Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research

Volume 3, Issue 5, 2016, pp. 264-275

Available online at www.jallr.com
ISSN: 2376-760X

An Investigation into the Effect of Authentic Materials on

Improving Intermediate EFL Learners' Pragmatic Competence

Gholam-Reza Abbasian
Assistant Professor, Imam Ali University and Islamic Azad University, South Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran

Halimeh Mohammad Mahmoudi *

Young Researchers and Elite club, Qeshm Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qeshm, Iran
PhD Candidate, Islamic Azad University, Kish International Branch, Iran

Adel Shahbazi
PhD Candidate, Islamic Azad University, Kish International Branch, Iran

Abstract
The present study was an attempt to investigate the effect of authentic materials on
improving intermediate EFL learners' pragmatic competence. To this end, 140 female Iranian
EFL learners were originally employed out of which 60 participants were selected as a
homogeneous sample based on their performance an OPT and then they were divided into
equal groups; an experimental and a control group. Having received a diagnostic pragmatic
test, the former group was exposed to authentic materials, while the latter one to
conventional pedagogic materials. Afterwards, they received a posttest identical to the
pretest; measuring pragmatic competence. The data analysis through an independent sample
t-test revealed that the experimental group outperformed on the posttest of pragmatic
competence. In other words, teaching authentic materials showed to have a significant effect
on improving learners' pragmatic competence.
Keywords: authentic materials, pragmatic competence, EFL learners

INTRODUCTION

As a matter of fact, the process of learning a new language and being able to
communicate with language is an achievement beyond memorizing vocabularies and
becoming skilled at its grammatical structures. Knowledge of grammar and lexis is
necessary and needed for successful language learning, but it appears to be insufficient
for effective and successful communication. In order to be able to use foreign/second
language efficiently and to acquire the capability to communicate effectively and
positively, English language learners need to improve their communicative competence
in all aspects of second language. In order to communicate with others effectively, L2
learners should be able to use language appropriately in context (Brown, 2007).

* Correspondence: Halimeh Mohammad Mahmoudi, Email: [email protected]

© 2016 Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research
Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2016, 3(5) 265

Pragmatic competence can be described as the ability to understand, construct and

transfer meanings and it can also be accurate and appropriate for social situations in
which communication takes place (Thomas, 1983; Richards & Schmidt, 2010). Adequate
pragmatic competence can help language learners in achieving an effective
communication in every context. According to Thomas (1983), pragmatics involve the
study of how to interpret and use utterances and it depends on knowledge about the
real world, how speakers use and comprehend speech acts and the relationship
between the speaker and the listener which affects the structure of sentences.

In this regard, the pragmatic building blocks in the field of linguistics were laid by
language philosophers and speech-act theorists such as Austin and Searle. Owing to the
performative hypothesis proposed in 1930, Austin was able to show that people do not
use language just to make statements about the world but they also use language to
perform actions which affect or change the world in some way so pragmatics can be
described as the study of language as it is used in daily communication (Thomas, 1995).

So far, the definition of pragmatics has been constantly improved and reformed.
According to Yule (1996), it can be defined as the study of intended speaker meaning.
Thomas (1983) defines pragmatic competence as “the ability to use language effectively
in order to achieve a specific purpose and to understand language in context” (p. 94).
Chomsky (1965) stated that pragmatic competence is the knowledge of foreign or
second language learners about situations and accurate use of language in L2 culture.
Consequently, pragmatic competence is all about the students' ability to match the
appropriate linguistic action with appropriate social situation. Hence, to communicate
with others effectively, EFL learners should develop their pragmatic awareness because
according to Fernández Amaya (2008), “lack of pragmatic competence on the part of L2
students can lead to pragmatic failure and, more importantly, to a complete
communication breakdown” (p. 11).

