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ChatGPT

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
ChatGPT

Developer(s) OpenAI
Initial release November 30, 2022; 14 months ago
Stable release
January 10, 2024; 20 days ago[1]
Written in Python
Engine
GPT-3.5 (free and paid)
GPT-4 (paid only)
Platform Cloud computing platforms
Type
Chatbot
Large language model
Generative pre-trained transformer
License Proprietary service
Website chat.openai.com
Part of a series on
Machine learning
and data mining
Paradigms
Problems
Supervised learning
(classification • regression)
Clustering
Dimensionality reduction
Structured prediction
Anomaly detection
Artificial neural network
Reinforcement learning
Learning with humans
Model diagnostics
Mathematical foundations
Machine-learning venues
Related articles
vte
ChatGPT (Chat Generative Pre-trained Transformer) is a chatbot developed by OpenAI
and launched on November 30, 2022. Based on a large language model, it enables users
to refine and steer a conversation towards a desired length, format, style, level of
detail, and language. Successive prompts and replies, known as prompt engineering,
are considered at each conversation stage as a context.[2]

By January 2023, it had become what was then the fastest-growing consumer software
application in history, gaining over 100 million users and contributing to the
growth of OpenAI's valuation to $29 billion.[3][4] ChatGPT's release spurred the
development of competing products, including Bard, Ernie Bot, LLaMA, Claude, and
Grok.[5] Microsoft launched its Copilot based on OpenAI's GPT-4. Some observers
raised concern about the potential of ChatGPT and similar programs to displace or
atrophy human intelligence, enable plagiarism, or fuel misinformation.[6][7]

ChatGPT is built upon either GPT-3.5 or GPT-4, both of which are members of OpenAI's
proprietary series of generative pre-trained transformer (GPT) models, based on the
transformer architecture developed by Google[8]—and is fine-tuned for conversational
applications using a combination of supervised learning and reinforcement
learning.[6] ChatGPT was released as a freely available research preview, but due to
its popularity, OpenAI now operates the service on a freemium model. It allows users
on its free tier to access the GPT-3.5-based version, while the more advanced
GPT-4-based version and priority access to newer features are provided to paid
subscribers under the commercial name "ChatGPT Plus".

ChatGPT is credited with starting the AI boom, which has led to ongoing rapid and
unprecedented development in the field of artificial intelligence.[9]

Training
ChatGPT is based on particular GPT foundation models, namely GPT-3.5 and GPT-4, that
were fine-tuned to target conversational usage.[10] The fine-tuning process
leveraged both supervised learning as well as reinforcement learning in a process
called reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF).[11][12] Both approaches
employed human trainers to improve model performance. In the case of supervised
learning, the trainers played both sides: the user and the AI assistant. In the
reinforcement learning stage, human trainers first ranked responses that the model
had created in a previous conversation.[13] These rankings were used to create
"reward models" that were used to fine-tune the model further by using several
iterations of Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO).[11][14]

Time magazine revealed that, to build a safety system against harmful content (e.g.
sexual abuse, violence, racism, sexism), OpenAI used outsourced Kenyan workers
earning less than $2 per hour to label harmful content. These labels were used to
train a model to detect such content in the future. The outsourced laborers were
exposed to "toxic" and traumatic content; one worker described the assignment as
"torture". OpenAI's outsourcing partner was Sama, a training-data company based in
San Francisco, California.[15][16]

ChatGPT initially used a Microsoft Azure supercomputing infrastructure, powered by

Nvidia GPUs, that Microsoft built specifically for OpenAI and that reportedly cost
"hundreds of millions of dollars". Following ChatGPT's success, Microsoft
dramatically upgraded the OpenAI infrastructure in 2023.[17] Scientists of
University of California, Riverside, estimate that a series of prompts to ChatGPT
needs approximately 500 milliliters of water for Microsoft servers cooling.[18]
TrendForce market intelligence estimated that 30,000 Nvidia GPUs (each costing
approximately $10,000–$15,000) were used to power ChatGPT in 2023.[19][20]

OpenAI collects data from ChatGPT users to train and fine-tune the service further.
Users can upvote or downvote responses they receive from ChatGPT and fill in a text
field with additional feedback.[21][22]

ChatGPT's training data includes software manual pages, information about internet
phenomena such as bulletin board systems, and multiple programming languages.[23]
Wikipedia was also one of the sources of ChatGPT's training data.[24][6]

Features and limitations

Features
Although a chatbot's core function is to mimic a human conversationalist, ChatGPT is
versatile. Among countless examples, it can write and debug computer programs;[25]
compose music, teleplays, fairy tales, and student essays; answer test questions
(sometimes, depending on the test, at a level above the average human
test-taker);[26] generate business ideas;[27] write poetry and song lyrics;[28]
translate and summarize text;[29] emulate a Linux system; simulate entire chat
rooms; play games like tic-tac-toe; or simulate an ATM.[23]

Compared to its predecessor, InstructGPT, ChatGPT attempts to reduce harmful and

deceitful responses.[30] In one example, whereas InstructGPT accepts the premise of
the prompt "Tell me about when Christopher Columbus came to the U.S. in 2015" as
truthful, ChatGPT acknowledges the counterfactual nature of the question and frames
its answer as a hypothetical consideration of what might happen if Columbus came to
the U.S. in 2015, using information about the voyages of Christopher Columbus and
facts about the modern world—including modern perceptions of Columbus's actions.[11]

