c Initial

Final

Loss

7 Collision :

+ve

0.2 10

wall

v 0.2

Collision :

+ve

0.4 0 6 0.2

B A

v 0.4 0.2 0

Momentum

8 a Momentum:
 +ve

0.4 8 6 0.6

A B
e = 0.8

0.4 v1 0.6 v2

Newton’s experimental law:

Add ,

So velocity of is and velocity of is ; moving in opposite directions to each other.

b Initial B 6 0.6

Final B 0.6 4.08

Impulse

9 Energy: loss gain:

0.4

2m h

u v

gain loss:

10 a
4m 2u 3u m

A B
e = 0.75

4m v1 m v2
 Momentum:

Newton’s experimental law:

Substitute in

Both particles are moving in the original direction of .

b Speed of , Speed of

Initial

Final

Loss is

11 +ve

m 6 m 3

A B
e= 0.8

m v1 m v2

Momentum:

Newton’s experimental law:

Add in original direction,

12
m

h1
h2

u eu

loss gain:

loss gain:

13 a : change in momentum impulse

 +ve

0.4 6 0.4 3

A B

0.4 v1 0.4 v2

0.96N

b Newton’s experimental law:

14 a +ve

0.04 5 3 0.04

A B

2.2 0.04 0.04 v

b Newton’s experimental law:

c Impulse on

15
0.5
0.5

2.5m
2m

+ve

u v

loss gain:

loss gain:

Impulse change in momentum upward.

16
0.45 0.45

2m 2m

u v

loss gain:

gain loss:

17 Positive direction

2m 0 2m u

Impulse = 8m

Impulse change in momentum:

Positive direction

2m 4 3m 0

Initial
A B

2m v1 3m v2

Final

First collision: Using conservation of linear momentum:

Newton’s experimental law:

Solving and and

Collision with wall: velocity of approaching wall is

Velocity of leaving wall is so for to catch

18 First collision:
 Positive direction

m 6 2m 0

Initial
P Q

m v1 2m v2

Final

Conservation of linear momentum:

Newton’s experimental law:

Solving and simultaneously: and

Second collision:

Positive direction

2m 3.4 7m 0

Initial
Q R

2m v3 7m v4

Final

Conservation of linear momentum:

Newton’s experimental law:

Solving and simultaneously:

For a second collision, must be moving away from and be moving faster than giving two
conditions: so

Combining and

19 a Conservation of linear momentum:

+ve
0 16 ms–1

3kg 5kg

A B

3kg 5kg

v v
 b Impulse change in momentum

MIXED PRACTICE 3

1 a +ve

0.4 5 2.5 0.8

P Q

1.5 0.4 0.8 v

Change in momentum of

in ’s final direction.

b Momentum:

2 a 10 0

0.8kg m kg
P Q
2 4

Momentum:

b
0.8 10 m 0

2 0.8 m 4

3
50kg 6 8 75kg

125

Momentum:

So speed in direction of the motion of heavier skater.

4
m 6 3m 2.5

P Q

4m v

Conservation of linear momentum:

5 i a Momentum:

+ve

9 2

P m Q 0.8kg

v1 3.5 v2 3.5

b change in momentum of

ii Momentum:

0.8 3.5 0.4 2.75

1.2 v

6 i Momentum:

0.3 2.2 0.5 0.8

P Q

0.3 1.1 0.5 v

ii
7 i Momentum:
 0.4 3 1.5 0.6

P Q

0.4 0.1 0.6 v

ii
0.4 –1 0.6 v

8 i Momentum:

+ve

m 0 6 0.5

Q P

v+1 v

ii Momentum:

+ve

m v v+1 0.5

Q P

iii

9 i
2400 5 3 3600

A B
v v
 has changed direction.
ii a +ve

2400 5 3 3600

A B

v 2400 3600 v

b change in momentum of final momentum − initial momentum

10 i I = 0.9 I = 0.9

0.4 5 0.2 v

A B

0.2 6

ii

0.2 6 0.1

B C

0.2 v1 0.1 v2

Conservation of linear momentum for the second collisions:

NEL:

Subtract

As , no more collisions.
11 i
0.2

3m

1.8m
+ve
I

u v

loss gain:

gain loss:

ii

12 i +ve

0.18 2 3 m

m + 0.18 0

ii a
1.5 0.18 m 1.5

b Case 1: Momentum:

+ve

0.18 2 3 m

m + 0.18 v

Case 2: Momentum:

1.5 m + 0.18
13
2kg 8 4 3kg

2kg v1 3kg v2

Loss in

Momentum:

lost initial final :

–1 2 3 2

2.6 2 3 not possible

2 5

Possible answers are and or and which is not a possible result of the
collision as in diagram above.

Speeds are and away from each other.

14 i +ve

2m u m 0

A B

2m v m 3v

Momentum:

ii Newton’s experimental law:

iii

m 6u
5

v1 m

before impact

iv Momentum:

2m 2u 3u m
5 5

A B
e =4
5

2m v1 m v2

NEL:

Subtract from

is away from wall, is towards the wall.

Chapter 4 worked solutions
4 Circular motion 1
Worked solutions are provided for all levelled practice and discussion questions, as well as Cross-topic
review exercises. They are not provided for drill questions.

EXERCISE 4A

4 a

b , consider proportion of angle in a full turn:

in secs one circuit takes secs.

5 a Angular change is , time taken is secs.

Therefore angular speed is

c and

Therefore and hence

6 For and , therefore

As both and are connected they have the same linear velocity.

Hence for therefore

7 a

b , hence

8 a Its orbit is circular and its angular speed is constant.

b i , therefore

Hence

ii

EXERCISE 4B

4
 1500gN

FR
35m a

1500gN

and hence

5 a

2gN

T T
0.3m a

2gN

. At the object,

b hence

At the object,

6 mgN
a

F E

l l
2 2

mgN

When halfway, where , hence

When she moves increases to

and

So , so Emily will feel an increase in force by a factor of .

7 a mgN

F =µ R
55m a

mgN
 hence

Also, , hence , therefore

hence , hence

b No it is not a sensible estimate, this is a very low speed to drive around a bend of radius.

8 , rotating , hence

mgN
a

0.13m

mgN

Also, , hence

9 0.04gN

T T A
F =µ R
0.15m
T
T 0.04gN

0.03gN

, , ,

Towards the centre of motion, at .

Hence

10 mgN

F
25m

mgN

a Assume only friction force acting on car is from road surface. Assume car is on point of slipping away
from centre.
 b Asphalt , concrete .
i , for asphalt and

As

ii For concrete , hence

c For asphalt hence

Reduce max safe speed from to in wet conditions.

For concrete hence

Reduce max safe speed from to in wet conditions.

d Where the road is to be built could influence this decision.
For a city with a lower speed limit asphalt would be cheaper and suitable.
11a Since and the coordinates of are you can write the position vector as
.

b Differentiating the position vector with respect to will give the velocity vector for :

c Differentiating the velocity vector with respect to will give the acceleration vector for :

d Since . This shows that the acceleration is directed in the opposite

direction to the position vector and .

e Looking at the scalar product of the vectors and you get:

Hence the vectors are perpendicular and so the velocity vector is perpendicular to the radius.

