9/4/

ECE391 Computer System Engineering

Chapter 6:
Stacks, Queues, and Recursion
1. Algorithm analysis
2. Recursion
3. Stacks
4. Queues
5. Double-Ended Queues

1. Algorithm Analysis
⚫Most algorithms
transform input objects
into output objects
⚫The running time of an
algorithm typically grows
with input size

2
 9/4/

1. Algorithm Analysis
⚫Iterative summing of a list of numbers
float sum(float list[ ], int n)
{
float tempsum = 0; count++; /* for assignment */
int i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
count++; /*for the for loop */
tempsum += list[i]; /* for assignment */
}
count++; /* last execution of for */
count++; /* for return */
return tempsum;
} 2n + 3 steps

1. Algorithm Analysis
⚫Recursive summing of a list of numbers

float rsum(float list[ ], int n)

{
count++; /*for if conditional */
if (n) {
count++; /* for return and rsum invocation*/
return rsum(list, n-1) + list[n-1];
}
count++;
return list[0]; How many steps?
} 2n+2 steps
4
 9/4/

1. Algorithm Analysis
⚫Example: Find the code number of a combination
lock

How many steps to find

the code?
10n steps

1. Algorithm Analysis
⚫Big-Oh Notation is used to characterize running
times and space bound in terms of some parameter n.
⚫Definition:
⚫ Let f(n) and g(n) be function mapping nonnegative
integers to real numbers
⚫ We say that f(n) is O(g(n)) if there is a real constant
c>0 and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1, such that f(n) <
cg(n) for every integer n≥n0 c g(n)
running time

f(n)

no Input size
6
 9/4/

1. Algorithm Analysis
Definition: [Big “oh’’]
f(n) = O(g(n)) if there exist positive constants c and n0
such that f(n) ≤ cg(n) for all n, n ≥ n0.
⚫Examples:
⚫7n – 2 is O( )
⚫20n3 + 10n logn + 5 is O( )
⚫3 log n + log log n is O( )
⚫2100 is O( )
⚫5/n is O( )
⚫2n3 + 4n2 log n is O( )
⚫∑n (2i+3) is O( )

1. Algorithm Analysis
⚫Common terms used in algorithm analysis:
⚫Logarithmic O(log n)
⚫Linear O(n)
⚫Quadratic O(n2)
⚫Cubic O(n3)
⚫Polynomial O(nk) (k ≥ 1)
⚫Exponential O(an)
⚫Any algorithm running in O(n log n) time should be
considered efficient

8
 9/4/

1. Algorithm Analysis
⚫Practical complexity
⚫To get a feel for how the various functions grow with n,
consider the table below.

1. Algorithm Analysis

⚫Linear O(n)
⚫Quadratic O(n2)
⚫Cubic O(n3)

10
 9/4/

1. Algorithm Analysis
Relatives of Big-Oh
⚫big-Omega
⚫f(n) is Ω(g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0, and an integer
constant n0 ≥ 1 such that f(n) ≥ c•g(n) for n ≥ n0
⚫big-Theta
⚫f(n) is Θ(g(n)) if there are constants c’ > 0 and c’’ > 0
and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 such that c’•g(n) ≤ f(n) ≤
c’’•g(n) for n ≥ n0
⚫little-oh
⚫f(n) is o(g(n)) if, for any constant c > 0, there is an
integer constant n0 ≥ 0 such that f(n) ≤ c•g(n) for n ≥
n0
⚫little-omega
⚫f(n) is ω(g(n)) if, for any constant c > 0, there is an
integer constant n0 ≥ 0 such that f(n) ≥ c•g(n) for n ≥
n0 11

1. Algorithm Analysis
⚫Big-Oh
⚫f(n) is O(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically less than or equal to
g(n)
⚫Big-Omega
⚫f(n) is Ω(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically greater than or
equal to g(n)
⚫Big-Theta
⚫f(n) is Θ(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically equal to g(n)
⚫Little-oh
⚫f(n) is o(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically strictly less than g(n)
⚫Little-omega
⚫f(n) is ω(g(n)) if is asymptotically strictly greater than g(n)

