Sustainable Cities and Society 65 (2021) 102619

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Sustainable Cities and Society

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Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on travel behavior in Istanbul: A panel

data analysis
Shahin Shakibaei a, *, Gerard C. de Jong b, Pelin Alpkökin a, c, Taha H. Rashidi d
a
Transportation Engineering Department, Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
b
Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
c
Department of Rail Systems, Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, Istanbul, Turkey
d
Research Centre for Integrated Transport Innovation (RCITI), School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The COVID-19 pandemic, which was reported in early January 2020 in China and spread rapidly around the
COVID-19 pandemic globe, will certainly remain as one of the most impactful disruptive events of the 21st century. To contain the
Travel behavior spread of the virus while awaiting a vaccine, countries applied different approaches from simply giving advice on
Public transportation
personal hygiene and applying progressive measures to total lockdown. This paper aims to investigate the im­
Teleworking
Istanbul
pacts of the pandemic on travel behavior in Istanbul, Turkey, through a longitudinal panel study conducted in
three phases during the early stages of the epidemic and pandemic. The paper reflects the travel behavior
evolution during the development of the outbreak resulting from residents’ self- regulation and governmental
measures, distinguishing travel for commute, Social/Recreational/Leisure (SRL), and shopping activities, as well
as use of different travel modes based on various socio-economic characteristics. Due to the application of the
social distancing of at least 1.5 m, closure of numerous non-essential venues, encouraging teleworking and
distance education, job losses and cancellation of all social gatherings in Istanbul between the second and third
phase of our data collection, the transition in travel activity pattern and transport mobility appears to be quite
extreme, particularly for commuting and SRL trips.

1. Introduction in long term investment in developing and developed countries (Fong,

Li, Dey, Crespo, & Herrera-Viedma, 2020). On the other hand, consid­
China reported detection of a pneumonia of an unknown cause to the ering the limited medical interventions available to treat the virus and
Chinese Office of World Health Organization (WHO) on 31 December lack of a vaccine, most countries applied a variety of
2019 (Huang et al., 2020). To stop the spread, the Hubei Province and its non-pharmaceutical interventions including various forms of lockdown,
capital city, Wuhan, the epicenter of the virus, were put into lockdown closure of universities/schools and non-essential workplaces, shifts to
in order to contain the virus. Despite the rapid spread of the virus in the teleworking and distance education system, social distancing, post­
Wuhan region, many political leaders around the globe disregarded the poning or cancelling events (i.e. sport events, political debates, festivals,
issue at early stages and only very few countries, such as South Korea, etc.), restrictions on local, regional and international travel, and bans on
gave the necessary importance to the fight against the virus outbreak people gatherings. All these factors left an indelible impression on many
since the first day (Nieuwenhuijsen, 2020). However, on 11 March aspects of life from socio-economic to politics at a global scale. Beside
2020, the COVID-19 outbreak was declared as a pandemic by WHO the extensive medical investigations, many non-medical researchers also
subsequent to the spread of the virus in other parts of the world such as tried to reflect on the pandemic from various perspectives including but
Italy, Iran and North America (Afifi et al., 2020). As COVID-19 continues not limited to the impacts on business (Ritter & Pedersen, 2020), im­
to spread further, it is crystal clear that COVID-19 is one of the most pacts on tourism (Yang, Zhang, & Chen, 2020; Zenker & Kock, 2020),
impactful events of the 21st century. It is believed by the economists that energy (Norouzi, de Rubens, Choubanpishehzafar, & Enevoldsen, 2020),
the impacts of the virus are so profound that they will lead to bankruptcy and planning and decision making (Allam & Jones, 2020).
of many sectors, shut down of factories, and withdrawals or suspensions Alongside these non-medical efforts, this paper aims at scrutinizing

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Shakibaei).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102619
Received 7 September 2020; Received in revised form 16 November 2020; Accepted 21 November 2020
Available online 23 November 2020
2210-6707/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Shakibaei et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 65 (2021) 102619

the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on travel behavior in Istanbul, on travel behavior variation at urban (Kim, Cheon, Choi, Joh, & Lee,
Turkey. Accordingly, we aim to capture the immediate changes in 2017), regional (Wen, Huimin, & Kavanaugh, 2005) and international
Istanbulites’ travel behavior as close to real time as possible since (Fenichel, Kuminoff, & Chowell, 2013; Liu, Moss, & Zhang, 2010) levels.
capturing behavior retrospectively might give rise to different forms of The findings of these studies show remarkable decrease in travel and
biases associated with remembering past behavior, particularly, mobility during the pandemic period. However, these studies are limited
behavioral changes. The major rationale behind this study is that the to the short run in which the event takes place and do not explore the
COVID-19 pandemic and the governmental policies aiming at contain­ post-pandemic world. On the other hand, some studies focus on the role
ing the virus spread may have very large impacts on urban mobility, of mobility in the spread of the viruses (Pestre, Morel, Encrenaz, &
some of which could become structural. In comparison to rural areas, it Gagneux-Brunon, 2011; Ruan, Wang, & Levin, 2006) where they report
is clear that the spread of COVID-19 is stronger in urban metropolitan a positive relationship between mobility and the virus spread. This
cities (Raj, Velraj, & Haghighat, 2020). On the other hand, a key role in intuition has been discussed in a recent study conducted in early stages
the spread of the virus in megacities such as Istanbul is played by human of the COVID-19 pandemic by Zhang, Zhang, & Wang, 2020, where they
mobility for various purposes and use of public transportation (Megahed found that there is a significant association between the number of
& Ghoneim, 2020; Musselwhite, Avineri, & Susilo, 2020). In response to COVID-19 positive cases in Chinese cities and the frequency of high
the virus risk, individuals may change their mobility patterns. Within speed rail services and flights from Wuhan.
this context, the changes in travel behavior of the Istanbulites have been At the time of writing this paper, the COVID-19 pandemic is still
investigated in three different phases. During the first phase, the virus ongoing; thus, there is a limited, but growing number of studies on the
was only regarded in a blurred way in China and it was almost dis­ impacts of the pandemic on the transportation sector – more specifically,
regarded in Turkey. During the second phase, an outbreak of the virus travel behavior (e.g. Aloi et al., 2020; Beck & Hensher, 2020a, 2020b;
was reported in the neighbor country, Iran, and some European coun­ Beck, Hensher, & Wei, 2020; De Haas, Faber, & Hamersma, 2020; De
tries particularly Italy. Thus, public sensitivity towards the virus started Vos, 2020; Gutiérrez, Miravet, & Domènech, 2020; Hensher, 2020;
to be in the spotlight during this period. Finally, in the third phase the Jenelius & Cebecauer, 2020; Lee & Lee, 2020; Molloy, Tchervenkov,
outbreak of the virus was officially reported in Istanbul and public Hintermann, & Axhausen, 2020; Nurse & Dunning, 2020; Parady,
sensitivity had reached its peak. More specifically, this paper in­ Taniguchi, & Takami, 2020; Shamshiripour, Rahimi, Shabanpour, &
vestigates factors influencing the travel behavior of individuals dis­ Mohammadian, 2020; Tirachini & Cats, 2020). Table 1 presents some of
tinguishing different trip purposes. In this regard, this paper, through the key findings of the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on travel
unique three-wave panel data and based on a descriptive analysis, in­ behavior in different cities or countries. Given the transmission way of
vestigates the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the measures the SARS-Cov-2 (COVID-19) virus, physical distance emerged as one of
taken by the government on travel behavior of individuals, dis­ the key strategies to mitigate the virus spread, thus, some form of
tinguishing different trip purposes including home-work, Social/­ mobility restrictions were inevitable. Within this context, some coun­
Recreational/Leisure (SRL) and shopping trips, in Istanbul, a megacity tries decided to take drastic measures such as the early lockdown in
in the developing world. The findings are based on panel data from a Wuhan, China, where some other countries like Japan relied largely on
sample of 144 Istanbul citizens. Interviewing the same cohort during the requests for self-restriction including but not limited to teleworking and
three phases (and their timing) is a unique feature of this study making it avoiding unnecessary travelling (Shaw, Kim, & Hua, 2020). As given in
stand out among other similar efforts assessing the impact of COVID-19 Table 1, changes in travel behavior, apart from the perception of the risk
around the world in its very early stages. posed by the pandemic on individuals and self-regulation, rely on
governmental measures. Consequently, behavioral changes presented in
2. Literature review this study and studies presented in the table might only reflect short
term effects. In other words, long-lasting impacts of the pandemic on
Influencing the entire world, the COVID-19 pandemic has a disrup­ travel behavior should be evaluated in a post-COVID-19 world, which
tive impact on the way people live and move around, in cities and so­ has not yet realized. However, past experiences have shown that dis­
ciety as a whole. Subsequent to the halt in normal everyday life caused rupting impacts on travel behavior are only achievable during the period
by the pandemic and based on the concerns on the hygiene and social when the event takes place (Brewer & Hensher, 2001; Nguyen-Phuoc,
distancing, many people favored the use of private cars over public Currie, de Gruyter, & Young, 2018; Parkes, Jopson, & Marsden, 2016).
transportation and other shared modes. On the other hand, for many
years, there has been a debate on how to sustain urban mobility (Ber­ 3. Survey and data collection
tolini, le Clercq, & Kapoen, 2005; Foltynova, Vejchodska, Rybova, &
Kveton, 2020; Greene & Wegener, 1997; Shakibaei, Alpkokin, & Gun­ A paper-based panel survey was conducted in Istanbul to focus on the
duz, 2011) where many studies concluded that transportation dynamics of daily travel behavior and to evaluate the immediate
decision-making should be more reflective of sustainability issues and changes in Istanbulites’ travel behavior caused by the governmental
quality of life in cities, since most cities in developing and developed measures and individuals’ self-restriction due to the COVID-19
countries are facing escalating motorization and mobility demands pandemic. Our three-phase longitudinal panel study was conducted
(Canitez, Alpkokin, & Topuz-Kiremitci, 2020; Goldman & Gorham, between January 2020, when COVID-19 was an epidemic in China, and
2006). However, apart from the increasing tendency to use private car, April 2020, when it had turned into a global pandemic. The phases of
the pandemic has contributed to the recognition of the importance of the our study are as follows: phase 1: “total disregard of the virus in Turkey”,
active mode of transportation (e.g. bicycle) (Budd & Ison, 2020; Zhang, phase 2: “raised sensitivity to the virus risk based on the experiences of
2020). In this context, early leadership came from the global south Iran and Italy”, and phase 3: “actual engagement with pandemic prob­
where Bogota, Colombia expanded its cycle network to alleviate the lems in the country”. Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate the timeline over which the
pressure on their public transportation (Nurse & Dunning, 2020). The surveys were conducted and the measures taken by the government to
global north also followed this trend and cities like New York, and contain the virus spread, respectively.
Oakland in USA, and Milan, Paris, and Brussels in Europe took up Apart from governmental measures presented in Fig. 2, the Istanbul
non-motorized initiatives (Nurse & Dunning, 2020). Metropolitan Municipality re-planned many of its public transportation
Focusing on the underlying literature, it is observed that a limited services including rail and road facilities such as ending metro services
number of studies can be found on the interaction between viral out­ earlier at 21:00, halting the Nostalgic Tram and Funicular Istanbul
breaks and mobility as a whole. Some of these studies evaluate the services up to a further notice, and only accepting passengers as up to 50
impact of the earlier viral outbreaks such as SARS and H1N1 pandemic % of the facilities capacity as part of the coronavirus counter measures.