EXERCISE 4C
2 a
A

25m
T

a
B

5g
ω = 4rads–1

unknown

Forces at

b
A

30°

1m
T

a
B

0.2g
ω unknown

unknown,

Forces at and hence

 c
A

13m
12m T

B
a

10g
ω unknown

unknown, unknown

and hence

and hence

d
A

25°

1.2m
T = 56

a
B

mg
ω = 16rads–1

unknown, , ,

hence

3
4 RN

mg
θ
12m a

and hence

and hence

13
5

θ
12

hence hence

Therefore as required.

5 a

30°
T

0.8m

T
0.5g
T
60°

At

b hence hence
6 10000N

a ms–2

mg

Using , you can find using a right-angled triangle that .

Resolving forces perpendicularly you get .

Using directed towards the centre of the circular motion you get

Substituting the values in and rearranging, and so .

7 a A sin θ = 3
5
θ 4
θ 5 cos θ = 4
5
1.44m

T1 3 tan θ = 3
4
1.80m
P
θ
T2

1.08m
B
mg

Resolving forces vertically you get .

Using towards the centre of the circular motion, .

You can then solve the pair of simultaneous equations to find (the tension in ).

Using the diagram,

Multiplying equation by and equation by gives

Adding the two equations together gives

 b Given , you can substitute this into and rearrange to make

the subject:

c For a lower bound for , you need the tension in as will be taut by the downward force of
the weight of the particle .

Hence

8 a A
2m
30° T
2

Q
B
T3 T1 2m
30° T
1

C P
3g

2g

At : Resolving forces vertically gives , so .

Using towards the centre of the circular motion gives .

Given that , .

So and .

b At : Resolving forces vertically gives .

Substituting in from part a, you get .

c At , you can use directed towards the centre of the circular motion for .

The rod is therefore in compression.

9 a a

3r R
r 5

mgN
 θ
3r r
5

2
r 2 –⎧3 r ⎫ = 4 r
↴
5 5
⎩ ⎭

b hence

This gives .

10 A

45°
TA

1.3m

TA

P
B TB TB
↵ω
3gN

a At

and hence

For it to be in tension must be positive. Hence

Hence the lower bound is

c When ,

Hence away from the centre .

11 A

θ
T
2m
T

3gN

and hence

and hence

but no solution for )

Hence

12 R

F
a mg
22°
55m

When speed is at its maximum to prevent the car from slipping away from the centre friction acts
inwards:

hence

and

Hence and

Hence

, hence
 R
F

a mg
22°
55m

When speed is at its minimum to prevent the car from slipping in towards the centre friction acts
outwards:

and hence

Hence

and hence

13 R

mg
θ
rm

Assume that the car can be modelled as a particle, friction is preventing the car from slipping,
there are no other resistances to the movement.

To work out whether the assumption is that the car is on the point of slipping inwards or outwards
consider both cases and calculate which gives the coefficient of friction given.

F
mg
θ
rm

Car is on point of slipping out. Hence

 and

Hence as required.

MIXED PRACTICE 4

b and hence circumference

c and hence
2 a mgN

F =µ R
= 0.6mgN
rm
a = vr
2

mgN

3 a Using .

b Using .

4 Using towards the centre of circular motion of the car, the force keeping the car in circular
motion is the frictional force.

So .
5 xl (1 –x) l
⟲ ωrads–1
A T C T B

mg mg

Since the tension and angular speed are the same, you can use at both and to give:

So and rearranging gives . Hence .

6 The tensions are equal, so you can resolve the forces vertically at to get . You can then use
at , directed towards the centre of circular motion of to give .

rearranging gives and so .

7 a A

θ
T

49L − 24L = 25L

7L
T

T T
R
B 24L

a
mg

b hence

Hence

c There was no frictional force acting.

8 a R

mg
22°
10m a

↵ω
 and hence

b i

R
F =µ R

mg
22°
10m a

and hence

Hence

ii R

F =µ R
mg
22°
10m

and hence

Hence
9 i 5m

3m R

θ
4m

mg

Resolving forces vertically you get so .

Using Pythagoras’ theorem you can find that and so you can calculate .

ii 5m

3m
R

θ
T 4m
ϕ

T
0.2g

0.1g

Using and resolving forces towards the centre of the circular motion you get:

Using you find that .

iii Using the diagram you have .

Resolving the forces at the attached hanging particle you get that the tension in the string is .

Resolving the forces vertically at you get: .

Using and gives .

Resolving the forces at towards the centre of the circular motion you find:

Using and gives .

10 A

60°
T

60° S

B
0.5g

i Resolving the forces vertically you get: .

Resolving the forces horizontally towards the centre of the circular motion you get:

You now have two equations in and :

and

Solving these simultaneous equations gives and .

ii When the string is on the point of becoming slack, .

Resolving the forces vertically, , thus .

Resolving the forces horizontally towards the centre of the circular motion:

. This gives .

11 i
T R
45°

45°

mg

Resolving vertically:

Resolving the forces horizontally towards the centre of the circular motion:

You now have two equations in and :

and

Adding the equations together gives:

.
 ii Looking at the greatest value for the angular speed this will occur when .

From the equations formed in part a with :

This gives:

Using you get .

12 i A

θ
3.2m ω = 4rads–1
θ
S

2
1.6
B 2g
θ

Resolving the forces vertically you get .

Resolving the forces horizontally towards the centre of the circular motion:

You now have two equations and in the unknowns and . You can solve these simultaneously
to give and .

ii The least possible speed will happen when .

You can resolve the forces vertically and horizontally again to give:

and .

Dividing the first equation by the second: .

This gives .

13 R

mg
θ

a Resolving forces vertically gives

.
 Resolving forces horizontally towards the centre of the circular motion:

Substituting into the above equation gives:

b Using from part a:

c For the motion of the particle, the string needs to be taut and thus must have tension.

. This gives:

14
µR

mg

i Resolving the forces horizontally towards the centre of the circular motion you get:

Resolving the forces vertically:

Combining these two equations gives .

ii A

0.5
T 0.3

θ 0.4

mg

Resolving horizontally towards the centre of the circular motion:

Resolving the forces vertically you get:

Solving gives and .

Chapter 5 worked solutions
5 Centres of mass 1
Worked solutions are provided for all levelled practice and discussion questions, as well as Cross-topic
review exercises. They are not provided for drill questions.

EXERCISE 5B

9 Centre of mass for arc of angle is given by:

Using Newton-Raphson method let

radians therefore angle of radians

EXERCISE 5C

7 Total length of

The centre of mass is from and from .

8 For the triangular lamina:

For the composite body:

9

10 Total mass of rod and lamina . Measure distances left and down from . For rod: metres

The centre of mass is metres from and metres from .

11 Cylinder: , hemisphere:

Total mass

12 Radius of cone removed (similarity)

Vol. of full cone:

Vol. of cone removed:

13 Take measurements along the main axis of the hat.

Conical shell:

Curved surface area of hat

Area of annulus

14 For composite body: . Uniform solids so work with volumes.

Cancelling and rearranging: , as required.

MIXED PRACTICE 5

1 Moments about
 metres

4 Area of triangular lamina since perpendicular height of triangle is from

pythagorean triple.

Area of units squared

5 Centre of mass for quarter disc from

7 Centre of mass of arc of angle

Measuring from rod

8 Centre of mass of
9 The combined shape is a single uniform triangular lamina with vertices at relative to
the given lines. Therefore its centre of mass is:

10

Cancel , multiply by and substitute for and

11 Let vertex of conical shell be

Using
Chapter 6 worked solutions
6 Work, energy and power 2
Worked solutions are provided for all levelled practice and discussion questions, as well as Cross-topic
review exercises. They are not provided for drill questions.

