GMR Institute of Technology

GMRIT/ADM/F-44
Rajam, AP
REV.: 00
(An Autonomous Institution Affiliated to JNTUGV, AP)

Cohesive Teaching – Learning Practices (CTLP)

Class 3rd Sem. – B. Tech Department: IT
Course Data Communication Systems Course Code 21IT305
Prepared by Dr Aravind Karrothu
Lecture Topic Introduction to Data Communications and Networking
Course Outcome (s) CO1 Program Outcome (s) PO1, 7, 12
Duration 60 Min each Lecture 1-7 Unit – I
Pre-requisite (s) -

1. Objective

• Understand Fundamentals: The course aims to provide students with a solid understanding
of the fundamental concepts, principles, and models of data communication.

2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

At the end of this session the students will able to:

1. What is Data communication

2. What is the importance of OSI reference model
3. What are the avail transmission media for data transmission
4. What is signal analysis

3. 2D Mapping of ILOs with Knowledge Dimension and Cognitive Learning Levels of RBT

Cognitive Learning Levels

Knowledge
Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
Dimension
Factual ✓ ✓ ✓
Conceptual ✓ ✓ ✓
Procedural ✓
Meta Cognitive

Teaching Methodology

➢ Power Point Presentation, Chalk Talk, visual presentation

 Evocation

4. Deliverables

Lecture:1 – Data Communication and its Standards

A data communication system is a network or infrastructure that enables the transfer of

data or information between two or more devices or locations.

In data communication, Data can take many forms and represent various types of
information, including text, numbers, images, audio, and videos etc. between different
users, computers, or devices.

Key Components of Data Communication:

There are mainly five components of a data communication system:

1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission Medium (Channel)
5. Protocol (set of rules)

Fig. 2. Data Communication Scenario

 1. Message: This is most useful asset of a data communication system. The message
simply refers to data or piece of information which is to be communicated.
E.g., text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.

2. Sender: Sender plays part of a source in data communication system. It is simple a

device that sends data message.
E.g., computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or a workstation, etc.

3. Receiver: It is destination where finally message sent by source has arrived. It is a

device that receives message.
E.g., computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or a workstation, etc.

4. Transmission Medium: In entire process of data communication, there must be

something which could act as a bridge between sender and receiver, Transmission
medium plays that part. It is physical path by which data or message travels from
sender to receiver.
E.g., Transmission medium could be guided (with wires – twisted pair cable, fiber optic
cable etc.,) and unguided (without wires – radio waves, microwaves etc.)

5. Protocol: In networking, a protocol is a set of rules for formatting and processing

data. Network protocols are like a common language for computers. The computers
within a network may use vastly different software and hardware; however, the use
of protocols enables them to communicate with each other regardless.

Types of Standards

De Facto Standard: The meaning of the work “De Facto” is “By Fact”. These are the
standards that have not been approved by any Organization.
E.g., Apple & Google are two companies which established their own rules on their
products which are different. Also, they use some same standard rules for manufacturing
for their products.

De Jure Standard: The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law”. These are the standards
that have been approved by officially recognized body like ANSI, ISO, IEEE etc. These are
the standard which are important to follow if it is required or needed.
E.g., All the data communication standard protocols like SMTP, TCP, IP, UDP etc. are
important to follow the same when we needed them

Lecture 2 – How Network protocol works?

Network protocols are typically created according to industry standard by various

networking or information technology organizations. The following groups have defined
and published different network protocols:

• The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) – ISO is a non-

governmental international organization that develops and publishes standards to
ensure the quality, safety, efficiency, and interoperability of products, services, and
systems across various industries.

• The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) – The IEEE is a

professional organization that plays a significant role in the development and
standardization of technologies related to data communication and networking.
 • The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) – The primary role of the IETF is to
create and evolve Internet standards, protocols, and related documentation.

• The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) – ITU is a specialized

agency of the United Nations responsible for standardizing and regulating global
telecommunications and information and communication technologies (ICT).