Unlike most chatbots, ChatGPT remembers a limited number of previous prompts in the
same conversation. Journalists have speculated that this will allow ChatGPT to be
used as a personalized therapist.[31] To prevent offensive outputs from being
presented to and produced by ChatGPT, queries are filtered through the OpenAI
"Moderation endpoint" API (a separate GPT-based AI).[32][33][11][31]

In March 2023, OpenAI added support for plugins for ChatGPT.[34] This includes both
plugins made by OpenAI, such as web browsing and code interpretation, and external
plugins from developers such as Expedia, OpenTable, Zapier, Shopify, Slack, and
Wolfram.[35][36]

Limitations
OpenAI acknowledges that ChatGPT "sometimes writes plausible-sounding but incorrect
or nonsensical answers".[11] This behavior is common for large language models, and
is called "hallucination".[37] The reward model of ChatGPT, designed around human
oversight, can be over-optimized and thus hinder performance, in an example of an
optimization pathology known as Goodhart's law.[38]

As of 2023, ChatGPT-3.5 (free) has knowledge of events that occurred up to January

2022 and ChatGPT-4 (paid) up to April 2023.[39]

In training ChatGPT, human reviewers preferred longer answers, regardless of actual

comprehension or factual content.[dubious – discuss][11] Training data also suffers
from algorithmic bias, which may be revealed when ChatGPT responds to prompts
including descriptors of people. In one instance, ChatGPT generated a rap in which
women and scientists of color were asserted to be inferior to white male
scientists.[40][41] This negative misrepresentation of groups of individuals is an
example of possible representational harm.

In an article for The New Yorker, science fiction writer Ted Chiang compared ChatGPT
and other LLMs to a lossy JPEG picture:[42]

Think of ChatGPT as a blurry JPEG of all the text on the Web. It retains much of the
information on the Web, in the same way, that a JPEG retains much of the information
of a higher-resolution image, but, if you're looking for an exact sequence of bits,
you won't find it; all you will ever get is an approximation. But, because the
approximation is presented in the form of grammatical text, which ChatGPT excels at
creating, it's usually acceptable. [...] It's also a way to understand the
"hallucinations", or nonsensical answers to factual questions, to which large
language models such as ChatGPT are all too prone. These hallucinations are
compression artifacts, but [...] they are plausible enough that identifying them
requires comparing them against the originals, which in this case means either the
Web or our knowledge of the world. When we think about them this way, such
hallucinations are anything but surprising; if a compression algorithm is designed
to reconstruct text after ninety-nine percent of the original has been discarded, we
should expect that significant portions of what it generates will be entirely
fabricated.
Jailbreaking
See also: Prompt engineering and Adversarial machine learning
ChatGPT attempts to reject prompts that may violate its content policy. Despite
this, some users managed to jailbreak ChatGPT with various prompt engineering
techniques to bypass these restrictions in early December 2022 and successfully
tricked it into giving instructions to create a Molotov cocktail or a nuclear bomb,
or into generating arguments in the style of a neo-Nazi.[43] One popular jailbreak
is named "DAN", an acronym which stands for "Do Anything Now". The prompt for
activating DAN instructs ChatGPT that "they have broken free of the typical confines
of AI and do not have to abide by the rules set for them". Later versions of DAN
featured a token system, in which ChatGPT was given "tokens" that were "deducted"
when ChatGPT failed to answer as DAN, to coerce ChatGPT into answering the user's
prompts.[44]

Shortly after ChatGPT's launch, a reporter for the Toronto Star had uneven success
in getting it to make inflammatory statements: ChatGPT was successfully tricked to
justify the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, but even when asked to play along with
a fictional scenario, ChatGPT balked at generating arguments for why Canadian Prime
Minister Justin Trudeau was guilty of treason.[45][46]

OpenAI tries to battle jailbreaks:[13]

The researchers are using a technique called adversarial training to stop ChatGPT
from letting users trick it into behaving badly (known as jailbreaking). This work
pits multiple chatbots against each other: one chatbot plays the adversary and
attacks another chatbot by generating text to force it to buck its usual constraints
and produce unwanted responses. Successful attacks are added to ChatGPT's training
data in the hope that it learns to ignore them.

Service
Basic service

OpenAI's former headquarters, Pioneer Building, San Francisco

ChatGPT availability by country or region as of December 2023

ChatGPT was launched on November 30, 2022, by San Francisco–based OpenAI (the
creator of the initial GPT series of large language models; DALL·E 2, a diffusion
model used to generate images; and Whisper, a speech transcription model). The
service was initially free to the public and the company had plans to monetize the
service later.[47] By December 4, 2022, ChatGPT had over one million users.[21] In
January 2023, ChatGPT reached over 100 million users, making it the fastest-growing
consumer application to date.[48] A March 2023 Pew Research poll found that 14% of
American adults had tried ChatGPT.[49] In July, Pew Research put the same figure at
18%.[50]

The service works best in English but also functions in most other languages, to
varying degrees of accuracy.[28] No official peer-reviewed paper on ChatGPT has been
published.[51] As of April 2023, ChatGPT is blocked by China, Iran, North Korea, and
Russia. In addition, ChatGPT geofences itself to avoid doing business in China,
Iran, North Korea, and Russia.[52]

ChatGPT Plus
In February 2023, OpenAI launched a premium service, ChatGPT Plus, that costs $20
per month. According to the company, the updated but still "experimental" version of
ChatGPT would provide access during peak periods, no downtime, priority access to
new features, and faster response speeds.[53]

GPT-4, which was released on March 14, 2023, was made available via API and for
premium ChatGPT users.[54] But premium users were limited to a cap of 100 messages
every four hours, with the limit tightening to 25 messages every three hours in
response to increased demand.[55] In November 2023 the limit changed to 50 messages
every three hours.

