Mr.

Anupam Thakur Computer Integrated Manufacturing

ETME 403
AUTOMATED MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEMS AND ADVANCED
MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

Robots perform several tasks in factories. Some of them are:

i. Movement of materials on the shop floor (Automated guided vehicles (AGV) or rail
guided vehicle (RGV)
ii. Loading and unloading of components in machines (Gantry robot, machine mounted
robot, free-standing robot)
iii. Inspection using vision sensors.
iv. Manufacturing operations like painting, welding, component insertion in printed circuit
boards, sorting, automatic assembly, deburring, sampling, dispensing, marking, etc.
Robots are programmable machines with some human like capabilities. They are made up of
mechanical components, a control system and a computer. These elements can be arranged in
different ways and can vary in size and complexity to perform different tasks. Thus robots are
available in a wide variety of types, which vary in their mechanical configuration, degrees of
freedom of motion and type of drive and control systems. The degrees of freedom and working
envelope provided by its geometric configuration are the two major selection factors of a robot.
A number of different types of drive systems, each having its own advantages in cost and
performance are used in robot technology. Robots are controlled by a variety of hardware and
software systems. The more complex tasks usually require servo-control systems, which use
sensors and microprocessors. The control system carries out the functions, which govern the
robot’s motion.
Robotic systems are used in a CIM environment because of they have a number of economic and
performance advantages over human labor or hard automation in many manufacturing
applications, particularly in batch manufacturing. The major advantages are due to their re-
programmability. Robots can be programmed by several techniques. Robot programs can be very
simple or extremely complex, depending on the nature of the tasks and type of motion control
involved. Robot programming is often done in high-level languages that provide functions for
data processing, computation, sensing and manipulation. Robot manufacturers have developed
different robot languages. The following sections give a detailed account of many of these
aspects to enable the reader to understand the role of robots in a CIM environment.

ELEMENTS OF A ROBOTIC SYSTEM

A robot is a system made up of several elements of hardware and software. These elements
are illustrated below:

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Elements of a Robotic System

Mechanical Components:
They provide the physical robot motions and perform the various tasks. They include:
i. Components of the robot manipulator:
 A manipulator (the base and arm assembly).
 End-of-arm tooling, such as a gripper or end effecter.
 Actuators (motors or drives that move the links of the robot) and associated equipment.
 Transmission elements like belts, pulleys, ball screws, gearing and other mechanical
components.
(ii) Control system:
The control system is used to generate the necessary signals co-ordinate the movements of the
robot. It includes:
 Mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, or electronic (either open loop or closed
loop) controls.
 Sensors including cameras, amplifiers, and related hardware.
 Equipment interfaces.
(iii) Computer system:
This provides the data processing capability necessary to interpolate the intermediate positions
and control the movement of the links or arms the robot.
It includes:
 Microprocessor or a programmable logic controller or a personal computer
 User interfaces (e.g. keyboard, display, teach pendant)
 Control software to manipulate the robot for various applications.
Robots can be configured in many different ways by using various combinations of the above
elements. Since robots are designed to perform tasks that might otherwise require humans, many
of their basic features are like those of a human arm. For example, an articulated robot has arm,
hand, wrist and gripper to reach, grasp and manipulate objects. They are driven by a power

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source, which provides the energy necessary for their movements. They can be programmed or
can have an intelligent control system, controlled by neural, fuzzy or fuzzy neural techniques,
which can acquire, store, process and perform on the basis of the data collected by sensors
attached to the robot.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS BASED ON MECHANICAL CONFIGURATION

Four basic robot arm geometries are used for industrial applications. These are illustrated below

Basic Classification of Robots

Rectangular Co-ordinate Robots

This is also known as the Cartesian co-ordinate robots. A robot with this geometry has three linear axes
using sliding joints, which are typically arranged in a cantilever configuration whose motion traces a box
like shape. This type of configuration is ideal for straight-line and side-to-side movements. These robots
can be used for tasks involving pick and place operations like material handling and loading and
unloading of work pieces in machines.

Cylindrical Co-ordinate Robots

This is also referred to as a rectilinear co-ordinate robot. A robot with this geometry has three axes of
motion that trace the shape of a cylinder. It has a base unit, which rotates, a vertical extension, and a
horizontal arm that moves in a line. This type is best suited for movements around a base.

Spherical Co-ordinate Robots

This is also known as the polar co-ordinate robot. A robot with this geometry has three axes of motion
that trace the shape of a sphere. It has a base unit that rotates, a main body that tilts, and arm that slides in
and out.

Revolute Co-ordinate Robots

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This configuration is also known as anthropomorphic (i.e. like a human arm) or articulated arm or jointed
arm. Such a robot has three axes of motion involving a base, a shoulder, and an “elbow” that rotate.
Several variations of these basic geometries have also been developed to provide optimum performance
for certain applications. Two of these are:

i. “Gantry” or “box frame”

This is a rectangular co-ordinate configuration with all three linear axes of motion suspended above the
work space. It can be made very rigid, which allows high precision and high acceleration. It also lends
itself to modularity in design for a variety of configurations, including multiple arms. This type of robots
is used for loading work pieces in CNC turning centres in flexible turning installations.

Gantry Robot

Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA)

This configuration shown below and is horizontally revolute. A robot of this type moves by sweeping
over the workspace at a fixed horizontal distance before moving a vertical arm down. This permits a
compact and relatively low cost design for small assembly tasks.

SCARA Robot

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Robot Anatomy
A robot joint is a mechanism that permits relative movement between parts of a robot arm. The
joints of a robot are designed to enable the robot to move its end-effector along a path from one
position to another as desired. The basic movements required for the desired motion of most
industrial robots are:

 Rotational Movement – This enables the robot to place its arm in any direction on a
horizontal direction.

 Radial Movement - This helps the robot to move its end-effector radially to reach distant
points.

 Vertical Movement - This enables the robot to take its end-effector to different heights.

These degrees of freedom, in combination with others or independently, define the complete
motion of the end-effector. Individual joints of the robot arm are responsible for the
accomplishment of different movements. The joint movements are in synergy with the relative
motion of adjoining links. Depending on the nature of this relative motion, the joints are
classified as prismatic or revolute.