EXERCISE 6A
 EXERCISE 6A

10 Reduction in work done by resistance

11

(reject the negative solution because of the context)

12

and, by trial and improvement,

EXERCISE 6B
 EXERCISE 6B
5

10 Change in

11

12

13 Equilibrium extension, , such that

14 a Conservation of energy:

Rearrange:

b At the fullest extent:

leading to

15

change in change in tension mean extension

16 Using increase of loss of

17 Let distance be metres

18 a

b
Conservation of energy:

EXERCISE 6C

1 a

b
2 a
 b

to nearest degree.

4 a

6 Going up the plane:

Going back down the plane:

7 Extension in longer string:

Extension in shorter string:

Let be the angle between the longer string and the vertical.

Let be the angle between the shorter string and the vertical.

The mass hangs in equilibrium:

8 a Conservation of energy:

9 a Acceleration resultant force mass

10 a Constant speed tractive force resistance resolved component of weight

 b Using the same method:

EXERCISE 6D

9 a so for the force is

10 a

MIXED PRACTICE 6

2 a

c
3 a

5 a

b Integrate the expression for acceleration:

6 i

ii Starting

7 i

ii

8 i

ii

9 i
 To calculate the max. speed at equilibrium extension:

Using conservation of energy:

ii in equation : cancel then:

Which simplifies to:

10 a Initially in equilibrium so

Conservation of energy for , speed just before collision:

Conservation of momentum, speed of combined particle:

therefore

b Conservation of energy:

11 i Conservation of energy: loss of

ii
12 Work done by engine work done by resistance increase in KE

13

14

15 i

Use conservation of momentum when strikes

ii

16 i

ii

iii leading to , a deceleration of .

17 i

ii a Max. extension when

 b

c Differentiate equation with respect to

18 a is the weight of a mass of at sea level, where is the acceleration due to gravity.

The variable weight model gives as the weight of a mass at a distance metres from the

centre of the earth. Since the radius of the earth is metres is the weight of a mass of at
sea level.

19 a

c and

d
Chapter 7 worked solutions
7 Linear motion under variable force
Worked solutions are provided for all levelled practice and discussion questions, as well as Cross-topic
review exercises. They are not provided for drill questions.

EXERCISE 7A

7 , ,

At , ,

When ,

At and

so

9 , ,

, is a constant

Let

At ,

At ,

10 , ,:

is a constant.

At , so So,

At ,

11 , ,

Where is a constant.

At ,
 when

12 Direction for question:

a Since acceleration is positive for the maximum velocity will occur at .

At ,

13 , ,

At ,

The particle is away from the origin in the negative -axis direction

At

At

Time taken from origin is (since it takes to travel to the origin from its starting
position).

14 direction for question: at ,

therefore

therefore where is constant

when , so or

At

15 direction for question: , ,

At , so

Magnitude of acceleration is and it is directed in the negative

-direction.

Using partial fractions:

 Let , so

Let , so

At , :

c As , so that

A bound for the distance travels from is .

16 Maximum displacement is , suggests sinusoidal function: where is a constant.

EXERCISE 7B

3 , direction: , ,

At , in the positive -direction.

4 ,

At ,

At ,

5 , direction:

(force in direction of motion), , ,

 ( is a constant)

At , : so , at ,

So has a speed of and is travelling in the negative -direction.

6 , direction for question: when .

and

when :

When :

travelling in the -direction.

7 , direction: , , ,

At , :

8 direction: , and

At , :

9 , direction: , , ,

At , :

Since acceleration will always be positive and since at velocity will always be
positive.

10 , direction: , , , ,
 Use an integrating factor:

We need to integrate using by parts, twice.

. when .

11 , . direction

a , where is the acceleration due to gravity.

where is a constant.

At , :

At , : , so

Let

So giving .

The other solution is unrealistic. If continued to increase with time, it would eventually exceed the
weight, and the stone would fall back up! This possibility has been rejected.

d Since the stone is falling from it will be the first time the displacement in which is when
.

MIXED PRACTICE 7

1 direction:

b At

c , where is a constant

At , :
 d

2 direction: , ,

At , :

3 direction for question: , , ,

Instantaneously at rest when :

, where is a constant.

At , :

so , hence: or

At ,

The particle is accelerating in the negative -direction.

At , , so the particle is accelerating in the positive -direction.

4 direction: ,

At , :

(assuming positive displacements)

when

d When ,

Magnitude of acceleration is , direction is in the positive

-direction.

5 , , , , ,

ii , where is a constant.

At , so:
 iii where is a constant.

where is constant

At , :

At :

6 , , , , direction for question.

i For ,

For the initial condition here we need the final condition from the first force acting.

for the first force.

for

At ,

When ,

So, at for

At :

, so the speed at is three times greater than at

ii for .

for .

5.76

1.92

t
O 12 24

7 , direction for question

 , , ,

At :

When :

8 , falls freely for , , direction for question, .

i First we need the initial velocity before it hits the resisting medium:

, , ,

At , for the resisting medium.

In general for the resisting medium:

At ,

ii distance travelled in

9 , direction for question.

Deceleration:

i For engine

Resulting force
 ii

At , :

At ,

10 Direction for question, ,

Using :

Multiply by :

ii

At , :
Chapter 8 worked solutions
8 Momentum and collisions 2
Worked solutions are provided for all levelled practice and discussion questions, as well as Cross-topic
review exercises. They are not provided for drill questions.

EXERCISE 8A
 EXERCISE 8A
4 Principle of conservation of linear momentum:

5 Principle of conservation of linear momentum:

Velocity of is

6 a

7 a Principle of conservation of linear momentum:

b Initial

Final

Loss in

8 a i

ii

9 a i

ii

b Total impulse no change in momentum so speed

10

but

EXERCISE 8B
1 a Direction – no change.

+ve

2
⎧4⎫ 2
⎧a⎫
⎩7⎭ ⎩b⎭

before after

to wall.

b Magnitude

2 a +ve

⎧1⎫ ⎧a⎫
4 4
⎩6⎭ ⎩b⎭
before after

i direction: no change .

j direction:

b loss

loss

3 a Components

Parallel to the wall:

b Perpendicular to the wall:

c After the collision:

d 60° θ

v
5

If it rebounds with speed at to the wall,

4
30° θ

5 v

There is no change in the component of velocity parallel to the wall.

Perpendicular to the wall

5
θ

v1
v

f Loss in

6 a 45° θ

v
4

Parallel to the wall:

Perpendicular to the wall:

b Impulse on ball change in momentum perpendicular to the wall

7 Using the impulse/momentum triangle below:

8 j
θ
2 4

6Ns mv 6 i

By Pythagoras: ,

The minus sign indicates below the i direction.

8 Momentum–impulse triangle:
 m u = 48kgms–1
48
θ

I = 10N s 10
mv mv

sketch triangle

Change in

9 Momentum–impulse triangle:

30°

m v = 10 mu = 8

Remember to put and coming from the same point to get the correct triangle.

10 a 35° θ

v
5

Parallel to cushion, no impulse:

Perpendicular to cushion:

11 Draw two diagrams showing the components of the velocities before and after each collision. Show the
cushions at right angles.