• The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) – ANSI is a private, non-profit

organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for a
wide range of industries and sectors in the United States, including information
technology and telecommunications.

• Electronic Industry Association (EIA) – EIA was a standards-setting organization

in the United States that played a significant role in the development of standards
for various electronics and telecommunications technologies, including data
communication.

• Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) – TIA is a trade association

representing the global information and communications technology (ICT)
industry. TIA is known for its role in developing and maintaining standards related
to telecommunications and data communication.

• The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) – The World Wide Web Consortium,
commonly known as W3C, is an international consortium or organization dedicated
to developing and maintaining standards and specifications for the World Wide
Web.

Fig. 3. Standards Organizations for Data Communications

What is Network?

In data communication, a network refers to a collection of interconnected devices or nodes

that can communicate and share resources with each other. These devices can include
computers, servers, routers, switches, smartphones, and various other electronic devices
capable of sending and receiving data.

What is Internet?

• The Internet, often simply referred to as "the Internet," is a vast global network of
interconnected computer networks.

• It is a decentralized, worldwide system of networks that allows millions of

computers and devices to communicate with each other using a common set of
protocols and standards.

• The Internet is a public network, accessible to anyone with an internet connection,

and it is used for various purposes such as global connectivity, communication,
information sharing, entertainment etc.
 What is Intranet?

• An intranet is a private, internal network within an organization that uses the same
technologies and protocols as the Internet but is limited to internal use.

• It is a closed network accessible only to authorized users within the organization.

• The key characteristics of intranet are Restricted Access, Internal Communication,

security, corporate communication etc.,

LECTURE 3 – OSI Model:

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model is composed of seven layers, each
specifying particular network functions. The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of
networking into layers reduces complexity. Each layer provides a service to the layer above it
in the protocol specification. Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or
hardware on other computers. The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical
— Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the
network.

Fig. 4. The interaction between layers in the OSI model

The upper four layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session — Layers 7, 6
and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications. Data is Encapsulated with the
necessary protocol information as it moves down the layers before network transit.

Layer 1 (Physical Layer) - The Physical layer is responsible for MOVEMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL
BITS from one node to the next.

The Physical layer is also concerned with the following:

⎯ Representation of bits.
⎯ Synchronization of bits
⎯ Line configuration / Physical Topological structures
⎯ Transmission mode
Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) - The Data link layer is responsible for MOVING FRAMES from one
node to the next.
⎯ Framing
⎯ Physical Addressing
⎯ Flow Control
⎯ Error Control
⎯ Access Control

Layer 3 (Network Layer) - The network is responsible for the delivery of INDIVIDUAL
PACKETS from the source host to the destination host.
⎯ Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on
the same network (links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point
of origin to its final destination.
⎯ Logical addressing
⎯ Routing
⎯ IP protocol service

Layer 4 (Transport Layer) – The transport layer is responsible for PROCESS-TO-PROCESS

DELIVERY of the entire message.
⎯ Service-point addressing
⎯ Segmentation and reassembly
⎯ Connection control
⎯ Flow control
⎯ Error control
⎯ TCP and UDP Protocol service
Layer 5 (Session Layer) - The session layer is the network DIALOG CONTROLLER.
⎯ It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating
systems.
⎯ Synchronization
⎯ Authentication
⎯ Authorization

Layer 6 (Presentation Layer) - The presentation layer is concerned with the SYNTAX AND
SEMANTICS OF THE INFORMATION exchanged between two systems.
⎯ Data Compression
⎯ Data Conversion
⎯ Data Encryption and Decryption
Layer 7 (Application Layer) - The application layer enables the user, whether human or
software, to access the network.
⎯ File Transfer, Access and management
⎯ Mail Services
⎯ Directory Services
⎯ It works with set of protocols like FTP, HTTP, SMTP, TELNET, DNS, WWW etc.,

Lecture 4 – Data Transmission – Parallel vs Serial

• Data is transferred in the form of bits between two or more digital devices.
• There are two methods used to transmit data between digital devices: serial
transmission and parallel transmission.
• Serial data transmission sends data bits one after another over a single channel.
• Parallel data transmission sends multiple data bits at the same time over multiple
channels.