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

Many different definitions have been proposed for pragmatic competence by several
authorities including Hymes (1966) who reacted against Chomsky's competence and
performance (Savignon, 1983). In general, communicative competence can be defined
as the learner´s ability to apply and use grammatical rules, to form correct utterances
and to know how to use these utterances appropriately. In other words, the basic idea of
communicative competence remains the ability to use language appropriately, both
receptively and productively, in real situations (Brown, 2007). Communicative
competence involves the ability to use grammatical competence in a variety of
communicative situations, thus bringing the sociolinguistic perspective into Chomsky's
linguistic view of competence (Hymes, 1972). Savignon (1983) claimed that the
development of the concept of communicative competence as it relates to language
teaching can be traced back to two sources: one theoretical, and the other practical.
Theoretical sources are related to psychology, linguistics, and communication theory
and practical sources are related to pedagogical needs and concerns.
An Investigation into the Effect of Authentic Materials on Improving Pragmatic Competence266

IMPORTANCE OF PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE (PC)

PC can be described as the ability to understand, construct and transfer meanings and it
can also be accurate and appropriate for social situations in which communication takes
place (Brown, 2007; Richards & Schmidt, 2010). Chomsky (1965) stated that pragmatic
competence is the knowledge of foreign or second language learners about situations
and accurate use of language in L2 culture. Consequently, pragmatic competence is all
about the students' ability to match the appropriate linguistic action with appropriate
social situation. It is the students' ability to understand and produce appropriate
language speech acts such as refusal based on specific social and cultural situations.
Accordingly, communicative competence is divided into four categories, namely,
grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competences (Rose & Kasper,
2001). According to Brown (2007) and Canale and swain (1980), grammatical
competence can be described as the grammatical knowledge of linguistic code features
such as phonology, syntax and semantic.

Discourse competence can be defined as the knowledge of achieving coherence and

cohesion in a spoken or written communication. Sociolinguistic competence can be
defined as the knowledge of contextually appropriate language use. Strategic
competence can be described as the knowledge of how to use communication strategies
to handle breakdowns in communication and make communication more effective. In
spite of what has been said, Bachman (1990) proposed different model of language
competence encompassing grammatical competence as well as pragmatic competence
as two major language competences. These are divided into three categories, namely
organizational, grammatical, and textual competencies. According to Brown (2007) and
Bachman (1990), organizational competence can be explained as the speakers' control
of aspects of formal language. Grammatical competence consists of vocabulary, syntax
morphology and phonology. Textual competence is critical in cohesion, coherence,
rhetorical organization. And finally, pragmatic competence consists of sociolinguistic
and illocutionary competence.

According to Kasper and Schmidt (1996), in order to be able to communicate more

effectively is the main purpose of pragmatic competence. In order to have an acceptable
and effective communication in a second language, it is needed not only to master basic
linguistic elements, namely phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics but also the
capability to use suitable expressions in appropriate situations. Based on the above
mentioned explanations of pragmatic competence, it is true that many English learners
have a good knowledge of grammatical structures and lexis but the learners come
across serious difficulties when they engage in real communication because of
pragmatic failure. The importance of pragmatic competence in the foreign and second
language learning and acquisition is fairly clear because it goes beyond the domain of
grammatical structures and lexis and is related to the learners' ability to communicate
in second language communities (Brown, 2007; Richards & Schmidt, 2010).
Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2016, 3(5) 267

