13.

2 ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS
Environmental factors include abiotic and biotic
components that impact an organism’s form,
behavior, and development. Abiotic factors
affect the organism’s structure, physiology, and
actions, while biotic factors primarily influence
its growth and reproduction.

MAJOR ABIOTIC FACTORS

Abiotic factors are nonliving elements,
substances, and conditions in the environment
that affect the survival, form, function, behavior,
and reproduction of organisms. The four most
significant abiotic factors are temperature,
water, light, and soil.

1. TEMPERATURE
It is most ecologically relevant factor.
Temperature affects the kinetics of enzymes,
basal metabolic activities, and physiological
functions of organisms, making it the most
crucial abiotic factor.
Temperature variations determine the
geographical distribution of different species,
ranging from subzero temperatures in polar
regions to over 50°C in tropical deserts.
Mango trees cannot grow in temperate
countries like Canada and Germany, snow
leopards are not found in Kerala forests, and
tuna fish are seldom caught beyond tropical
latitudes in the ocean.
 Thermal springs and deep sea hydrothermal
vents are some unique habitats where average
temperature exceeds 100°C.

The level of thermal tolerance of different

species determine their geographical
distributions to a large extent.
Examples of eurythermal organisms include
most mammals, birds, and the Artemesia
tridentata plant, while polar bears, lizards,
amphibians, certain plants like Abies and Picea,
and coconuts are stenothermal.

Organisms can be classified based on their ability

to regulate their body temperature. There are two
types:

2. WATER
It is 2nd most ecologically relevant factor.
Water is essential for the survival of organisms.
It is a vital component of protoplasm and acts
as a universal solvent.
Water covers over 71% of the Earth’s surface and
is necessary for the growth of vegetation,
 primarily through rainfall and precipitation.
In deserts, limited availability of resources
requires special adaptations for survival.

Terrestrial plants can be classified into different

types based on the availability of moisture:

In aquatic environments, the chemical

composition and pH of water play a critical role
in the survival of organisms.
The salinity of water, which is the concentration
of salt measured in parts per thousand, affects
the water balance of organisms through
osmosis.
Freshwater environments have low salinity, while
the ocean has a higher salinity range.
The salt concentration is less than 5 in the
inland water, 30-35 in the sea and more than
100 in some hypersaline lagoons.

Organisms placed in environments with different

salinities than what they are used to can
experience osmotic problems, which can make
survival difficult.
Salmon have developed behavioral and
physiological mechanisms to regulate their salt
 content and can adapt to both freshwater and
saltwater environments by controlling water
intake and altering their gill function, enabling
them to either take in salt in fresh water or
excrete salt in the ocean.

3. LIGHT
Light is essential for the survival of living
organisms, especially autotrophs, as they rely on
photosynthesis to produce food using sunlight
as an energy source.
Visible light falls within the wavelength range of
390-740 nm and is part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Solar radiation has a broader range of
wavelengths from 300-2600 nm.
Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is
important for photosynthesis and has a
wavelength range of 400-700 nm.
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is below the visible light
range, while above it is infra-red or heat waves.
The amount and intensity of light vary
depending on latitude and season, and factors
such as intensity, duration, and quality of light
play an essential role in the life processes of
organisms.
Plants: Plants have varying needs for light. Some
small plants growing in forested areas are
adapted to low light conditions and can
photosynthesize optimally. Other plants require
sunlight to meet their photoperiodic
requirements for flowering.
Animals: Light is essential for many animals as
they use variations in light intensity and duration
as cues for their daily and seasonal activities,
such as foraging, reproduction, and migration.
The availability of light on land is closely tied to
temperature.
Aquatic Habitats

