WHAT IS EXCRETION?

• Animals accumulate ammonia, urea, uric acid,

carbon dioxide, water and ions like Na+ , K+ , Cl– ,
phosphate, sulphate, etc., either by metabolic
activities or by other means like excess ingestion.
These substances have to be removed totally or
partially.
• Excretion is the elimination of metabolic waste
materials like ammonia (most toxic), urea, uric
acid (least toxic) etc., from the body.
 TYPES OF EXCRETION

Ammonotelism
TYPES OF EXCRETION

Ureotelism

Uricotelism
TYPES OF EXCRETION
1. Ammonotelism
• Process of excretion of NH3.
• Ammonotelic animals: Aquatic invertebrates,
bony fishes (majority), aquatic amphibians,
tadpoles, aquatic insects etc.
• NH3 is highly toxic. So excretion needs excess of
water.
• It is readily soluble so is generally excreted by
diffusion across body surfaces or through gill
surfaces (in fish) as ammonium ions. Kidneys do
not play any significant role in its removal.
TYPES OF EXCRETION
2. Ureotelism
• Process of excretion of urea.
• In liver, NH3 is converted into less toxic urea for
conservation of water and is released into the
blood which is filtered and excreted out by the
kidneys. Some amount of urea may be retained in
the kidney matrix of some of these animals to
maintain a desired osmolarity. For excretion urea
requires only moderate quantity of water.
• Ureotelic animals: Terrestrial & semi-aquatic
amphibians (frogs, toads etc), cartilaginous
fishes etc.
TYPES OF EXCRETION
3. Uricotelism
• Process of excretion of uric acid. It is insoluble in
water. So water is not required for excretion.
• Uricotelic animals: Birds, terrestrial reptiles,
insects, land snails and some land crustaceans.
 EXCRETORY ORGANS IN ANIMALS
• In most of the invertebrates, these structures are simple tubular forms whereas vertebrates have
complex tubular organs called kidneys. These organs performs function of excretion and
osmoregulation.
Excretory organ Seen in
Platyhelminthes, rotifers, some
Protonephridia (Flame cells) annelids and cephalochordate
(Amphioxus)
Nephridia Annelids

Malpighian tubules Insects

Antennal glands (green glands) Crustaceans

Kidneys Higher animals
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

A pair of Kidneys

A pair of ureters

Urinary bladder

Urethra
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY
• Reddish brown, bean-shaped structures enclosed in
a tough, 3-layered fibrous capsule.
• It is situated between the levels of last thoracic &
3rd lumbar vertebra close to the dorsal inner wall
of abdominal cavity.
• Length: 10-12 cm, Width: 5-7 cm, Thickness: 2-3
cm.
• Average weight: 120-170 gm.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY
• Towards the centre of inner concave side
of kidney, there is an opening (hilum or
hilus) through which blood vessels,
nerves, lymphatic ducts and ureter enter
the kidney.
• Hilum leads to broad funnel shaped cavity
called renal pelvis with projections called
calyces.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY
• Each kidney has outer cortex and inner medulla.
• Medulla has few conical projections called renal
pyramids (medullary pyramids) projecting into the
calyces.
• Cortex extends in between the medullary pyramids
as renal columns called Columns of Bertini.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY: AT A GLANCE
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
NEPHRON
• Each kidney has nearly one million complex
tubular nephrons.
• Nephrons are the structural & functional units of
kidney.
• Each nephron has 2 parts: Glomerulus and Renal
tubule.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
NEPHRON: GLOMERULUS
• Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by
afferent arteriole (a fine branch of renal artery).
• Blood from the glomerulus is carried away by an
efferent arteriole.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
NEPHRON: RENAL TUBULE
• Renal tubule begins with a double walled cup-like
Bowman’s capsule, which encloses the glomerulus.
• Glomerulus + Bowman’s capsule = Malpighian body
(Renal corpuscle).
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
NEPHRON: RENAL TUBULE
• The tubule continues with proximal convoluted
tubule (PCT), Henle’s loop & distal convoluted
tubule (DCT).
• Henle’s loop is hairpin-shaped. It has descending &
ascending limbs.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
NEPHRON: RENAL TUBULE
• The DCTs of many nephrons open into collecting duct.
• Collecting duct extends from cortex to inner parts of
medulla. They converge and open into the renal pelvis
through medullary pyramids in the calyces.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
NEPHRON
• Malpighian body, PCT & DCT are situated in renal
cortex.
• Loop of Henle dips into medulla.
• The efferent arteriole emerging from glomerulus
forms a fine capillary network (peritubular
capillaries) around the renal tubule.
• A minute vessel of this network runs parallel to the
Henle’s loop forming a ‘U’ shaped vasa recta. Vasa
recta is higly reduced or absent in cortical nephrons.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
TYPES OF NEPHRON
1. Cortical nephrons (85%): In this, the Henle’s loop is
short and extends only very little into the medulla.
Vasa recta is absent or highly reduced.
2. Juxtamedullary nephrons (15%): In this, Henle’s
loop is long and runs deep into medulla. Vasa recta
present.
URINE FORMATION
Glomerular filtration

