Paul Cato

Mellon Mays Undergraduate Fellowship

DOSTOEVSKY’S JOHANNINE CHRIST:

Abstract: The following paper considers the Christ-like nature of Crime and Punishment’s
Sonya Marmeladova, drawing parallels between the character and biblical portrayals of Jesus
Christ. I argue that Dostoevsky’s portrayal of Sonya as a Christ figure is distinctly Johannine
(influenced by the theology, contents, and prose of the Gospel of John and 1, 2, and 3 John) and
is possibly indicative of the author’s personal religious beliefs. It is the beginning of a
larger projected study of Dostoevsky’s literary Christology

LAST UPDATED: September 2013

“All writers... who have ever attempted to portray the positively beautiful have always given
up.... There is only one positively beautiful figure in the world – Christ – so that the phenomenon
of that boundlessly infinitely good figure is already in itself an infinite miracle. (The whole of the
Gospel of St. John is a statement to that effect; he finds the whole miracle in the Incarnation
alone, in the manifestation of the beautiful alone).”
– Fyodor Dostoevsky to Sofya Ivanovna, October 18681

1. Introduction

During the second half of his life, Russian author Fyodor Dostoevsky spent much time

toying with the idea of portraying a “positively beautiful” individual, a figure who might serve as

a model of moral excellence and, what he termed, the “infinitely good” (Frank 562). A devout

follower of Christ, Dostoevsky believed Jesus of Nazareth was the only human being to have

showcased such sublimity, and he noted authors’ numerous attempts at developing literary

Christ-figures (Frank 562). Though cognizant of the difficulty of such an undertaking,

Dostoevsky took up the project as well, filling his later works with Christ-like characters.

Though all were modeled after Jesus, each of these Christ-figures uniquely contributed to what

one might describe as a “Dostoevskian Christology” – that is, Dostoevsky’s unique interpretation

of the nature of Jesus Christ. There is considerable scholarship concerning Dostoevsky’s use of

Christ-figures, and though many scholars, such as Frances Hernández (Hernández), choose to

focus their studies on the Christ-like nature of The Idiot's Prince Myshkin, I believe the parallels

between Jesus and Crime and Punishment's Sonya Marmeladova deserve equal consideration. I

suggest that Sonya is in many ways a Johannine Christ-figure, that is, her nature mirrors the

portrayal of Jesus found in the Gospel of John. The following investigation of Sonya’s character

will highlight distinct parallels between her and the Jesus of the fourth gospel – in particular

those that emerge from their roles as sufferers, persons of faith, redeemers, and human examples

of God’s love.

1
Joseph Frank, Dostoevsky: A Writer in His Time, ed. Mary Petrusewicz (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
2010) 562.
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2. Divine Sufferers

The embodiment of suffering is fundamental to the experiences of both the Dostoevskian

and Johannine Christs. Just as suffering defines Jesus’ life, as symbolized by the Passion and

Resurrection, so too does suffering define the experiences of Dostoevsky’s Christ-figures. While

one may argue that suffering pervades all of Dostoevsky’s novels, Christ-like suffering is best

exemplified by those characters who experience pain due to “their involvement in the torments

and sufferings of others” (Chapple 94). Such vicarious agony mirrors the sort of struggle that

Jesus endures in the Gospel of John – in his case a torment brought on by his attempts to rid the

world of sin (John 3:16, New Revised Standard Version). All throughout Crime and Punishment,

Sonya willfully succumbs to pain and suffering in an attempt to alleviate the burdens of others.

Such assumed suffering is unique to the Johannine depiction of Christ. Whereas the Jesus of the

Gospel of Matthew suffers in order to bring about the Kingdom of Heaven (Matthew 16:21-28,

NRSV) and Mark’s Christ suffers so as to reveal his role as the Messiah at an appropriate time

(Hay 22), the Johannine Christ endures agony to sustain his follower’s lives. Any parallel

between Sonya and a Jesus who suffers on the behalf of others marks a connection exclusive to

the Gospel of John. All other parallels between the two figures stem from their roles as fellow

suffers. Suffering defines the manner in which Sonya and John’s Jesus exude faith, take on sin,

spread God’s word, and provide for the salvation of others.