Fig. 13.2.1 : Zones in the lakes and deep ocean

Organisms living in the deep ocean (> 500 m)

are constantly in darkness and do not have
access to sunlight as a source of energy.
In deep lakes and oceans, there are different
light zones.
The littoral zone is the shallow coastal area
where light can penetrate the water and reach
the bottom.
As a result, producers can be found throughout
the entire region, from the surface to the bottom.
The limnetic zone is the open water zone where
the water is very deep, and the amount of
oxygen and light decreases with increasing
depth.
At different depths, different kind of flora and
fauna is seen.
The limnetic zone is divided into three parts:
photic, aphotic, and benthic.
Profundal zone is a deep zone in a lake or pond
located below the range of effective light
penetration.
The composition of benthic animals depends on
the characteristics of the sediment, which is
essential for their survival.
In the ocean, longer wavelengths such as red,
yellow, and orange have limited penetration
compared to shorter wavelengths like violet,
blue, and green. Blue light, being a high-energy
 and short-wavelength light, can penetrate the
deepest into the ocean. This is why red algae,
with their phycoerythrin pigment, have an
advantage in deeper areas as they can absorb
blue light more effectively than brown and
green algae. Consequently, red algae can grow
better in these deeper regions compared to
green and brown algae.

4. SOIL
Soil is the top layer of the earth’s surface that
supports terrestrial plant life and is composed of
weathered humus.
Weathering of rocks into fine powder can occur
due to atmospheric changes, mechanical
forces, chemical changes, and biological
breakdown.
Soil properties and nature vary across different
regions depending on several factors such as
climate, weathering processes, transportation,
and sedimentary processes, as well as soil
development.
The soil characteristics such as composition,
grain size, and aggregation play a significant
role in determining the percolation and water-
holding capacity of the soil.
Other factors such as pH, mineral composition,
and topography also influence the soil
properties, which, in turn, have a significant
impact on the vegetation in the area.
The type of vegetation present in any given area
largely determines the type of animals that can
be supported in that region.
Similarly in the aquatic environment, the
sediment-characteristics often determine the
type of benthic animals that can thrive there.
RESPONSES TO ABIOTIC FACTORS
The external environment can be inconsistent
and stressful with extreme temperatures,
drought, excess water, and unfavorable pH or
salt levels.
Through millions of years of evolution, most
species have developed a stable internal
environment within their bodies.
This internal stability allows for efficient
physiological functions and increased overall
fitness for the species.
The stable internal environment is maintained
through optimal bodily fluids and temperature,
known as homeostasis.
All organisms should maintain a stable internal
environment even during drastic changes in the
external environment.
Let us look at various possibilities of how living
organisms cope with the situation.

1. REGULATE
Regulators are organisms that can maintain a
stable body temperature and osmotic
concentration even in changing external
conditions.
This category includes a limited number of
animals, such as birds, mammals, some lower
vertebrates, and a few invertebrates.
Regulators achieve homeostasis mainly through
physiological adjustments in thermoregulation
and osmoregulation, and rarely through
behavioral changes.
 Transpiration in plant

Mammals’ ability to maintain a constant body

temperature as endotherms has contributed to
their success in thriving in extreme hot and cold
environments, such as the Sahara Desert and
Antarctica.
The mechanisms for regulating body
temperature in most mammals, including
humans, are similar.
In humans, the aim is to maintain a constant
body temperature of around 37°C, despite
fluctuations in external temperatures that can
reach 45°C in summer and near zero in winter.
When external temperatures rise above 37°C,
humans start to sweat profusely. Cooling of
body take place as sweat evaporates, similar to
how a desert cooler operates. In low external
temperatures, shivering occurs as a means of
raising body temperature.
Plants, being stationary, are unable to make
behavioral changes but can cool their bodies
through transpiration if water is available.

2. CONFORM
About 99 percent of animals and most plants
do not have a mechanism to maintain a
constant internal body environment and are
referred to as ectotherms.
Aquatic organisms such as Asterias adjust their
osmotic concentration to match the
surrounding water, making them conformers.
Conformers’ body temperature and osmotic
 y p
concentration are influenced by surrounding
water conditions, and their efficiency decreases
under stressful conditions.
Although a constant internal environment
provides benefits to an organism, some
conformers may not have evolved to become
regulators due to the energetic cost of
thermoregulation.
Heat loss or heat gain is directly related to
surface area.
Small animals, such as shrews and
hummingbirds, have a larger surface area in
proportion to their volume, making them more
susceptible to losing heat quickly in colder
environments.
As a result, they require more energy to
maintain their body temperature compared to
larger animals. This is why, small-sized animals
are not commonly found in polar regions.