DEVELOPMENT OF PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE

Omaggio Hadley (1993) states that one of the most important principles of
communicative language knowledge or instruction is using authentic material in
instruction. Authentic material can be defined as spoken or written language that has
been produced in the course of real communication (Nunan, 1999). According to Kasper
(1997), authentic second language input is essential for pragmatic learning, but it does
not secure successful pragmatic development. Many researchers have stated that
noticing or consciousness is a prerequisite for the acquisition of second language
pragmatic features (Kasper & Schmidt, 1996 & Schmidt, 1990). According to Ellis
(2003), noticing is a way through which input is integrated into the learner's developing
system. Noticing is used to distinguish between implicit and explicit knowledge. The
former refers to the knowledge of language that a speaker manifests in performance but
has no awareness of and the latter refers to knowledge about language that speakers
are aware of and, if asked, can verbalize. According to Doughty (2003), another
difference between these two concepts i.e. implicit and explicit knowledge or teaching,
is that when explicit teaching consists of directing learners’ attention towards the target
forms with the aim of discussing those forms, an implicit pedagogical approach aims to
attract the learner's attention, avoiding any type of metalinguistic explanation and
minimizing the interruption of the communicative situation. In order to promote
pragmatic competence, language learners can develop their linguistic and
communicative competence.

AUTHENTICITY

According to Rost (2002), authenticity is one of the terms which researchers talk about
questionably. Kilickaya (2004) holds that authenticity has been put under deep
discussion by many researchers. As a result, they came up with different definitions for
this problematic term. Defining authenticity is a vital element for both materials
designers and language teachers, who are willing to employ authenticity in language
teaching in EFL classrooms. For many researchers, authenticity is very significant,
because it prepares the learners for the real world situations in terms of using the target
language. On the other hand, using less authentic materials with our learners, may lead
to less practice in the real world. According to Hedge (2000), the notion of authenticity,
came to the surface in association with communicative approach in language teaching in
the 1970-s. Defining authenticity is not an easy matter. Therefore, there are various
differences among writers, regarding the definition of this term. According to Tatsuki
(2006) authenticity is taken as being synonymous with genuineness, realness,
truthfulness, validity, reliability of materials.

Widdowson (1996) states that teaching “real English as it functions in contextually

appropriate ways, needs to refer to how people who have the language as an L1 actually
put it, to communicative use ˮ (p.67). Furthermore, Dunlop (1981) states that since
ability to read authentic materials has special significance for learners, teachers have to
use more of this type of materials in the classrooms. Otte (2006) believes that learners
need to “practice using authentic language themselves, in order to be better prepared to
An Investigation into the Effect of Authentic Materials on Improving Pragmatic Competence268

deal with authentic language in the real world ˮ (p.56). According to Brown and
Eskenzai (2004), by using textbooks alone, learners will not be exposed to the real
language, as it is used in the real world.

Definitions of Authentic Materials

Authentic material refers to those taken from real life sources and they are not designed
for teaching and learning purposes. Wallace (1998) defines authentic texts as “real-life
texts, not written for pedagogic processes” (p. 145). One of the main purposes of using
authentic materials in the classroom is to “expose” students to as much real language as
possible. The most common sources of authentic materials that can be used in the
classroom are newspaper, magazine, songs, literature and materials from the internet.
In the present study, authentic materials are those texts produced by native speakers
for non-pedagogical purposes (Nunan, 1988). He defines authentic materials as the
materials which have been produced for purposes other than to teach language. Jordan
(1997) defines authentic texts as the ones which are not designed for pedagogical aims.
Authentic material refers to those taken from real life sources and they are not designed
for teaching and learning purposes. Wallace (1998) defines authentic texts as “real-life
texts, not written for pedagogic processes” (p. 145). Jacobson, Degener, and Purcell-
Gates (2003) sees authentic materials as printed materials, which are used in
classrooms in the same way they would be used in real life. Stubbs (1996) defines
authentic texts as actual, attested, and such that they have real authentic instances of
use. According to Carter and Nunan (2001) authentic materials are “ordinary texts not
produced specifically for language teaching purposes ˮ (p. 68).