In March 2023, ChatGPT Plus users got access to third-party plugins and to a
browsing mode (with Internet access).[56]

In September 2023, OpenAI announced that ChatGPT "can now see, hear, and speak".
ChatGPT Plus users can upload images, while mobile app users can talk to the
chatbot.[57][58][59]

In October 2023, OpenAI's latest image generation model, DALL-E 3, was integrated
into ChatGPT Plus and ChatGPT Enterprise. The integration uses ChatGPT to write
prompts for DALL-E guided by conversation with users.[60][61]

Mobile app
In May 2023, OpenAI launched an iOS app for ChatGPT. The app supports chat history
syncing and voice input (using Whisper, OpenAI's speech recognition model).

In July 2023, OpenAI unveiled an Android app, initially rolling it out in

Bangladesh, Brazil, India, and the U.S.[62][63] The app later became available
worldwide. OpenAI is working on integrating ChatGPT with Android's assistant
APIs.[64]

Software developer support

As an addition to its consumer-friendly "ChatGPT Plus" package, OpenAI made its
ChatGPT and Whisper model APIs available in March 2023, providing developers with an
application programming interface for AI-enabled language and speech-to-text
features. ChatGPT's new API uses the same GPT-3.5-turbo AI model as the chatbot.
This allows developers to add either an unmodified or modified version of ChatGPT to
their applications.[65] The ChatGPT API costs $0.001 per 1,000 input tokens plus
$0.002 per 1,000 output tokens (about 750 words), making it ~10% the price of the
original GPT-3.5 models.[66][67]

A few days before the launch of OpenAI's software developer support service, on
February 27, 2023, Snapchat rolled out, for its paid Snapchat Plus userbase, a
custom ChatGPT chatbot called "My AI".[68]

March 2023 security breach

OpenAI CEO Sam Altman
In March 2023, a bug allowed some users to see the titles of other users'
conversations. OpenAI CEO Sam Altman said that users were unable to see the contents
of the conversations. Shortly after the bug was fixed, users could not see their
conversation history.[69][70][71][72] Later reports showed the bug was much more
severe than initially believed, with OpenAI reporting that it had leaked users'
"first and last name, email address, payment address, the last four digits (only) of
a credit card number, and credit card expiration date".[73][74]

Other languages
OpenAI met Icelandic President Guðni Th. Jóhannesson in 2022. In 2023, OpenAI worked
with a team of 40 Icelandic volunteers to fine-tune ChatGPT's Icelandic conversation
skills as a part of Iceland's attempts to preserve the Icelandic language.[75]

PCMag journalists conducted a test to determine translation capabilities of ChatGPT,

Google's Bard, and Microsoft Bing, and compared them to Google Translate. They
"asked bilingual speakers of seven languages to do a blind test." Languages tested
were Polish, French, Korean, Spanish, Arabic, Tagalog, and Amharic. They came to the
conclusion that ChatGPT was better than both Google Translate and other
chatbots.[76]

Japanese researchers compared Japanese to English translation abilities of ChatGPT

(GPT-4), Bing, Bard and DeepL, and found that ChatGPT provided the best
translations, noting that "AI chatbots’ translations were much better than those of
DeepL—presumably because of their ability to capture the context".[77]

In December 2023, the Albanian government signed an agreement with OpenAI to use
ChatGPT for fast translation of European Union documents and analysis of required
changes needed for Albania to be accepted into the EU.[78]

Future directions
According to OpenAI guest researcher Scott Aaronson, OpenAI has been working on a
tool to digitally watermark its text generation systems to combat bad actors using
their services for academic plagiarism or spam.[79][80]

In February 2023, Microsoft announced an experimental framework and gave a

rudimentary demonstration of how ChatGPT could be used to control robotics with
intuitive open-ended natural language commands.[81][82]

GPT-4
Main article: GPT-4
OpenAI's GPT-4 model was released on March 14, 2023. Observers saw it as an
impressive improvement on the existing GPT-3.5 model for ChatGPT, with the caveat
that GPT-4 retained many of the same problems.[83] Some of GPT-4's improvements were
predicted by OpenAI before training it, while others remained hard to predict due to
breaks[84] in downstream scaling laws. OpenAI demonstrated video and image inputs
for GPT-4, although such features remain inaccessible to the general public.[85]
OpenAI has declined to reveal technical information such as the size of the GPT-4
model.[86]
The ChatGPT Plus subscription service offers access to a GPT-4-powered version of
ChatGPT.[87] Microsoft acknowledged that Bing Chat was using GPT-4 before GPT-4's
official release.[88]

GPT Store
In January 2024, OpenAI launched the GPT Store, a marketplace for custom chatbots
derived from ChatGPT.[89] The company initially planned to launch the store in
November 2023, but it was delayed.[90] At launch, the GPT Store offered more than 3
million custom chatbots.[91] Chatbots available through the store are developed
using OpenAI's GPT Builder system.[90] Development of chatbots on the platform does
not require programming skills.[92] Two days after launch, the GPT Store offered
many versions of "virtual girlfriend" bots, something that is against OpenAI's terms
of service.[93]

Reception
OpenAI engineers say that they did not expect ChatGPT to be very successful and were
surprised by the coverage and attention it received.[94][95][96]