By prostituting herself Sonya ruins her reputation and sets herself up to be exploited, all

in an effort to keep her family from starving. She gives all of her earnings to her family, and

though her contributions remain unacknowledged, Sonya is content to go on suffering so as to

ensure her family’s survival. However, after being humbled by Sonya’s situation, Raskolnikov

comes to admit his sins and eventually seeks redemption in Christ. As such, Sonya’s pain serves
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two purposes: it both satisfies her family’s material needs and facilitates the spiritual redemption

of others. In this way she has satisfied both the earthly and heavenly needs of those around her

just as the Johannine Christ does when he gives loaves to the five thousand in Galilee, (John 6:1-

14, NSRV) or when he offers the heavenly “bread of life” to the faithful (John 6:35, NRSV). In

both cases Jesus' gift of “bread” leads to his eventual suffering – the former, “earthly” bread

helping lead to his future persecution at the hands of the Pharisees and the latter "heavenly"

bread serving as a metaphor for the life he will give up to free mankind from sin. Both Sonya and

the Johannine Christ are vicarious sufferers of a divine sort – individuals whose pain sustains the

heavenly and worldly needs of those around them.

There is no “suffering for suffering’s sake” within John or Crime and Punishment: just as

Christ was born, died and raised so that the world might come to know God, so too do

Dostoevsky’s characters suffer because “suffering... [is] instrumental in God's revelation of truth

to man” (Chapple 94). Elizabeth Blake describes Sonya’s agony as “redemptive suffering” and

argues that through encounters with her father and Raskolnikov she is turned into a symbol of

“universal anguish” (Blake 559). Just as Jesus’ passion brought about his embodiment of all of

humankind’s suffering, so too does Sonya’s self-sacrifice embody the pain of many of the

characters in Crime and Punishment. As has been shown, individuals who embody such pain

sustain life – both physical and spiritual – and provide redemption for those who need to be

saved. Thus it is the redemptive nature of the Christ-figure’s suffering that makes their turmoil so

important. John and Dostoevsky are most concerned with the new life brought about by their

Christ-figures’ sufferings; Jesus and Sonya’s pain and turmoil is secondary to the new life they

have brought about. It is important to note that Dostoevsky provides no stories of Sonya’s

experiences as a prostitute and chooses not to write about her poverty and destitution. Instead her
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encounters are almost always accompanied by some act of redemption or salvation – such as her

father’s deathbed absolution brought on by Sonya’s entrance into the house. In a similar vein,

John chooses not to focus on Jesus’ suffering during the passion: only six verses describe his

death and the piercing of his side (John 19:31-37, NRSV), whereas more than fifty are dedicated

to his resurrection and the events thereafter (John 20:1-21:24, NRSV). Ultimately, the

redemptive and life-sustaining elements of Sonya’s suffering highlight its Johannine nature and

help illustrate parallels between Crime and Punishment’s Christ-figure and that of the Gospel of

John.

3. The Wholly Faithful

Both Sonya and the Johannine Christ possess a level of faith much greater than those

around them. So sure are they in the glory of God, that they disregard their earthly interests,

choosing to focus on matters of the spirit and heaven instead. Though Sonya does exhibit

concern over practical matters at some points during the novel, her worries stem only from her

deep love of others. She does not cry over her fate or the fate of her soul – she frets only after

thinking of her sisters’ futures (Dostoevsky 322) and Raskolnikov’s predicament (Dostoevsky

412-422). Her poverty, social position, and exploitation hardly seem to faze her, and whenever

strains of self-concern begin to emerge she invokes her faith and turns to God. At one point

Raskolnikov makes an effort to challenge her faith, asking her practical questions about her

family’s living conditions and God’s apparent absence from their lives. Rather than bicker with