Robot Classification
Robots are being classified on the basis of their physical configuration and control systems
adopted. These classifications are briefly described as follows:

Classification on the Basis of Physical Configurations

On the basis of physical configuration industrial robots are classified in four different types.
They are:
i. Cartesian configuration,
ii. Cylindrical configuration,
iii. Polar configuration, and
iv. Jointed-arm configuration.

Cartesian Configuration
Robots having Cartesian configurations consist of links connected by linear joints (L). As the
configuration has three perpendicular slides, they are also called rectilinear robots. Robot having
a similar configuration is known as Gantry Robots. Its structure resembles a gantry-type crane.

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Cylindrical Configuration
In the cylindrical configuration, robots have one rotatory (R) joint at the base and linear (L)
joints succeed to connect the links. The space in which this robot operates is cylindrical in shape,
hence the name cylindrical configuration.

Polar Configuration
Polar robots have a work space of spherical shape. In general, the arm is linked to the base with a
twisting (T) joint and rotatory (R) and or linear (L) joints. The designation of the arm for this
arm can be TRL or TRR. Robots with the description of TRL are also called spherical robots.
Those having the designation of TRR are called as articulated robots. It resembles a human arm
in terms of configuration.

Jointed-Arm Configuration
The combination of cylindrical and articulated configurations is known as jointed-arm
configuration. The arm of the robot is connected to the base with a twisting joint. Rotatory joints
are used to connect the links in the arm. Generally, the rotation takes place in the vertical plane.
Popular robot falling under this category is called SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly
Robot Arm). It is basically used for the assembly purpose.

Classification based on Control Systems

On the basis of the control systems adopted, robots are classified into the following categories :
a. Point-to-point (PTP) control robot
b. Continuous-path (CP) control robot
c. Controlled-path robot

Point-to-Point (PTP) Control Robot

The PTP robot is capable of moving from one point to the other point. The locations are recorded
in the control memory. The paths are not controlled by the path guide. Instead the desired path is
traced by programming a series of points. Component insertion, spot welding, hole drilling,
machine loading, unloading and crude assembly are some of the common applications of this
type of robot.

Continuous-Path (CP) Control Point

The movement along the controlled path is performed by the CP robot. Along the controlled
path, with CP control, the robot can stop any specified point. In the robot’s control memory, all
the points must be stored explicitly. Straight-line motion is being carried out by these types of
robots. Some continuous-path controlled robots also have the capability to follow a smooth curve
path that has been defined by the programmer. Here, the programmer manually moves the robot
arm through the desired path and the controller unit stores a large number of individual point
locations along the path in memory.

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Controlled-Path Robot
In controlled-path robots, the control equipment can develop paths of different geometry such as
straight lines, circles, and interpolated curves with a high degree of accuracy. Good accuracy can
be obtained at any point along the specified path. Only the start and finish points and the path
definition function must be stored in the robot’s control memory. It is important to mention that
all controlled-path robots have a servo capability to correct their path.

Robotic Applications in the Industry

Work environment is one of the several characteristics that should be considered when selecting
a robot application. The hazardous characteristics of industrial work tend to promote the
substitution of robots for human labour. Hence, robots are being used in a wide field of
applications in industry. Currently, robots are mostly used in the field of manufacturing. The
applications can usually be classified into following characteristics:
i. Material handling
ii. Processing operations
iii. Assembly and inspection

Application of the robots in the industry must be technically and economically viable for the
industry.

Material Handling Applications

Material handling applications are those in which the robot moves the materials or parts from
one place to another. The robot is equipped with a gripper type of end-effector to accomplish this
type of transfer. The gripper must be designed to handle the specific part or parts that are to be
moved. Within this application category are the following cases which are
i. Material transfer, and
ii. Machine loading/unloading.

In almost all the material handling applications, the part must be presented to the robot in
familiar position and orientation.

Material Transfer
These are the operations in which the robot picks up the parts at one location and place them at a
new location. The basic application in this category is pick and place operation, where robot
picks up a part and deposits at a new location. Transferring parts from one conveyor to another is
a classic example of this application. However, palletizing is a more complex example of the
material transfer application. Here, the robots must retrieve parts, cartons, or other objects from
one location and deposit them onto a pallet or other container with multiple locations.

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Machine Loading/Unloading Operations
In machine loading and unloading operations, the parts are transferred into/from a machine. The
three possible scenarios can be machine loading, machine unloading, machine loading and
unloading. In the machine loading operations, the robot loads parts into machine, but the parts
are unloaded from the machine by some other mechanism. In the unloading operations, the
machines are unloaded using the robots. When both the earlier situations are present, then this
can be placed into the third category.
Numerous applications of machine loading and unloading operations are as follows :
i. Die casting operations
ii. Metal machining operations
iii. Plastic molding
iv. Forging
v. Heat treating
vi. Press working

Robots as mentioned earlier are also used in the process industry. Numerous applications in this
category are spot welding, continuous arc welding; spray painting, various rotating processes,
and machining processes.

Spot Welding
Spot welding is a metal joining process in which two sheet metal parts are fused together at
localized points of contact. It has got a widespread use in the automobile industry. The end-
effector used here is a spot welding gun used to pinch the car panels together and perform the
resistance welding process.

Continuous Arc Welding

Continuous arc welding is used to provide continuous welds rather than points in a spot welding
process. As the working condition is tough, therefore automation is recommended in this case.
The robotic cell consists of a robot, the welding apparatus (power unit, controller, welding tool,
and wire feed mechanism), and a fixture that positions the components for the robot. The fixture
might be mechanized with one or two degrees-of-freedom so that it can present different portions
of the work to the robot for welding.

Spray Coating
Spray coating makes use of a spray gun directed at the object to be coated. Fluid flows through
the nozzle of the spray gun and is dispersed and applied over the surface of the object. Here,
robot applications consist of spray coating appliances, automobile car bodies, engines, and other
parts, spray painting of wood products, and spraying of porcelain coating on bathroom fixtures.