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Table 1
A review of the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on travel behavior in different parts of the world.
Research Study timeline (key dates in targeted Region Analyzing Method Key findings
region)

Parady et al. Wave 1: 1–8 Apr 2020 Kanto region Grocery shopping, Panel data, Significant drop in activity levels. Severe
(2020) Wave 2: 16–23 Apr 2020 (first positive including Tokyo other types of descriptive analysis reduction for leisure activities, eating out
case on 24 Jan. in Tokyo and first death (Japan) shopping, eating out, and a discrete (alone and in group) and moderate
on 14 Feb. in mainland Japan. Initial and leisure choice approach reduction for grocery shopping.
request on cancelling or postponing
large-scale events on 26 Feb. Request of
‘stay at home’ in Tokyo on 26 Mar.)
Shamshiripour 25 Apr-2 Jun 2020 (first positive case in Chicago (USA) Teleworking, online SP-RP survey, Significant increase in teleworking for 5
et al. (2020) Illinois on 24 Jan. First death in Illinois shopping, airplane Descriptive and days a week during the pandemic. 65 %
on 17 Mar. Closure of schools on 13 Mar. travel statistical analysis growth in online grocery shopping
Closure of all restaurants and bars on 15 (before and after the ‘stay at home
Mar. Cancelling all 50+ gatherings on 16 order’. Significant reduction in the
Mar. Statewide ‘stay at home’ order ‘future air travel’ stated by the
between 21 Mar – 7 Apr.; then extended respondents
till 30 Apr.)
De Haas et al. 27 Mar-4Apr 2020 (first positive case on The Netherlands Outdoor activities, Panel data, 44 % of workers started teleworking or
(2020) 27 Feb. and first death on 6 Mar. in the work and education descriptive and increasing their level of teleworking. 55
Netherlands. Cancelling all events with statistical analysis % and 68 % reduction in amount of trips
100+ participants and encouraging and distance travelled, respectively
distance education on 12 Mar. (during the pandemic compared to the
Cancelation of all flights from Iran, Italy fall 2019). Decrease of around 90 % for
and China since 13 Mar. extension of all trips by public transport. Significant
restrictions till 28 Apr.) increase in tendency to use active modes
such as walking and bicycle and also
private car.
Jenelius and Mar - May 2020 Stockholm, Public transport Data on ticket Highest decrease in use of public
Cebecauer Vastra Gotaland, ridership. validations, sales transport in Stockholm. Ridership
(2020) Skane (Sweden) and passenger significantly declined for rail and bus but
counts more serious for rail. Shift from public
transport to private car and to some
extent to bicycle.
Beck and Hensher Last week of March 2020 and collected Australia Overall travel, travel SP-RP survey, Biggest reduction in aggregate trip
(2020a) by 15 Apr. (first positive case on 25 Jan. by mode, travel by Descriptive and belongs to private car (drop from 17 trips
and first death on 1 Mar. in Australia. purpose, teleworking, statistical analysis a week to 8). Significant reduction in use
Ban on large gatherings on 16 Mar. shopping of rail and bus. Almost a twofold increase
Further restrictions on 21 Mar. Beginning in the number of those shifting to 5 days
of lockdown on 23 Mar. Easter ‘stay at of teleworking. Highest drop for outdoor
home’ on 5 Apr.) leisure activities.
Beck and Hensher 23 May, 15 Jun 2020 (first positive case Australia Overall travel, travel SP-RP survey, Aggregate travel has increased by 50 %
(2020b) on 25 Jan. and first death on 1 Mar. in by mode, travel by Descriptive and since easing the restrictions, but still less
Australia. Ease of restriction in NSW, first purpose, teleworking, statistical analysis than around 65 % of that for before-
round on 15 May, second round on 1 Jun. shopping pandemic days. Significant rebound for
and third round on 1 Jul. private car use. Alleviated concerns on
use of public transport compared to the
peak of outbreak but still far more than
pre-Covid-19 days. Teleworking is
continuing. A large increase in bicycle
use.

Fig. 1. Data collection timeline.

It should be noted that Ramadan, Muslims’ holy month started on 24 categories: 1- socio-demographic details such as gender, age, educa­
April in Turkey, and thus had no impact on the respondents’ travel tional level, household size, as well as the economic factors including
behavior in any of the phases. occupation type, income and household income, car ownership and
Our surveys were structured to collect information in four major access to car in the household; 2- working conditions and an extensive

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Fig. 2. Key measures taken by the government in the initial stages of COVID-19.

set of questions about changes caused by the pandemic in issues such as In order to make comparison between equal durations in different
commuting pattern and working system (e.g. shift to teleworking); 3- phases (with different phase durations – due to the unpredictable nature
participation in social/recreational/leisure (SRL) activities as a whole of the virus and its spread in different regions), the respondents were
including family visits, going to cinema, park, gym, joining sport, cul­ asked to report their activity patterns, frequencies and transportation
tural and social events, and indoor/outdoor gatherings; 4- in-store and modes during the same time span, per week (last week), in any specific
online shopping which covers grocery shopping as well as urgent needs phase. The ‘snowball sampling’ technique was used to collect data on
(e.g. pharmacy). The major interest here is how people have changed respondents’ travel behavior. The reason for selection of this sampling
their mobility for different trip purposes during various (early) stages of method was the lack of the access to a market research firm or online
the pandemic, and to what extent. Transport modes and attitudes to­ platforms. Indeed, the virus outbreak and imposed risks were inces­
wards them are also emphasized here. To do this, survey questionnaires santly, unpredictably and rapidly growing all around the world in the
were distributed during different phases of the study, as shown in Fig. 1. early stages and considering the tools available, the only viable means of

Fig. 3. Descriptive statistics for the socio-demographic attributes.