Raskolnikov over the irrationality of her beliefs Sonya responds by invoking her faith, repeating

to herself “God won’t let... God won’t allow...God will protect...” (Dostoevsky 320-321). Sure in

her Christian convictions, Sonya does not find it necessary to argue with Raskolnikov – her

belief transcends earthly quarrels about God’s presence and existence. Sonya’s utterances
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resemble the Johannine Christ’s frequent reassurances of God’s benevolence and willingness to

protect humanity. As the time for his crucifixion draws near, Jesus is quick to tell his disciples,

“let not your hearts be troubled; believe in God, believe also in me” (John 14:1, NSRV) and

when speaking to the five thousand after providing them with bread, he assures all who are

listening that God’s bread and gifts bring “life to the world” (John 6:33, NRSV). Endowed with

great faith, both Sonya and the Johannine Christ are sure that God will protect and sustain human

life, and often make this conviction known to those around them.

Both Jesus’ and Sonya’s faith is further strengthened by their deep humility. Whereas the

vanity of almost every other character in Crime and Punishment leads them to question, doubt,

or reject that which they do not understand, Sonya’s modesty provides her with the sureness to

reside securely in her faith, free from the burdensome skepticism that plagues the book’s other

characters. Sonya remains convinced “that God's active participation in human affairs will ensure

fairness” (Blake 559), even despite all the injustice that surrounds her. While characters such as

Raskolnikov turn to reason when faced with questions of the unknown, Sonya falls back upon

her faith and never makes the mistake of trying to rationalize God or the nature of the world. In

fact, it is precisely Raskolnikov’s arrogance and unsaturated belief in reason that lead him to

murder the pawnbroker and her sister Lizaveta. When he resolves to commit the murder early

within the novel, Raskolnikov makes logic his ally, deciding that “reason and will [will] remain

with him inalienably throughout the fulfillment of what he [has] plotted” (Dostoevsky 71). So

sure is he in humankind’s ability to reason that at one point Raskolnikov justifies the crimes of

wholly rational individuals, arguing that their ideas grant them “the right... to allow [their]

conscience to...step over certain obstacles” (Dostoevsky 259). Raskolnikov’s arrogance stands in

stark contrast with the humility of Johannine Christ. John’s Jesus is a wholly humble individual
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and all that he says and does is done in deference to his Father and according to His will. As he

tells his disciples, “I can do nothing on my own authority... I seek not my own will but the will of

he who sent me” (John 5:30, NRSV). Both he and Sonya share a sense of humility far greater

than those around them, a humility no doubt born of their endless love of God.

Sonya puts her faith to use during her first meeting with Raskolnikov (Dostoevsky 320-

321) in a scene that shares many similarities with Jesus’ encounter with the Samaritan woman

(John 4:1-26, NRSV). Through sustained engagement with each individual, both Sonya and the

Johannine Christ help Raskolnikov and the woman accept God’s truth. The encounters appear to

mirror one another, as both Raskolnikov and the Samaritan woman have the same series of

reactions to the claims made by their respective Christ figures. Both begin their response with

initial shock: Raskolnikov responds aggressively to Sonya in the case of the novel, and the

Samaritan shows surprise after being addressed by a Jew, in the gospel. As both Sonya and

Christ go on to explain the dynamics of faith – Sonya making exclamations about God’s role as

provider and savior (Dostoevsky 320-321), and Jesus using water as a metaphor to discuss new

life in God (John 4:10-15, NRSV) – Raskolnikov and the woman replace their shock with

skepticism and begin to question their interlocutors. Shortly thereafter the two skeptics are

touched by sudden moments of grace – for whatever reason they come to realize that words of

their respective Christ-figure’s hold truth, and both the woman and Raskolnikov see fit to show

their realizations in some way. Whereas Raskolnikov does this by kissing Sonya’s feet

(Dostoevsky 321), the Samaritan woman takes to announcing Jesus as prophet (John 4:28- 297,

NRSV). The encounters conclude with an ultimate acceptance of God’s truth – Raskolnikov goes

on to adopt a Christian lifestyle, and the woman departs having learned that Jesus is the Messiah.

This story of conversion is unique to the Gospel of John, and its paralleled occurrence in Crime
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and Punishment serves only to reinforce the claim that Sonya is a distinctly Johannine Christ-

figure. Not only do her actions mirror the acts of the Jesus in the Fourth Gospel, but her effects

on those around her reflect events in the Gospel as well.