First collision:

u cosθ u cosθ

u sin θ eu sin θ

Second collision:
 eu sin θ

u cosθ

eu cosθ
ϕ

eu sin θ

EXERCISE 8C

1 i
2kg 3kg

⎧3⎫ ⎧2⎫
⎩2⎭ ⎩3⎭

No change in velocity in j direction. So velocity after collision

Momentum in i direction:

Newton’s experimental law:

Substitute in :

2 No change in velocity in j direction.

In i direction momentum:

NEL in i direction

:
 Substitute in :

3 3j

2i 0
Before
3kg 2kg

+ve
3j 0

xi yi
After
3kg 2kg

After the collision: in i direction.

Momentum:

NEL:

Substitute in :

4 Resolve into components: ,

5sinθ 0

Initial A 3kg B 1kg

5cosθ 0
+ve e = 0.4
5sinθ 0

Final A 3kg B 1kg

v1 v2

Momentum along line of centres:

Newton’s experimental law:

Substitute into :

A B
0
4

1.95 3.15
5
Before A B
6sin30°= 3 3sin40°

6cos30° =3√3 3cos40°

+ve e = 0.3
A B

After 2kg 1kg

3 3sin40°

v1 v2

Along the line of centres:

Momentum

NEL:

Substitute into :

1.9486

3sin 40

θ1

4.1969

6 Along line of centres.

 Before P 6sin30= 3 Q 10sin30= 5

6cos30 =3√3 10cos30 =5√3

+ve e = 0.45

After 0.5 3 2 5

v1 v2

Momentum:

Newton’s experimental law:

3 5
P Q

θ θ1

6.28 3 2.68 3

7 a
5
2kg 45°
3kg
B
v1 v1

After

v2

Conservation of momentum parallel to the string:

b
Impulse change in momentum of (or )

8 a For before the collision: Impulse change in momentum

 b 12 before
1kg 45° 2kg
B A
after v1 v1

v2

Conservation of momentum parallel to the string:

No impulse perpendicular to the string, so

Final speed of
9 a Before
6
m 60° 2m
B A
v1 v1
60° 60°
After

v2

Conservation of momentum parallel to the string:

No impulse perpendicular to the string, so

speed of

Direction to the line of the string

2
θ

3 3

b Impulse tension change in momentum of along the string .

c Initial

Loss in

MIXED PRACTICE 8

1 Impulse–momentum triangle:
 9.6N s
I

θ
7.2N s

2 Impulse–momentum triangle:

mv = 1.2 I

60° θ

mu = 1.6

3 i Impulse–momentum triangle:

mv = 1.25 I = 2.6

θ α
m u = 3.15

ii , , so

4 Impulse momentum triangle:

0.6 × 6 = 3.6
I =5

0.6 × 8 = 4.8
5 i

Impulse momentum triangle:

15
mv

θ
11

ii

6 i

0.1
θ

I
0.125

ii

2.5cosθ 2.5cosθ

2.5esinθ
2.5sinθ

Wall

7 i Along line of centres:

v 0
Before

4 8

A B
+ve
6kg 3kg

v 0
After

v1 v2

Momentum:

NEL:

: the component of along the line of centres

 ii

as ,

8 6 0

8 15

A B
5kg 3kg

6 0

v1 v2

Initial components of velocity of are vertically and horizontally

Components of velocity vertical to line of centres unchanged by collision. Momentum along line of
centres:

Newton’s experimental law:

at an angle of

above the horizontal away from

Speed of is in the opposite direction to its initial motion.

9 i

0 0.6
Before

2.8 0.8

A B
+ve
0.1kg 0.4kg

0 0.6
After

0 v2

NEL:
 ii v

0.6
α
1.5

Direction of s motion before collision:

change in direction is

10 i

0 0.8

Before
3 0.6

A B
+ve
0.1kg 0.2kg

0 0.8

After
v1 v2

Momentum:

NEL:

to the right.

ii B
θ
before
1

after 0.8

α
2.04

Angle change
11 i 0 0.3

Before
0.3 0.3√3

A B
+ve
m m

0 0.3 v
After
v1 60° v2

v
0.3

60°
v2

The velocity of perpendicular to the line of centres remains constant so

ii

Momentum:

iii Considering restitution

12 i

+ve
4 0

Before
3 2

A B
2kg m kg
α 2

4 0 After

v1 0.8

Initial of , final

Energy loss

ii Find :

so to the left.

iii Along line of centres: Momentum

iv Newton’s experimental law:

13 i along line of centres.

u sin α u sin α

Before
u cosα u cosα

A B
2m m

u sin α u sin α

After
v1 v2

Momentum:

NEL:

: speed of remains the same.

ii After the collision:

u sin α

A moves up perpendicular to line of centres.

u cosα
α

u sin α

has velocity at below the line of centres

14 i Let be the velocity (in the direction of ) at which begins to move when the string becomes
taut.

By the principle of conservation of momentum parallel to :

ii starts to move along the length of the string with speed .

Impulsive tension change in momentum of (or )

Chapter 9 worked solutions
9 Circular motion 2
Worked solutions are provided for all levelled practice and discussion questions, as well as Cross-topic
review exercises. They are not provided for drill questions.

EXERCISE 9A

O v ms–1
a
θ
a

ums–1

a loss gain

When ,

For a complete circle to occur

1
2
x
O

–1

If or

Hence for or so it will only reach a height of before

coming back down again and repeating.

b again for a full circle

 y

1
2
3

x
O

–1

when or , hence for or .

Therefore the bead will not make a full circle. It will reach a height of
before coming back down and repeating.

c When for a full circle

x
O

–1

When

When

A full circle will not occur for this bead as it will have velocity at the top of the circle and
will come back down the same way it went up.

4 ,

O 0.4m
A

mg = 0.5gN

a loss gain

b by Newton’s second law:

 O

0.4m a

v = 2.8ms–1

0.5gN

Hence

O v ms–1
0.4m
θ

0.4m
T

u ms–1
A

loss gain

6 ,

O v ms–1
1.5m
θ
1.5m

1.2g
u ms–1

1.2g

For a complete circle to occur

loss gain: and hence

Minimum speed occurs when , hence

for a full circle to occur.

7 and . For a complete circle to occur .

u ms–1

TH mg
r
O
r
θ
r
TL

mg N
2u ms–1

mg N

At the highest point where

loss gain:

8 ,

O 2m P

0.5gN

a The maximum speed occurs when all has been converted to so when hangs vertically
below .

gain loss:

O 2m
u = √ 2g
θ
h
2m
T 0.5gN
P

v ms–1
0.5gN

gain loss:
 resolving and using

, where

O 0.15m
9 a
RN
60°
0.15m P
RN
0.025gN

0.025gN

gain loss:

b resolving and using where

c Considering conservation of mechanical energy:

loss work done due to friction

EXERCISE 9B

4 ,
 4 ms–1

When the particle is horizontally in line with the centre of the circular motion the tangential acceleration
will be the acceleration due to gravity. When the particle is moving from the highest point , when

the particle is moving towards the highest point . Therefore the magnitude of the tangential
acceleration is

v
O
90° g ms–2

5 ms–1

At the horizontal position you can find using conservation of energy:

Before: After:

We can find the tangential component of the acceleration by and radial acceleration

This gives:

Using ,

6 ,

P T O
θ

4 ms–1

v ms–1

Using conservation of mechanical energy:

 Before: ,

After: ,

The radial component of the acceleration is given by:

The tangential component of the acceleration comes from a component of the acceleration due to
gravity:

EXERCISE 9C

2 ,

u = Oms–1

0.5m g
0.5g

v ms–1

2m

a gain loss:

b , , ,

Hence

, ,

3 , ,
 a gain loss:

b where , ,

or (not possible)

c , ,

4 , ,

a gain loss:

b where , ,

, , ,

5 , ,

P Rm
X Oxy
u = Oms–1 θ
Rm

Dm

a gain loss:
 b where

c : , ,

6 , ,

P Rm
X Oxy
u = Oms–1 θ

Rm

Dm

a gain loss:

b : , ,

c where , ,

7 The particle will lose contact with the surface when .

RN

P u = 0ms–1 RN
X

5° mg
v = vms–1
θ mg

O
2m

At use and resolve in the direction of acceleration:

where . We therefore need .

gain loss: with

Therefore,

When
8 , . The particle leaves the surface of the sphere at .