12
 9/4/

Class Assignment
1. Algorithm A uses 10nlog n operations
Algorithm B uses n2 operations. Determine the
value n0 such that A is better than B for n≥n0
2. Show that log3 n is O(n1/3)
3. Show that O(max{f(n), g(n)}) = O(f(n)+g(n))
4. Show that if p(n) is polynomial in n, then log p(n) is
O(log n)
5. Show that (n+1)5 is O(n5)

6. Show that

13

2. Recursion
Definition: a function that can call itself as a subroutine.
1.1. Linear Recursion
⚫A function is defined so that it makes one recursive
call each time it is invoked
⚫Example: calculate sum of the first n integers in A.
int LinearSum(int A[],int n) {
if n = 1 then
return A[0];
else
return LinearSum(A, n-1) + A[n-1];
}

14
 9/4/

2. Recursion
2.1. Linear Recursion
⚫Test for the base case:
⚫At least one
⚫should not use recursion
⚫Recursion
⚫Each recursive step makes the progress towards a base
case
A = {4, 3, 6, 2, 5} return 7 + A[2] = 7 + 6 = 13

LinearSum(A, 3)
return 4 + A[1] = 4+ 3 = 7

LinearSum(A, 2)
return A[0] = 4

LinearSum(A, 1)
15

2. Recursion
2.1. Linear Recursion
⚫Algorithm ReverseArray(A, i, n):
Input: An integer array A and integers i and n
Output: The reversal of the n integers in A starting at
index i
if n>1 then
Swap A[i] and A[i+n-1]
Call ReverseArray(A, i+1, n-2)
return

16
 9/4/

2. Recursion
2.1. Linear Recursion
⚫Computing Power via Linear Recursion
⚫power(x, n) = xn

⚫The algorithm uses O(n) time

⚫The algorithm uses O(log n) time

17

2. Recursion
2.2. High order Recursion
⚫Binary recursion
⚫Example
Algorithm BinarySum(A,i,n):
Input: An integer array A and integer i and n
Output: The sum of the n integer in A starting at index i
If n = 1 then
return A[i]
return BinarySum (A,i, [n/2]) + BinarySum(A, i + [n/2],
n/2])

⚫The running time of the algorithm is O(log n)

18
 9/4/

2. Recursion
2.2. High order Recursion
⚫Computing the kth Fibonacci number using
binary recursion
⚫Fibonacci sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …
⚫Recursion relation:
⚫F0 = 0;
⚫F1 = 1;
⚫Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2

19

3. Stack
⚫Stack is an abstract data type (ADT) that uses last-in-first-out
principle
⚫Support functions:
⚫push(o): insert object o at the top of the stack
Input: Object; Output: None
⚫pop(): remove from the stack and return the top on the
stack; an error occurs if the stack is empty
Input: None; Output: None
⚫size(): return the number of objects in the stack
Input: None; Output: Integer
⚫isEmpty(): return a Boolean indicating if the stack is empty
Input: None; Output: Boolean
⚫top(): Return the top object on the stack, without
removing it; an error occurs if the stack is empty
Input: None; Output: Object

⚫Note that STL stack may have different functions

20
 9/4/

3. Stack
No. Operation Output Stack contents -> top
1 Push(5) - (5)
2 Push(3) - (5, 3)
3 Pop()
4 Push(7)
5 Pop()
6 Top()
7 Pop()
8 pop()
9 isEmpty()
10 Push(9)
11 Push(7)
12 Push(3)
13 Push(5)
14 Size()
21

3. Stack
⚫Example for STL stack:
#include <iostream>
#include <stack>
using namespace std;
int main() {
stack<int> myStack;
myStack.push(3);
myStack.push(4);
cout << myStack.size() << ‘\n’;
cout << myStack.top() << ‘\n’;
myStack.pop(); //pop() function is void type
cout << myStack.top() << ‘\n’;
cout << myStack.size() << ‘\n’;
}
⚫What shows on the output screen?