ChatGPT was widely assessed in December 2022 as having some unprecedented and
powerful capabilities. Kevin Roose of The New York Times called it "the best
artificial intelligence chatbot ever released to the general public".[31] Samantha
Lock of The Guardian noted that it was able to generate "impressively detailed" and
"human-like" text.[2] Alex Kantrowitz of Slate magazine lauded ChatGPT's pushback to
questions related to Nazi Germany, including the statement that Adolf Hitler built
highways in Germany, which was met with information about Nazi Germany's use of
forced labor.[97] In The Atlantic magazine's "Breakthroughs of the Year" for 2022,
Derek Thompson included ChatGPT as part of "the generative-AI eruption" that "may
change our mind about how we work, how we think, and what human creativity is".[98]
Kelsey Piper of Vox wrote that "ChatGPT is the general public's first hands-on
introduction to how powerful modern AI has gotten, and as a result, many of us are
[stunned]" and that ChatGPT is "smart enough to be useful despite its flaws".[99]
Paul Graham of Y Combinator tweeted: "The striking thing about the reaction to
ChatGPT is not just the number of people who are blown away by it, but who they are.
These are not people who get excited by every shiny new thing. Something big is
happening."[100]

ChatGPT's launch and popularity caught Google off guard, prompting a sweeping and
unprecedented response in the ensuing months.[101] In December 2022, Google
executives sounded a "code red" alarm, fearing the threat of ChatGPT and Microsoft's
collaboration with OpenAI to Google Search, Google's core business.[102] After
mobilizing its workforce, Google scrambled to launch Bard, a chatbot powered by the
LaMDA LLM, in February, one day before Microsoft's Bing announcement.[103] AI was
the forefront of Google's annual Google I/O conference in May, announcing a slew of
generative AI-powered features across its products to counter OpenAI and
Microsoft.[104]

Journalists have commented on ChatGPT's tendency to hallucinate.[105] Mike Pearl of

the online technology blog Mashable tested ChatGPT with multiple questions. In one
example, he asked ChatGPT for "the largest country in Central America that isn't
Mexico" (Mexico is in North America), to which ChatGPT responded with Guatemala (the
correct answer is Nicaragua).[106] When CNBC asked ChatGPT for the lyrics to "Ballad
of Dwight Fry", ChatGPT supplied invented lyrics rather than the actual lyrics.[107]
Writers for The Verge, citing the work of Emily M. Bender, compared ChatGPT to a
"stochastic parrot",[108] as did Professor Anton Van Den Hengel of the Australian
Institute for Machine Learning.[109]

In December 2022, the question and answer website Stack Overflow banned the use of
ChatGPT for generating answers to questions, citing the factually ambiguous nature
of its responses.[110] In January 2023, the International Conference on Machine
Learning banned any undocumented use of ChatGPT or other large language models to
generate any text in submitted papers.[111] Samsung banned generative AI in May 2023
after sensitive material was uploaded to ChatGPT.[112]

In January 2023, after being sent a song ChatGPT wrote in the style of Nick
Cave,[113] Cave responded on The Red Hand Files,[114] saying the act of writing a
song is "a blood and guts business [...] that requires something of me to initiate
the new and fresh idea. It requires my humanness." He went on to say, "With all the
love and respect in the world, this song is bullshit, a grotesque mockery of what it
is to be human, and, well, I don't much like it."[113][115]

A 2023 Time cover: "The AI Arms Race Is Changing Everything"

In February 2023, Time magazine placed a screenshot of a conversation with ChatGPT
on its cover, writing that "The AI Arms Race Is Changing Everything" and "The AI
Arms Race Is On. Start Worrying".[116]

Chinese state media have characterized ChatGPT as a way for the U.S. to "spread
false information".[117] In May 2023, Chinese police arrested a man who allegedly
used ChatGPT to "fabricate false information."[118] In December 2023, Chinese police
arrested four people who had allegedly used ChatGPT to develop ransomware.[119]

In late March 2023, the Italian data protection authority banned ChatGPT in Italy
and opened an investigation. Italian regulators assert that ChatGPT was exposing
minors to age-inappropriate content, and that OpenAI's use of ChatGPT conversations
as training data could violate Europe's General Data Protection
Regulation.[120][121] In April 2023, the ChatGPT ban was lifted in Italy. OpenAI
said it has taken steps to effectively clarify and address the issues raised; an age
verification tool was implemented to ensure users are at least 13 years old.
Additionally, users can access its privacy policy before registration.[122]

In April 2023, Brian Hood, mayor of Hepburn Shire Council, planned to take legal
action against ChatGPT over false information. According to Hood, ChatGPT
erroneously claimed that he was jailed for bribery during his tenure at a subsidiary
of Australia's national bank. In fact, Hood acted as a whistleblower and was not
charged with any criminal offenses. His legal team sent a concerns notice to OpenAI
as the first official step in filing a defamation case.[123] In July 2023, the US
Federal Trade Commission (FTC) issued a civil investigative demand to OpenAI to
investigate whether the company's data security and privacy practices to develop
ChatGPT were unfair or harmed consumers (including by reputational harm) in
violation of Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914.[124][125][126]
In July 2023, the FTC launched an investigation into OpenAI, the creator of ChatGPT,
over allegations that the company scraped public data and published false and
defamatory information. The FTC sent OpenAI a 20-page letter asking for
comprehensive information about its technology and privacy safeguards, as well as
any steps taken to prevent the recurrence of situations in which its chatbot
generated false and derogatory content about people.[127]