3 STEPS OF URINE
FORMATION
Reabsorption

Tubular Secretion
URINE FORMATION
1. Glomerular filtration
Glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration
of blood through the following 3 layers:
• Endothelium of glomerular blood vessels.
• Epithelium of Bowman’s capsule.
• Basement membrane between these 2 layers.
URINE FORMATION
1. Glomerular filtration
• Epithelial cells (podocytes) of the Bowman’s
capsule are arranged in an intricate manner
leaving some minute spaces called filtration slits
(slit pores).
URINE FORMATION
1. Glomerular filtration

• Almost all constituents of blood plasma except the

proteins pass onto the lumen of Bowman’s capsule.
• About 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by kidneys
per minute. It constitutes 1/5th of the blood pumped
out by each ventricle of the heart in a minute.
URINE FORMATION
1. Glomerular filtration

• The amount of the filtrate formed per minute is

called Glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
• Normal GFR = 125 ml/minute, i.e., 180 litres/day.
URINE FORMATION
2. Reabsorption
• 180 litres of glomerular filtrate is produced daily.
But about 99% of this is reabsorbed by the renal
tubules. So normal volume of urine released is 1.5
litres.
• Substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, etc in
filtrate are reabsorbed actively.
• Nitrogenous wastes are absorbed by passive
transport.
URINE FORMATION
2. Reabsorption
• Passive reabsorption of water occurs in the initial
segments of the nephron.
• PCT reabsorbs most of the nutrients, and 70-80%
of electrolytes & water.
• Simple cuboidal brush border epithelium of PCT
increases surface area for reabsorption.
URINE FORMATION
2. Reabsorption
• In loop of Henle, minimum reabsorption takes
place in ascending limb. It maintains high
osmolarity of medullary interstitial fluid.
• Descending limb is permeable to water but almost
impermeable to electrolytes. This concentrates
the filtrate.
• Ascending limb is impermeable to water but allows
transport of electrolytes. So, filtrate gets diluted.
URINE FORMATION
2. Reabsorption
• In DCT, conditional reabsorption of Na+ & water
takes place.
• Collecting duct extends from cortex to inner
parts of medulla. It reabsorbs large amount of
water to concentrate urine. It also allows passage
of small amounts of urea into medullary
interstitium to keep up the osmolarity. Also helps
in pH and ionic balance by selective secretion of
H+ and K+ ions.
URINE FORMATION
3. Tubular secretion

• Cells of PCT & DCT maintain ionic (Na-K balance)

and acid-base balance (pH) of body fluids by
selective secretion of H+, K+ & NH3 into the
filtrate and absorption of HCO3- from it.
• Collecting duct maintain pH and ionic balance of
blood by the secretion of H+ and K+ ions.
 URINE
FORMATION:
AT A GLANCE
URINE FORMATION
Concentration of the filtrate
• Henle’s loop & vasa recta help to concentrate the urine.
• The flow of filtrate in the 2 limbs of Henle’s loop and the
flow of blood through the 2 limbs of vasa recta are in
opposite directions (i.e. in a counter current pattern).
URINE FORMATION
Concentration of the filtrate
• Mammals have a great ability to make
concentrated urine with the significant
contribution of Vasa recta and Loop of Henle
(flow is opposite).
• The counter current and proximity between
Henle’s loop & vasa recta maintain an increasing
osmolarity towards the inner medullary
interstitium, i.e., from 300 mOsmolL-1 in the
cortex to about 1200 mOsmolL-1 in the inner
medulla. This gradient is mainly caused by NaCl &
urea.
URINE FORMATION
Concentration of the filtrate
• NaCl is transported by ascending limb of Henle’s
loop that is exchanged with descending limb of
vasa recta. NaCl is returned to interstitium by
ascending limb of vasa recta.
• Similarly, small amount of urea enter the thin
segment of the ascending limb of Henle’s loop
which is transported back to the interstitium by
the collecting tubule.
URINE FORMATION
Concentration of the filtrate
• This transport of substances facilitated by
Henle’s loop & vasa recta is called Counter
current mechanism.
• It maintains a concentration gradient (interstitial
gradient) in the medullary interstitium. It helps
in an easy passage of water from collecting tubule
for concentrating the filtrate (urine).
URINE FORMATION
Concentration of the filtrate
• Human kidneys produce urine four times
concentrated than the initial filtrate formed.
URINE FORMATION
REGULATION OF THE KIDNEY FUNCTION
• It is done by hormonal feedback mechanisms
involving the hypothalamus, JGA & heart.
• Changes in blood volume, body fluid volume and
ionic concentration activate Osmoreceptors in the
body.
REGULATION OF THE KIDNEY FUNCTION
1. Regulation by ADH
• When body fluid level decreases, the
osmoreceptors stimulate the hypothalamus to
release antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin)
from neurohypophysis.
• ADH prevents diuresis by facilitating water
reabsorption from DCT and collecting duct.
REGULATION OF THE KIDNEY FUNCTION
1. Regulation by ADH
• An increase in fluid volume switches off the
osmoreceptors and suppresses the ADH release to
complete the feedback.
• ADH constricts blood vessels resulting in an
increase of BP. This increases the glomerular blood
flow and GFR.
REGULATION OF THE KIDNEY FUNCTION
2. Regulation by JGA
• There is a special sensitive region called juxta
glomerular apparatus (JGA) formed by cellular
modification of DCT and the afferent arteriole at
the location of their contact.
• JGA regulates the GFR by Renin-Angiotensin
mechanism.
• A fall in glomerular blood flow/ glomerular blood
pressure/GFR activates the JG cells to release
renin which stimulates glomerular blood flow.
REGULATION OF THE KIDNEY FUNCTION
2. Regulation by JGA
• Renin converts angiotensinogen in blood to
angiotensin I and further to angiotensin II (a
vasoconstrictor).
• Angiotensin II increases glomerular blood pressure
and thereby GFR.
• Angiotensin II also activates adrenal cortex to
release Aldosterone.
REGULATION OF THE KIDNEY FUNCTION
2. Regulation by JGA
• Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+ and water
from the distal parts of the tubule. This also leads
to an increase in blood pressure and GFR.
• This is called RAAS Mechanism.
REGULATION OF THE KIDNEY FUNCTION
3. Regulation by ANF