4. Bearers of the Cross

A symbol of Jesus’ sacrifice and his adoption of humanity’s sins, the image of the cross

holds a central place within the Christian tradition. Dostoevsky invokes this image when

developing Sonya, who engages with the cross in a manner quite similar to the Johannine Christ.

While the Jesus of the synoptic gospels carries his cross to the mountaintop with the help of

Simon of Cyrene (Matthew 27:32; Mark 15:21; Luke 23:26, NRSV), the Johannine Christ carries

it to the mountaintop by himself – bearing his cross alone (John 19:17, NRSV). In Crime and

Punishment, Sonya bears a cross of sorts by herself, as well, doing so both literally and

figuratively. Though not crucified, she has gone through an assortment of experiences that mirror

those in John’s passion story. Like Jesus (John 18:28-19:16, NRSV), she is falsely accused of a

crime and given a trial of sorts, when Luzhin interrupts her father’s funeral and accuses her of

stealing a banknote (Dostoevsky 392). Shortly thereafter Sonya experiences great spiritual pains

while listening to Raskolnikov confess to killing Lizaveta (Dostoevsky 409). Having sustained

no injuries nor committed any bad acts since her father’s death, Sonya’s pain can only stem from

one source: Raskolnikov’s sin. Just as the Johannine Christ took upon the world’s sins and bore

his cross up until his crucifixion, so too does Sonya adopt another’s sins, bearing Raskolnikov’s

burdens as though they were her own. A symbolic exchange at the end of the Raskolnikov’s

confession illustrates Sonya’s role as cross bearer all the more. As Raskolnikov leaves her

apartment Sonya hands him a little cypress cross and promises that they will “go suffer together,

and... bear the cross together” (Dostoevsky 422). Refusing to accept it, Raskolnikov hands the
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cross back to her and with it come his sins. Sonya is not relieved of Raskolnikov’s burdens until

he comes to take responsibility for his wrongdoings and bears his cross himself. Before turning

himself in to the authorities at the end of the book, Raskolnikov stops by Sonya’s apartment and

asks for the wooden crosses he previously turned away (Dostoevsky 522). Thus his confession

serves as more than just an admission of guilt, as he now shoulders the weight of his own crimes

and sins. Just as Jesus’ followers eventually come to honor his willingness to sacrifice himself on

their behalf, so too does Raskolnikov show eventual appreciation for all that Sonya has done for

him.

5. Bringers of New life

One of the most striking parallels between the Johannine Christ and Sonya Marmeladova

involves the resurrection of Lazarus (John 11:1-44, NRSV). The story is unique to the Gospel of

John, thus making the behavior and mannerisms of the Jesus who resurrects Lazarus distinctly

Johannine. Sonya uses the story while facilitating Raskolnikov’s “rebirth” in Christ, reading it to

him during their first meeting (Dostoevsky 325-328). There are numerous parallels between the

Lazarus narrative and Raskolnikov’s own “resurrection.” The sentiments of the biblical Martha

and Mary – Lazarus’ loving sisters who first urge Jesus to come and save their brother (John

11:3, NRSV) resemble the concerns that Raskolnikov’s sister, Dunya, and his mother Pulcheria

Alexandrovna have regarding his wellbeing. What is more, both Sonya and the Johannine Christ

show pain at some point leading up to the resurrection: Jesus by weeping shortly after hearing of

Lazarus’ death (John 11:35, NRSV) and Sonya through her visible fear throughout this

“resurrection” scene (Dostoevsky 325). Yet perhaps the most important dynamic in this scene is

the role death plays in bringing about rebirth and redemption. Although physically alive,

Raskolnikov’s soul has been crushed and he is spiritually dead, for as he tells Sonya, “I killed
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myself” (Dostoevsky 420). Yet in his death Raskolnikov has provided himself with an

opportunity to be reborn in Christ. Raskolnikov clearly realizes this and thus demands that Sonya

read him the story. Just as Lazarus can start life anew, so too can Raskolnikov. As Lazarus and

Raskolnikov both show, there must be death in order for new life to come about in the Johannine

and Dostoevskian traditions. Without Lazarus’ death, Jesus is unable to showcase his ability to

reinstate life, and without Raskolnikov’s spiritual death there is no opportunity for his spiritual

rebirth. Sonya’s Christ-like nature makes such revival possible and allows figures such as

Raskolnikov to partake in new life.