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Other Processing Applications
The list of other industrial processes that are being performed by robots is as follows :
i. Drilling, routing and other machining process.
ii. Laser cutting.
iii. Riveting.
iv. Grinding, wire brushing, and similar operations.
v. Water jet cutting.

In the next section, we detail the assembly and inspection operations performed by the robots.

Assembly and Inspection

Assembly and inspection are hybrids of the previous two application categories: material
handling and processing. Assembly and inspection applications can involve either the handling
of materials or the manipulation of a tool. Assembly and inspection are traditionally labour-
intensive, boring and highly repetitive activities. Hence, they are the fitting cases for the robotic
applications.
Production rate is one of the important performance measures for such robotic applications.
Therefore, industrially relevant problems have been presented and solved in the next section.

CONVEYORS, AGVS, AUTOMATIC STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS

A material-handling system can be simply defined as an integrated system involving such

activities as handling, and controlling of materials. Materials include all kinds of raw material,
work-in-progress, sub-assemblies, and finished assemblies. The main motto of an effective
material-handling system is to ensure that the material in the right amount is safely delivered to
the desired destination at the right time and at minimum cost. It is an integral part of any
manufacturing activity. Role of AGVs and Robots have become strategic with respect to the
modern material handling practices followed in the present day industry. The next section deals
with the automated guided vehicles (AGVs).

Automated Guided Vehicles

Automated guided vehicle systems (AGVs), commonly known as driverless vehicles, are turning
out to be an important part of the automated manufacturing system. With the shift from mass
production to mid-volume and mid-variety, flexible manufacturing systems, are increasingly in
use. They require not only machine flexibility but also material-handling, storage, and retrieval
flexibility. Hence, the importance of AGVs has grown in manifold. It is a battery-powered
driverless vehicle with programming capabilities for destination, path selection, and positioning.
The AGVs belongs to a class of highly flexible, intelligent, and versatile material-handling
systems used to transport materials from various loading locations to various unloading locations
throughout the facility. The capability related to collision avoidance is nicely inbuilt in AGVS.

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Therefore, the vehicle comes to a dead stop before any damage is done to the personnel,
materials, or structures. They are becoming an integral part of flexible manufacturing system
installations.
Components of AGVS
There are four main components of an automated guided vehicle system. They are as follows:
 The Vehicle: It is used to move the material within the system without a human operator.

 The Guide Path: It guides the vehicle to move along the path.

 The Control Unit: It monitors and directs system operations including feedback on
moves, inventory, and vehicles.

 The Computer Interface: It is connected with other computers and systems such as
mainframe host computer, the Automated Storage and Retrieval System (AS/RS), and the
Flexible Manufacturing System.

Now-a-days, AGVS are versatile in nature and possess flexible material-handling system. They
use modern microprocessor technology to guide a vehicle along a prescribed path and makes
correction if the vehicle strays from the path. A system controller receives instructions directly
from the host computer, communicates with other vehicles, and issues appropriate commands to
each vehicle. To avoid collision, communication is necessary among the AGVs. To facilitate the
communication, they are connected through a wire in the floor or by radio.

Different Types of AGVS

There are different types of automated guided vehicles that are able to cater different service
requirements. The vehicle types include:
 AGVS towing vehicles

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 AGVS unit load transporters

 AGVS pallet trucks

 AGVS forklift trucks

 AGVS light-load transporters

 AGVS assembly line vehicles

The level of sophistication of the AGVS has increased to allow automatic positioning and pickup
and drop-off (P/D) of cargo, and they also perform P/D services between machining work
centers, storage racks, and the AS/RS. They are also capable of two-way travel on the same path
and real-time dispatching under the control of the computer. The different types of AGVS are
discussed in the section to follow.

AGVS Towing Vehicle

AGVS towing vehicles were the earliest variety to be introduced. A towing vehicle is an
automated guided tractor. A wide variety of tractors can be used, such as flatbed trailers, pallet
trucks, custom trailers, and bin trailers. Different types of loading equipment used for loading
and unloading the trailer include an AGV-pulled train, hand pallet truck, cranes, forklift truck,
automatic transfer equipment, manual labor, shuttle transfer, and programmed automatic loading
and unloading device.

AGVS Pallet Trucks

AGVS pallet trucks are designed to lift, maneuver, and transport palletized loads. It is used for
picking up or dropping off loads from and on to floor level, than removing the need for fixed

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load stands. No special accessories are needed for loading and unloading the AGVS pallet except
that the loads should be on a pallet. It is basically used in floor-level loading and unloading
operation. Loading and unloading can be done in two ways viz. automatically or manually. For
the transportation of load, the normal course followed by the vehicle is determined by the storage
area destination. Normal operations carried out in pallet trucks are :
i. Loads are pulled off onto a spur,
ii. Lowering of the pallet forks to the floor,
iii. Pulling out from the pallet, and
iv. Finally automatically returns empty to the loading area.

AGVS Forklift Trucks

An AGVS forklift truck has the capability to pick up and drop off palletized loads both at floor
level and on stands, and the pickup height can be different from the drop-off height. They are
capable of picking up and dropping off a palletized load automatically. It has the ability to
position its forks at any height so that conveyors or load stands with different heights in the
material-handling system can be serviced. AGVS forklift trucks are one of the most expensive
AGVS types. Therefore, they are used in the case of full automation. The truck is accoutered
with sensors at the fork end, so that it can handle high-level stacking on its own. These systems
have the advantage of greater flexibility in integrating with other subsystems with various
loading and unloading heights throughout the material handling system.

AGVS Light Load Transporters

They are applied in handling small, light parts over a moderate distance and distribute the parts
between storage and number of work stations.