22
 9/4/

4. Queues
⚫Queue is a data structure which uses first-in-first-out
principle
⚫Functions:
⚫enqueue(o): insert object o at the rear of the queue
Input: Object; Output: None
⚫dequeue(): remove the object at the front; an error occurs if the
queue is empty.
Input: None; Output: None
⚫size(): Return the number of the objects in the queue
Input: None; Output: Integer.
⚫isEmpty(): return a Boolean value indicating if the queue is
empty.
Input: None; Output: Boolean.
⚫front(): return, but do not remove, a reference to the front
element in the queue; an error occurs if the queue is empty.
Input: None; Output: Object.
⚫Note that STL queue may have different functions

23

4. Queues
No. Operation Output Front <- Queue <- rear
1 enqueue(5) - (5)
2 enqueue(3) - (5, 3)
3 dequeue()
4 enqueue(7)
5 dequeue()
6 front()
7 dequeue()
8 dequeue()
9 isEmpty()
10 enqueue(9)
11 enqueue(7)
12 size()
13 enqueue(3)
14 enqueue(5)
24
 9/4/

4. Queues
⚫Application of Queues
⚫Direct applications
⚫waiting lists (e.g., stores, theaters, reservation centers)
⚫access to shared resources (e.g., printers, scanner)
⚫multiprogramming

⚫Indirect applications
⚫Auxiliarydata structure for algorithms (e.g.,
scheduling)
⚫Component of other data structures (e.g., pattern)

25

4. Queue
⚫Example for STL Queue:
#include <iostream>
#include <queue>
using namespace std;
void main() {
queue<int> myQueue;
myQueue.push(3);
myQueue.push(4);
myQueue.push(5);
myQueue.push(6);
cout << myQueue.size() << '\n';
cout << myQueue.front() << '\n';
myQueue.pop ();
cout << myQueue.empty() << '\n';
cout << myQueue.size() << '\n';
getchar();
}
⚫What shows on the output screen?

26
 9/4/

5. Double-Ended Queues - Deque

⚫Deque, pronounced “deck”, is a queue-like data structure that
supports insertion and deletion at both the front and the rear
of the queue.
⚫Functions of the deque (D):
⚫insertFront(o): insert a new object o at the beginning of D
Input: Object; Output: None
⚫insertBack(o): insert a new object o at the end of D.
Input: Object; Output: None
⚫eraseFront(o): remove the first object of D; an error occurs if D is
empty
Input: None; Output: None
⚫eraseBack(): remove the last object of D; an error occurs if D is
empty
Input: None; Output: None

⚫Note that STL deque may have different functions

27

5. Double-Ended Queues - Deque

⚫Additional functions:
⚫front(): Return the first object of D; an error occurs if D is
empty
⚫back(): Return the last object of D; an error occurs if D is
empty.
⚫size(): Return the number of the objects in D
Input: None; Output: Integer.
⚫isEmpty(): return a Boolean value indicating if the queue is
empty.
Input: None; Output: Boolean.

⚫Note that STL deque may have different functions

28
 9/4/

5. Double-Ended Queues - Deque

Operation Output D
insertFront(3) - (3)
insertFront(5)
front()
eraseFront()
insertBack(7)
back()
eraseFront()
eraseBack()

29

5. Double-Ended Queues - Deque

⚫Example for STL Deque
#include <iostream>
#include <deque>
using namespace std;
void main() {
deque<int> myDeque;
myDeque.push_front(3);
myDeque.push_back(4);
myDeque.push_back(5);
myDeque.push_front(6);
cout << myDeque.size() << '\n';
cout << myDeque.front() << '\n';
cout << myDeque.back() << '\n';
myDeque.pop_back();
cout << myDeque.empty() << '\n';
cout << myDeque.size() << '\n';
getchar();
}

30