Unit 2: Familiarization of various structural shapes and Design Concept

Design Specifications

1. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC): This specification provides for the design of structural steel
buildings and their connections. It is the one of primary concern in this book, and we discuss it in detail (AISC,
2016a).

2. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO): This specification covers
the design of highway bridges and related structures. It provides for all structural materials normally used in
bridges, including steel, reinforced concrete, and timber (AASHTO, 2014).

3. American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA): The AREMA Manual for
Railway Engineering covers the design of railway bridges and related structures (AREMA, 2016). This
organization was formerly known as the American Railway Engineering Association (AREA).

4. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI): This specification deals with cold-formed steel, which we discuss
in Section 1.6 of this book (AISI, 2012).

5. National Structural Code of the Philippines: This is specification used in the Philippines when it comes to
the designing structures in the country.

6. Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc.: abbreviated as ASEP is an organization of

structural engineers of the Philippines affiliated with the Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers.

Standard Cross-Sectional Shapes

Wide Flange Section (W - Shapes)

Wide flange I or H shaped steel beam are referred to as W shapes and are designated by the letter W followed
by their nominal depth in inches with their mass in pound per linear foot given last. For example, W18 x
97 means that this W shape is 18 inches’ nominal depth and has a mass of 97lb/ft (W460 x 144 in metric
system meaning nominally 460mm deep having a mass of 144 k/m). this shape consists of two rectangular
shaped flanges connected by a rectangular web plate. It is symmetrical about x and y-axes

I-Beam (S - Shapes)
These shapes were formerly called the American Standard Beams. They are produced in accordance with
the dimensions adopted in 1896. The difference between W and S shapes are; the flange width of S shape is
narrower than the W shape, the inner face of the flanges of the S shape has slope of about 16.7o.

Channel Sections (C - Shapes)

These shapes were formerly called as the American Standard Channels. The theoretical and nominal depth
are identical. The inner face of the flange has the same slope as S shapes. A C 5 x 9 is a standard channel
shape with a nominal depth of 5 inches with a mass of 9 lb/ft.

Angle Sections (L - Shapes)

These are either equal or unequal leg angles. All angles have parallel flange faces. An L 6 x 6 x ¼ is an equal
leg angle with leg dimensions of 6inches and 6inches and a leg thickness of ¼ inch.
Tee Sections (T - Shapes)
Structural tees are obtained by splitting W or S shape such that each split section has one half the original
area of the original shape. Material loss caused by splitting either by sewing or flamed cutting is disregarded.
A WT6 x 15.5 is a structural tee with 6inches nominal depth and mass of 15.5lb/ft obtained by splitting a
W12 x 31 shape

Pipe Sections
Pipe Sections are designated “Standard”, “Extra Strong”, and “Double Extra Strong” in accordance with the
thickness and are also nominally prescribed by diameter, thus 10-in-diameter double extra strong is an
example of a particular pipe size.

Hollow Structural Steel (HSS)

Hollow structural steel is used where pleasing architectural appearance is desired with exposed steel. Tubing
is designated by outside dimensions and thickness, such as HSS 8x6x1/4.

Other frequently used cross-sectional shapes

Bars can have circular, square, or rectangular cross sections. If the width of a rectangular shape is 8 inches or
less, it is classified as a bar. If the width is more than 8 inches, the shape is classified as a plate.

Wide-flanged shape American Standard Beam

American Standard Channel Angle

Structural Tee Pipe

 Structural Tubing Bars

Plates

Hot-Rolled Section

Steel that has been rolled at a temperature higher than its recrystallization temperature (typically 1700° F or
above) is known as hot rolled steel. The treated steel has more formability and workability than unprocessed
steel, making it simpler to work with in following processing steps.

Cold-Formed Section

Cold-formed steel (CFS) refers to steel products that have been shaped by cold-working techniques that take
place at or near room temperature, such as rolling, pressing, stamping, bending, and so on. Cold-rolled steel
(CRS) stock bars and sheets are widely employed in many aspects of production.