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data collection for this initial study was convenience sampling methods and phase 2 ‘number of days travelling to work’ indicate that the
such as the snowball approach. The respondents were informed that the outbreak of the virus in Iran and Italy did not result in significant decline
survey might be repeated in the future with regard to the worldwide of commute frequency in Istanbul. However, this reduction in transition
progresses of the virus outbreak. In this context, a sample of 144 in­ from phase 2 to phase 3 is statistically significant. This significant
dividuals who responded to all phases was produced. The descriptive decline might be explained by two major factors: First of all, the 3rd
statistics for the socio-demographic attributes are summarized in Fig. 3. round of the study started on 23 March right after the outbreak of the
Given the nature of the snowball sampling approach and also pre­ Coronavirus in Turkey. Consequently, the individuals’ sensitivity to the
dominant concentration of the study on home-work trips, unemployed, virus was in its peak. Furthermore, the most important factor behind this
less-educated, senior citizens (elderly) and retired individuals are under- reduction was related to the preventative measures taken by the gov­
presented in the sample. In other words, a sample size of n = 144 might ernment. In this context, many professions and working places including
not be fully representative of a megacity such as Istanbul, but it might be but not limited to the restaurants, barber shops, cafes, and entertain­
big enough to provide indications and insights of the key developments ment places were obliged to cease their activities until a further notice.
since we are using a panel data in which each phase had exactly the same Almost all of the schools and universities shifted to distance education.
respondents reporting the changes in their travel behavior – the scope of Numerous firms initiated the process of teleworking. Elderly citizens
this study. (65+) and youngsters (20-) had to stay home caused by a governmental
prohibition starting from late March.
4. Case study findings As is clear from Table 2 and Fig. 7, when it comes to the transport
modes during phase 1, it is observed that the highest mean for utilization
Inclusion of the panel study in this research has paved the way for a while commuting to work belongs to the road public transportation fa­
detailed exploration of longitudinal changes in travel behavior. This cilities including bus, BRT and minibus with average use of 1.72 times a
section initially reports on a brief overview of the changes in week for 144 respondents. Private car follows with an average of 1.41.
commuting, SRL, and shopping activities, respondents’ sensitivity to the Rail facilities including metro, tram and light rail are in the 3rd place
threat and their concerns around the pandemic in transitions from phase with average of 1.30. Walking (more than 15 min) is also a very common
1 to phase 2 and similarly from phase 2 to phase 3. Fig. 4 presents the mode for home-work trips with 1.15 average. However, this is mainly
changes in home-work, SRL and shopping activities where the term due to the distance of the respondents’ residential locations to the metro
‘change’ refers almost wholly to reductions in travel. Fig. 5 shows the platforms and bus stations. In Istanbul, it is very common and acceptable
respondents’ level of concern about the virus during different phases. for individuals to walk for 15− 20 min to reach the public transportation
The figures help demonstrate the importance of the sensitivity to the facilities (particularly metro and BRT) with regard to the lower-rent of
virus spread risk to make changes in mobility patterns. It is clear that in housing in such a distance compared to those in immediate proximity to
transition to phase 2 where the respondents’ sensitivity was called by such facilities. Rideshare is also a common mode with an average of
the virus outbreak in Iran and Italy, SRL activities experienced sub­ 0.82. This is mainly due to the fact that almost all universities, schools
stantial weekly decline of almost 36 % (0.07 × 0.70 + 0.93 × 0.335) and big companies have their own shuttle vehicles to the central nodes
compared to the first phase. This reduction was 3.4 % and 2 % for the of the city. Furthermore, it was observed that some respondents
number of days travelling to work and shopping frequencies, respec­ routinely use carpool with their colleagues while commuting to their
tively. However, the major changes occurred in transition to phase 3 of working places.
the study where 64.5 % of the respondents reported decline in the It was clearly observed that there is an increment in the number of
number of days travelling to work or university caused by switch to those who have started to use private car instead of public trans­
teleworking or distance education and working place closure, 77.8 % portation or those who have started to use the private car belonging to
reported significant reductions in SRL activities and 23.6 % reported the other members of household during phases 2 and 3. However, dis­
declines in weekly shopping activities. Each of the trip categories will be tance education and teleworking have outweighed the mentioned fact
analyzed in detail in the following sub-sections. during phase 3 where the number of those individuals starting to use
private car during phase 3 was less than the decline in the number of
4.1. Commute trips (work and university) those people shifting to distance education/teleworking who were used
to use private car to commute during phases 1 and 2. Finally, it was
Given in Table 2 and Fig. 6, the results from the respondents’ phase 1 observed that the mean use of aerial cable car, motorcycle, bicycle, taxi

Fig. 4. Activity change for different trips – phases.1–3.

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Fig. 5. Respondents’ level of concern about the virus outbreak during different phases a) using face mask in public spaces b) pursuing news about COVID-19 c)
observing symptoms of the virus which are similar to flu and d) potential of the virus to threat countries all around the world.

Table 2
Exploring changes to commute and transport modes.
Mean S.D. t-stat p-value
Variable
Phase 1 Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase
2 3 1 2 3 1→2 2→3 1→3 1→2 2→3 1→3

Number of days travelling to 5.15 5.09 2.97 1.29 1.40 2.54 1.80 11.77 11.97 .074 .000** .000**
work/university
Walk 1.15 1.16 0.66 2.36 2.37 1.79 − 1.00 3.49 .319 .319 .000** .000**
Cycle 0.12 0.12 0.08 0.82 0.82 0.65 – 1.18 1.18 – .241 .241
Road public transport 1.72 1.60 0.66 2.48 2.44 1.75 1.61 5.92 6.34 .110 .000** .000**
Rail 1.30 1.19 0.31 2.58 2.52 1.51 2.27 5.27 5.63 .025* .000** .000**
Private car 1.41 1.54 1.24 2.38 2.41 2.12 − 1.77 1.68 0.89 .079 .096 .376
Rideshare 0.82 0.76 0.52 1.96 1.92 1.55 1.38 2.53 2.93 .171 .013* .004**
*
Significant at p < .05.
**
Significant at p < .01.

and ferry (0.00, 0.08, 0.12, 0.10, and 0.03 times a week, respectively) is empirical data and common sense, the major points triggering these
negligible for the home-work trips of the respondents. It should also be reductions are the shifts to the teleworking/distance education system
mentioned that based on the symmetry of the round trips (home-work by numerous firms, universities, offices and other working places,
and work-home) all the values are for one-way home-work trips. closing the working places due to the governmental measures, and the
In analysis of the significance of the changes in use of each transport respondents’ increased tendency to use private car for their home-work
mode in transition from phase 1 to phase 2, it was observed that the only trips. The increment in private car usage in transition from phase 1 to
statistically significant reduction is related to the rail facilities. All other phase 2 can be associated to the respondents’ sensitivity to the virus
modes of transport have not undergone a statistically significant change news coming from Iran and Italy. The changes in private car use from
from phase 1 to the 2nd phase. In addition, private car is the only mode phase 2 to phase 3 are not statistically significant where there is a
which has gained popularity for commute in transition from phase 1 to reduction in the overall use of private car in transition from phase 2 to
phase 2 and all other modes have experienced some kind of reduction. phase 3.
As is shown in Table 2, walking, road public transportation, rail and Another interesting fact about the home-work trips is that in phase 1
rideshare modes have undergone statistically significant reductions in a remarkable portion of car owners still preferred to use public trans­
being used by the respondents for their home-work trips. Based on both portation. In fact, fuel costs in Turkey are very high compared to the

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Fig. 6. ‘Number of days travelling to work/university’ during different phases.