Authentic materials are texts produced by native speakers for a non-pedagogical

purpose (Bacon & Finnemann, 1990). Since they are not designed for pedagogical
purpose, commonly, they do not come from a course book. They are not systematically
developed in stages for language learners. However, nowadays, there are many experts
who prefer to use authentic materials in teaching and learning English, both written and
spoken as an alternative material. A material is authentic when it contains authentic
text (Kilickaya, 2004). According to Tomlinson (1998), an authentic text is a text which
is not written or spoken for language teaching purposes. A newspaper article, a rock
song, a novel, a radio interview and traditionally fairy story are examples of authentic
texts. Therefore, we can see such texts from television, newspaper and magazine. In that
mass media, information is spread widely from a place to many other places. In
communicating in such media, people naturally use and apply their language as how
they communicate and use their language in their daily life. It surely could be a perfect
lab for a language learner. Nunan (1999) also defines authentic materials as spoken or
written language data that have been produced in the course of genuine
communication, and not specifically written for purposes of language teaching.
Therefore, by using authentic materials, a teacher can bring the students the authentic
data from real world context into classroom. They can practice reading authentic and
genuine language which is used in real life as the language and the students themselves
Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2016, 3(5) 269

really occur. For another purpose, the foreign language learners also can be introduced
to the culture of the native people through the authentic materials.

Genhard (1996) sees authentic materials as a way to contextualize language learning. It

means that authentic materials are also effective in providing the students with the
context of every text. When they normally study the pedagogical materials, they tend to
focus more on content and meaning rather than the context. On the other hand,
authentic materials provide rich source of context in language instead of the language
which are only provided by the teacher. Herrington and Oliver (2000) suggested a new
pedagogical term, called authentic learning. This term is directly related to the students'
real life and prepares them to face and deal with real world situations. According to
Herod (2002), authentic learning materials and activities are designed to imitate the
real world situations.

Types of Authentic Materials

Genhard (1996) classified authentic materials into three categories as follows:

 Authentic listening materials, such as radio news, cartoons, songs, etc.

 Authentic visual materials, such as street signs, magazines and newspapers

pictures, post cards, etc.

 Authentic printed materials, such as sports reports, newspapers, restaurant

menus, train tickets, etc.

Many studies (e.g., Marzban & Davaji, 2015; Mousavi, 2011; Ghaderpanahi, 2012) have
focused on the authentic materials and their effects on different parts of English
language but to the best researcher's knowledge, no research studies have been worked
on the effect of authentic materials on improving pragmatic competence of language
learners. In order to fill the gap, this study was conducted in order to explore investigate
the effect of authentic materials on improving intermediate EFL learners' pragmatic
competence. Accordingly, to achieve the mentioned purpose, the following research
question was proposed:

RQ: Are authentic materials more significantly effective than pedagogic materials in
improving EFL learners' pragmatic competence?

METHOD

Participants

The total population of this research was 140 Iranian EFL learners in Iran Language
Institute in Bandar Abas, Iran. They were all female learners and varied in age from 11
to 18 years old. Out of the whole population, 60 learners were selected after the
homogenization test as the main members of the current research.
An Investigation into the Effect of Authentic Materials on Improving Pragmatic Competence270

Instrumentation

The instruments and materials used for the purpose of the present study were a version
of Oxford Placement Test (2006), Discourse Completion Test to measure pragmatic
competence before and after the treatment, authentic materials and pedagogic
materials.Although, the MDCTs in this study were adapted from published articles in
scholarly journals, the researchers measured Cronbach Alpha for ensuring stronger
reliability of the tests. The reliability index reported for the pretest was 0.768 and for
the posttest was 0.740.

Procedure

Based on quasi-experimental design, a homogeneous sample of 60 EFL learners were

selct5ed based on their performance on OPT out of 140 ones. Then they received the
Discourse Completion Test both prior to and after the treatment. Divided into two equal
groups, the experimental group received authentic materials-based online covering
reading passage, conversation, listening and grammar practices. On the contrary, the
control group received pedagogic materials from the English course books such as New
Interchange1 or American English File 3. The treatment lasted for 16 90-minute sessions.

RESULTS

Descriptive Statistics

The pre-test and post-test scores of the experimental and control groups are shown
respectively.