RN

A
u = Oms–1
25°
2gN
B RN
θ
O 0.9m

v = v ms–1

2gN

gain loss: hence . Therefore we need .

When the particle leaves the sphere at B,

( ) resolve in the direction of :

When , ,

And calculating gives

When :
A
9 a
θ 4m
2m
P

6m

4m 65g

hence .

b ( ) Use and resolve in the direction of :

 A

4m

a
4m
T
2m
P
vms–1

65g N

where .

gain loss: and

Therefore , hence

60°
30°

vms–1

30°
P
4m
h
65gN

gain loss:

Height change

Hence in the direction to the horizontal.

10 a loss gain:

O v = v ms–1
T
θ
0.6m
T
0.03gN
u = 3ms–1

0.03gN

given

b Resolving the forces in the direction of and using Newton's second law,

where
 c The string becomes slack when .

Therefore, since cosine is a decreasing function for , the string will first become slack for
. Hence the marble does not make full circles.

11 a loss gain: , hence

3m
RN 60°
θ
A
3m
u = 0ms–1 RN
RN
B
3gN

3gN
3gN
7m
C
θ 2m

45° 7m
OBC

At

Hence

b gain loss:

Hence .

c For the bag to be in contact :

For arc AB: where

Use and resolve in the direction of :

60°
θ
60°–θ

θ+ 30°

60°–θ

θ+ 30°

mgN
 Hence

, , ,

hence and contact is kept.

For arc conservation of mechanical energy gives gain loss

At , hence where

Resolve in the direction of acceleration:

Hence

17
21
y = cosx

x
O 36°,0 45°

Hence the bag will be in contact until and then it will lose contact with the chute.

MIXED PRACTICE 9

1 When the rope makes angle with the downward vertical, by conservation of energy:
2

So

3 Angle made with upward vertical so .

4 ,

60° 2m v ms–1
2m

P u = 7ms–1

0.4gN

loss gain

where

Hence

5 metre, , .

loss gain

When the rope makes degrees with the downward vertical we can use in the direction along
the rope towards the centre of motion:
6 i

O v ms–1
1.05m
θ
RN
1.05m
RN
0.6gN
5ms–1

0.6gN

loss gain

where

Hence

ii The particle will leave when

( ) Use and resolve in the direction of where

When

7 , . At the lowest point:

u = 7ms–1

3m

3m
T

vms–1

0.4gN

Using and resolving in the direction of gives

where . gain loss

Hence
8 O

θ
a v ms–1
a

mgN
P u ms–1

mgN

loss gain where

Hence when the rod makes an angle with the downward vertical:

For the particle to move in complete circles for all values of .

Hence
9 i By considering conservation of mechanical energy from the initial starting position until the string is
horizontal: loss gain.

Taking the initial starting position as our zero line:

Using directed towards the centre O, , where .

Thus .

ii By considering conservation of mechanical energy from the initial starting position until the string is
highest point in the motion: loss gain

Taking the initial starting position as our zero line:

Using directed towards the centre O: , where and is the weight of the
particle.

Thus
10 i The particle loses contact with the sphere when .

u ms–1 RN

rm
vms–1
θ mgN
O

gain loss

where

Hence .
 When the particle loses contact

( ) Using and resolving in the direction of gives:

when OP makes angle with the vertical .

ii If leaves the sphere the instant it is projected then when .

11 i When is vertically below as is the greatest value here.

rm a

mgN

ii

Use and resolve in the direction of where

iii O vms–1 = 6gr

rm
θ T

rm
mgN
u = 3 gr

mgN

loss gain

When
 a
T

mgN
O
120°

mgN

( ) Using and resolving in the direction of

12 i By considering conservation of mechanical energy:

O v ms–1
am
θ
am R

R
mg
u ms–1

mg

loss gain

where

Hence acceleration

( ) Using and resolving in the direction of acceleration gives:

as required.

ii ‘Just reaches’ when .

Hence

when

Hence as required.

iii oscillates between hence when

13 i When the string is horizontal

 O v ms–1
2m
θ
2m T
T
0.4g
u = 7ms–1

0.4g

By considering conservation of mechanical energy: loss gain

where

When ,

( ) Use and resolve in the direction of

ii Generally ( ) resolve in the direction of .

where

When ,

14 ,
i Using the principle of conservation of mechanical energy:

O 0.5m
3 ms–1
θ

P
v ms–1

This is the gain in kinetic energy:

ii Using for radial acceleration:

(towards the centre of the circular motion).

 θ

At the tangential component of acceleration is .

iii Resolving forces along the radial direction:

When the string instantly becomes slack, .

(in radians) and (in radians) is the first positive value.

15 i O

θ 0.8m
v ms–1
T
0.8m

T
0.3gN
u = 5.6ms–1

0.3gN

loss gain

where

( ) Using and resolving in the direction of

ii The string becomes slack when .

 Hence

iii
where

u = 2.29ms–1

180°–θ

3
2

θ –90°
5

Hence: above the point of projection.

Velocity: ,

16 i Using the principle of conservation of mechanical energy for

Before: , . After:

speed of before collision.

ii Using the principle of conservation of mechanical energy for

Before: . After:

Using in the direction towards the centre of the circular motion:

iii when
 The radial acceleration

Then transverse acceleration

iv When reaches its greatest height there will be no vertical component of velocity. So we will only
have the horizontal component of its velocity, which is:

60°

120°

Using conservation of mechanical energy to find the additional height moves once the string is
slack: Before: After:

0.7× 1 = 0.35
2
30°
120°

0.7m

Total height for

Chapter 10 worked solutions
10 Centres of mass 2
Worked solutions are provided for all levelled practice and discussion questions, as well as Cross-topic
review exercises. They are not provided for drill questions.

EXERCISE 10A

Same answer can be seen by symmetry.

3 a

4
5 As , let

6 and

9 a

10

11 Hemisphere symmetry means

To find , integrating using the substitution

 This result for is the area of a quadrant of a circle of radius .

and by symmetry, .

12 and

EXERCISE 10B

7 a Height of trapezium

Area of trapezium

8 a
 the centre of mass of the missing quadrant lies at:

9 a Let be , be etc. ,

b Let be angle between and vertical

10

11

12

13 a Let be the centre of arc and be the position of the centre of mass.