general income levels. Fuel costs fluctuate between 6.5–7 TL per liter (1 the shift to teleworking system or shift work. More than half of the
USD = 7.29 TL; as of 09.August.2020) where the minimum wage for business owners commuted less than 3 days a week which made them
2020 is around 2300 TL and a remarkable portion of the nation are being the most flexible group among all other occupation types. Fig. 8 and
paid based on the minimum wage approach. There are several toll roads Table 3 present the exploration of different transport modes used for
in Istanbul. All passes from the European side of the city to the Asian side commute based on socio-demographic characteristics.
using Bosphorus Bridges and Eurasia Tunnel are upon payment. Thus, it When analyzing the use of private car for home-work trips, it was
is somehow costly to routinely use private car for home-work trips. observed that there was a significant relation between gender and pri­
However, during phase 2 and 3 of the study, all of the car owners have vate car utilization during phase 1 where males used private car
used their private car for home-work commutes, without even one significantly more than females. During phase 2 females also started to
exception. This might be explained by the fact that individuals have use a private car more often to commute or other members of their
prioritized health over economy. They have preferred not to take risks household gave them a ride by the car belonging to the household.
on public transportation. This may give us the opportunity to estimate Nevertheless, males’ use of private car for commuting during phase 2 is
people’s value of health under pandemic situations. still significantly higher than that for females. Once again, males used
It was observed that there was no relation between the ‘number of private car significantly more than females for commuting during phase
days travelling to work’ and gender, age, income level, car ownership 3. It should also be mentioned that the application of teleworking system
and household size during any phases. Occupation type is the only factor was significantly higher for females (M = 1.36, SD = 1.85) than males
which has significant relation with the number of working days during (M = 0.76, SD = 1.49); t(120) = 2.10, p = .04 during phase 3. In brief,
all three phases. A chi-square test of independence was performed to the difference between utilization of private car for males and females is
examine the relation between commuting days and occupation type statistically significant during all phases where males use private car
where the relation between these variables were significant, χ2 (42, N = more than females to commute.
144) = 255.90, p < .001; χ2 (42, N = 144) = 239.42, p < .001; and The income level had also a significant impact on private car utili­
χ2 (49, N = 144) = 133.53, p < .001 for phases 1–3, respectively. To zation for home-work trips where the respondents belonging to the mid-
be more specific, with regard to the breakdown of the commuting days high income group (more than 5500 TL/month) used private car more
based on the occupation type during phase 1 of the study, it was clear than the mid-low income respondents. During phase 1, mid-high income
that the significant difference was related to the private sector em­ group used private car significantly more than mid-low income re­
ployees and government employees. Almost all of the government em­ spondents for commuting. A similar pattern was also observed during
ployees and academicians have worked 5 days a week. On the other phase 2 where mid-high income respondents used private car more than
hand, more than half of the private sector employees (38 out of 64 re­ lower income group. This relation has declined during phase 3 where car
spondents) have worked 6 days a week since most private companies owners of less than 5500 TL group who were used to use public trans­
work half a day on Saturdays in Turkey. Besides, there was no part-time portation for commuting have remarkably inclined to use private car.
worker in public sector but a few members of private sector were part- Anyway, the difference in private car use of mid-high and mid-low in­
time employees working 4 days or less a week during phase 1. come groups is still statistically significant during phase 3 where higher
Business owners and students are among those with the highest income respondents used private car more than mid-low income
flexibility in number of commuting days. There was no remarkable respondents.
change in any occupation group’s number of days travelling to work or It was observed that females preferred rail facilities more than males
university during phase 2 and working patterns were similar to the first for their home-work trips during all three phases. During phase 1, fe­
phase. However, the changes during phase 3 were enormous. males used rail public transportation including metro, tram and light rail
Commuting days of all of the academicians and students declined to zero significantly more than males. Again during phase 2, females used rail
due to the shift to the distance education system. The public sector with facilities more than males. This might be explained by the higher reli­
its limited application of shift work practice experienced minimum ability and security of these facilities in comparison to road public
changes compared to the private sector. Based on the mentioned shift transportation. During phase 3 females still used rail facilities more than
work system, weekdays were divided into shifts during which workers in males but not with a significant difference. A similar pattern is true for
the same department would perform their duties on scheduled days to utilization of rail facilities and age. Younger respondents (under 40)
minimize contact. Approximately, one third of the private sector em­ used rail facilities more than elderly ones (40+) during phases 1, 2 and
ployees commuted 4 days or less during a week at 3rd period based on 3, where the differences were significant only for phases 1 an 2.

7
S. Shakibaei et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 65 (2021) 102619

Fig. 7. Reported average weekly commute trips by modes.

4.2. Social/recreational/leisure (SRL) activities any COVID-19 positive case reported in the country. This implies that
the citizens have basically taken measures on their own, where the
As is clear from Table 4 and Fig. 9, SRL activities of the respondents common feeling was that the virus definitely exists in the country given
have undergone significant changes in transition to phases 2 and 3. The the presence of the frequent flights and passengers from numerous cities
reductions of SRL activities are more salient compared to the commuting in Italy and Iran in an immediate recent time. In brief, as is presented in
trips. In other words, in contrast to the home-work trips, the change in Table 4, the decline in SRL activity frequencies is statistically significant
the frequency of social activities is statistically significant in transition in both transitions from phase 1 to phase 2 and from phase 2 to phase 3.
from phase 1 to the second phase of the study where there was not yet The table also presents the changes in utilization rank of different modes

8
S. Shakibaei et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 65 (2021) 102619

Fig. 8. Average weekly use of different transport modes for commuting based on various socio-demographic groups.

during three phases for SRL activities (where rank 1= not using at all, transition period. During phase 2, almost 80 % of respondents of each
and rank 5= using most frequently). group have performed SRL activities in a medium (1–2 times a week) to
When it comes to the modes of transport, it is observed that private low (never or at most once a week) level. However, there is no case of
car and walking are the most common modes being used for SRL ac­ high SRL activity frequency for any household size group during phase 3
tivities during phase1 with the average rank of 3.06 and 3.08, respec­ where around 90 % of the respondents have declared that they had no
tively. Road public transport including bus, BRT and minibus and rail SRL activity or had activity of at most once a week. A key factor behind
facilities follows the averages of 2.54 and 2.52 respectively. However, this fact might be the lockdown for 20- and 65+ individuals. Families
all modes have undergone a usage reduction during phase 2 (in transi­ with 20- members might have cancelled most of their SRL activities to
tion from phase 1 to 2). These declines are statistically significant for all stay home with their children. Family visits to 65+ individuals might
modes excluding taxi and aerial cable car from phase 1to2. It should also have also faced the similar trend. When analyzing the SRL activity fre­
be noted that utilization of aerial cable car and taxi for SRL activities is quencies, no relation has been observed during any phases for income
negligible even during period 1 with an average rank of 1.03 and 1.25, level and car ownership (car directly being used by the respondent).
respectively. Subsequently, all modes of transport except for ferry and However, during all three phases there is a relationship between car
aerial cable car have experienced statistically significant reductions in ownership in the household and SRL activity frequencies. This might be
transition from phase 2 to phase 3. As for a general evaluation, all in parallel with the findings of the studies conducted by several re­
transport modes except for aerial cable car have undergone significant searchers evaluating the interrelations between household car owner­
utilization decline for SRL purposes from phase 1 where there was no ship, use of private car and role of life events such as changes in income
actual risk of the virus in the society to the 3rd phase where the outbreak and employment status, having children, and facing unpredicted events
of the virus in Istanbul and other Turkish cities was announced. Table 5 (Clarck, Chatterjee, & Melia, 2016; Klien & Smart, 2019).
presents the relationship between different variables and the SRL ac­ Table 6 and Fig. 10 present some insights to SRL activities and
tivity frequency. different variables. When analyzing the transport modes for SRL activ­
There was no relation between gender and SRL activity frequencies ities, it is clear that females normally use rail more than males. This
during all three phases of the study. This is somehow different for age difference in utilization of rail is statistically significant during phase 1
where there is a relation between age and SRL activity frequency during when there was no risk of the virus in Istanbul yet. However, although
phase 1. However, during phases 2 and 3, this relation disappeared. females use rail more than males during phases 2 and 3, the differences
With regard to the breakdown of the SRL activities based on age, it is are not significant. In addition, utilization of road public transport is
observed that during phase 1, the younger respondents are remarkably more commonplace among females compared to the males but the dif­
more active which paves the way for formation of a relation between ferences are not significant during any of the three phases. Private car
SRL activity frequency and age. During phases 2 and 3 though, the active utilization and walking frequencies for SRL activities during all three
role of younger respondents remarkably decreased. A pattern, analogous phases are higher for males but the differences are not significant.
to the age, is also true for occupation type where there is a relationship The use of private car for SRL activities is more common for the re­
between the SRL activity frequency and occupation type during phase 1. spondents with higher income levels (more than 5500 TL/month) during
In other words, private sector employees, housewives and students were phases 1 and 2. However, despite the higher value of the private car
far more active. Similarly, these relations have been removed during utilization of higher income respondents, the difference with lower in­
phases 2 and 3 for the occupation type. This pattern for household size is come individuals is not significant during phase 3. This might be
even more interesting where the relationship between the SRL activity explained either by the general reductions in SRL activities or by the
frequency and HH size in phases 1 and 2 vanishes during phase 3. During triggered tendency of lower income groups to use private car. During
phase 1, the highest SRL activity is for those with household size of 1 and phases 1 and 2, individuals with lower income levels (less than 5500 TL/
4. Around half of both groups have SRL activity frequency of 3–5 times month) used rail facilities more than higher income respondents.
or more (high activity level) during a week. The most severe and sig­ However, the higher use of rail facilities during phase 3 by the lower
nificant reductions in SRL activities pertains to the transition from phase income groups is not statistically significant. Similar to rail facilities,
1 to phase 2 for households of 1–4 members. There is no remarkable lower income groups used road public transport more than higher in­
change for households of 5 and more members during the mentioned come individuals during phase 1 where the difference is significant.