Built-up Section

A compound beam is also known as a built-up beam. As a result, plates are fastened to the beams. Adding
plates to the flange of rolled steel beams increases their strength, which is one of the methods for
constructing built-in sections. The alternative option is to make a composite out of a number of rolled steel
parts.

Classification and Designation (ASEP)

Class Shape Designation

Wide-Flange BW H x W
Built-up Heavy Column BH H x W
Wide Flange Tee BWT H x W
Angle BA H x B x t
Cold-Formed Plate
Channel BC H x B x t
Stiffened Cee LC H x B x C x t
Stiffened Zee LZ H x B x C x t
Cold-Formed Light Gage
Rectangular Tube LR H x B x t
Square Tube LS H x B x t
Wide Flange Wdxw
S-Shape Sdxw
Channel Cdxw
Rolled
Structural Tee WT d x w
Angle LHxBxt
Pipe - standard PS d
 Pipe - Extra Strong PE d
Pipe - Double-Extra PD d
SD SD NW x t
Metal Deck
CD CD NW x t
Where:

B - is the flange width of the section; shorter leg of angles; shorter side of tubular sections, in mm.

C - is the overall depth of lip of light gage sections, in mm.

d - is the depth of rolled sections, in inches.

H - is the depth of the section; longer leg of angles; longer side of tubular section, in mm.

Nw - is the overall widths of metal decks, in mm.

t - is the base metal thickness of the section, in mm.

W - is the nominal weight per unit length, in kg/m.

w - is the nominal weight per unit length of rolled sections, in lbs/ft.

Structural Properties of Steel

1. Yield Stress, Fy, is that unit tensile stress at which the stress-strain curve exhibits a well defined
increase in strain (deformation) without an increase in stress.
2. Tensile strength, Fu, is the largest unit stress that the material achieves in a tension test.
3. Modulus of Elasticity, E, is the slope of the initial straight line portion of the stress-strain diagram.
The usual range for all steel is 193 to 207 GPa. The value used for design is 200GPa.
4. Weldability is the property of steel to be welded without changing its basic mechanical properties.
5. Shear Modulus, G

For any elastic material shear modulus is given by the formula

𝐸
𝐺=
2(1 + 𝜇)
Where µ is the Poisson’s ratio equal to 0.3 for steel. For µ=0.3, G = 77,000MPa

6. Coefficient of Expansion, α

𝛼 = 11.25 𝑥 10 − 6/°𝐶
𝛥𝐿 = 𝛼(𝑇𝑓 – 𝑇𝑖 )𝐿

Where Tf and Ti are the final and initial temperature respectively, in oC and L in meter. ΔL is the change
in length due to change in temperature.

7. Mass Density. The mass density of steel is 7.850 tons/m3. The specific gravity is 7.85
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) and Allowable Strength Design (ASD)

Two categories of limit states:

a. Strength - Strength limit states define load-carrying capacity, including excessive yielding, fracture,
buckling, fatigue, and gross rigid body motion.
b. Serviceability - Serviceability limit states define performance, including deflection, cracking, slipping,
vibration, and deterioration.

Allowable Strength Design (ASD) - member is selected that has cross-sectional properties such as area and
moment of inertia that are large enough to prevent the maximum applied axial force, shear, or bending
moment from exceeding an allowable, or permissible, value. This allowable value is obtained by dividing the
nominal, or theoretical, strength by a factor of safety. It is also called as elastic design or working stress design.

𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ≤ 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

where
𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
For allowable strength design, the relationship between loads and strength can be expressed as
𝑅𝑛
𝑅𝑎 ≤
Ω
where

Ra = required strength

Rn = nominal strength (same as for LRFD)

Ω = safety factor

Rn/Ω = allowable strength

Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) - is similar to plastic design in that strength, or the failure condition,
is considered. Load factors are applied to the service loads, and a member is selected that will have enough
strength to resist the factored loads. In addition, the theoretical strength of the member is reduced by the
application of a resistance factor.

𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 ≤ 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

∑(𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠) = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

∑ 𝜸𝒊 𝑸𝒊 ≤ 𝝓𝑹𝒏
where

Qi = a load effect (a force or a moment)

γi = a load factor

Rn = the nominal resistance, or strength, of the component under consideration

φ = resistance factor

𝑅𝑢 ≤ 𝜙𝑅𝑛
where

Ru = required strength = sum of factored load effects (forces or moments)

Load

Dead Loads – are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. These consist mainly of the weight
of the structure and other permanent attachments to the frame. Moreover, these are the weight of all
materials of construction incorporated into the building or other structure, including but not limited to walls,
floors, roofs, ceilings, stairways, built-in partitions, finishes, cladding and other similarly incorporated
architectural and structural items and fixed service equipment, including the weight of cranes.

Live Loads – are loads that may change in magnitude and position. These shall be the maximum loads
expected by the intended use or occupancy but in no case shall be less than the loads required by the code.

Moving Loads – are loads that move under their own power.

Wind and Earthquake Loads – These are lateral loads.

Load Factor Combination

LRFD Basic Load Combination (NSCP 203.3)

Required strength U shall be at least equal to the effects of factored loads in the table below. The effect of
one or more loads not acting simultaneously shall be investigated.

1.4 (D + F)

1.2 (D + F + T) + 1.6 (L + H) + 0.5 ( Lr or R or S)

1.2D + 1.6 (Lr or R or S) + (f1L or 0.5W)

1.2D + 1.0W + f1L + 0.5(Lr R or S)

1.2D ± 1.0E + f1L

0.9D + 1.0W + 1.6H

0.9D ± 1.0E +1.6H

ASD Basic Load Combination (NSCP 203.4)

Where allowable stress or allowable strength design is used, structures and all portions thereof shall resist
the most critical effects resulting from the following combinations of loads:

D+F

D+H+F+L+T

D + H + F + (Lr or R or S)

D + H + F + 0. 75 [L + T + (Lr or R or S)]

D + H + F + (0.6W or E/1.4)

Where:

D = dead loads, or related internal moments and forces

E = load effects or earthquake, or related internal moments and forces

F = loads due to weight and pressures of fluids with well-defined densities and controllable maximum heights,
or related internal moments and forces

H = loads due to weight and pressure of soil, water in soil, or other materials, or related internal moments and
forces

L = live loads, or related internal moments and forces

Lr = roof live loads, including any permitted live load reduction

P = ponding load

R = rain loads, or related internal moments and forces

T = cumulative effects of temperature, creep, shrinkage, differential settlement and shrinkage compensating
concrete

U = required strength to resist factored loads or related internal moments and forces

W = wind load, or related internal moments and forces

f1 = 1.0 for floors in places of public assembly, for live loads in excess of 4.8kPa, and for garage live load

= 0.5 for other live loads

Problem:

A column (compression member) in the upper story of a building is subject to the following loads:
Dead load: 485 kN compression
Floor live load: 205 kN compression
Roof live load: 85 kN compression
Snow: 89 kN compression
 a. Determine the controlling load combination for LRFD and the corresponding factored load.
b. If the resistance factor φ is 0.90, what is the required nominal strength?
c. Determine the controlling load combination for ASD and the corresponding required service load
strength.
d. If the safety factor Ω is 1.67, what is the required nominal strength based on the required service load
strength?

References:

Books

National structural code of the Philippines (7th ed., Vol. 1). (2015). Quezon City, Philippines:
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines.
Besavilla, V. I. (2007). Simplified Steel Design. VIB Publisher.

Gillesania, D. T. (2006). Fundamentals of structural steel design with theory of structures. Diego
Inocencio Tapang Gillesania.
Salmon, C. G., Johnson, J. E., & Malhas, F. A. (2009). In Steel structures: Design and behavior:
Emphasizing load and resistance factor design (5th Ed). Pearson Education, Inc.

Williams, A. (2011). Steel structures design: Asd/lrfd. McGraw-Hill.

Segui, W. T. (2018). Steel Design (6th Ed.). Cengage Learning.
McCormac, J. C., & Csernak, S. F. (2012). Structural steel design (5th Ed). Pearson.