If stressful conditions are localised only for a

short duration, the organisms has two other
alternatives for survival i.e. migrate and
 suspend.

3. MIGRATE
Some organisms respond to unfavorable
conditions by temporarily moving to a more
favorable habitat and returning when the
unfavorable period has passed.
This is similar to a person who leaves Delhi for
Shimla during the summer.
Many animals, especially birds, go on long-
distance migrations to more favorable areas
during the winter.
For example, every winter, the Keoladeo Ghana
National Park (Bharatpur) in Rajasthan
receives thousands of migratory birds from
colder regions such as Siberia (NEET 2014). E.g.,
Siberian cranes

4. SUSPEND
Bacteria, fungi, and some lower plants produce
thick-walled structures called spores, which
enable them to survive in unfavorable
conditions.
These germinate once the conditions become
suitable again.
In higher plants, seeds and other vegetative
reproductive structures that help with dispersal
can also withstand unfavorable conditions and
germinate to form new plants when the
conditions are favorable for moisture and
temperature.
They do so by reducing their metabolism activity
and going into a state of dormancy.
13.3 ADAPTATIONS
Adaptation enables organisms to survive and
reproduce in their habitat through natural
selection of favorable variations resulting from
mutations and genetic recombinations.
Adaptations have evolved over a long period
and are often coded in an organism’s genes. For
example, the kangaroo rat can survive in North
American deserts by fulfilling its water needs
through the oxidation of internal fat and
concentrating urine to conserve water.
Adaptations may be morphological,
physiological, or behavioral.

PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATION
Organisms may have physical or physiological
adaptations that allow them to quickly adjust to
unfavorable conditions.
For example, people living or traveling to high
altitude locations such as Leh or the Rohtang
Pass near Manali can experience altitude
sickness due to the low atmospheric pressure
and lack of oxygen at these heights.
This can cause symptoms like nausea, fatigue,
and heart palpitations. However, over time,
individuals can become adapted and stop
experiencing altitude sickness.
The body adjusts to low oxygen levels by
boosting red blood cell production, reducing the
binding capacity of haemoglobin (through
increasing 2,3-biphosphoglyceric acid), and
increasing breathing rate (AIPMT 2012).
Some tribes living in high-altitude regions of
the Himalayas have a higher haemoglobin
count compared to people living at lower
 elevations.
Meanwhile, deep sea organisms are adapted to
tolerate pressures exceeding 100 atm.
Microorganisms like archaebacteria can thrive
in hot springs and deep-sea hydrothermal vents
where temperatures can reach 100°C.
Aquatic mammals like seals have a thick layer
of fat called blubber under their skin to minimize
heat loss.
Some animals and plants have adaptations to
survive in extreme environments. For example,
sea animals and sessile animals cannot
hibernate or migrate to protect themselves from
extreme cold, so they develop cold hardiness by
producing extra solutes and special ice
nucleating proteins in their body fluids. This
represents a fascinating array of biochemical
adaptation.

MORPHOLOGICAL ADAPTATION
Xerophytic plants, such as annuals or drought
evaders, have adaptations such as waxy or
hairy coatings on their leaves, or spiny leaves
(Opuntia), to reduce water loss through
transpiration, and some plants like succulents
have very thick cuticles and sunken stomata
that only open at night (CAM mechanism of
photosynthesis).

BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATION
Organisms may use behavioral adaptations to
handle changes in their environment. For
example, desert lizards regulate their body
temperature by seeking shade or sun, instead of
relying on physiological means like mammals
(AIPMT 2011).
They keep their body temperature fairly
constant by behavioural means.
They bask in the sun and absorb heat when their
body temperature drops below the comfort
zone, but move into shade when the
surrounding temperature starts increasing.
Burrowing seen in the case of rabbits is also a
behavioral adaptation.
Pneumatophores are the adaptations of saline
plants (halophytes) for their survival. These are
vertical negatively geotropic roots (NEET 2018).
13.4 POPULATIONS
13.4.1 POPULATION ATTRIBUTES

A population is the total number of

interbreeding individuals of a species found in
a geographical area, who share and compete
for similar resources.
The term interbreeding applies to sexual
reproduction, but a group of individuals
produced from even asexual reproduction is
also considered a population.
Population ecology is an important area of
ecology because it links ecology to population
genetics and evolution.
An individual may have birth or death, but a
population has birth rate and death rate. These
rates refer to per capita births and deaths,
respectively.
If in a pond there were 20 lotus plants last year
and through reproduction 8 new plants are
added, taking the current population to 28,we
calculate the birth rate as 8/20 = 0.4 offspring
per lotus per year. If 4 individuals in a laboratory
population of 40 fruitflies died during a specified
time interval, say a week, the death rate in the
population during that period is 4/40 = 0.1
individuals per fruitfly per week. The rates that
are stated indicate the variation in numbers
(either an increase or a decrease) in relation to
the individuals within the population.
Sex is an attribute of organism whereas as a
population has sex ratio. (e.g., 60% of the
population are females and 40% males).

13.4.2 AGE DISTRIBUTION

 A population has three ecological age groups:
pre-reproductive, reproductive, and post-
reproductive.
The reproductive status of a population can be
determined by its comparative abundance.
Age pyramids are graphic representations of
percent individuals different age groups found
in a population, with pre-reproductive groups at
the base, reproductive ones in the middle, and
post-reproductive groups at the top.
Age pyramids typically depict the age
distribution of both males and females in a
single diagram for the human population.

Fig. 13.4.1 : Representation of age pyramids for human population

A population with a large number of young

individuals will exhibit rapid growth (positive
growth), while if the age groups are evenly
balanced, it will have a slow or stagnant growth
rate (zero growth).
A population with a large number of post-
reproductive or older individuals and a lesser
number of pre-reproductive individuals will
show a negative growth rate.
The shapes of age pyramid of a population can
provides information about the growth status of
the population.
13.4.3 POPULATION SIZE
The size of a population tells us a lot about it’s
status in the habitat. The investigation of various
ecological processes like competition from other
species, the impact of predator, or the effect of
use of pesticide can be evaluated from
population size.
The size of a population in nature can be as low
as less than 10 (Siberian cranes at Bharatpur
wetlands in any year) or go into millions
(Chlamydomonas in a pond).
The population density or size (N) can be
measured in different ways, but determining the
total number of individuals is the most accurate
measure.
Population density measures the number of
individuals per unit area/space at a particular
time.
In some cases, using measures such as percent
cover or biomass can provide a more accurate
representation of the population size, such as in
a forest area where a single banyan tree with a
large canopy can play a significant role in the
forest community as compared to 200 carrot
grass (Parthenium hysterophorus) in that same
area.
Relative densities can serve the same purpose
 as absolute population density measurements,
such as the number of fish caught per trap that
can give an accurate estimation of the fish
population density in a lake.
In some ecological investigations, it may not be
necessary to determine the absolute population
densities, and the population size is estimated
indirectly without counting each individual, such
as the tiger census in national parks and tiger
reserves that is often based on pug marks and
faeces.
Population size fluctuates due to factors like
food supply, predation, and weather conditions.
These fluctuations indicate population growth or
decline, and are caused by natality,
immigration, mortality, and emigration.