9
S. Shakibaei et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 65 (2021) 102619

However, this higher utilization is not statistically significant for phases

2 and 3 of the study.

.001**

.000**
Phase

.465

.097

.227

.151
It was observed that during phases 1 and 2, older respondents (over

3
40) have used private car more than younger ones for SRL purposes
where the differences are not statistically significant. During phase 3,

.000**
Phase

.013*

.033*

.018*
.208

.205
younger respondents have gotten ahead of elderly ones in private car
2 utilization.
One probable factor behind this change might be the 20- lockdown
p-value

.004**

.006**

.000**
Phase

.021*
.153

.051
during phase 3 where older members might have cancelled their SRL
1

activities because of the case of their children. However, this difference

during phase 3 is not statistically significant. Younger respondents
Phase

3.26

0.73

1.68

1.22

1.44

3.65
(under 40) use rail facilities more than older ones for SRL purposes
3

during phases 1 and 2 where the differences are significant. This trend
has been reversed during phase 3 but the difference is not significant.
Phase

2.52

2.16

2.17

2.17

2.39

5.98
Younger persons have used road public transport more than older re­
2

spondents during phases 1 and 2 where the difference is significant only

for phase 1. During phase 3 of the study, the trend has been changed
Phase
t-stat

2.93

1.44

2.34

1.97

2.80

6.02

where older ones have used road public transport more than younger
1

respondents but the difference is not significant. Finally, non-car-owners

have used road public transport more than rail facilities during phase 1
MRPTU = 1.64

MHICU = 2.36
FRPTU = 1.89
MPCU = 2.32

MLICU=1.87
FPCU = 1.67

MRU = 0.70
OCU = 2.22

where the difference is not significant. The trend has faced a serious
YRU = 1.88
YCU = 2.03
FRU = 2.11

ORU=0.69

change during phase 2 where the utilization of rail for SRL activities has
Phase 3

gained remarkable value compared to the road public transport and the
difference is statistically significant. It should be mentioned that almost
within any time span during day rail facilities are less crowded than road
MRPTU = 2.42

MHICU = 2.58
FRPTU = 2.44

MLICU = 1.91
MPCU = 2.60
FPCU = 2.05

MRU = 1.96

public transport, particularly BRT. Compared to the first phase, higher

ORU = 1.82
OCU = 2.57

YRU = 2.86
YCU = 2.29
FRU = 3.01

sensitivity of the respondents to the probability of the spread of the virus

Phase 2

in Istanbul during phase 2 might be the major factor behind the in­
dividuals’ higher tendency to use rail facilities. However, there is no
difference in use of both modes during phase 3.
MRPTU = 2.46

MHICU = 2.66
FRPTU = 2.48

MLICU = 1.78
MPCU = 2.63
FPCU = 1.89

MRU = 2.03

ORU = 1.82
OCU = 2.61

YRU = 2,93
YCU = 2.16
FRU = 3.05

4.3. Shopping
Phase 1
S.D.

As for the shopping activity within the scope of this paper, more in-
depth experiences were collected for routine weekly-based grocery
MRPTU = 0.56

MHICU = 2.41
FRPTU = 0.78

MLICU = 0.84
MPCU = 1.73
FPCU = 0.64

shopping. In fact, most Istanbulites cover their seasonal, event, etc.

MRU = 0.10

ORU = 0.12
OCU = 1.50

YRU = 0.44
YCU = 1.06
FRU = 0.56

needs from numerous shopping malls located in different areas in the

Phase 3

city. However, shopping malls are no longer just places to go to buy

something and they are rather entertainment and community centers in
Istanbul. In addition, district bazaars are being held in most neighbor­
MRPTU = 1.38

MHICU = 3.59
FRPTU = 1.89

MLICU = 0.83
MPCU = 1.98

hoods of the city on special days on a regular basis each week. The focus
FPCU = 1.00

MRU = 0.78

ORU = 0.65
OCU = 1.85

YRU = 1.58
YCU = 1.32
FRU = 1.72

of this paper is on the weekly-based grocery shopping from local markets

Phase 2

(supermarkets, etc.), district bazaar and online ordering. Furthermore,

transport modes for shopping purposes have been analyzed in a more
detailed manner for the 3rd phase of the study. As is clear from Table 7,
MRPTU = 1.45

MHICU = 3.51
FRPTU = 2.05

MLICU = 0.68
MPCU = 1.90

the reduction in the frequency of grocery shopping (excluding online

FPCU = 0.80

MRU = 0.84

ORU = 0.65
OCU = 1.88

YRU = 1.76
YCU = 1.07
FRU = 1.88

shopping) in transition from phase 1 to phase 2 is not statistically sig­

Exploring transport modes and socio-demographics for commute.

Phase 1

nificant. However, the change is significant for the phase 2to3 transi­
Mean

tion. When it comes to the male-female grocery shopping frequency

comparison, it is clear from Table 7 that during all three phases males
Younger (40-) rail use (YRU) vs. Older (40+) rail use (ORU)
Older (40+) car use (OCU) vs. Younger (40-) car use (YCU)

Mid-high income car use (MHICU) vs. Mid-low income car

are significantly more active than females.

Female road public transport use (FRPTU) vs. Male road
Male private car use (MPCU) vs. Female private car Use

The changes in males’ shopping frequency are not statistically sig­

nificant in the pre-to-post COVID-19 pandemic transition. In contrast,
Female rail use (FRU) vs. Male rail Use (MRU)

females have shown a noticeable reaction to the pandemic in transition

to the 3rd phase and have significantly declined their grocery shopping
activities (online shopping excluded). Generally speaking, the shopping
frequency has been significantly dropped in the transition from pre-to-
public transport Use (MRPTU)

post virus outbreak in the city. During phase 3, all supermarkets,

Significant at.p < .01.

chain stores and district bazaars were urged to take strict governmental
Significant at.p < .05.

measures such as banning the entrance for persons without face masks
and limitation of the customer presence to some minimal rates
depending on the size of the place. Besides, all shopping malls were
use (MLICU)

closed since late March (covering the period for the 3rd phase of this
(FPCU)

study). Table 8 presents the changes in shopping manners with regard to

Variable
Table 3

the socio-demographic variables.

**

It was observed that gender and household size were the most
*

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S. Shakibaei et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 65 (2021) 102619

Table 4
Exploring changes to SRL activities and transport modes.
Mean S.D. t-stat p-value
Variable
Phase 1 Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase
2 3 1 2 3 1→2 2→3 1→3 1→2 2→3 1→3

SRL activity frequency 2.50 1.71 0.25 1.90 1.69 0.48 7.43 11.05 14.31 .000** .000** .000**
Rail 2.52 1.81 1.06 1.79 1.57 0.47 6.26 5.90 9.94 .000** .000** .000**
Road public 2.54 1.43 1.06 1.77 1.16 0.47 8.38 4.15 10.17 .000** .000** .000**
transportation
Ferry 1.40 1.03 1.00 0.93 0.20 0.00 5.14 1.64 5.13 .000** .104 .000**
Private car 3.06 2.79 1.44 1.96 1.99 1.26 2.89 8.06 9.57 .004** .000** .000**
Rideshare 1.63 1.33 1.00 1.30 1.04 0.00 3.05 3.78 5.81 .003** .000** .000**
Taxi 1.25 1.15 1.00 0.78 0.74 0.00 1.77 2.37 3.85 .079 .019* .000**
Aerial cable car 1.03 1.00 1.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 1.64 – 1.64 .103 – .103
Walk 3.08 2.56 1.61 1.92 1.93 1.44 3.74 6.46 9.11 .000** .000** .000**
*
Significant at.p < .05.
**
Significant at p < .01.

Fig. 9. Changes in weekly SRL activity frequencies. Shown are frequencies of SRL activities during a week on “X” axis versus various socio-demographic attributes.