What is serial transmission?

• When data is sent or received using serial data transmission, the data bits are organized
in a specific order, since they can only be sent one after another.
• The order of the data bits is important as it dictates how the transmission is organized
when it is received.
• It is viewed as a reliable data transmission method because a data bit is only sent if the
previous data bit has already been received.

Fig. 5. Example scenario of Serial data transmission

Serial transmission has two classifications: asynchronous and synchronous.

Asynchronous Serial Transmission - Data bits can be sent at any point in time.

• Stop bits and start bits are used between data bytes to synchronize the transmitter and
receiver and to ensure that the data is transmitted correctly.
 • The time between sending and receiving data bits is not constant, so gaps are used to
provide time between transmissions.
• The advantage of using the asynchronous method is that no synchronization is required
between the transmitter and receiver devices.
• It is also a more cost-effective method. A disadvantage is that data transmission can be
slower, but this is not always the case.

Synchronous Serial Transmission – Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time
with a master clock.

• The data transmitter and receiver both operate using a synchronized clock frequency;
therefore, start bits, stop bits, and gaps are not used.
• This means that data moves faster and timing errors are less frequent because the
transmitter and receiver time is synced.
• However, data accuracy is highly dependent on timing being synced correctly between
devices.
• In comparison with asynchronous serial transmission, this method is usually more
expensive.

When is serial transmission used to send data?

• Serial transmission is normally used for long-distance data transfer.

• It is also used in cases where the amount of data being sent is relatively small.
• It ensures that data integrity is maintained as it transmits the data bits in a specific order,
one after another.
• In this way, data bits are received in-sync with one another.

What is parallel transmission?

• When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are transmitted
over multiple channels at the same time.
• This means that data can be sent much faster than using serial transmission methods.

Fig. 6. Example scenario of Parallel Data transmission

• Given that multiple bits are sent over multiple channels at the same time, the order in
which a bit string is received can depend on various conditions, such as proximity to the
data source, user location, and bandwidth availability. Two examples of parallel
interfaces can be seen below.

• In the first parallel interface, the data is sent and received in the correct order.
 • In the second parallel interface, the data is sent in the correct order, but some bits were
received faster than others.

The main advantages of parallel transmission over serial transmission are:

• It is easier to program;
• Data is sent faster.

When is parallel transmission used to send data?

• A large amount of data is being sent;

• The data being sent is time-sensitive;
• The data needs to be sent quickly.

Lecture 5: Data Communication Circuits and its Arrangements

The fundamental purpose of a digital communications circuit is to provide a transmission path

between locations and to transfer digital information from one station (node, where computers
or other digital equipment are located) to another using electronic circuits.

Data communications circuits utilize electronic communications equipment and facilities to

interconnect digital computer equipment.
In this scenario there are five components are utilized for data communication circuit which
follows:
 • Source: This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are mainframe computer,
personal computer, workstation etc. The source equipment provides a means for humans to
enter data into system.
• Transmitter: A transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a way as to produce
electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of transmission system. For
example, a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device such as a personal
computer and transforms that bit stream into an analog signal that can be handled by the
telephone network.
• Transmission medium: The transmission medium carries the encoded signals from the
transmitter to the receiver. Different types of transmission media include free-space radio
transmission (i.e., all forms of wireless transmission) and physical facilities such as metallic and
optical fiber cables.
• Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission medium and converts it into a
form that can be handled by the destination device. For example, a modem will accept an analog
signal coming from a network or transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream.
• Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver and can be any kind of digital
equipment like the source.

Data communication Circuit Arrangements:

A Data Communication circuit can be described in terms of circuit configuration and transmission
mode. Circuit Configurations Data Communication networks can be generally categorized into two
ways.