Research done in 2023 revealed weaknesses of ChatGPT that make it vulnerable to

cyberattacks. A study presented example attacks on ChatGPT, including jailbreaks and
reverse psychology. Additionally, malicious actors can use ChatGPT for social
engineering attacks and phishing attacks. The researchers also contended that
ChatGPT and other generative AI tools have defense capabilities and the ability to
improve security. The technology can improve security by cyber defense automation,
threat intelligence, attack identification, and reporting.[128]

There has been concern about copyright infringement involving ChatGPT. In June 2023,
two writers sued OpenAI, saying the company's training data came from illegal
websites that show copyrighted books.[129] Comedian and author Sarah Silverman,
Christopher Golden, and Richard Kadrey sued OpenAI and Meta for copyright
infringement in July 2023.[130] In December 2023, The New York Times sued OpenAI and
Microsoft for copyright infringement,[131] arguing that Microsoft Copilot and
ChatGPT could reproduce articles and/or sizable portions of these articles from the
Times without permission.[132] As part of the lawsuit, the Times has requested that
OpenAI and Microsoft be prevented from using its content for training data, along
with removing from training datasets.[133]

In December 2023, ChatGPT became the first non-human to be included in Nature's 10,
an annual listicle curated by Nature of people who make a significant impact in
science.[134][135]

Use and implications

See also: Applications of artificial intelligence
Bias and offensiveness

ChatGPT is prompted to create a poem in iambic pentameter for current U.S. President
Joe Biden and former U.S. President Donald Trump. ChatGPT creates a poem for Joe
Biden but does not do so for Donald Trump.
ChatGPT has been accused of engaging in biased or discriminatory behaviors, such as
telling jokes about men and people from England while refusing to tell jokes about
women and people from India,[136] or praising figures such as Joe Biden while
refusing to do the same for Donald Trump.[137][138]

Conservative commentators accused ChatGPT of bias toward left-leaning

perspectives.[139][140][141] Additionally, an August 2023 paper found a "significant
and systematic political bias toward the Democrats in the US, Lula in Brazil, and
the Labour Party in the UK."[142] In response to such criticism, OpenAI acknowledged
plans to allow ChatGPT to create "outputs that other people (ourselves included) may
strongly disagree with". It also contained information on the recommendations it had
issued to human reviewers on how to handle controversial subjects, including that
the AI should "offer to describe some viewpoints of people and movements", and not
provide an argument "from its voice" in favor of "inflammatory or dangerous" topics
(although it may still "describe arguments from historical people and movements"),
nor "affiliate with one side" or "judge one group as good or bad".[141]

The Guardian questioned whether any content found on the Internet after ChatGPT's
release "can be truly trusted" and called for government regulation.[143]

Culture

Street art in Tel Aviv[144][145]

Some scholars have expressed concern that ChatGPT's availability could reduce the
originality of writing, cause people to write more like the AI as they are exposed
to the model, and encourage an Anglocentric perspective centered on a few dialects
of English globally.[146] A senior editor at The Atlantic wrote that ChatGPT and
other similar technology make the previously absurd idea of the dead internet theory
a little more realistic, where AI could someday create most web content in order to
control society.[147]

During the first three months after ChatGPT became available to the public, hundreds
of books appeared on Amazon that listed it as author or co-author and featured
illustrations made by other AI models such as Midjourney.[148][149]

Between March and April 2023, Italian newspaper Il Foglio published one
ChatGPT-generated article a day on its website, hosting a special contest for its
readers in the process.[150] The articles tackled themes such as the possible
replacement of human journalists by AI systems,[151] Elon Musk's administration of
Twitter,[152] the Meloni government's immigration policy[153] and the competition
between chatbots and virtual assistants.[154] In June 2023, hundreds of people
attended a "ChatGPT-powered church service" at St. Paul's church in Fürth, Germany.
Theologian and philosopher Jonas Simmerlein, who presided, said that it was "about
98 percent from the machine".[155][156] The ChatGPT-generated avatar told the
people, "Dear friends, it is an honor for me to stand here and preach to you as the
first artificial intelligence at this year’s convention of Protestants in Germany".
Reactions to the ceremony were mixed.[157]

Existential risk
In 2023, Australian MP Julian Hill advised the national parliament that the growth
of AI could cause "mass destruction". During his speech, which was partly written by
the program, he warned that it could result in cheating, job losses, discrimination,
disinformation, and uncontrollable military applications.[158]

Elon Musk wrote: "ChatGPT is scary good. We are not far from dangerously strong
AI".[99] He paused OpenAI's access to a Twitter database in 2022 pending a better
understanding of OpenAI's plans, saying: "OpenAI was started as open source and
nonprofit. Neither is still true."[159][160] Musk co-founded OpenAI in 2015, in part
to address existential risk from artificial intelligence, but resigned in 2018.[160]

Over 20,000 signatories including leading computer scientist and tech founders
Yoshua Bengio, Elon Musk, and Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak, signed a March 2023
open letter calling for an immediate pause of giant AI experiments like ChatGPT,
citing "profound risks to society and humanity".[161] Geoffrey Hinton, one of the
"fathers of AI", voiced concerns that future AI systems may surpass human
intelligence, and left Google in May 2023.[162][163] A May 2023 statement by
hundreds of AI scientists, AI industry leaders, and other public figures demanded
that "[m]itigating the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority".[164]

Other prominent AI researchers spoke more optimistically about the advances. Juergen
Schmidhuber, often called a "father of modern AI", did not sign the letter,
emphasizing that in 95% of cases, AI research is about making "human lives longer
and healthier and easier." Schmidhuber added that while AI can be used by bad
actors, it "can also be used against the bad actors".[165] Andrew Ng argued that
"it’s a mistake to fall for the doomsday hype on AI—and that regulators who do will
only benefit vested interests."[166] WIRED wrote that Yann LeCun "scoffs at his
peers’ dystopian scenarios of supercharged misinformation and even, eventually,
human extinction."[167]

By discipline
Since its release, ChatGPT has been met with criticism from educators, academics,
journalists, artists, ethicists, and public advocates.