Table 5
Test of independence for SRL activity frequency and different variables.
χ2 p-value
Variable Breakdown based on
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

SRL activity frequency Gender (4, N = 144) = 6.46 (4, N = 144) = 0.65 (2, N = 144) = 3.08 .167 .957 .214
SRL activity frequency Age (40, N = 144) = 59.99 (40, N = 144) = 49.15 (20, N = 144) = 19.60 .022* .152 .483
SRL activity frequency Occupation type (28, N = 144) = 42.99 (28, N = 144) = 40.80 (14, N = 144) = 21.86 .035* .056 .082
SRL activity frequency Household size (24, N = 144) = 40.38 (24, N = 144) = 36.79 (12, N = 144) = 17.58 .019* .046* .129
SRL activity frequency Income level (28, N = 144) = 29.39 (28, N = 144) = 35.79 (14, N = 144) = 10.60 .393 .148 .717
SRL activity frequency Car ownership (4, N = 144) = 2.93 (4, N = 144) = 0.49 (2, N = 144) = 1.39 .570 .974 .499
SRL activity frequency Household car ownership (12, N = 144) = 30.33 (12, N = 144) = 21.26 (6, N = 144) = 16.50 .002** .047* .011*

*
Statistically significant at 9.5 %.
**
Statistically significant at 99 %.

important factors affecting the shopping frequencies of the respondents. key issue behind this fact might be associated to the general lockdown
In all phases, females are less active for grocery shopping than the males for 20- and 65+ individuals during phase 3. In other words, 20- and 65+
where the differences are statistically significant. When it comes to the members belonging to bigger households have been deactivated during
household size, respondents with “HH size of ≤ 3′′ are more active for the 3rd phase and in consequence, other members had to undertake
grocery shopping compared to those with “HH size of ≥ 4′′ during phases shopping activities on their own.
1 and 2 of the study. The lower rate of shopping frequency for re­ When analyzing the online shopping after the virus outbreak in
spondents belonging to bigger households might be explained by dis­ Istanbul, it was observed that females have used online shopping
tribution of this activity among all members of their households (Chu, significantly more than male respondents. Numerous chain stores and
Arce-Urriza, Cebollada, & Chintagunta, 2010). However, there is not a markets developed their online and on-call delivery services during
significant difference between shopping frequency of respondents with phase 3. It was empirically observed that most of the single females and
HH sizes of ≤ 3 and ≥ 4 during the 3rd phase. As a common sense, the couples with HH size of 2 preferred to use online shopping applications

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S. Shakibaei et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 65 (2021) 102619

Table 6
Testing the significance of the changes for transport modes’ utilization rank for SRL activities based on socio-demographics.
Mean S.D. t-stat p-value
Variable
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase
1 2 3 1 2 3

Female rail use FRU = 2.88 FRU = 1.95 FRU = 1.06 FRU = 1.78 FRU = 1.68 FRU = 0.50 2.15 0.99 0.16 .033* .322 .876
(FRU) vs. Male MRU = 2.24 MRU = 1.69 MRU = 1.05 MRU = 1.75 MRU = 1.47 MRU = 0.45
rail use (MRU)
Female road public FRT = 2.84 FRT = 1.52 FRT = 1.13 FRT = 1.77 FRT = 1.26 FRT = 0.70 1.85 0.77 1.43 .067 .442 .159
transportation MRT = 2.30 MRT = 1.36 MRT = 1.00 MRT = 1.75 MRT = 1.08 MRT=0.00
use (FRT) vs.
male road public
transportation
use (MRT)
Female private car FCU = 2.91 FCU = 2.66 FCU = 1.31 FCU = 1.96 FCU = 1.97 FCU = 1.08 0.82 0.73 1.15 .415 .466 .250
use (FCU) vs. MCU = 3.18 MCU = 2.90 MCU = 1.55 MCU = 1.97 MCU = 2.01 MCU = 1.39
Male private car
use (MCU)
Female walking FW = 3.06 FW = 2.53 FW = 1.50 FW = 1.95 FW = 1.91 FW = 1.33 0.12 0.14 0.84 .908 .893 .404
(FW) vs. Male MW = 3.10 MW = 2.58 MW = 1.70 MW = 1.91 MW = 1.95 MW = 1.53
walking (MW)
Mid-high income HCU = 4.46 HCU = 3.92 HCU = 1.65 HCU = 1.30 HCU = 1.80 HCU = 1.49 6.67 4.35 1.02 .000 .000 .314
private car use LCU = 2.57 LCU = 2.40 LCU = 1.37 LCU = 1.92 LCU = 1.91 LCU = 1.17 ** **
(HCU) vs. Mid-
low income (LCU)
Mid-low income rail LRU = 2.75 LRU = 1.98 LRU = 1.07 LRU = 1.80 LRU = 1.71 LRU = 0.54 2.82 3.07 1.42 .006 .003 .158
use (LRU.) vs. HRU = 1.86 HRU = 1.30 HRU = 1.00 HRU = 1.58 HRU = 0.91 HRU=0.00 ** **
Mid-high income
rail use (HRU.)
for SRL activities
Mid-low income LRP = 2.85 LRP = 1.49 LRP = 1.07 LRP = 1.78 LRP = 1.23 LRP = 0.54 4.18 1.11 1.42 .000 .270 .158
road public HRP = 1.65 HRP = 1.27 HRP = 1.00 HRP = 1.40 HRP = 0.93 HRP=0.00 **
transportation
use (LRP) vs. Mid-
high income road
public
transportation
use (HRP)
activities
Older people (40+) OCU = 3.23 OCU = 2.87 OCU = 1.33 OCU = 1.99 OCU = 2.01 OCU = 1.11 0.92 0.38 0.92 .361 .704 .358
use of private car YCU = 2.93 YCU = 2.74 YCU = 1.52 YCU = 1.94 YCU = 1.98 YCU = 1.36
(OCU) is higher
than younger
people (40-) use
of private car
(YCU)
Younger people YRU = 3.13 YRU = 2.07 YRU = 1.05 YRU = 1.79 YRU = 1.73 YRU = 0.44 5.52 2.59 0.23 .000 .011* .817
(40-) rail use ORU = 1.67 ORU = 1.43 ORU = 1.07 ORU = 1.39 ORU = 1.23 ORU=0.52 **
(YRU) vs. Older
people rail use
(ORU)
Younger people YRP = 2.99 YRP = 1.54 YRP = 1.05 YRP = 1.76 YRP = 1.27 YRP = 0.44 3.80 1.34 0.23 .000 .181 .817
(40-) road public ORP = 1.92 ORP = 1.28 ORP = 1.07 ORP = 1.60 ORP = 0.98 ORP=0.52 **
transport use
(YRP) vs. Older
people road
public transport
use (ORP)
Non car owners’ rail NRU = 2.80 NRU = 2.18 NRU = 1.09 NRU = 1.82 NRU = 1.81 NRU = 0.59 1.43 2.21 0.00 .154 .028* 1.000
use (NRU) vs. NRP = 3.19 NRP = 1.64 NRP = 1.09 NRP = 1.82 NRP = 1.39 NRP = 0.59
Non car owners’
road public
transport use
(NRP)
*
Significant at.p < .05.
**
Significant at.p < .01.

during phase 3. A similar trend is true for online shopping and age. based grocery shopping during phase 3. Within this context, males
During phase 3, younger respondents’ (40-) frequency of online shop­ walk for grocery shopping significantly more than females. Mid-low
ping is significantly higher than older persons ‘(40+). In general, income households with monthly HH income of less than 5500 TL
walking, online shopping and use of private car are the most commonly walk significantly more than the respondents belonging to the mid-high
used means of mobility with average frequencies of 0.95, 0.68 and 0.31 income groups. An analogous pattern is true for non-car-owning
times a week for the respondents. households where the members have to walk more than those of car-
It was also observed that gender, household income and household owning households for home-grocery shopping activity. The last two
car ownership are the parameters with significant impacts on walking- issues might be triggered by bulk purchases of high income and car-

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S. Shakibaei et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 65 (2021) 102619

Fig. 10. Average weekly utilization rank of different transport modes for SRL activities based on various socio-demographic groups (rank 1= not using at all, and
rank 5= using most frequently).