• ANF check on the renin- angiotensin mechanism.

• Increase in blood flow to the atria of heart causes
the release of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF).
• ANF causes vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels)
and thereby decreases the blood pressure.
MICTURITION
It is the release of urine.
Steps:
Gradual filling of urinary bladder → Stretching →
Stretch receptors on its wall send impulses to CNS
→ CNS passes on motor messages → Contraction
of smooth muscles of the bladder & simultaneous
relaxation of urethral sphincter → Micturition.
MICTURITION
• The neural mechanism causing micturition is
called micturition reflex.
• An adult human excretes 1 to 1.5 litres of urine
(25-30 gm urea) per day.
• Urine is a light yellow coloured watery fluid and
slightly acidic (pH-6.0).
• Urine has a characteristic odour.
 MICTURITION
• Various conditions affect the characteristics of
urine.
• Urine analysis helps in clinical diagnosis of many
metabolic disorders and malfunctioning of the
kidney.
• E.g. Glycosuria (presence of glucose) and
Ketonuria (ketone bodies) in urine indicates
diabetes mellitus.
ROLE OF LUNGS, LIVER & SKIN IN EXCRETION
Lungs
• Remove CO2 (200mL/min) and water.
Liver
• Secretes bile containing bilirubin, biliverdin,
cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones, vitamins
& drugs.
• Most of them pass out along with digestive wastes.
ROLE OF LUNGS, LIVER & SKIN IN EXCRETION
Skin (Sweat & sebaceous glands)
• Sweat contains water, NaCl, small amounts of
urea, lactic acid, etc.
• Primary function of sweat is to give a cooling
effect on body surface.
• Sebaceous glands eliminate sterols,
hydrocarbons and waxes through sebum. Sebum
provides a protective oily covering for the skin.
• Saliva eliminates small amounts of nitrogenous
wastes.
DISORDERS OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM
• Uremia: Accumulation of urea in blood which may
lead to kidney failure.
• Renal calculi: Stone or insoluble mass of
crystallized salts (oxalates, etc.) formed within
the kidney.
• Glomerulonephritits: Inflammation of glomeruli.
 DISORDERS OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM
HAEMODIALYSIS
• In patients with uremia, urea is removed by
hemodialysis.
• The dialyzing unit (artificial kidney) contains a
coiled cellophane tube surrounded by dialyzing
fluid. It has same composition of plasma except
the nitrogenous wastes.
• Blood drained from a convenient artery is pumped
into dialyzing unit after adding an anticoagulant
like heparin.
 DISORDERS OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM
HAEMODIALYSIS
• The porous cellophane membrane
of the tube allows the passage of
molecules based on concentration
gradient.
• As nitrogenous wastes are absent
in dialyzing fluid, these
substances freely move out,
thereby clearing the blood.
• The cleared blood is pumped back
to the body through a vein after
adding anti-heparin to it.
DISORDERS OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM
KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION
• It is the ultimate method in the correction of
acute renal failures. A functioning kidney is
taken from a donor.
• It is better to receive kidney from a close
relative to minimize chances of rejection by
immune system of host.