Table 1. Descriptive Data of the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Experimental and
Control Groups

Max Min SD M N
G
14 5 2.82 8.40 30 Pre-test
Experimental
15 5 2.78 14.80 30 post-test
15 5 3.41 7.80 30 Pre-test
Control
20 8 4.19 12.13 30 post-test

Based on the results of table 1, it is observed that the mean scores of the experimental
group had significant increase in post-test in comparison with pre-test stage. Moreover,
the mean scores of control group had substantial increase in post-test in comparison
with pre-test stage. Furthermore, it was observed that mean scores of the experimental
group was greater than the mean scores of control group in post-test stage. In other
words, teaching authentic materials to the experimental group would be effective in
improving intermediate EFL learners' pragmatic competence.
Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2016, 3(5) 271

Table 2. Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences
95% Confidence Interval of the P (2-
Std. Std. Error t df
Mean Difference tailed)
Deviation Mean
Lower Upper
Post
Exp
6.4000 1.2984 .3352 5.6810 7.1190 19.091 14 .000
Pre
Exp
Post
Con
.5333 1.1255 .2906 -.0899 1.1566 1.835 14 .088
Pre
Con

According to the results of Table 2, there was a significant difference between the pre-
test and the post-test of the experimental group (t (14) = 19.091, P<0.05). On the other
hand, there was no significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test of
control group (t (14) = 1.835, P>0.05).

Table 3. Independent Samples Test in the Pre-test

Levene's Test for Equality

t-test for Equality of Means
of Variances
95% Confidence Interval
P. (2- Mean Std. Error of the Difference
F P. T df
tailed) Difference Difference
Lower Upper
Equal
-
variances .156 .696 28 .648 -.46667 1.01074 -2.53707 1.60373
.462
assumed
Equal
-
variances not 27.954 .648 -.46667 1.01074 -2.53722 1.60388
.462
assumed

With respect to the results of Levene's test for equality of variances in Table 3, the data
of the first row is reported (Levene's F = .156, P>0.05. Therefore, there was no
significant difference between the pre-test scores of the experimental and the control
groups (t (28) = -.462, P>0.05).

Table 4. Independent Samples Test in the Post-test

Levene's Test for Equality of

t-test for Equality of Means
Variances
95% Confidence Interval of
P. (2- the Difference
F P. T df MD SED
tailed)
Lower Upper
Equal variances - -
.285 .597 28 .000 1.03310 -8.44955 -4.21712
assumed 6.130 6.33333
Equal variances - -
27.970 .000 1.03310 -8.44965 -4.21702
not assumed 6.130 6.33333
An Investigation into the Effect of Authentic Materials on Improving Pragmatic Competence272

With regard to the results of Levene's test for equality of variances in Table 3, the data
of the first row is reported (Levene's F = .285, P>0.05). Therefore, there was a
significant difference between the post-test scores of the experimental and the control
groups (t (28) = -6.130, P<0.05, R=0.87). Based on the results, the null hypothesis of the
present study was rejected. In other words, authentic materials had significant effect on
improving intermediate EFL learners' pragmatic competence.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The main purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of authentic
materials on improving intermediate EFL learners' pragmatic competence. The research
question of this study inquired whether authentic materials had any significant effect on
Iranian EFL learners' pragmatic competence. The data analysis and the results of this
research revealed that the answer the question was positive. In fact, those EFL learners
who were taught English through authentic materials outperformed those learners who
were taught the language through pedagogic materials.

The results of this study are in line with Marzban and Davaji (2015) who conducted a
research study to investigate the effect of authentic texts on motivation and reading
comprehension of EFL students at intermediate level of proficiency. After
administration the research, they concluded that “reading authentic texts has positive
effect on the reading comprehension of intermediate students. Conducting the
motivation questionnaire on the authentic group showed positive changes on four
domains of motivation ˮ (p. 85).