Table 7
Changes in grocery shopping frequency during different phases.
Mean S.D. t-stat p-value
Variable
Phase 1 Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase
2 3 1 2 3 1→2 2→3 1→3 1→2 2→3 1→3

Grocery shopping frequency 1.23 1.18 1.05 1.10 1.00 0.96 1.26 2.08 2.43 .210 .039* .016*
Female grocery shopping 0.79 0.68 0.51 1.11 0.80 0.64 1.37 2.40 2.62 .176 .019* .011*
frequency
Male grocery shopping 1.57 1.58 1.48 0.97 0.97 0.96 − 1.00 1.04 0.98 .320 .303 .332
frequency
*
Significant at.p < .05.

owning households. however, the drop for car use as a passenger was almost 80 % (De Haas
et al., 2020) which stems from the increased concerns on human contact.
5. Discussion of policy implications for sustainable urban Other cities experienced a serious declines of over 80 % (e.g. Milan,
mobility Rome, Barcelona, Madrid, Paris) and around 70 % (e.g. Moscow, New
York, London, Boston, Lisbon) in car traffic in March 2020 (Statista,
Having a widespread impact on people’s lives, the COVID-19 2020). In our study, we also observed a decline of 29 % and 53 % in use
pandemic continues to affect our way of life and behavior (by the time of the private car during the “late March-late April” period for
of writing this paper). These behavioral changes cover a vast range of commuting and SRL activities, respectively. Less congestion on the
subjects in cities and society as a whole, including urban mobility. Yuen, roads, improved air quality and visibility in cities are among the benefits
Wang, Ma, and Li (2020) consider three stages of behavioral changes in of this reduction in the use of private cars. However, the mentioned drop
response to the threats such as the COVID-19 pandemic: panic, adapt, in all parts of the world is mainly associated with the governmental
and new normal. In this study, we aim to capture the immediate changes measures. In contrast, several studies advocate that cities in the
in Istanbulites’ travel behavior as close to real time as possible. post-COVID-19 period will experience congestion at levels not seen prior
In the early stages of the virus outbreak, some countries (e.g. China, to the virus outbreak based on the increased sensitivity and human
Spain, and Italy) enforced nationwide or regional lockdowns and some concern for social distancing and hygiene in public transportation (Beck
others (e.g. the Netherlands, Japan, and Turkey) preferred to apply some & Hensher, 2020a, 2020b; De Haas et al., 2020). This study also in­
forms of ‘intelligent lockdown’ requesting citizens to stay at home as dicates that private car will probably turn out to be a dominant mode of
much as possible. This resulted in less car traffic in cities and less traffic transport for commuting and SRL activities during ‘back to the new
congestion and harmful emissions, reduced public transportation normal era’ in Istanbul. This implies that traffic congestion and air
ridership, prioritization of teleworking and distance education, and pollution will still remain as major urban problems within the foresee­
triggering home-delivery of goods through online applications. able future. Transportation policy makers should be aware of these
A remarkable drop in overall car use was reported in many cities behavioral changes that potentially can lead to more CO2 and local
around the world. In Australian cities, car use experienced a drop by emission, and consider measures to counter such developments.
over a third (35 %) compared to the pre-COVID-19 period (Beck & When discussing sustainability in urban mobility, a key factor is
Hensher, 2020a). In the Netherlands, such a serious decline was not encouraging residents to use public transportation in cities. However,
observed for use of car as a driver (limited decline of around 10 %); due to the virus outbreak, public transportation in many cities has been

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S. Shakibaei et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 65 (2021) 102619

Table 8
Exploring the changes in shopping during different phases based on socio-demographics.
Mean S.D. t-stat p-value
Variable
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase
1 2 3 1 2 3

Males’ grocery MSF = 1.57 MSF = 1.57 MSF = 1.48 MSF = 0.97 MSF = 0.97 MSF = 0.96 4.46 6.12 7.22 .000 .000 .000
shopping FSF = 0.79 FSF = 0.68 FSF = 0.51 FSF = 1.11 FSF = 0.80 FSF = 0.64 ** ** **
frequency
(MSF) vs.
females’
grocery
shopping
frequency
(FSF)
Younger YSF = 1.21 YSF = 1.17 YSF = 0.93 YSF = 1.21 YSF = 1.09 YSF = 0.84 0.15 0.20 1.57 .879 .839 .119
respondents’ OSF = 1.24 OSF = 1.20 OSF = 1.20 OSF = 0.94 OSF = 0.86 OSF = 1.10
(40-) grocery
shopping
frequency
(YSF) vs.
older
respondents’
(40+)
shopping
frequency
(OSF)
HH≤3 HSSF = 1.41 HSSF = 1.33 HSSF = 1.10 HSSF = 1.12 HSSF = 0.95 HSSF = 0.84 2.35 2.05 0.81 .020* .042* .420
shopping HBSF = 0.98 HBSF = 0.98 HBSF = 0.97 HBSF = 1.04 HBSF = 1.04 HBSF = 1.10
frequency
(HSSF) vs.
HH ≥ 4
shopping
frequency
(HBSF)
Females’ – – FOS = 1.02 – – FOS = 1.16 – – 3.47 – – .001
online MOS = 0.41 MOS = 0.85 **
shopping
frequency
(FOS) vs.
Males’ online
shopping
(MOS)
Younger – – YOS = 0.96 – – YOS = 1.13 – – 4.36 – – .000
respondents’ OOS = 0.28 OOS = 0.74 **
(40-) online
shopping
frequency
(YOS) vs.
older (40+)
individuals
online
shopping
(OOS)
HH≤3 Online – – HSOS = 0.91 – – HSOS = 1.16 – – 3.37 – – .001
shopping HBOS = 0.37 HBOS = 0.77 **
frequency
HSOS vs.
HH ≥ 4
online
shopping
frequency
(HBOS)
Mid-high – – HICUS = 0.45 – – HICUS = 0.64 – – 5.25 – – .000
income LICUS = 0.06 LICUS = 0.24 **
respondents’
(5500 TL+)
private car
use
frequency for
shopping
(HICUS) vs.
mid-low
income
respondents
car use for
shopping
(LICUS)
(continued on next page)

14
S. Shakibaei et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 65 (2021) 102619

Table 8 (continued )
Mean S.D. t-stat p-value
Variable
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase Phase
1 2 3 1 2 3

Mid-low – – LIWS = 0.60 – – LIWS = 0.81 – – 5.51 – – .000

income HIWS = 1.58 HIWS = 1.12 **
respondents’
walking
frequency for
shopping
(LIWS) vs.
mid-high
income
respondents
walking
frequency for
shopping
(HIWS)
Non car – – NWS = 1.40 – – NWS = 1.14 – – 4.64 – – .000
owners’ CWS = 0.61 CWS = 0.83 **
walking
frequency for
shopping
(NWS) vs. car
owners
walking
frequency for
shopping
(CWS)
*
Significant at.p < .05.
**
Significant at.p < .01.