Radius of arc

and

Let be mid-point of chord

Let be angle between and vertical:

14

15 a Friction

On point of sliding friction

b
16 a

(note that )

and

b Using and considering the rectangle and :

for the inverse function

17 i uniform lamina mass area

ii Distance from to point of contact of lamina with block,

Resolve weight into (parallel to ) and (parallel to ). Let the normal reaction
at the point of contact of the lamina with the block be . Equilibrium equate moments about

MIXED PRACTICE 10

1 a

b Take moments at

Take moments at

2 Let be , lies on , lies on .

b , and

3 a Let be , lies on , lies on .

because it is an axis of reflective symmetry.

 b

and

5 Take moments about

But

6 i

ii

7 i .

ii Let be :

and

8 i Volume of solid

Let the axis of symmetry be the -axis:

Cancel and

ii a Take moments about contact point:

9
10

11 a

b Considering the function as two regions in the rectangle in part a:

The -coordinate for the inverse function,

12 i

ii uniform lamina mass area

iii Let the tension in the wire be .

Find the distance of the centre of mass from

Angle between and horizontal

Equilibrium equate moments about

Cross-topic review exercise 1
Worked solutions are provided for all levelled practice and discussion questions, as well as Cross-topic
review exercises. They are not provided for drill questions.

1 [F]=MLT−2∴MLT−2=[ c2][p]α[v]β[A]γ∴M1L1T−2=[ ML−3]α[ LT−1]β[ L2]γ

M: 1=α, T:−2=−β, L:1=−3α+β+2γ=−3+2+2γ∴γ=1

D=c2pv2A∴v=2DcpA

2 a I=Ft=10(30)=30 kg N s−1

b (300)=2(x0)−2(10)∴2(x0)=(320)∴x=16 m s−1

3 15 revs per minute =15×2π radians per minute=1560×2π rads per second =π2rads s
−1=ω∴F=mω2r=4×(π2)2×1=9.8696 N

4 Initial velocity=1.50.5=3 m s−1

Energy 12×0.5×9=0.5×10×h

∴h=920=0.45∴cos θ=11201∴θ=56.6∘

5 Force down=mgsinθ+F=1500×10×0.1+300=1800 N

Power=Fv=1800×20=36 000 W=36 kW

n=1. [ dxdt]=[ xt]=LT=LT−1

6
Assume truth of case n:[ dNxdtN]=LT−N

Differentiate with respect to t:ddt(dNxdtN)=dN+1xdtN+1

∴[ ddt(dNxdtN)]=1T[ dNxdtN]=1TLT−N=LT−N−1=LT−(N+1)

∴Truth of case N⇒truth of case N+1 and it is true for N=1∴True for all N.

7 Momentum(2×4)+(2×0)=(2×0)+(2×vi)∴vi=4

Time for B to get to edge of table=0.54=0.125 s

s=ut+12gt2,u=0,g=10∴1.4=0+5t2∴t2=1.45

t=±1.45 but t cannot be negative∴Total time=0.125+1.45=0.654 seconds

8 CLM: (4×1)+(3×2)=(4×v)∴v=2.5

NEL: v1=−ev=−0.8×2.5=2 m s−1 away from the wall.

9 y

–7 7
x
A

mBg

mAg

Moments about O: mass of figure=40πρ0×49πρ−3×9πρ=40πρx∴−27=40x∴x=

−0.675∴Coordinates (−0.675, 0)
10 a [ Force]=MLT−2

b [ 2P]=MLT−2,[ πD]=L and [ D2−d2]=L

∴[ D−D2−d2]=[ L−L]=L ∴[ BHN]=MLT−2L2=ML−1T−2

T A
11 m v2/ r

x
T

3g

T=mv2r,T=3g∴T=3v2r=3×3.52r=3g

∴r=3×3.5210×3=1.225∴x=2−1.225=0.775 m

12
θ
T
m v2
r r

2g

Tcos θ=2g 1

Tsin θ=2×25r=50r 2

sin θ=r1.5 3

1÷2:cos θsin θ=2gr50=25r taking g = 10 m s−2 4

4÷3:cos θsin2 θ=2r5×1.5r=35

5cos θ=3sin2 θ=3(1−cos2 θ)=3−3cos2 θ

3cos θ+5cos θ−3=0

cos θ=−5±616=0.468 or−2.135 (invalid)∴θ=62.095∘ height of cone =1.5cos θ=0.702 , base radius of
 cone =1.5sin θ=1.326

Volume of cone =13πr2h=1.29 m3

13 Mass of large square=m, mass of small square=m4×2=m2

Take moments about the x-axis:

(2×m)+(3×m2)=3m2x∴7m2=3m2x∴x=73

By symmetry, the centre of mass lies on the line y=x

∴y=73
Cross-topic review exercise 2
Worked solutions are provided for all levelled practice and discussion questions, as well as Cross-topic
review exercises. They are not provided for drill questions.

mdvdt=3t−1∴mv=3t22−t+c∴v=34t2−t2+c
1 a

b t=0 v=5 ∴c=5,v=34t2−t2+5

t=5:v=34×25−52+5=854=21.3 m s−1

Fm=(t−122)=a∴v=∫adt=(t22−12t+a2t+b)
c
when t =0 v=(1−1)∴a=1 b=−1∴v=(t22−12t+12t−1)

when t = 5 v=(252−52+110−1)=11i+19j
2 a Vector triangle and use of cosine rule: 42=2.42+5.22−2×2.4 ×5.2×cos θ

∴cos θ=3552

Sine rule: sin α2.4=sin θ4 and sin α= 2.44×1−(3552)2≈0.4437∴α≈26.3°

b
∴ the impulse is 180°−α=153.7° from the original direction of motion.

∥ to wall:mucos 60°=mvcos 45° ∴u2=v22

3 a
∴Loss of KE as fraction of starting KE =12m(u2−v2)12mu2 =u2−(u2)2u2 =12

b ⊥ to wall:mvsin 45°=e×mu sin60°∴v22× =e×u×32

But u=v×(2)∴v(2)=e×v(2)×(3)∴e=33

4 Maximum speed of P at the bottom of the circle.

Conservation of energy: 12m×v2−12m× (v2)2=mg× 1.5

∴v2− v24=3g∴v2=4g and v=2g

5 a Volume = π∫02.510x dx=π×[ 5x2 ]02.5 =125π4 as required.

Ax¯ =π∫02.510x2dx=π× [ 10x33 ]02.5= 625π12 and =x¯=53
b
Impulse,J=∫04(5t−2)dt=[ 5t22−2t ]04=40−8=32 N s
6 a
b J=mv−mu⇒32=0.8 ×50−0.8×u

∴0.8u=8⇒u=10 m s−1

∫0t(5t−2)dt=[ 2.5t2−2t ]0T

c
∴2.5T2− 2T=0.8 ×70−0.8 ×10

⇒2.5T2−2T=48

⇒5T2−4T−96=0

⇒(5T −24)(T+ 4)=0

T>0∴T= 245=4.8 seconds

7 a cos α=45, sin α=35, cos β=1213 and sin β=513

Sphere A:∥to lines of centres 3 cos α=125 m s−1

 ⊥ to line of centres 3 sin α=95 m s−1

Sphere B:∥to lines of centres −2 cos β=−2413 m s−1

⊥ to line of centres −2 sin β=−1013 m s−1

b Let vA and vB be the final velocities of spheres A and B ∥ to line of centres.