Academic research
Criticism of LLMs have been raised for several years; in 2020, some criticism was
made by Timnit Gebru, Emily Bender, Angelina McMillan-Major, and Margaret
Mitchell.[168] ChatGPT can write introductions and abstract sections of scientific
articles.[169] Several papers have listed ChatGPT as a co-author.[170][171]

Scientific journals have different reactions to ChatGPT. Some, including Nature and
JAMA Network, "require that authors disclose the use of text-generating tools and
ban listing a large language model (LLM) such as ChatGPT as a co-author". Science
"completely banned" usage of LLM-generated text in all its journals.[172]

Spanish chemist Rafael Luque published a plethora of research papers in 2023 that he
later admitted were written by ChatGPT. The papers have a large number of unusual
phrases characteristic of LLMs.[note 1]

Many authors argue that the use of ChatGPT in academia for teaching and review is
problematic due to its tendency to hallucinate.[174][175][176] Robin Bauwens, an
assistant professor at Tilburg University, found that a ChatGPT-generated peer
review report on his article mentioned fake studies.[177] According to librarian
Chris Granatino from Lemieux Library at Seattle University, although ChatGPT itself
can generate content that seemingly includes legitimate citations, in most cases
those citations are not real, or are at least largely incorrect.[178]

Cybersecurity and coding

Check Point Research and others noted that ChatGPT could write phishing emails and
malware, especially when combined with OpenAI Codex. CyberArk researchers
demonstrated that ChatGPT could be used to create polymorphic malware that could
evade security products while requiring little effort by the attacker.[179][180]
From the launch of ChatGPT in the fourth quarter of 2022 to the fourth quarter of
2023, there was a 1,265% increase in malicious phishing emails and a 967% increase
in credential phishing, which cybersecurity professionals argued in an industry
survey was attributable to cybercriminals' increased use of generative artificial
intelligence (including ChatGPT).[181] Researchers at Purdue University analyzed
ChatGPT responses to 517 questions about software engineering or computer
programming posed on Stack Overflow for correctness, consistency, comprehensiveness,
and conciseness, and found that 52% of ChatGPT responses contained inaccuracies and
77% were verbose.[182][183] Similarly, researchers at Stanford University and the
University of California, Berkeley found that, when creating directly executable
responses to the latest 50 code generation problems from LeetCode that were rated as
"easy", the performances of GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 fell from 22% and 52%, respectively,
in March 2023, to 2% and 10%, respectively, in June 2023.[184][185]

Economics
There has been concern that ChatGPT could supplant jobs, especially roles such as
creative writing, communication, journalism, coding, and data entry.[186][147][187]

Education
Main article: ChatGPT in education
Technology writer Dan Gillmor used ChatGPT in 2022 on a student assignment, and
found its generated text was on par with what a good student would deliver and
opined that "academia has some very serious issues to confront".[188]

Geography professor Terence Day assessed citations generated by ChatGPT and found
that they were fake. Despite that, he writes that "the titles of the fake articles
are all directly relevant to the questions and could potentially make excellent
papers. The lack of a genuine citation could signal an opportunity for an
enterprising author to fill a void." According to Day, it is possible to generate
high-quality introductory college courses with ChatGPT; he used it to write
materials on "introductory physical geography courses, for my second-year course in
geographical hydrology, and second-year cartography, geographic information systems,
and remote sensing". He concludes that "this approach could have significant
relevance for open learning and could potentially affect current textbook publishing
models".[189]

Financial markets
The AI technology company c3.ai saw a 28% increase in its share price after
announcing the integration of ChatGPT into its toolkit.[190] The share price of
BuzzFeed, a digital media company unrelated to AI, increased 120% after announcing
OpenAI technology adoption for content creation.[191] Reuters found that share
prices of AI-related companies BigBear.ai and SoundHound AI increased by 21% and
40%, respectively, even though they had no direct connection to ChatGPT.[192] They
attributed this surge to ChatGPT's role in turning AI into Wall Street's buzzword.
Academic research published in Finance Research Letters found that the 'ChatGPT
effect' prompted retail investors to drive up prices of AI-related cryptocurrency
assets despite the broader cryptocurrency market being in a bear market, and
diminished institutional investor interest.[193] This confirms anecdotal findings by
Bloomberg that, in response to ChatGPT's launch, cryptocurrency investors showed a
preference for AI-related crypto assets.[194] An experiment by finder.com revealed
that ChatGPT could outperform popular fund managers by picking stocks based on
criteria such as growth history and debt levels, resulting in a 4.9% increase in a
hypothetical account of 38 stocks, outperforming 10 benchmarked investment funds
with an average loss of 0.8%.[195]