AGVS Assembly-Line Vehicles

AGVS assembly line vehicles are an acclimatization of the light-load transporters for
applications involving serial assembly processes. The guided vehicle carries major sub-
assemblies such as motors, transmissions, or even automobiles. As the vehicle moves from one
station to the next, succeeding assembly operations are performed. After the loading of part onto
the vehicle, the vehicle moves to an assembly area and stops for assembly. As the assembly
process is completed, the operator releases the vehicle that proceeds to the next part’s staging
area for new parts. After that the vehicle moves forward to the next assembly station. The
process is repeated until the final unloading station is reached.
The main advantage of the AGVS assembly line is its lower expense and ease of installation
compared with “hard” assembly lines. The line can be easily reconfigured by altering the guide
path and by reprogramming. Variable speeds and dwell intervals can be easily programmed into
the system. However, an extensive planning and complex computer control is needed in the case
of overall integration. Some of the guiding factors determining the functioning of the AGVS are :

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i. Guidance Systems
ii. Routing
iii. AGVS Control Systems
iv. Load Transfers
v. Interfacing with other subsystems

Guidance Systems for AGVS

The main purpose of a guidance system is to keep the vehicle in the predestinated path. The main
advantage of AGVS guidance system is that the guide path can be changed easily at low cost
compared to the high cost of modifying fixed-path equipment such as conveyors, chains, and tow
lines. Many guidance systems are available and their selection will depend on need, application,
and environmental constraints. Some of the familiar guidance systems are wire-guided guidance
system, optical guidance system, inertial guidance system, infrared guidance system, laser
guidance system, and teaching-type guidance system.

Routing of the AGVS

AGVS routing means determining how the vehicle conforms the path and takes a shortest path
between the two points. The commonly used methods are: “frequency selection method” and the
“path switch selection method”.

AGVS Control Systems

Three types of AGVS control systems are available.
 Computer-controlled system
 Remote dispatch control system
 Manual control system

Computer Controlled System

Here, all the exchanges and AGVS vehicle movements are controlled and monitored by the
system controller. The guide path controller controls the guide path of the AGVS and transfers
the information to the AGVS process controller. Movements of AGVS vehicle are directly
controlled by the AGVS process controller.

Remote Dispatch Control System

Here, a human operator controls the movement of AGVS through a remote control station. The
control system sends destination instructions directly to the vehicle.

Manual Control System

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In this type of system, the operator loads the vehicle and enters a destination into the onboard
control panel of the vehicle. The efficiency of the system depends on the skill of the operator.

FUNCTIONS OF STORAGE SYSTEM AND DEFINITION OF AS/RS

An automated storage/retrieval system (AS/RS) can be defined as a storage system under which
a defined degree of automation is to be implemented to ensure precision accuracy and speed in
performing storage and retrieval operations. These automated storage and mechanized systems
eliminate human intervention in performing basic sets of operations that includes:
 Removal of an item from a storage location automatically

 Transferring the above item to a specific processing or interface point

 After receiving an item from a processing or interface point, it is automatically stored at a

predetermined location.
A list of possible objectives that a company may want to achieve by installing an automated
storage system is presented in Table below.
Objectives for Installing an Automated Storage System in a Factory

Increasing the storage capacity

Increasing the stock rotation
Utilization of maximum floor space
Recovering the space for manufacturing facilities
Customer service to be improved
Control over inventories to be improved
Ensuring safety in storage function
Increasing the labour productivity in storage function
Reducing labour cost in storage operation
Reducing pilferage and improving security

AS/RS COMPONENTS AND TERMINOLOGY

An AS/RS consists of one or more storage aisles that are serviced by a storage/retrieval (S/R)
machine. The stored materials are held by storage racks of aisles. The S/R machines are used to
deliver and retrieve materials in and out of inventory. There are one or more input/output stations
in each AS/RS aisle for delivering the material into the storage system or moving it out of the
system. In AS/RS terminology, the input/output stations are called pickup-and-deposit (P&D)
stations.

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Generic Structure of as AS/RS

Storage Space
It is the three-dimensional space in the storage racks used to store a single load unit of material.

Storage Racks
This structural entity comprises storage locations, bays and rows.

Bay
It is the height of the storage rack from floor to the ceiling.

Row
It is a series of bays placed side by side.

Aisle
It is the spacing between two rows for the machine operations of AS/RS.
Aisle Unit
It encompasses aisle space and racks adjacent to an aisle.

Storage Structure
It is the rack framework, made of fabricated steel that supports the loads contained in the AS/RS
and is used to store inventory items.

Storage/Retrieval Machine

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It is used to move items in and out of inventory. An S/R machine is capable of both horizontal
and vertical movement. A rail system along the floor guides the machine and a parallel rail at the
top of the storage structure is used to maintain its alignment.

Storage Modules
These are the unit load containers used to hold the inventory items. These include pallets, steel
wire baskets and containers, pans and special drawers. These modules are generally made to a
standard base size capable of being stored in the structure and moved by the S/R machines.

Pickup and Deposit (P/D) Stations

P/D stations are where inventory are transferred into and out of the AS/RS. They are generally
located at the end of the aisles to facilitate easy access by the S/R machines from the external
material-handling system. The location and number of P/D stations depends upon the origination
point of incoming loads and the destination of output loads.

TYPES OF AS/RS
Several important categories of AS/RS can be distinguished based on certain features and
applications. The following are the principle types:

Unit Load AS/RS

The unit load AS/RS is used to store and retrieve loads that are palletized or stored in standard-
sized containers. The system is computer controlled. The S/R machines are automated and
designed to handle the unit load containers. Usually, a mechanical clamp mechanism on the S/R
machine handles the load. However, there are other mechanisms such as a vacuum or a magnet-
based mechanism for handling sheet metal. The loads are generally over 500 lb per unit. The unit
load system is the generic AS/RS.

Mini Load AS/RS

This system is designed to handle small loads such as individual parts, tools, and supplies that
are contained in bins or drawers in the storage system. Such a system is applicable where the
availability of space is limited. It also finds its use where the volume is too low for a full-scale
unit load system and too high for a manual system. A mini load AS/RS is generally smaller than
a unit load AS/RS and is often enclosed for security of items stored.
Deep-lane AS/RS
This is a high-density unit load storage system that is appropriate for storing large quantities of
stock. The items are stored in multi deep storage with up to 10 items in a single rack, one load
behind the next. Each rack is designed for flow-through, with input and output on the opposite
side. Machine is used on the entry side of the rack for input load and loads are retrieved from
other side by an S/R- type machine. The S/R machines are similar to unit load S/R machine
except that it has specialized functions such as controlling rack-entry vehicles.