Similarly, Habouti, Mohammad, Mahmoodi and Ziaei (2015) have investigated the effect
of authentic listening materials on EFL learners' listening comprehension. The results
showed that there were significant differences among EFL learners in relation to their
listening comprehension ability since the authentic materials were while learning.

In another research, Alijani, Maghsoudi, and Madani (2014) have examined the
influences of authentic materials on listening ability of sixty female language learners.
To this aim, sixty Iranian EFL learners in upper-intermediate level who studied in two
institutes in Esfahan were participated to this study. “At the end of the study it was
concluded that using authentic materials in language classes would be more fruitful for
EFL learners than non-authentic ones. Of course, based on the advantages of authentic
materials, we deduced they are useful and applicable. Anderson and Lynch (1988)
believed that if students want to a successful listener in real life should be more active
in listening process. As you know the primary reason for learning a new language is to
become closer to its culture and people ˮ (p.156).

Likewise, Barekat and Nobakhti (2014) have conducted a research study to examine the
effect of authentic and inauthentic materials in cultural awareness training on the
listening comprehension ability of EFL learners. The results revealed that the listening
ability of learners in the experimental group had improved better than the learners in
Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2016, 3(5) 273

the control group. This study may have implications for improving EFL learners’
listening ability.

Finally, Mousavi (2010) investigated the impact of the authentic versus non-authentic
listening materials on the listening comprehension of Iranian EFL subjects. The results
revealed that: a) after treatment and post-test, the subjects who were instructed on the
basis of authentic radio-tapes had gained a higher degree of listening comprehension
and proficiency than non-authentic groups, b) no statistically significant gender
disparity was observed apropos of the application of authentic or non-authentic
listening materials. Given the results of this experiment, the tentative extrapolations
could be that some of the assumptions about the futility of teaching authentic listening
materials should be rigorously re-examined; that is the use of aural authentic listening
materials in EFL classroom improve learners listening comprehension, and have a
positive effect on EFL learners.

The findings of the present study may be beneficial for materials and curriculum
developers in designing and preparing authentic materials that are more adaptable with
those communicative and learner-centered approaches in order to help EFL/ESL
learners to use language communicatively. Nowadays, the area of communicative and
pragmatic competence is very important particularly in the present condition of
requirement of English in Iran so, changes from the traditional teaching methods which
use non-authentic based materials to novel and communicative teaching methods which
uses authentic materials are required to make sure learners’ engagement in pragmatic
competence process. Improving pragmatic competence of language learners is very
important for academic education. Therefore, EFL/ESL teachers should pay special
attention to this area in their teaching and enhance their learners' ability in pragmatic
competence in order to reduce their pragmatic failure.

This study was designed to investigate the effect of authentic materials on improving
the learners' pragmatic competence. In view of that, future research could investigate
the effectiveness of authentic materials to improve other main and sub-skills of the
Iranian learners such as reading, writing and listening. It was mentioned that this
research studied female intermediate learners. Hence, future researches could study
male EFL learners. Because of the limitation of the present study, this study was
conducted with a limited number of EFL learners. Thus, future researchers could be
conducted on large number of the learners.

REFERENCES

Alijani, S., Maghsoudi, M., & Madani, D. (2014). The effect of authentic vs. non-authentic
materials on Iranian EFL learners’ listening comprehension ability. International
Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 3 (3),151-156.
Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford University
Press.
An Investigation into the Effect of Authentic Materials on Improving Pragmatic Competence274