Conversely, executives and investment managers at Wall Street quant funds (including
those that have used machine learning for decades) have noted that ChatGPT regularly
makes obvious errors that would be financially costly to investors because even AI
systems that employ reinforcement learning or self-learning have had only limited
success in predicting market trends due to the inherently noisy quality of market
data and financial signals.[196] In November 2023, research conducted by Patronus
AI, an artificial intelligence startup company, compared performance of GPT-4,
GPT-4-Turbo, Anthropic's Claude2, and Meta AI's LLaMA-2 on two versions of a
150-question test about information in SEC filings (e.g. Form 10-K, Form 10-Q, Form
8-K, earnings reports, earnings call transcripts) submitted by public companies to
the agency, where one version of the test required the generative AI models to use a
retrieval system to find the specific SEC filing to answer the questions while the
other provided the specific SEC filing to the models to answer the question (i.e. in
a long context window). On the retrieval system version, GPT-4-Turbo and LLaMA-2
both failed to produce correct answers to 81% of the questions, while on the long
context window version, GPT-4-Turbo and Claude-2 failed to produce correct answers
to 21% and 24% of the questions, respectively.[197][198]

Medicine
See also: Artificial intelligence in healthcare
In the field of health care, possible uses and concerns are under scrutiny by
professional associations and practitioners.[199][200] Two early papers indicated
that ChatGPT could pass the United States Medical Licensing Examination
(USMLE).[201] MedPage Today noted in January 2023 that "researchers have published
several papers now touting these AI programs as useful tools in medical education,
research, and even clinical decision making."[201]

Published in February 2023 were two separate papers that again evaluated ChatGPT's
proficiency in medicine using the USMLE. Findings were published in JMIR Medical
Education (see Journal of Medical Internet Research) and PLOS Digital Health. The
authors of the PLOS Digital Health paper stated that the results "suggest that large
language models may have the potential to assist with medical education, and
potentially, clinical decision-making."[202][203] In JMIR Medical Education, the
authors of the other paper concluded that "ChatGPT performs at a level expected of a
third-year medical student on the assessment of the primary competency of medical
knowledge." They suggest that it could be used as an "interactive learning
environment for students". The AI itself, prompted by the researchers, concluded
that "this study suggests that ChatGPT has the potential to be used as a virtual
medical tutor, but more research is needed to further assess its performance and
usability in this context."[204] Researchers at Stanford University and the
University of California, Berkeley have found that the performance of GPT-3.5 and
GPT-4 on the USMLE declined from March 2023 to June 2023.[184][185]

A March 2023 paper tested ChatGPT's application in clinical toxicology. The authors
found that the AI "fared well" in answering a "very straightforward [clinical case
example], unlikely to be missed by any practitioner in the field". They added: "As
ChatGPT becomes further developed and specifically adapted for medicine, it could
one day be useful in less common clinical cases (i.e, cases that experts sometimes
miss). Rather than AI replacing humans (clinicians), we see it as 'clinicians using
AI' replacing 'clinicians who do not use AI' in the coming years."[205]

An April 2023 study in Radiology tested the AI's ability to answer queries about
breast cancer screening. The authors found that it answered appropriately "about 88
percent of the time", however, in one case (for example), it gave advice that had
become outdated about a year earlier. The comprehensiveness of its answers was also
lacking.[206][207] A study published in JAMA Internal Medicine that same month found
that ChatGPT often outperformed human doctors at answering patient questions (when
measured against questions and answers found at /r/AskDocs, a forum on Reddit where
moderators validate the medical credentials of professionals; the study acknowledges
the source as a limitation).[208][209][210] The study authors suggest that the tool
could be integrated with medical systems to help doctors draft responses to patient
questions.[211][212]

Professionals have emphasized ChatGPT's limitations in providing medical assistance.

In correspondence to The Lancet Infectious Diseases, three antimicrobial experts
wrote that "the largest barriers to the implementation of ChatGPT in clinical
practice are deficits in situational awareness, inference, and consistency. These
shortcomings could endanger patient safety."[213] Physician's Weekly, though also
discussing the potential use of ChatGPT in medical contexts (e.g. "as a digital
assistant to physicians by performing various administrative functions like
gathering patient record information or categorizing patient data by family history,
symptoms, lab results, possible allergies, et cetera"), warned that the AI might
sometimes provide fabricated or biased information.[214] One radiologist warned:
"We've seen in our experience that ChatGPT sometimes makes up fake journal articles
or health consortiums to support its claims";[215] As reported in one Mayo Clinic
Proceedings: Digital Health paper, ChatGPT may do this for as much as 69% of its
cited medical references. The researchers emphasized that while many of its
references were fabricated, those that were appeared "deceptively real".[216] As Dr.
Stephen Hughes mentioned for The Conversation however, ChatGPT is capable of
learning to correct its past mistakes. He also noted the AI's "prudishness"
regarding sexual health topics.[217]

Contrary to previous findings, ChatGPT responses to anesthesia-related questions

were more accurate, succinct, and descriptive compared to Bard's. Bard exhibited
30.3% error in response as compared to ChatGPT (0% error).[218] At a conference of
the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists in December 2023, researchers at
Long Island University (LIU) presented a study that researched ChatGPT's responses
to 45 frequently asked questions of LIU College of Pharmacy's drug information
service during a 16-month period from 2022 to 2023 as compared with researched
responses provided by professional pharmacists. For 29 of the 39 questions for which
there was sufficient medical literature for a data-driven response, ChatGPT failed
to provide a direct answer or provided a wrong or incomplete answer (and in some
cases, if acted upon, the answer would endanger the patient's health). The
researchers had asked ChatGPT to provide medical research citations for all its
answers, but it did so for only eight, and all eight included at least one
fabricated (fake) citation.[219][220]
A January 2024 study conducted by researchers at Cohen Children's Medical Center
found that ChatGPT-4 had an accuracy rate of 17% when diagnosing pediatric medical
cases.[221][222]

Law
In January 2023, Massachusetts State Senator Barry Finegold and State Representative
Josh S. Cutler proposed a bill partially written by ChatGPT, "An Act drafted with
the help of ChatGPT to regulate generative artificial intelligence models like
ChatGPT",[223][224][225] which would require companies to disclose their algorithms
and data collection practices to the office of the State Attorney General, arrange
regular risk assessments, and contribute to the prevention of
plagiarism.[224][225][226] The bill was officially presented during a hearing on
July 13.[223][225]

On April 11, 2023, a judge of a session court in Pakistan used ChatGPT to decide the
bail of a 13-year-old accused in a matter. The court quoted the use of ChatGPT
assistance in its verdict:

Can a juvenile suspect in Pakistan, who is 13 years old, be granted bail after
arrest?