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Man-on-board AS/RS
This system allows storage of items in less than unit load quantities. Human operator rides on the
carriage of the S/R machine to pick up individual items from a bin or drawer. The system permits
individual items to be picked directly at their storage locations. This provides an opportunity to
increase system throughput. The operator can select the items and place them in a module. It is
then carried by the S/R machine to the end of the aisle or to a conveyor to reach its destination.

Automated Item Retrieval System

This system is designed for retrieval of individual items or small product cartoons. The items are
stored in lanes rather than bins or drawers. When an item is retrieved from the front by use of a
rear-mounted pusher bar, it is delivered to the pickup station by pushing it from its lane and
dropping onto a conveyor. The supply of items in each lane is periodically replenished and thus
permitting first-in/first-out inventory rotation. After moving itself to the correct lane, the picking
head activates the pusher mechanism to release the required number of units from storage.

LEAN MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Lean manufacturing or lean production are reasonably new terms that can be traced to Jim
Womack, Daniel Jones and Daniel Roos’ book, The Machine that changed the world [1991]. In
the book, the authors examined the manufacturing activities exemplified by the Toyota
Production System. Lean manufacturing is the systematic elimination of waste. As the name
implies, lean is focused at cutting “fat” from production activities. It has also been successfully
applied to administrative and engineering activities as well. Although lean manufacturing is a
relatively new term, many of the tools used in lean can be traced back to Fredrick Taylor and the
th
Gilbreaths at the turn of the 20 century. What Lean has done is to package some well-respected
industrial/manufacturing engineering practices into a system that can work in virtually any
environment.

The 3 M’s of Lean

Lean manufacturing is a Japanese method focused on 3M’s. These Ms are: muda, the Japanese
word for waste, mura, the Japanese word for inconsistency, and muri, the Japanese word for
unreasonableness. Muda specifically focuses on activities to be eliminated. Within
manufacturing, there are categories of waste. Waste is broadly defined as anything that adds
cost to the product without adding value to it. Generally, muda (or waste) can be grouped into
the following categories:

1. Excess production and early production

2. Delays
3. Movement and transport
4. Poor process design

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5. Inventory
6. Inefficient performance of a process
7. Making defective items

Definition of “Lean”

•Half the hours of human effort in the factory

•Half the defects in the finished product
•One-third the hours of engineering effort
•Half the factory space for the same output
•A tenth or less of in-process inventories

This was an early definition of Lean

Excess production results in waste because it captures resources too early and retains the value
that is added until the product can be used (sold). In today’s highly changing society, many items
produced before they can are sold to a specific customer often go obsolete before demand is
realized. This means that a perfectly good product is often scrapped because it is obsolete.
Producing a product simply to keep a production resource busy (either machine, operator or
both) is a practice that should be avoided.

Delays, such as waiting for raw material, also result in the poor use of capacity and increased
delivery time. Raw materials and component parts should be completed at approximately the
time that they will be required by downstream resources. Too early is not good, but late is even
worse.

Movement and transportation should always be kept to a minimum. Material handling is a non-
value added process that can result in three outcomes:

1) The product ends up at the right place at the right time and in good condition.

2) The part ends up in the wrong place.

3) The part is damaged in transit and requires rework or scrap.

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Two of the three outcomes are no desirable, which further leads to minimizing handling.
Because material handling occurs between all operations, when possible, the handling should be
integrated into the process, and the transport distances minimized.
A poorly designed process results in overuse of manufacturing resources (men and
machines). There are no perfect processes in manufacturing. Generally, process improvements
are made regularly with new efficiencies embedded within the process. Continuous process
improvement is a critical part of Lean Manufacturing.
Excess inventory reduces profitability. Today, it is not uncommon for a manufacturer to
store a supplier’s product at the production site. The supplier, right up until the time that they are
drawn from inventory, owns the materials. In many ways this is advantageous to both the user
and supplier. The supplier warehouses his material offsite, and the user does need to commit
capital to a large “safety stock” of material.

Insufficient (or poor) process performance always results in the over utilization of
manufacturing resources and a more costly product. There is no optimal process in that
improvements can always be made; however, many processes operate far below the desired
efficiency. Continuous process improvement is necessary for a manufacturing firm to remain
competitive. Excess movement or unnecessary part handling should be the first targets of waste
elimination.
Poor quality (making defects) is never desirable. Labor and material waste results from
producing any defect. Furthermore, the cost of mitigating poor quality (rework) can often exceed
the price of the product. A critical balance between processing speed and quality exists. A
process should be run as fast as possible without sacrificing acceptable quality.

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From the above discussion, it should be obvious that waste is a constant enemy of
manufacturing. Waste elimination should be an on-going process that focuses on improving a
process regularly. Regular reviews and worker input should be conducted as often as allowable.
The second “M” is for mura, or inconsistency. Inconsistency is a problem that increases the
variability of manufacturing. Mura is evidenced in all manufacturing activities ranging from
processing to material handling to engineering to management.

The 5 S’s of Lean

Much of Lean manufacturing is applying “common sense” to manufacturing
environments. In implementing Lean, 5 S’s are frequently used to assist in the organization of
manufacturing. The 5 S’s are from Japanese and are:

 Seiri (sort, necessary items)

 Seiton (set-in-order, efficient placement)
 Seison (sweep, cleanliness)
 Seiketsu (standardize, cont. improvement)
 Shitsuke (sustain, discipline)

AGILE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

World-class performance is a moving target that requires constant attention, effort and the
process is a never ending journey. In the past, economies of scale ruled the manufacturing world
and everybody knew that mass production and full utilization of plant capacity was the way to