13.4.4 POPULATION GROWTH

Fig. 13.4.2 : Population dynamics

The size of a population for any species is not a

static parameter. It keeps changing with time,
depending on various factors including food
availability, predation pressure and adverse
weather.
In fact, it is these changes in population density
that give us some idea of what is happening to
the population– whether it is flourishing or
declining. Whatever might be the ultimate
reasons, the density of a population in a given
habitat during a given period, fluctuates due to
changes in four basic processes, two of which
(natality and immigration) contribute to an
increase in population density and two
(mortality and emigration) to a decrease.
Natality refers to the number of births during a
given period that are added to the initial
population density, while mortality is the
number of deaths during a given period.
Immigration is the number of individuals of the
same species that have come into the habitat
from elsewhere during the time period, while
emigration is the number of individuals of the
population who left the habitat and gone
elsewhere during the time period.
If N is the population density at time t, then
population density at time t+1 is calculated
using the formula
Conclusion: Population will increase of (B+I)>
(D+E); and decrease if (B+I) < (D+E).
13.5 GROWTH MODELS
The growth of a population follows a certain
pattern over time, and there are concerns about
the uncontrolled growth of human population
and its negative impacts. To better understand
this phenomenon, researchers study the growth
of animal populations in nature to see if similar
behavior occurs.
The biotic potential of a population refers to its
maximum potential for reproduction, while
environmental resistance is the sum of
environmental factors that limit population size,
which increases as population size grows.
The carrying capacity of an environment is the
maximum number of individuals a population
can support with optimal resources for survival.
The growth of a population is influenced by its
biotic potential, birth rate, and death rate.
Population dynamics can be visualized in a
graph that shows how births and immigration
add individuals to a population, while deaths
and emigration remove individuals from it.

EXPONENTIAL GROWTH MODEL

Exponential growth: Resource (food and space)
availability is obviously essential for the
unimpeded growth of a population. Ideally,
when resources in the habitat are unlimited,
each species has the ability to realise fully its
innate potential to grow in number, as Darwin
observed while developing his theory of natural
selection. Then the population grows in an
exponential or geometric fashion.
If in a population of size N, the birth rates (not
total number but per capita births) are
(
 represented as b and death rates (per capita
death rates) as d, the increase or decrease in N
during a unit time period t (dN/dt) will be:

when (b – d) = r, then
(r is called the intrinsic rate of natural
increase)

Given equation represents the exponential or

geometric growth pattern of a population and
when plotted, results in a J-shaped curve
showing the relationship between population
size (N) and time.
The intrinsic rate of natural increase is a crucial
factor in determining the impact of biotic or
abiotic factors on population growth.
The magnitude of the r value can vary, with the
Norway rat having an r value of 0.015 and the
flour beetle having an r value of 0.12.
In 1981, the r value for the human population in
India was 0.0205. To calculate the current value
of r, the birth and death rates must be known
(e.g., 0.025 and 0.0081).
The integral form of the exponential growth
equation can be derived as: (NEET 2021)

Nt = N0ert

Where Nt = Population density after time t;

N0 = Population density at time zero;
r intrinsic rate of natural increase;
e the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)
(AIPMT 2011).
Any species growing experientially under
unlimited resource conditions can reach
enormous population densities in a short time.
LOGISTICS GROWTH MODEL

Fig. 13.5.1 : Population growth curve

No population of any species in nature has at its

disposal unlimited resources to permit
exponential growth.
This leads to competition between individuals
for limited resources. Eventually, the ‘fittest’
individual will survive and reproduce.
The governments of many countries have also
realised this fact and introduced various
restraints with a view to limit human population
growth.
In nature, a given habitat has enough resources
to support a maximum possible number,
beyond which no further growth is possible.
This limit is called as nature’s carrying capacity
(K) for that species in that habitat.
The logistic population growth model shows that
as the population size approaches the carrying
capacity (K), the per capita rate of growth slows
down and eventually becomes zero.
When a population grows in a habitat with
limited resources as it goes through different
phases, starting with a lag phase, followed by a
phase of growth, then decline, and finally
stabilization (asymptote phase) at the carrying
capacity (NEET 2017).
A plot of N in relation to time (t) results in a
sigmoid curve.
 This type of population growth is called
Verhulst- Pearl Logistic Growth as explained by

the following equation:

where, N = Population density at time t

r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
K = Carrying capacity

Since resources for growth for most animal

populations become limiting sooner or later, the
logistic growth model is more realistic. It is also
called S or sigmoid growth form (NEET 2016).