1. Point-to-Point configuration - This circuit involves the transfer of digital information between
a mainframe computer and a personal computer, two mainframe computers or two Data
Communication networks.
2. Multipoint configuration - A multi-point network is generally used to interconnect a single
mainframe computer (host) to many personal computers or to interconnect many personal
computers and capacity of the channel is either Spatially shared: Devices can use the link
simultaneously or Timeshare: Users take turns

Transmission Modes:

There are Three types of Modes existed:

 1. Simplex mode (SX), the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one
of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Simplex lines are also
called receive-only, transmit-only or one-way-only lines.
E.g., Commercial radio broadcasting is an example.
2. Half-duplex (HDX) mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex
mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same
time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
E.g., walkie talkie communication

3. Full-duplex mode (FDX), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. One
common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. The full-duplex
mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of
the channel must be divided between the two directions.

Lecture 6: The concept of Signal and it types

What is Signal?

A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic current that is used for carrying data from one device or
network to another.

It is the key component behind virtually all:

• Communication
• Computing
• Networking
• Electronic devices

A signal can be either analog or digital.

Analog Signal: An Analog signal is a signal which is continuous and has a time-varying feature. It
is a representation of time-varying quantity.

For example, the Human voice can be considered an analog signal because the signal of the human
voice flows in a continuous manner.

Digital Signal: It is a physical signal that is represented by two discrete values “0” & “1”, these
discrete values are known as bitstream. In simple words, we can say that the binary signals are known
as “Digital signals” where the signals are converted into a small bit form which is represented by a
series of “0” & “1”.

Difference Between Analog and Digital Signals:

Lecture 7: Signals – Noise – Information capacity

Signal Analysis: Signal Analysis involves the ability to collect and understand sensitive
information sent via various signals. This analysis is critical to ensure the reliable transmission
of data and to detect and correct any errors or disturbances that may occur during
transmission.

Electrical Noise: Noise is an unwanted signal which interferes with the original message signal
and corrupts the parameters of the message signal. This alteration in the communication
process makes the message to get altered after reaching. It is most likely to be entered at the
channel or the receiver.

Types of Noise: The classification of noise is done depending upon the type of source, the
effect it shows or the relation it has with the receiver etc.

There are two main ways of which noise gets produced. One is through some external source
while the other is created by the internal source, within the receiver section.

External Source - This noise is produced by the external sources which may occur in the
medium or channel of communication, usually. This noise can’t be completely eliminated. The
best way is to avoid the noise from affecting the signal.

Examples - Atmospheric Noise (due to irregularities in the atmosphere); Extra-terrestrial

noise such as solar noise and cosmic noise; Industrial noise.

Internal Source - This noise is produced by the receiver components while functioning. The
components in the circuits, due to continuous functioning, may produce a few types of noise.
This noise is assessable. A proper receiver design may lower the effect of this internal noise.

Examples - Thermal agitation noise; Shot noise (due to the random movement of electrons and
holes); Transit-time noise (during the transition); Miscellaneous noise is another type of noise
which includes flicker, resistance effect, and mixer generated noise, etc.

Information Capacity:

• Information capacity is a measure of how much information can be propagated through a

communication system and a function of bandwidth and transmission time.
• It represents the number of independent symbols that can be carried through a system in a given
unit of time.
• The most basic digital symbol used to represent information is the binary digit, or bit.
• Bit rate is simply the number of bits transmitted during 1 second and is expressed as bits per
second (bps).
Bit rate is the number of binary bits (1s or 0s) transmitted per second.

Bit rate = number of bits transmitted / total time (in seconds)

The bit rate can also be defined in terms of baud rate:

Bit rate = Baud rate x bits per signal or symbol

Baud rate: Baud rate is the rate at which the number of signal elements or changes to the signal
occurs per second when it passes through a transmission medium. The higher a baud rate is the
faster the data is sent/received.

Baud rate = number of signal elements/total time (in seconds)

M-ary Encoding:

• M-ary encoding, also known as M-ary modulation, is a technique used in digital

communication systems to represent multiple bits of data as single symbols or signals.
• In M-ary encoding, each symbol represents a group of bits, allowing for efficient data
transmission over a communication channel.
• The term "M-ary" refers to the number of possible symbols that can be used to encode
data.