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make money. This style of manufacturing resulted in inflexible plants that could not be easily
reconfigured, and were associated with swollen raw materials, work-in-process and finished
goods inventories. For the elimination of excess inventory, shortened lead-times, requirement of
flexibility in the flow lines and to enhance the advanced levels of quality in both products and
customer service, industry analysts have popularized the terms `world-class manufacturing’ and
agile manufacturing.
Facing the competitive market, industrial manufacturers are hard pressed to adopt novel
strategies and technologies to enhance product quality, to cut manufacturing cost and to reduce
product lead time. Agile Manufacturing is primarily a business concept. Its aim is quite simple -
to put our enterprises way out in front of our primary competitors. In Agile Manufacturing, our
aim is to combine our organization, people and technology into an integrated and coordinated
whole. Agile manufacturing can be defined as the capability to survive and prosper in a
competitive environment of continuous and unpredictable change by reacting quickly and
effectively to changing markets, driven by customer-designed products and services.
The concept of agility refers to a business model which makes an organization immune to
damage caused by unpredictable events and changing circumstances. This is achieved by the
organization being able to react and adapt rapidly. The coming surprises of the future will not
make an agile enterprise vulnerable because that enterprise will have already put in place a set of
business practices, organization-wide culture changes and technology which will allow it to be
prepared for any change in circumstances, market forces or customer needs. Agile
Manufacturing is a combination of speed and flexibility that is difficult to achieve because it
requires radical changes to traditional thinking.
The concept of Agile Manufacturing is built around the synthesis of a number of enterprises that
each have some core skills or competencies which they bring to a joint venturing operation,
which is based on using each partner’s facilities and resources. Central to the ability to form
these joint ventures is the deployment of advanced information technologies and the
development of highly nimble organizational structures to support highly skilled, knowledgeable
and empowered people. Agile Manufacturing builds on what is good in lean manufacturing and
uses what can be adapted to western cultures, but it also adds the power of the individual and the
opportunities afforded by new technologies.
Agile Manufacturing enterprises will be capable of rapidly responding to changes in customer
demand. They will be able to take advantage of the windows of opportunities that, from time to
time, appear in the market place. With Agile Manufacturing it is possible to develop new ways of
interacting with customers and suppliers. The customers will not only be able to gain access to
the products and services, but will also be able to easily access and exploit the competencies, so
enabling them to use these competencies to achieve the things that they are seeking. The goal of
this paper is to review several different aspects of agile manufacturing (AM) and to identify key
aspects of agile manufacturing and outlook for the future of agile manufacturing technologies.

Comparison of Agile manufacturing and other manufacturing methods:

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In traditional manufacturing system the long cycle time is with the high inventory which causes
delay in the goods delivery. The problem here is the lack of strategy and no employee
involvement and financial secrecy and record inaccuracy. In the context of world class
manufacturing the advantages are long term profitability, productivity improvement and less
time to market in contrast to the traditional manufacturing system. The agile manufacturing
system focuses in the integration of design and manufacturing and every aspect of manufacturing
under one roof.
In Contrast to the traditional manufacturing strategy, the agile manufacturing concentrates on the
customer enrichment, competitiveness through co-operation and this could be achieved by
integration of the people, information and technology on a same roof. This could also be
achieved by highly educated and trained workforce. Enhancing the competitiveness among the
competitors and built the cooperation from all the enterprises and thus influence the knowledge
sharing and sharing the technological innovations.

Needs of agile manufacturing system

The key to agility however, lies in several places. An agile enterprise needs highly skilled and
knowledgeable people who are flexible, motivated and responsive to change. An agile enterprise
also needs new forms of organizational structures which engender non-hierarchical management
styles and also stimulate and support individuals as well as cooperation and team working. Agile
manufacturing enterprises also need advanced computer based technologies to integrate
information and to share the knowledge base. To achieve Agile Manufacturing, enterprises will
have to bring together a wide range of knowledge in the design of a manufacturing system that
encompasses suppliers, customers. It should also addresses all dimensions of the system
including organization, people, technology, management accounting practices, etc. Most
importantly the inter-related nature of all these areas needs to be recognized and an
interdisciplinary manufacturing systems design method adopted as standard practice. This means
going beyond the multidisciplinary approaches that are currently being adopted and looking at
areas between professions.

Challenges of Agile manufacturing

Interdisciplinary design will form the basis of designing Agile Manufacturing systems in the new
knowledge intensive era. Interdisciplinary design however, means more than just applying
knowledge from other domains, such as psychology and organizational science, to the design of
Agile Manufacturing systems. It also implies looking into the unexplored areas between these
disciplines and the areas where they overlap, to find a new insights, new knowledge, new and
original solutions. This is one of the most important challenges that managers and system
designers and integrators will face in the years ahead. The interdisciplinary design leads us to
new approaches and new ways of working and of thinking. However, to successfully adopt an
interdisciplinary design method, we also need to:
 Challenge the present design strategies and develop new and better approaches;

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 Question the established and cherished beliefs and theories, and develop new ones to
replace those that no longer have any validity;
 Consider how to address organization, people and technology, and other issues in the
design of manufacturing systems, so that the systems can achieve the better performance
for the agile manufacturing environment and for the people who form a part of this
system.
 Make use of the innovative technology in a way that makes human skill, knowledge, and
intelligence more effective and productive which allows industries to tap into the
creativity and talent of all people in an enterprise.
The challenges that face with respect to all these issues are enormous. In the world of
manufacturing the challenges and problems are very complex. There are a massive number of
interconnections between the various components and elements. A manufacturing enterprise is so
complex that, in the past, it has been impossible to cope with it as a whole, and it has been
necessary to reduce it into manageable areas which have tended to be examined separately.

Agile Manufacturing World Wide Scenario

The Agile Manufacturing Enterprise Forum (AMEF) at the Iacocca Institute of Lehigh
University was created to disseminate the ideas of agile manufacturing and to increase the pace
and scope of the transition to an agile manufacturing industry. The Agile Manufacturing
Initiative aims to develop, demonstrate, and evaluate the advanced design, manufacturing and
business transaction processes in the agile environment. The Concurrent Technologies Corp.
(CTC) is developing an agile manufacturing test bed to provide Department of Defense (DoD)
with increased weapon system readiness and added system mobility. The Agile Aerospace
Manufacturing Research Center (AAMRC) at the University of Texas at Arlington is conducting
research on agile business practices, business process identification and characterization, and
enabling technologies. The Manufacturing Research, Education and Outreach Program at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign is developing computer integrated manufacturing
and machine tool systems. The Electronic Agile Manufacturing Research Institute (EAMRI) at
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) is focusing on electronics product realization in
distributed manufacturing environments using improved information infrastructures and
architectures. Agile manufacturing makes use of modern information technology to form virtual
enterprises, which agilely respond to the changing market demands. A virtual enterprise,
different from a traditional enterprise, is constructed by partners from different companies, who
collaborate with each other to design and manufacture high quality and customized products. It is
product-oriented; team-collaboration styled, and featured as fast and flexible. Frequent and
dynamic interactions among partners in agile manufacturing enterprises entail the crucial role of
an Agile Manufacturing Information System (AMIS). It is up to the AMIS to provide partners
with integrated and consistent information, as well as to manage partner transactions accessing
the information.