facing one of the greatest challenges of its history. In the Netherlands, demonstrations of “deep-cleaning” by employing staff to provide visible
the largest utilization decline among various modes of transportation is cleaning when public transportation services are operational or by dis­
reported for public transportation: more than 90 % fewer trips compared infecting seats and handholds when passengers alight. Furthermore,
to the same period in 2019 (De Haas et al., 2020). Based on ticket provision of sanitizer at stations and onboard services for passengers
validation data in Sweden in March to May 2020 period, public trans­ may also be beneficial. Finally, when facing similar public health
portation ridership has experienced a decline of 60 % and 40 % in threats, public transportation operators may take advantage of innova­
Stockholm and Vastra Gotaland, respectively (Jenelius & Cebecauer, tive technological solutions in provision of easier and more pleasant
2020). A similar trend is reported in Budapest, Hungary, where public services. For instance, they may develop simple smart phone applica­
transportation ridership decreased by 80 % (Bucsky, 2020). In Australia, tions providing real-time information, sending alerts about whether it is
the share of public transportation use for overall household trips fell a good time to use a specific service or not (simply via “red” or “green”
from around 15 % to 7 % in the early days of the virus outbreak (Beck & indicator in the application).
Hensher, 2020a). A study conducted by Pawar, Yadav, Akolekar, and The two basic modes of active transportation, walking and cycling
Velaga (2020) shows that in Indian cities, 5 % of commuters shifted from may be the most promising modes for a sustainable urban mobility
public transportation to private modes of transportation between the (Boulange et al., 2017; Meng, Koh, Wong, & Zhong, 2014). Apart from
virus outbreak and lockdown period. Falchetta and Noussan (2020) all the negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on human life,
report serious declines of public transportation usage across European encouraging people to use active modes of transportation in many parts
cities compared to the pre-COVID-19 period with overall drops of 90 % of the world, the pandemic may offer an exceptional opportunity for
in France and Italy, 70 % in Germany, 85 % in Spain and 75 % in the UK transportation policy to enhance sustainability in urban environments.
(with some variations across cities). In our study, we observed that 5.6 % People in many regions without prominent cycling background such as
of the commuters who were using public transportation during phase 1 New York (Teixeira & Lopes, 2020), Australia (Beck & Hensher, 2020b)
of the study started to use private car during phase 2 and there was no and Bogota, Colombia (Nurse & Dunning, 2020) have turned to cycling
shift to active modes of transportation such as cycling or walking. Shift to minimize their coronavirus exposure. Within this context, cities like
to the private car was even more remarkable in the transition to phase 3. Toronto and London have closed some roads to cars in order to allocate
In phase 2 to phase 3 transition, 44 % of those who were using public safer places to cyclists and pedestrians (The Conversation, 2020).
transportation during phase 2 shifted to teleworking or distance edu­ However, we did not observe similar shifts to cycling in our case study,
cation; thus had no commuting trips. However, among the remaining 56 Istanbul. The major factors behind this might be the infrastructure
% of the respondents, around 33 % shifted to private car. This significant limitations and the city’s fabric. The city with its numerous downhill and
drop in public transportation ridership in cities around the globe is not uphill roads is not bicycle-friendly. On the other hand, due to the very
implausible considering the fact that both governments and public large city size and warm and humid weather conditions during summer
transportation operators urged people to only use public transportation and rainy weather during fall and winter, it might not be rational to
if highly necessary. However, a more important problem for the future of anticipate high levels of cycling for standard long-distance commute
the public transportation and accordingly sustainable urban mobility is trips and SRL activities. Based on the experiences of the cities like
imposed by the concerns on hygiene and application of social distancing. London and New York, urban policy in Istanbul should consider cycling
In this study, 96.5 % of the respondents marked public transportation as as a major long term option for change that can be expected for at least
one of the major sources of the virus spread in Istanbul which is in line short trips and transportation planners should provide safe facilities and
with the findings of Bucsky (2020) and Shamshiripour et al. (2020). To infrastructure for cyclists. To do so, transport policy has to give careful
cope with this perception, transportation policy should consider overt thought to bicycle networks and e-bike services via regulations and

15
S. Shakibaei et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 65 (2021) 102619

investments. come out of the restrictions and when the life is back to the (new)
All around the world, some forms of flexible working such as tele­ normal. Furthermore, we can identify what changes in travel behavior
working, flexible working start/finish times, and work shift systems might continue in the short term and long run by collecting data in the
have been applied to minimize human contact in response to the COVID- future. Our results provide insights across three main domains including
19 public health threat. A study conducted in Chicago shows that the commute, social/recreational/leisure (SRL) activities, and shopping and
number of those with no experience of teleworking has dropped from 71 implications on public transportation, private car use, active modes of
% to 37 % in the pandemic period (Shamshiripour et al., 2020), while a transportation, and flexible working system for policy makers.
very similar pattern is observable in Australia where the number of those our surveys covered a large number of behaviors and actual prefer­
with zero days of teleworking before the virus outbreak has declined ences around home-work trips, SRL activities, shopping, transport
from 71 % to 39 % (Beck & Hensher, 2020a). A panel study in the modes used for these purposes, and the respondents’ reaction to the
Netherlands indicates that around 54 % of all workers telework at least a virus in different waves, so we are able to analyze the changes in in­
part of the week in the pandemic period (De Haas et al., 2020). In this dividuals’ travel behavior. Behavioral changes were triggered by both
study, we also observe that 31 % of the respondents have shifted to the people’s self-regulation and governmental measures to restrict travel
teleworking system during the third phase of the study. Teleworking and social contact and to “flatten the curve” in the short term. Our
may be one of the behaviors that can last into the long term. Any action findings show that SRL activities are the only activity type which un­
embedding a greater level of teleworking will be a sound investment in derwent significant decline in transition from phase 1 to the second
transportation needs and priorities for the sustainable mobility in the phase. This implies that people strongly react to the public health threats
future. On the other hand, in megacities such as Istanbul with over­ such as the COVID-19 pandemic in its immediate stages and avoid un­
loaded public transportation during morning and evening rush hours, necessary activities. However, in transition to the third phase of the
authorities may communicate with decision makers in the public and study, all activities including commuting, SRL and shopping experi­
private sectors to use staggered and flexible work start/finish time to enced significant reductions. Decline of the utilization of all major
avoid undesired crowd and human contact on facilities. public transportation modes including rail facilities, bus, BRT and
Finally, decision makers must have short to long-term plans for food minibus is underlined during post COVID-19 period in Istanbul where in
stock, logistics, and freight at the time of similar disruptions. During contrast, tendency to use private car by Istanbulites is appreciated
early days of the virus outbreak in the country, serious difficulties were during the same period.
witnessed for grocery shopping, particularly for food and sanitary/ At the time of collecting data and writing this paper, urban travel in
cleaning supplies where people were trying to stock up on such house­ the context of COVID-19 were in nascent stages and behavioral changes
hold items. Learning from COVID-19 pandemic, Turkish authorities and attitudes were in a stage of flux; thus, the findings of this study
must guarantee the country’s self-reliance on staple food and they should be boosted by future researches in subsequent waves of the panel
should have early stage plans around inventory requirements and (including “back to the new normal”, but potentially also a comeback of
staffing. Besides, vulnerable society members such as disabled, elderly, the virus) to provide insights for positive intervention before the for­
and low income people must be treated as a form of positive mation of “bad mobility habits”. In this regard, we will continue to track
discrimination. the changes in activity and mobility in the Turkish context. It would also
Considering the reduced levels of commuting, SRL and shopping be very beneficial to bring together the experiences from other mega­
activities via most of the transport modes, it is proved that Istanbulites cities all around the world.
heed governmental request to ‘stay at home’ in short term in case of A preliminary study conducted by Currie, Jain, Aston, and Mc Carthy
disrupting events such as the COVID-19 pandemic. However, policy (2020), indicates that teleworking might be the only long term change
makers should also bone up on economic dimensions of such disrupting that will emerge in a post-pandemic world. Therefore, dynamics of the
events on citizens. 25.7 % of the respondents reported that they have to shift to the teleworking and other forms of flexible working systems in
work under any circumstances since they cannot live without their jobs Istanbul should be examined in future studies. In a megacity like
and manage life even for a short period of several weeks due to financial Istanbul with traffic jams and crowding on public transportation during
issues. Almost 80 % of these respondents are public transportation- rush hours, staggered work hours may provide positive impacts on
dependent. Thus, it might be hard to fully contain the virus spread on transport capacity and demand. This issue deserves more attention from
public transportation without giving priority to hygiene and comfort policy makers and researchers.
attributes. This is even clearer for BRT and most of the bus services On the other hand, more research is needed to address the prevalence
during the morning and evening rush hour in the city. Service levels and of active modes of transportation. On aggregate, we did not detect any
schedules must be revised at least until restrictions are eased to enforce positive changes in the frequency of active modes such as cycling in the
social distancing. context of this study. However, the concept of teleworking might be tied
up with such active modes. In other words, if people start to work from
6. Concluding remarks and suggestions for future studies home, they would be more likely to focus on localized transport net­
works and active transport and this may become a new mobility pattern.
In this paper, we present the preliminary findings from a panel sur­ Therefore, a study is needed to find out whether there might be a rela­
vey conducted in three progressive phases of the COVID-19 pandemic in tionship between the use of active transportation modes for different trip
its early stages in Istanbul, Turkey, between January and April 2020. purposes and application of teleworking system in Istanbul.
During the first phase, the virus risk was disregarded in Istanbul while
the virus was a major risk only in China. Later on, outbreak of the virus CRediT authorship contribution statement
in the neighbor country, Iran, and some European countries particularly
Italy fueled fear into the Turkish society in the middle of February 2020. Shahin Shakibaei: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal anal­
The second phase of the study started at this stage, as well. Finally, ysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Visualization,
subsequent to the observation of the first COVID-19 positive case on 10 Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Gerard C. de Jong:
March and the first death on 17 March in Turkey, the country was Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing -
sucked into a vortex of pandemic-originated problems. The third phase original draft, Writing - review & editing. Pelin Alpkökin: Conceptu­
of this study commenced immediately after the first pandemic-caused alization, Resources, Methodology. Taha H. Rashidi: Formal analysis,
death when the public perception was at the height of the sensitivity. Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing - original draft,
Collection of data at the height of the governmental restrictions and Writing - review & editing.
public sensitivity may provide a useful reference position for the time we

16
S. Shakibaei et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 65 (2021) 102619

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