Newton's experimental law: (125+2413)e=vB−vA

e=12 so this simplifies to 13865=vB−vA1

Conservation of momentum: (125×1.5−2413×0.75)=0.75vB+1.5vA

Which can be simplified to: 9665=0.5vB+vA 2

Add equations 1 and 2: 23465=1.5vB and vB= 2.4 m s−1 and vA≈ 0.2769 m s−1

∴Speed of A≈0.27692 + 1.82=1.82 m s−1

∴Speed of B≈ 2.42 + (1013)2=2.52 m s−1

8 a Conservation of energy: 12 m× 4.52− ½ mv2=mg×0.5×(1−cos θ)

Cancel m then simplify: v2=20.25−g+g cos θ and v2=10.45 +g cos θ

∴Force towards centre, mv20.5=T−mg cos θ

∴T=mg cos θ+2mv2=mg cos θ+2m(10.45+g cos θ)

∴T= 3mgcos θ+20.9m

b If T=0 cos θ=20.93g so height=0.5 × (1 +20.93g)≈0.855 metres

The horizontal speed when the string goes slack is

vcos(180°−θ)=−vcosθ

At max. ht. this will be all the speed it has (vertical speed =0).

c KE lost = GPE gained:

12m×4.52−12mv2cos2 θ=mgh

∴ 4.52−3.483×(20.93g)2=2gh

∴h≈0.943 m

9 Let speed of R be u m s−1 before collision and v m s−1 afterwards.

Let speed of S after collision be w m s−1.

Conservation of momentum:

∥ to line of centres: u cos α=v cos β+w1

⊥ to line of centres: u sin α=v sin β2

Newton’s experimental law: w−vcos β=e×ucos α3

Rearrange 3: e=w−vcos βucos α

Substitute for w from 1: e=ucos α−2vcos βucos α =1−2vcos βucos α

∴1 −e=2vcos βucos α but from 2 vu=sin αsin β∴1−e=2sin αcos βsinβcos α=2tan αtanβ
 ∴(1−e)tan β=2 tan α as required.

10 Because the solid can rest anywhere on the surface of the hemisphere (with the centre of mass above
the point of contact with the plane) the centre of mass lies at the centre of the disc joining the
hemisphere and the cylinder.

Take moments about the centre of mass: 3r8×43πr3=h2×πr2h

Cancel πr2:3r28×43=h22and h2=r2 and h=r

11 a Conservation of energy: 12mv2−12 mu2=mg(a−a cos θ)

∴v2−u2=2g(a− a cos θ)

Force towards centre: mv2a=mgcos θ−(R)

But R=0 as particle leaves the sphere∴v2=ag cos θ

Substitute v2 in energy equation: ag cos θ−u2=2ga−2ga cos θ

Rearrange: cos θ=u2+2ga3ga

b Conservation of energy over remaining height to fall:

12m× 3ag2−12m×ag cos θ=mga cos θ

3ag−2ag cos θ= 4ag cos θ∴3=6 cosθ and θ=60°

12 a The centre of mass lies on the main axis of symmetry of the cone.

Let the vertex of the larger cone be (0, 0)

As the cones are uniform, work with volumes:

(13πr2×1.5h+13πr2×h)x¯=13πr2×1.5h×1.125h+13πr2×h×1.75h

Cancel 13πr2h, then 2.5x¯ =27h16+1.75h and x¯ =11h8

b Using trigonometry on a cross-section through the cones ∥ to axis of symmetry:

hr=r1.5h−11h8∴r2=h28 and r=2h4

13 i Conservation of momentum ∥ line of centres:

2m×a cos α−m×b cos β=m× 2 cos 45°1

Newton’s experimental law: (a cos α+b cos β ) × 23=2 cos 45°2

From 1: b cos β=2a cos α−2

Substitute in 2: a cos α+2a cos α−2=322

⇒3a cos α=522 ⇒a cos α=526, as required

bcos β=2acos α−2=532−2=232

ii ⊥ line of centres: a sin α= 2

But a cos α=526 ⇒tan α= 1252⇒α=59.5° (3 s.f.)(59.49°)

∴a= 2sin 59.49∘=2.32 (3 s.f.)

14 i Conservation of ME:

12mv2=12m× 42−mg(0.6−0.6 cos θ)⇒v2=4.24+11.76 cos θ

 Centripetal force: mv20.6 =R−mg cos θ⇒R=3.18 +13.23 cos θ

ii R→ 0⇒cos θ≈−0.2404⇒v2≈ 4.24−11.76×0.2404⇒v=1.19 m s−1(3 s.f.)

15 i Let A be (0, 0)

Square Triangle Whole trapezium

Area 25 5a2 a+102×5

x¯ 25 5+a3

25×2.5+(5+a3)×12×5×a= x¯ (a+102)×5

Multiply by 6: 375+(15+a)×5a=15 (a+10)x¯

Divide by 5 and simplify: x¯ =a2+15a+753(a+10)

ii a2+15a+753(a+10)< 5⇒a2< 75⇒a< 53

iii Let a=53

Rectangle Triangle Whole trapezium

Area 25 12 × 253 53+102×5

y¯ 2.5 23×5

∴25×2.5+23×5×12× 25 ×3= y¯×(53+102×5)

⇒y¯≈2.89∴tan θ= 5y¯⇒θ≈60°
Worked solutions
AS Level practice paper
1

O
θ

G.P.E =O
√gms–1

Energy at start Energy at end

So the height above the point of projection is . [3 marks]

2 a [1 mark]

Therefore: for ; for ; and for

[3 marks]

c It was necessary, otherwise we would not be able to solve the equations in , and since the
dimensions of could involve , and . [1 mark]

3 a
300N F

( ) direction

At the maximum speed the resistance force is equal to the driving force.

Using , so . [2 marks]

b a a

T T
200N F

300N

( ) direction

Using for the car: so . [2 marks]

 c Light and inextensible. [2 marks]

d Using Newton’s second law for the car in the direction of motion:

[3 marks]

e Using Newton’s second law for the trailer in the direction of motion:

Substituting your answer from part d above gives:

. [3 marks]

4 a Light and inextensible. [1 mark]

b O [4 marks]

α T1
T2 T2
P
β Q

mg
mg

c Resolving forces vertically at we get

Using towards the centre of the circular motion for :

Dividing one equation by the other we get:

Resolving forces vertically at we get

Using towards the centre of the circular motion for :

Substituting into gives:

Substituting and into gives:

Using part a we get:

 [4 marks]

5 a Using the equations of motion under constant acceleration and choosing the direction of motion as
vertically upwards:

This gives: [2 marks]

b If the two spheres are not next to each other we cannot assume that A moves a distance of before
the string becomes taut. The answer to part a would be larger, since the height that A would rise
would be smaller. [2 marks]

c Using conservation of momentum:

Before After

[2 marks]

d Impulse at [1 mark]

e As a whole system, all the kinetic energy is converted to gravitational potential energy.

height above the table for

(Total height above the table.) [3 marks]

f
Kinetic energy before Kinetic energy after

[3 marks]

6 a is moving in the opposite direction to its original motion before the collision. [1 mark]

b Using conservation of momentum in the direction of motion of :

[5 marks]

7 a Using conservation of energy:

Kinetic energy before Kinetic energy after

Gain in kinetic energy [2 marks]

b Using conservation of energy:

 start
8m

8sin30 = 4m

end 30°
G.P.E = O

Energy at start Energy at end

[4 marks]

c R

30°
30°

25g

Frictional force at a maximum is given by , where is the normal reaction force.

and

[3 marks]

d For a constant speed, the work done against friction must be equal to the loss in gravitational
potential energy.