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Transition to Agile Manufacturing
All the relevant dimensions of Agile manufacturing, such as organization, people, technology,
management accounting, etc. are however, all written in different books and taught by different
people. To make the transition to Agile Manufacturing we need to:
 Examine and define the underlying conceptual framework on which Agile Manufacturing
enterprises will be built.
 Explore and understand the nature of the mass production paradigm and the nature of the
cultural and methodological difficulties involved in the transition to Agile
Manufacturing.
 Define a methodology for designing a 21st century manufacturing enterprise. The agile
manufacturing is based on a systems perspective o technology, organization and people,
tied to clear business vision and goals. This will help the researchers to understand the
full complexity of designing a 21st century manufacturing enterprise that is agile
manufacturing system.

Characteristics of Agile Manufacturing

The characteristics of agile manufacturing are at the strategic level where strategic dimensions of
agile manufacturing are identified as follows:
1. Enriching the customer - an agile company is one that is perceived by its customers as
enriching them in a significant way, not only itself
2. Cooperating to enhance competitiveness – cooperation internally and with other
companies is an agile competitor's operational strategy of first choice
3. Organizing to master change and uncertainty - an agile company is organized in such a
way as to allow it to thrive on change and uncertainty, its structure is flexible enough to
allow rapid configuration of human and physical resources;
4. Leveraging the impact of people and information - an agile company's management
nurtures an entrepreneurial company culture that leverages the impact of people and
information on operations.
From these strategic dimensions of agility, one can move to consider the tactical and
technological dimensions. In this effort, the AMRIs are concerned with research and
development efforts to better understand the enabling technologies for agile manufacturing.
The benefits of Agile Manufacturing are Short time-to market, fast new product development,
Short/fast order processing, Low volumes, Low quantities, High product mix, Configurable
components, Fast supplier deliveries, Short lead times, Short cycle times, Highly flexible and
responsive processes, Highly flexible machines and equipment, Use of advanced CAD/CAM,
Quick changeover, Empowered employees.

Reconfigurable Manufacturing Systems

In an era when new product styles are being introduced with ever-shortening life cycles, the cost
of designing, building, and installing a new manufacturing system every time a new part or

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product must be produced is becoming prohibitive, both in terms of time and money. One
alternative is to reuse and reconfigure components of the original system in a new manufacturing
system. In modern manufacturing engineering practice, even single model manufacturing
systems are being built with features that enable them to be changed over to new product styles
when this becomes necessary. These kinds of features include:

 Ease of mobility. Machine tools and other production machines designed with a three
point base that allows them be readily lifted and moved by a crane or forklift truck. The
three-point base facilitates leveling of the machine after moving
 Modular design of system components. This permits hardware components from different
machine builders to be connected together
 Open architecture in computer controls. This permits data interchange between software
packages from different vendors.
 CNC workstations. Even though the production machines in the system are dedicated to
one product, they are nevertheless computer numerical controlled to allow for upgrades
in software, engineering changes in the part currently produced, and changeover of the
equipment when the production run finally ends

HOLONIC MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Holon

The holonic concept was developed by the philosopher Arthur Koestler in order to explain the
evolution of biological and social systems. On the one hand, these systems develop stable
intermediate forms during evolution that are self-reliant. On the other hand, in living and
organizational systems it is difficult to distinguish between “wholes” and “parts”: almost
everything is both a whole and a part, at the same time. These observations led Koestler to
propose the word “holon”, which is a combination of the Greek word “holos”, meaning whole,
and the Greek suffix “on”, meaning particle or part, as in proton or neutron. Koestler observed
that, in living organisms and in social organizations, which are entirely self-supporting,
noninteracting entities did not exist. Every identifiable unit of organization, such as a single cell
in an animal or family unit in a society, comprises more basic units (plasma and nucleus, parents
and siblings), while at the same time forming a part of a larger unit of organization (a muscle
tissue or a community). The strength of holonic organization, or holarchy, is that it enables the
construction of very complex systems that are nonetheless efficient in the use of resources,
highly resilient to disturbance (both internal and external), and adaptable to changes in the
environment in which they exist. Within a holarchy, holons may dynamically create and change
hierarchies. Moreover, holons may participate in multiple hierarchies simultaneously. Holarchies
are recursive in the sense that a holon may itself be an entire holarchy that acts as an autonomous
and cooperative unit in the first holarchy.

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The stability of holons and holarchies stems from holons being self-reliant units, which have a
degree of independence and handle circumstances and problems on their particular level of
existence without asking higher-level holons for assistance.
Holons can also receive instructions from and, to a certain extent, be controlled by higher-level
holons. This self-reliant characteristic ensures that holons are stable and able to survive
disturbance. The subordination to higher-level holons ensures the effective operation of the
larger whole.