13.5.1 LIFE HISTORY VARIATION

In the nature, traits that enhance an organism’s
chances of survival and successful reproduction
are favored by selection. Populations evolve to
increase their reproductive fitness, also known
as Darwinian fitness ‘r’ (NEET 2013).

Ecologists believe that the traits of organisms

have developed based on the biotic and abiotic
factors of their habitat.

r AND k SELECTION
13.6 POPULATION
INTERACTIONS
In every natural habitat, more than one species
exists, as every species requires at least one
other species as a source of food.
Plants, even though they produce their food, still
rely on soil microbes to break down organic
matter and release nutrients for their use.
Additionally, they also depend on animal
pollinators.
All living organisms, including animals, plants,
and microbes, interact to form a biological
community. These interactions are known as
interspecific interactions and can either be
beneficial, harmful, or neutral to one or both
species.
The interactions are classified as positive (+),
negative (-), or neutral (0), with positive
meaning beneficial, negative meaning
detrimental, and neutral meaning no harm or
benefit.

Table 13.6.1 : Interaction Amongst Different Species

1. PREDATION
Predation is when one species, the predator,
hunts and eats another species, the prey.
Predators are usually animals that eat other
animals or consume plant parts, which can
reduce the prey population by removing
individuals or future generations.
Predation occurs between species, where one
species hunts and eats another, such as tigers
and deer (NEET 2023), frogs and insects, and
owls and rats.
Some plants, known as carnivorous or
insectivorous plants, also exhibit predation, such
as Ulricufaria, Dionaea, Drosera, and Nepenthes.
Herbivores are considered as predators to
plants, and approximately 25% of all insects
feed on plant parts and sap, causing significant
damage. These insects are known to be
phytophagus.
Plants have developed various defenses against
herbivores, including thorns (Acacia, cactus),
spines, and toxic chemicals, such as cardiac
glycosides produced by the weed Calotropis.
A wide variety of chemical substances that we
extract from plants on a commercial scale
(nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium,
etc.) are produced by the actually as defense
against grazes and brows.
The Monarch butterfly possesses a chemical
acquired during its caterpillar stage from
consuming a poisonous weed, rendering it
unpalatable to predators.
Predators have evolved various adaptations to
capture and consume prey, including agility,
strength, and specialized organs.
Predation is significant for regulating prey
populations, preventing overpopulation that can
lead to weakness and degeneration.
 Predators also contribute to species diversity by
controlling competition among different prey
species.
Biological control of invasive species relies on
the introduction of natural predators, such as
cactus-feeding moths for controlling prickly
pear cactus in Australia.
Various organisms, including Gambusia fish, are
also used for controlling the population of pests
like mosquito larvae.
Predators preserve species diversity by
controlling competition among prey species. In
the rocky intertidal zones of the American
Pacific Coast, the starfish Pisaster is a
significant predator. Removing all starfish
resulted in the disappearance of over 10
invertebrate species within a year (NEET 2022).
Predators in nature act with caution and
restraint because if they are too successful in
hunting and consume too much of their prey, it
could lead to the extinction of the prey
population, which in turn would cause the
predator population to also decline due to lack
of food. This is why predators are “prudent” and
do not overexploit their prey.

2. COMPETITION
Competition is a type of interaction (-/-) that
takes place when individuals from different
species struggle for a resource that restricts the
survival and reproduction of both species.
There are two types of competition: intraspecific
and interspecific.
Gause’s Hypothesis (Principle of Competitive
Exclusion)