6. The Embodiment of Love

By the novel’s end, Dostoevsky has replicated much of the beauty that he ascribes to

Jesus Christ. Using the self-sacrifice, sincere faith, and redemptive tendencies that define the

Jesus of the Fourth Gospel, Dostoevsky is able to develop a “positively beautiful” (Frank 562)

figure in Crime and Punishment. Yet just as suffering is fundamental to all the other experiences

Sonya and Christ have in common, love is the ideal to which both figures seem to strive. A

centerpiece of Johannine theology, love is Jesus’ foremost commandment in the Gospel (John

13:34, NRSV)⁠ and the author of 1 John equates God with love, arguing that one must love others

in order to know Him (1 John 4:7-8, NRSV). Within the Johannine tradition Jesus serves as an

embodiment of divine love, a role Sonya fulfills in Crime and Punishment by devoting her life to

caring for those around her. In the words of Frank Seeley, “the essence of Sonya is love... in the

Christian sense. Christian love... [is a] triad of disinterested humility, insight that plumbs the

depths beyond consciousness, and identification or compassion [fused] in the acceptance of

another human being” (Seeley 309). Ultimately, the suffering, faith, and life renewals which

mark Sonya as a Johannine figure allow her to showcase this Christian love. Her willingness to
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suffer for the sake of others is surely an example one an individual loving one’s neighbors, and

her faith and willingness to spread the Gospel are indicative of a great love of God.

7. Conclusion

Two excerpts from Dostoevsky's writings towards the latter end of his life summarize his

thoughts on Christ and shed light on the intentions behind his development of Sonya as a Christ

figure. In the first, a journal entry written upon his wife's death in 1864, Dostoevsky describes

the human condition as a lifelong struggle to love others more than oneself. Though he claims

that only Jesus has been capable of loving to such an extent, Dostoevsky insists that Christ has

set an ideal that must be sought by all. In his words, “since the appearance of Christ as the ideal

man in the flesh, it has become as clear as day that the... highest use a man can make of his

personality, of the full development of his Ego – is... to annihilate that Ego, to give it totally and

to everyone undecidedly and unselfishly” (Frank 407). In the second, taken from a letter to his

niece four years later, Dostoevsky would reflect again on Christ's nature, this time in light of

John's Gospel. He describes “the whole of the Gospel of St. John” as a “statement to” Christ's

beauty, and he applauds the evangelist for finding “the whole miracle... in the manifestation of

[Christ's beauty] alone” (Frank). In Dostoevsky's mind, Christ, through his “ideal” beauty,

established the ethic of reciprocity as the benchmark of human morality; and in his reading of

scripture this beauty was best reflected in the Gospel of John. It is for this reason that Sonya is

crafted in a Johannine light: John's gospel best conveys the sort of beauty which defines Jesus as

Dostoevsky's “ideal man in the flesh,” and John's Christ is the best embodiment of love. Sonya's

Johannine nature allows her to replicate much of Christ's sublimity and, in doing so, exhibit the

sort of love Dostoevsky considers fundamental to the human experience. Though she, like all of

humankind, is incapable of loving to the extent that Jesus could, Sonya's efforts to replicate
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Christ's beauty and to love in a Christ-like manner make hers the sort of life that Dostoevsky

believes everyone must live. Whereas John's Jesus serves as “the ideal toward which

[humankind]...must strive,” (Frank 407) Sonya is a model to which readers of Crime and

Punishment can look when attempting to lead their own lives of love. For perhaps if readers were

to follow in Sonya’s footsteps – bearing the cross, suffering for others, and sustaining new life –

then they too might embody the sort of Christian love which both Dostoevsky and the Johannine

community hold so dear.

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