M simply represents a digit that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or

combinations possible for a given number of binary variables.

For example, a digital signal with four possible conditions (amplitude, frequency, phase, and so
on) is an M-ary system where M = 4. If there are eight possible conditions, M = 8 and etc.

The number of bits necessary to produce a given number of conditions is expressed

mathematically as 𝑁 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑀

Where,

• N = number of bits necessary

• M = number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible with N bits

Lecture 8: Analog and Digital Modulation

Analog and digital modulation are techniques used in communication systems to transmit information
over a channel by varying certain characteristics of a carrier signal. These modulation techniques are
fundamental to both analog and digital communication.

Analog Modulation: Analog modulation involves varying the amplitude, frequency, or phase of a carrier
signal in proportion to an analog signal (continuous waveform) to convey information. Here are the
three main types of analog modulation:

• Amplitude Modulation (AM): In AM, the amplitude of the carrier signal is modulated to
represent the information signal. The amplitude of the carrier varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the input signal.
E.g., AM is commonly used in amplitude-modulated radio broadcasting.
 • Frequency Modulation (FM): In FM, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to
represent the information signal. The frequency of the carrier varies in response to the
instantaneous frequency of the input signal.
E.g., FM is used in FM radio broadcasting and analog television.

• Phase Modulation (PM): In PM, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated by the information
signal. Changes in the phase of the carrier signal correspond to variations in the input signal's
phase.
E.g., It was used in some sort of analog communication

Analog modulation is often used for transmitting analog signals, such as voice or music, over
communication channels. However, it is susceptible to noise and interference and has limited capacity
for data compression and error correction.

Digital Modulation: Digital modulation involves converting digital data (discrete, binary values) into a
format suitable for transmission over a communication channel. Digital modulation schemes are
designed to efficiently represent digital information using specific modulation techniques.

Some common digital modulation schemes include:

• Binary Phase-Shift Keying (BPSK): BPSK modulates the phase of the carrier signal to
represent binary data (0s and 1s). It is widely used in digital communication systems.
• Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK): QPSK extends BPSK by encoding two bits per symbol
using four phase angles. Each symbol represents two bits.
• Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): QAM combines both amplitude and phase
modulation to represent multiple bits per symbol. Common variants include 16-QAM and 64-
QAM.
• Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK): FSK modulates the carrier signal's frequency to represent
binary data.
• Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK): ASK modulates the carrier signal's amplitude to represent
binary data.

Digital modulation schemes offer several advantages over analog modulation:

• Improved resistance to noise and interference.

• Efficient use of bandwidth.
• Enhanced error detection and correction through techniques like forward error correction
(FEC).
• Compatibility with digital data processing and storage systems.
• Support for various data rates and modulation orders.

5. Keywords

• Data or Information or Message

• Data communication or Data Transmission
• Transmission modes and communication types
• Data communication circuit
• Signal Transmission
• Protocol and its standards
6. Sample Questions

Remember:

1. Define data communication

2. List any two types of noise in signal transmission
3. Give any three types of transmission modes

Understand:

1. Explain the concept of data communication circuit and its arrangements

2. Explain two types of transmission in data communication
3. Explain the concept of OSI model with 7-layered architecture

7. Stimulating Question (s)

1. How can you justify whether signals transmission is adopted for data
communication in real world application

8. Mind Map

9. Student Summary

At the end of this session, the facilitator (Teacher) shall randomly pick-up few students to
summarize the deliverables. We need to taught how IoT is useful for future real
applications and how it reduces the human involvement in data transmission.

10. Reading Materials

1. LCS recording videos

2. Prescribed text books as per syllabus.
3. As per concerned faculty material also useful for preparation
4. Any online resources can understand for the above topics
Ex. GFG, Java Tutorials, etc.,

11. Is this applicable for Mini project or anything

Till this is useful for getting basic knowledge of data communication that how data was
transmitted in the channel