Fig. 13.6.1: Competition in Balanus and Chthamalus

Gause conducted a study in 1934 where he

discovered that when two species of
Paramecium are grown together, one will
eventually be eliminated. This is known as
Gause’s hypothesis or the principle of
competitive exclusion (NEET 2016). However, in
some cases, two or more species may coexist.
Gause’s theory of competitive exclusion states
that two closely related species competing for
the same resources cannot coexist indefinitely,
and the inferior one will eventually be eliminated
(NEET 2023).
On the Galapagos islands, the introduction of
goats led to the extinction of the Abingdon
tortoise within a decade because goats were
more agile and better at browsing for food.
Competition can also play a role in keeping
populations of less superior species under
control.
Connel observed in the rocky coast of Scotland
that the superior barnacle Balanus nearly
eliminated the smaller barnacle Chthamalus.
However, when the population of Balanus
decreases, competition is relieved and
Chthamalus increases in abundance. This is
known as competitive release. The competing
species can coexist due to their differing
specializations.
Darwin observed this in the Galapagos islands
where he found 14 species of finches coexisting
due to their distinct feeding habits. Many plants
can grow together by having roots of different
lengths. Hence, competition does not always
lead to the extinction of species but rather
contributes to the creation of a greater number
of specialized habitats.
Competition tends to have greater negative
impact on herbivores and plants compared to
carnivorous as herbivores typically don’t have
any alternative resources to rely on for survival
(NEET 2023).

Resource partitioning seen in warblers

However, recent studies suggest that this may

not always be the case, as species facing
competition may evolve mechanisms that
promote coexistence, such as resource
partitioning.
For instance, different foraging patterns or
feeding times could reduce competition
between species. MacArthur observed five
related species of warblers coexisting in the
same tree by displaying behavioural differences
 in their foraging activities.

3. PARASITISM
Parasitism is an exploitative interaction between
two organisms, where one organism, called the
parasite, derives its nourishment from another
organism, known as the host, which is harmed in
the process. There are six types of parasites
based on their characteristics, which include:
(a) Ectoparasites and Endoparasites, which
differ in where they live and feed on, with
ectoparasites living outside their host like lice
in humans and ticks in animals and
endoparasites living inside their host’s body.
Another example of a ectoparasite is
copepods that infest marine fishes.
(b) Temporary and Permanent Parasites, with
temporary parasites living with their host for a
limited time or only during feeding, while
permanent parasites remain with their host
throughout their life.
(c) Holoparasites rely entirely on their host, while
Hemiparasites only obtain partial nourishment
from the host and produce the rest
themselves. Examples of Hemiparasites
include Mistletoe plant and Loranthus.
(d) Phytoparasites are parasites that infect
plants and come into contact with the host,
either on the stem (such as stem borer,
Cuscuta, aphids, and lac insects) or on the
roots (such as Rafflesia and root nematodes).
Bacterial, fungal, and viral parasites can infect
all parts of plants (AIPMT 2012)
(e) Parasites can be classified as pathogenic or
non-pathogenic depending on their effects on
the host. Non-pathogenic parasites, such as E.
 coli, consume minimal amounts of food or
feed on the host’s dead tissues. On the other
hand, pathogenic parasites like Vibrio
cholerae, Corynebacterium diphtheriae,
Mycobacterium leprae, rusts, smuts, powdery
mildews, and ringworm can cause diseases in
the host.
(f) Hyperparasite is a parasite that lives on
another parasite, e.g., bacteriophages.
(g) Bird brood parasitism is an intriguing
example of parasitism, where a parasitic bird
lays its eggs in the nest of another bird
species, which then hatches the eggs. To
avoid detection and having the eggs
removed, the parasitic bird has adapted to
mimic the size and color of the host’s eggs.
This behavior can be observed during the
breeding season, typically from spring to
summer, by observing the activities of
cuckoos (koels) and crows in local parks
(NEET 2023).

Mode of infection

Parasites can infect hosts through different

methods, including burrowing through the skin
(hookworm), direct contact with an infected
individual (lice), introduction into the body
through insect bites (tsetse fly, sandfly, or
mosquito bites), and ingestion of cysts
(Entamoeba), eggs (Ascaris), or larvae
(tapeworm).