If the particle travels metres down the slope, then:

[3 marks]
Worked solutions
A Level practice paper
1 Take the downward vertical as the positive direction. You can find the speed at which the ball hits the
ground using with and .

This gives .

Therefore the velocity before impact is and, from the question, the rebound velocity is
using (this time with and .

[3 marks]
Using (since the ball changes direction): .

2 You can use dimensional analysis where: .

Therefore, . This gives . [3 marks]

3 You can calculate the stored elastic potential energy using .

[3 marks]
Converting each of the units for distance into metres:

4 a and natural .

Let be the extension in the string and let the tension in the string be given by

[2 marks]
.

b is .

Using Newton’s second law towards the centre of the circular motion:

[4 marks]

c You need to let and look, sketching the graph of with , as you can consider

as the angular speed.

r
5

–1 O 1 2 k

d Asymptote at . [2 marks]
 Given that , if the string breaks when the tension is then:

and so .

Given that the string has natural length , you have a bound for .

This restricts the graph from part c.

Looking at the values for that give this bound: . [2 marks]

5 a v [2 marks]
4

O 2 4 6 8 t

giving . [2 marks]

c You can use integration to find the total distance travelled:

This gives distance as . [3 marks]

4m
6 a A B
α α

X Y

The diagram is symmetrical about the perpendicular bisector of and thus you can consider the
equilibrium of the particle at . You have three forces acting at : the tension in the string ; the
tension in the string ; the weight of .

Resolving the forces at horizontally gives and vertically gives .

Rearranging gives and substituting gives

. [3 marks]

b Let be the extension of the part of the string and let be the extension of the part of the string
.

Using Hooke’s law .

From part a you obtained and , with the two equations above you have
obtained four equations in the unknowns and . You need a fifth equation if you are going
to be able to find the equation you are looking for. Using the diagram and also that the length of
is you get .

After substituting and into the equations you found using Hooke’s law, you

can rearrange to make and the subject: .

You can then use equation to find:

 [6 marks]
Rearranging:

[1 mark]
c When

7 a

A B
60°

2v m s–1 v m s–1

Using the conservation of momentum in the horizontal direction:

Using the law of restitution in the horizontal direction:

Solving this pair of simultaneous equations gives.

Vertical components of velocity unchanged. Therefore, the speed of the sphere directly after
impact is given by:

and the direction is given by:

For sphere you have a speed of and at an angle of .

[5 marks]
b The loss in kinetic energy is given by: kinetic energy before − kinetic energy after

. [2 marks]

8 a
90m s–1
350m

350m

60m s–1

For the tangential component of the acceleration you need to find .

Since the plane decreases its speed by in seconds then .

To find the radial acceleration, , you must first find .

You can integrate to find , .

 This gives . At and so .

[4 marks]
This means the radial acceleration is .

b You can look at the conservation of energy, taking the gravitational potential energy level to be zero
at the end of the quarter circle.

Energy at start Energy at end

Work done against friction

at end so . [2 marks]

c You can look at the conservation of energy, taking the gravitational potential energy level to be zero
when the plane releases the parcel. You need to find the speed with which the parcel is released.

Energy at start Energy at end

(work done against friction)

Energy at start energy at end

So

This gives a speed of . [4 marks]

d To calculate the time taken to reach the ground you need to look at the vertical component of the
velocity of the parcel. You will take the direction for the movement as vertically downwards. Using
trigonometry, the parcel is moving .

Since you can model the parcel as a projectile, you can use the equations of motion under a constant
acceleration to find the time . With and you can find using

and the quadratic formula:

This gives . [3 marks]

9 a
 This is the coordinate of the centre of mass on the -axis.

To find the distance from you must subtract :

[5 marks]

b For and , the centre of mass lies on the axis of symmetry of the object and is

units from its base. The solid shape will be on the point of toppling when
the perpendicular from the centre of mass passes through a corner on the base of the solid shape.
Half the width of the base measures . At the toppling point the angle is given by:

. [2 marks]

c Given that the coefficient of friction is you can resolve the forces parallel and perpendicular to the
inclined plane to find .

Parallel:

Perpendicular:

This gives and thus . [2 marks]

d The shape will slide first. [1 mark]

10 a N

R 2000N

1250g

Resolving forces in the direction of the motion gives:

, where is the resistance force.

, since is directly proportional to the square of the distance from and is a

constant of proportionality.

At , therefore:

[2 marks]

b Using equals work done for a variable force:

 [3 marks]

c From part b, . Using Newton’s second law:

At , therefore . At . [4 marks]
Glossary
Acceleration vector: The rate of change of the velocity vector of an object.

Angular speed: The rate at which an object is rotating, measured as the angle in radians turned through
in unit time.

Centre of mass: A single point at which the mass of an object can be considered to be located.

Centripetal force: The force directed towards the centre of a circle that hold a moving object in a circular
path.

Composite body: An object made from a combination of shapes.

Conical pendulum: A particle attached to the end of a string or rod suspended from a pivot point; the
particle moves in a horizontal circle with constant angular speed, with the string or rod tracing out the
curved surface of a cone.

Dimensions: These describe what type of quantity you are measuring. In mechanics the usual dimensions
used to describe a quantity are combinations of mass ( ), length ( ) and time ( ).

Displacement: Distance moved in a particular direction.

Elastic limit: When an elastic spring or string is stretched beyond its elastic limit it does not return to its
original length when the force is removed.

Elastic potential energy: Energy stored in an elastic string when stretched or an elastic spring when
stretched or compressed.

Elastic spring: A spring that can be stretched or compressed when a force is applied and will return to its
original length when the force is removed.

Elastic string: A string that can be stretched when a force is applied and will return to its original length
when the force is removed.

Energy: The capacity of a physical system to do work.

Gravitational potential energy: energy possessed by an object because of its height above an arbitrary
fixed level.

Impulse: The product of the force on an object and the time for which the force acts, which results in a
change in the object’s momentum.

Kinetic energy: Energy that a body possesses by virtue of being in motion.

Lamina: A two-dimensional object.

Mechanical energy: The sum of the kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy of an object.

Modulus of elasticity: Theoretically the force required to double the length of an elastic string or spring,
or to compress the length of an elastic spring to zero.

Momentum: The product of mass and velocity of a moving object.

Oblique impact: A collision at an angle to the line joining the centres of two colliding objects.

Perfectly elastic collision: A collision in which there is no loss of kinetic energy.

Power: The rate at which energy is transferred when a force does work.

Propulsive forces: forces that promote movement.

Radial acceleration: Acceleration towards the centre of circular motion.

Radial direction: The direction along a radius of a circle.

Resistive forces: forces that oppose movement.

Scalar quantity: A quantity that has only magnitude but not direction.

SI: The international system of units based on seven base units, including the kilogram, metre and second.

Stiffness: The force required for unit extension of an elastic string or spring or for unit compression of an
elastic spring.

Tangential direction: The direction along a tangent at a point of a curve.

Tension: A force that is transmitted through a string or rod.

Thrust (in a spring): A force that opposes a compressive force.

Tractive force: The driving force of an engine.

Uniform lamina: A two-dimensional object that has constant mass per unit area.

Vector quantity: A quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

Velocity vector: The rate of change of the position of an object. The magnitude gives the speed and the
vector direction gives the direction of the motion.

Work done: A force does work when it moves an object.

Work–energy principle: An essential idea in mechanics that enables us to calculate the work necessary
to cause a change in energy.
Acknowledgements
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