Bacon, S. M. & Finnemann, M. D. (1990). A study of the attitudes, motives, and strategies
of University foreign students. Modern Language Journal, 74 (1), 459-473.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Hartford, B. S. (1991). Saying “No”: Native and nonnative rejections
in English. In L. Bouton & Y. Kachru (Eds.), Pragmatics and language learning (pp.
41–57). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois, Division of English as an
International Language.
Barekat, B., & Nobakhti, H. (2014). The effect of authentic and inauthentic materials in
cultural awareness training on EFL learners' listening comprehension ability.
Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4 (5), 1058-1065.
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. (5th ed.). San
Francisco: Pearson Education.
Carter, R., & Nunan, D. (2001). The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of
other languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague Paris: Mouton.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The
M.I.T. Press.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Fernández Amaya, L. (2008). Teaching culture: is it possible to avoid pragmatic failure?
Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses 21, 11-24.
Genhard, J., G. (1996). Teaching English as a foreign language: A teacher self-development
and methodology. Ann Arbor: the university of Michigan press.
Habouti, M., Mohammad, H., Mahmoodi, H., & Ziaei, F. (2015). The effect of authentic
listening materials on improving Iranian EFL learners' listening comprehension.
Academie Royale Des Sciences D Outre-Mer Bulletin Des Seances, 4 (2), 143-148.
Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language classroom. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Herod, L. (2002). Adult learning from theory to practice. Heinle and Heinle Publishers.
Heinemann.
Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (2000). An instructional design framework for authentic
learning. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 10 (1), 3-24.
Hymes, D. H. (1966). Two types of linguistic relativity. In W. Bright (Ed.).
Sociolinguistics, (pp. 114-158). The Hague: Mouton.
Hymes, D. H. (1972). Models of the interaction of language and social life. In J. Gumperz
& D. Hymes (Eds.), Directions in sociolinguistics: The ethnography of
communication. 35-71. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Hymes, D. H. (1972). On communicative competence. In B. Pride & Y. J. Holmes (Eds.),
Sociolinguistics (pp. 46-59). Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Jacobson, E., Degener, S., & Purcell-Gates, V. (2003). Creating authentic materials and
activities for the adult literacy classroom: A handbook for practitioners. USA:
NCSALL.
Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes: A guide and resource for teachers.
Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.
Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2016, 3(5) 275

Kasper, G., & Rose, K. R. (2002). Pragmatic development in a second language. Oxford:
Blackwell.
Kilickaya, F. (2004). Authentic materials and culture content in EFL classrooms. The
Internet ELT Journal, 10 (7), 88-101.
Marzban, A., & Davaji, D. (2015). The effect of authentic texts on motivation and reading
comprehension of EFL students at intermediate level of proficiency. Theory and
Practice in Language Studies, 5 (1), 85-91.
Mousavi, A. (2010). The effect of authentic versus non-authentic aural materials on
listening comprehension enhancement. (Unpublished Master's Thesis). Payame
Noor University, Tehran, Iran.
Nunan, D. (1988). The learner-centered curriculum: A study in second language teaching.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning. Boston: Heinle and Heinle
Publishers.
Omaggio Hadley, A. (1993). Teaching language in context. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Otte, J. (2006). Real language to real people: A descriptive and exploratory case study of
the outcomes of aural authentic texts on the listening comprehension of adult ESL
students enrolled in an advanced ESL listening course. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 67 (4), 12-46.
Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. (2010). Longman dictionary of language teaching and
applied linguistics (4th Ed.). London: Longman.
Savignon, S. J. (1983). Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice. Texts
and Contexts in Second Language Learning. Reading, Massachusetts at all: Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company.
Stubbs, M. (1996). Text and corpus analysis. Oxford: Blackwell.
Tatsuki, D. (2006). What is authenticity? The Language Teacher, 16 (5), 17–21.
Thomas, J. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics, 2, 91-122.
Thomas, J. (1995). Meaning in interaction: An introduction to pragmatics. London:
Longman.
Tomlinson, B. (1984). A glossary of basic EFL terms’. In A. Cunningsworth, Evaluating
and Selecting EFL Teaching Materials (pp. 80-102). London: Heinemann,
Widdowson, H. (1996). Comment: Authenticity and autonomy in ELT. Michigan: ELT
University of Michigan Press.
Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.