Adaptation in parasites
1. Anaerobic respiration in internal parasites
2. Reduction or loss of certain organs such as
wings, digestive system, or most adult organs
3. Presence of adhesive organs like suckers in
leeches or tapeworms
4. High reproductive rate to produce a large
number of offspring
5. Development of resistant cysts and eggs for
effective transmission to new hosts
6. Advanced and complex reproductive organs.
7. Parasite life cycles usually involve one or two
intermediary hosts or vectors. The human liver
fluke requires two intermediary hosts, a snail
and a fish, while the malarial parasite uses a
mosquito as a vector to spread to other hosts.
Table. 13.6.2: Difference between parasites and predators

4. AMENSALISM
Amensalism involves one organism inhibiting
the growth or survival of another through the
release of allochemicals.
Examples of amensalism include Penicillium
inhibiting the growth of Staphylococcus,
Convolvulus arvensis hindering the
germination of wheat, and smoother crops like
barley, sorghum, and sunflower preventing
weed growth.
5. COMMENSALISM
Commensalism is a type of interaction between
two species where one benefits without
affecting the other.
Pilot fish swim with sharks and feed on leftover
food while not harming the shark.
Whale does not derive any apparent benefit by
barnacle growing on its back.
Epiphytes are small green plants that grow on
larger plants without harming them. Orchids,
mosses, and ferns are examples. These plants
are nutritionally self-sufficient and benefit from
the support of their host plant.
Cattle egret feeds on the insects that are stirred
by the cattle movement (NEET 2023). The egrets
always forage close to where the cattle are
grazing because the cattle, as they move, stir up
and flush out insects from the vegetation that
otherwise might be difficult for the egrets to find
and catch.
The relationship between the Sea Anemone and
the Hermit Crab is considered by some to be
commensalism, by others as mutualism, and by
a few as protocooperation (NEET 2013).
Another example of commensalism is the
interaction between sea anemone that has
stinging tentacles and the clown fish that lives
among them. The fish gets protection from
predators which stay away from the stinging
tentacles. The anemone does not appear to
derive any benefit by hosting the clown fish.

6. PROTOCOOPERATION
 Red-billed Ox Pecker

Protocooperation, also called facultative

mutualism, refers to a form of symbiotic
relationship in which two different species of
organisms benefit from each other without
being entirely dependent on each other for
survival.
An example of this can be observed between
the Red-billed Ox Pecker and the Yellow-billed
Ox Pecker and the Black Rhinoceros. The
oxpeckers feed on the parasites presents on the
rhinoceros’s skin, providing a cleaning service to
the animal. Additionally, the birds also act as a
warning system and alert the rhinoceros to any
potential danger.

7. MUTUALISM
Mutualism is a type of interaction between two
species where both benefit from the
relationship.
This interaction is common in nature and can be
seen in examples such as lichens, symbiotic
nitrogen fixation, mycorrhizae, cellulose
digestion in animals, pollination, and seed
dispersal.
Mutualism occurs due to coevolution, which
involves simultaneous genetic changes in both
species that benefit each other.
For example, lichens are composite organisms
that consist of an alga and a fungus, with the
fungus providing the alga with support, water,
minerals, and shelter. In return, the alga
produces food for both itself and the fungus.
This mutually beneficial interaction allows the
lichen to thrive in harsh environments, such as
bare rocks.

Lichens

Mutualistic nitrogen fixation is common and

occurs in various organisms, including legumes
and leaf nodules. Bacteria of the genus
Rhizobium fix nitrogen in legume root nodules,
with the legume providing food and shelter to
the bacteria, and the bacteria providing fixed
nitrogen to the legume. This mutually beneficial
interaction benefits both parties.
The coralloid roots of Cycas have a mutualistic
relationship with a fungus through mycorrhiza
(NEET 2023). The plant provides food and shelter
to the fungus, which in turn aids the plant by
breaking down minerals for absorption,
increasing water uptake, and protecting against
harmful fungi. (NEET 2018).
Similarly, ruminant mammals have a symbiotic
relationship with ciliates and bacteria to digest
cellulose, where the microorganisms obtain food
and shelter from the ruminants while aiding in
cellulose digestion.
Plant-animal relationships provide a fascinating
example of mutualism, as plants rely on animals
for both pollination and seed dispersal, while
animals receive rewards such as pollen, nectar,
and nutritious fruits.