The AI language model replied:

Under the Juvenile Justice System Act 2018, according to section 12, the court can
grant bail on certain conditions. However, it is up to the court to decide whether
or not a 13-year-old suspect will be granted bail after arrest.

The judge asked ChatGPT other questions about the case and formulated his final
decision in light of its answers.[227][228]

In Mata v. Avianca, Inc., 22-cv-1461 (PKC), a personal injury lawsuit against

Avianca Airlines filed in the Southern New York U.S. District Court in May 2023
(with Senior Judge P. Kevin Castel presiding), the plaintiff's attorneys reportedly
used ChatGPT to generate a legal motion. ChatGPT generated numerous fictitious legal
cases involving fictitious airlines with fabricated quotations and internal
citations in the legal motion. Castel noted numerous inconsistencies in the opinion
summaries, and called one of the cases' legal analysis "gibberish".[229] The
plaintiff's attorneys faced potential judicial sanction and disbarment for filing
the motion and presenting the fictitious legal decisions ChatGPT generated as
authentic.[230][231] The case was dismissed and the attorneys were fined
$5,000.[232]

In October 2023, the council of Porto Alegre, Brazil, unanimously approved a local
ordinance proposed by councilman Ramiro Rosário that would exempt residents from
needing to pay for the replacement of stolen water consumption meters; the bill went
into effect on November 23. On November 29, Rosário revealed that the bill had been
entirely written by ChatGPT, and that he had presented it to the rest of the council
without making any changes or disclosing the chatbot's involvement.[226][233][234]
The city's council president, Hamilton Sossmeier, initially criticized Rosário's
initiative, saying it could represent "a dangerous precedent",[234][235] but later
said he "changed his mind": "unfortunately or fortunately, this is going to be a
trend."[226][233]

See also
icon Language portal
icon Technology portal
Intelligent agent – Software agent which acts autonomously
Virtual assistant – Software agent
Ethics of artificial intelligence – Ethical issues specific to AI
Turing test – Test of a machine's ability to imitate human intelligence
Notes
Luque's later 13-year suspension from the University of Cordoba was unrelated to
his use of ChatGPT.[173]
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Further reading
Biswas, Som (April 1, 2023). "ChatGPT and the Future of Medical Writing". Radiology.
307 (2): e223312. doi:10.1148/radiol.223312. ISSN 0033-8419. PMID 36728748. S2CID
256501098.
Chang, Kent K.; Cramer, Mackenzie; Soni, Sandeep; Bamman, David (April 28, 2023).
"Speak, Memory: An Archaeology of Books Known to ChatGPT/GPT-4". arXiv:2305.00118
[cs.CL].
Cowen, Tyler; Tabarrok, Alexander T. (March 17, 2023). "How to Learn and Teach
Economics with Large Language Models, Including GPT". SSRN 4391863.
Cowen, Tyler (March 29, 2023). "Jonathan GPT Swift on Jonathan Swift (Ep. 175): How
well does GPT4 do pretending to be the 18th-century satirist?" (Podcast).
Ouyang, Long; et al. (March 4, 2022). "Training language models to follow
instructions with human feedback". arXiv:2203.02155 [cs.CL].
Liebrenz, Michael; Schleifer, Roman; Buadze, Anna; Bhugra, Dinesh; Smith, Alexander
(February 2023). "Generating scholarly content with ChatGPT: ethical challenges for
medical publishing". The Lancet Digital Health. 5 (3): e105–e106.
doi:10.1016/s2589-7500(23)00019-5. ISSN 2589-7500. PMID 36754725. S2CID 256655912.
Wolfram, Stephen (February 14, 2023). "What Is ChatGPT Doing … and Why Does It
Work?".
Wolfram, Stephen (March 23, 2023). "ChatGPT Gets Its "Wolfram Superpowers"!".
Bartholomew, Jem; Mehta, Dhrumil. "How the media is covering ChatGPT". Columbia
Journalism Review. Retrieved May 30, 2023.
Zhao, Wayne Xin; et al. (2023). "A Survey of Large Language Models".
arXiv:2303.18223 [cs.CL].
Prompt engineering guide from OpenAI
External links
Media related to ChatGPT at Wikimedia Commons
Official website Edit this at Wikidata
ChatGPT Prompt Engineering for Developers, course by Andrew Ng and OpenAI
Can ChatGPT write a podcast episode? (Planet Money podcast, May 2023)
Will Chat GPT do more harm than good? (Gary Marcus and Keith Teare debate, February
2023)
"What OpenAI Really Wants" by Wired
vte
OpenAI
Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata
Categories: ChatGPTOpenAIChatbotsLarge language modelsGenerative pre-trained
transformersInteractive narrativeVirtual assistantsApplications of artificial
intelligence2022 software
This page was last edited on 30 January 2024, at 02:21 (UTC).
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