Holonic Manufacturing Systems – HMS

The application of holonic concepts to manufacturing was initially motivated by the inability of
existing manufacturing systems
(i) To deal with the evolution of products within an existing production facility
and
(ii) To maintain satisfactory performance levels outside normal operating
conditions. Suda introduced the concept of holonic manufacturing in the early
1990s to address the challenge for manufacturing in the 21st century.
Teams of industry experts, scientists, and engineers from the world’s leading industrial nations
worked together from 1992 to 1994 to build and test a framework for international collaboration
in intelligent manufacturing systems (IMS). The experiences of teams coming together from
Australia, Canada, Europe, Japan and the USA to work for one year on collaborative “test case”
projects formed part of a two-year feasibility study that began in February 1992. This feasibility
study proved that this kind of international collaboration could achieve significant results in a
relatively short time.
A holonic manufacturing system is based on the concept of “holonic systems”, developed by
Arthur Koestler. Holons in a holonic manufacturing systems assist the operator in controlling the
system: holons autonomously select appropriate parameter settings, find their own strategies and
build their own structure. Koestler also points out that holons are autonomous self-reliant units,
which have a degree of independence and handle contingencies without asking higher authorities
for instructions. Simultaneously, holons are subject to control from (multiple) higher authorities.
The first property ensures that holons are stable forms, which survive disturbances. The latter
property signifies that they are intermediate forms, which provide the proper functionality for the
greater whole. Finally, Koestler defines a holarchy as a hierarchy of self-regulating holons that
function
a) As autonomous wholes in supra ordination to their parts,
b) As dependent parts in subordination to controls on higher levels,
c) In coordination with their local environment.
Work in the HMS program has translated these concepts to the manufacturing world, viewing
the manufacturing system as one consisting of autonomous modules (holons) with distributed
control. The goal is to attain the benefits that holonic organization provides to living organisms
and societies, in manufacturing, i.e., stability in the face of disturbances, adaptability and

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flexibility in the face of change, and efficient use of available resources. The HMS concept
combines the best features of hierarchical and heterarchical organization. It preserves the
stability of hierarchy while providing the dynamic flexibility of heterarchy. The HMS
consortium developed the following list of definitions to help understand and guide the
translation of holonic concepts into a manufacturing setting
Holonic Manufacturing Systems • Holon: An autonomous and cooperative building block of
a manufacturing system for transforming, transporting, storing and/or validating information and
physical objects. The holon consists of an information processing part and often a physical
processing part. Figure below shows the holon general architecture widely used in the field. A
holon can be part of another holon.

 Autonomy: The capability of an entity to create and control the execution of its own plans
and/or strategies.
 Cooperation: A process whereby a set of entities develops mutually acceptable plans and
executes those plans.
 Holarchy: A system of holons that can cooperate to achieve a goal or objective. The
holarchy defines the basic rules for the cooperation of the holons and thereby limits their
autonomy.
 Holonic manufacturing system: a holarchy that integrates the entire range of
manufacturing activities from order booking through design, production, and marketing
to realize the agile manufacturing enterprise.

Holon general architecture

Holon Architecture

A manufacturing control system for production processes is composed of software modules as

well as different physical elements of the manufacturing environment: resources, products, client
work orders, coordination operations, etc. The software module and the physical entity, bonded
by means of an appropriate communication network, represent a holon in a manufacturing
system. Every such holon will be able to reason, make decisions, and communicate interactively
with other holons. The number and types of software modules, and the way this software part

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and the physical entities are interconnected, define the different holon architectures approaches.
The first holon general architecture was proposed by Christensen in 1994. Figure above shows
the two main components of this architecture: physical processing part and information
processing part. The physical processing part is optional. Some examples of holons without a
physical processing part are work-order holons, planning holons, scheduler holons, etc. The
physical processing part is divided into: the physical processing itself, which is the hardware that
executes the manufacturing operation; and the physical control, a controller (NC, CNC, DNC,
and PLC) that controls the hardware operation. The information processing part is made up of
three modules: the holon’s kernel or decision making, which is in charge of the holon’s
reasoning capabilities and decision making; the inter holon interface, for the communication and
interaction with other holons, and; the human interface, for input (operation commands) and
output (state monitoring) data for humans.

Agent-Based Manufacturing Systems

An agent-based architecture for the information processing part of Christensen general

architecture is proposed. This proposal is based on the holonic vision of autonomous and
cooperation entities. Three main aspects guide this approach. Firstly, holons are entities with
autonomous control over the machine behavior they are associated with. Holons may create and
execute their own plans and follow their own strategies. This autonomous behavior implies some
kind of decision-making component that guides the holon physical control. Secondly, two or
more holons are able to cooperate when and wherever it is necessary. To do this, these holons are
able to figure out cooperation opportunities, make cooperation or negotiation commitments, and
finally to execute the cooperation committed to. Thirdly, holons are able to act in multiple
organizations called holarchies and these holarchies are created and modified dynamically.
Creating a holarchy means to aggregate the manufacturing process or the controlling process in
order to enhance productivity. This implies work and responsibility distribution, and the
definition of interaction patterns, which means that holons are able to figure out opportunities for
reorganization, negotiate reorganization, and follow the interaction patterns. The inclusion of
these components into the general architecture of Christensen led the authors to propose the
agent-oriented architecture in figure below. In order to figure out physical behavior and taking
into account the current situation, the holon chooses the appropriate plans and strategies in order
to reach its long-terms goals. These plans and strategies are communicated from the decision-
making module to the behavior control in order to translate them into hardware operations. On
the other hand, the cooperation interactions are initiated by the decision-making module and
executed by the specific cooperation techniques using the communication techniques (domain
ontologies and languages). In order to reorganize the manufacturing controlling processes the
holon needs techniques. These techniques are used to monitor other component actions and to
analyze the controlling process. In this way, the holons can figure out opportunities for
improvement and can start a negotiation process for reorganization (organization techniques)
that is executed by means of cooperation standards.

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Holon agent-based architecture

The Keele University HMS research group proposes a holon architecture using agents
and function blocks. A manufacturing holon is usually composed of knowledge and software
modules, as well as an optional hardware component. In terms of functionality, a holon may be
considered a composition of an intelligent controlling system (head) and a processing system
(base). The head of the holon is based on an agent architecture made up of modules. The
elements of the intelligent controlling system are: the PMC (process/machine control) executes
controlling plans for the running processes; the PMI (process/machine interface) provides the
logic and physical interface for the processing system through a communication net; the HI
(human interface) provides the human-readable interface; the IHI (inter holon interface) is in
charge of inter holonic communication. The processing system incorporates all the processing
modules needed to carry out the production activities. In this way, the ICS lets the holon supply
the production facilities as autonomous subsystems in coordination with the environment and
with other holons. The processing system is responsible for the manufacturing functions defined
by the operation rules and strategies imposed by the ICS.

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Holon Architecture Based On Agents And Function Blocks

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