Experiments SECTION–A
1. To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential
difference versus current.
2. To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.
3.To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistances using a metre bridge
4. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to
find its figure of merit.
5. To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit)
into an ammeter of desired range and to verify the same.
6. To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit)
into a voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same.
Activities
1. To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a
fuse and a power source.
2. To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
3. To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not
connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.
Experiments SECTION–B
1. To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.
2. To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
3. To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
4. To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward and
reverse bias.
5. To find the refractive index of a liquid using convex lens and plane mirror.
Activities
1. To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of
such items.
2. To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a
glass slab.
3. To study the nature and size of the image formed by a (i) convex lens, or (ii)
concave mirror.
EXPERIMENT – A1
Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using Whetstone’s bridge (meter bridge) & hence determine the specific
resistance of the material.
Apparatus: A meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a laclanche cell, a jockey, a one-
way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, meter scale, set square, connecting wires and sandpaper.
Formulae Used:
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by:
(100 l )
X= R Where,
l
R = known resistance placed in left gap.
X = Unknown resistance in right gap of meter bridge.
l=length of meter bridge wire from zero and upto balance point (in cm)
XD 2
(ii) Specific resistance ( ) of the material of given wire is given =
4L
Where,
D: Diameter of given wire L: Length of given wire.
Observation Table for length (l) & unknown resistance, X:
Resistance from Unknown Resistance
Sr. Length Length (100 l)
resistance box
No. AB = l cm BC = (100-l) cm X = R.
R (ohm) l
1 2 41 59 2.87
2 4 60 40 2.66
3 6 69 31 2.69
4 8 76 24 2.52
Table for diameter (D) of the wire:
Circular Scale Reading
Observed diameter
Sr. Linear Scale No. of circular
Value D = N + n x L.C.
No. Reading (N) mm scale divisions
n x (L.C.) mm mm
coinciding (n)
1 0 34 0.34 0.34
2 0 35 0.35 0.35
3 0 36 0.36 0.36
4 0 35 0.35 0.35
Observations:
Least count of screw gauge: 0.001 cm
Pitch of screw gauge: 0.1 cm
Total no. of divisions on circular scale: 100
Pitch
Least Count =
No. of divisions on circular scale
LC 0.001 cm
Length of given wire, L = 25cm
Calculation:
For unknown resistance, X:
X1 + X 2 + X 3 + X 4
Mean X = 2.68
4
D + D 2 + D3 + D 4
Mean diameter, D = 1 0.035 cm
4
D 2
Specific Resistance, X . 1.03 10 4 cm
4L
Result: Value of unknown resistance = 2.68
Specific resistance of material of given wire 1.03 10 4 cm
Precautions: All plugs in resistance box should be tight. Plug in key, K should be inserted only while taking
observations.
Sources of Error: Plugs may not be clean.
Instrument screws maybe loose.
EXPERIMENT – A 2 AND A3
Aim: To verify the laws of combination (series & parallel) of resistances using meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge)
Apparatus: A meter bridge, laclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wires, set
square, sand paper and connecting wires.
Observations: Table for length (l) & unknown resistance (r):
Resistance
Length Resistance
from Mean
Resistant Length BC = 100 – l 100 l
Obs. No. resistance Resistant
Coil AB = l (cm) (cm) r= .R
box, l (ohm)
R (ohm)
1 0.5 35 65 0.92
r1 only 2 1.0 43 57 1.32 1.24
3 1.5 50 50 1.5
1 0.5 30 70 1.16
r2 only 2 1.0 38 62 1.63 1.51
3 1.5 46 54 1.76
1 1.3 34 66 2.52
r1 & r2 in
2 2.2 45 55 2.68 2.72
series
3 3.5 54 46 2.97
1 2 75 25 0.67
r1 & r2 in
2 3 82 18 0.66 0.66
parallel
3 4 86 14 0.65
Calculations:
(i) In Series: Experimental value of RS = 2.72
Theoretical value of RS = r1 + r2 = 2.75
(ii) In parallel: Experimental value of RP = 0.66
r1r2
Theoretical value of RP = 0.68
r1 r2
Result: Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical values of RS are same. Hence the law of
resistance in series i.e. RS = r1 + r2 is verified. (1) Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical
r1r2
values of RP are same. Hence law of resistances in parallel i.e. RS = is verified.
r1 r2
Precautions:
(i) The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
(ii) Move the jockey gently over the wire & don’t rub it.
(iii) All plugs in resistant box should be tight.
Sources of Error:
(i) The plugs may not be clean.
(ii) The instrument screws maybe loose.
EXPERIMENT – A4
Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, a rheostat, two resistance boxes (10,000 and 500
), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires and a piece of sandpaper.
Formulae Used:
(i) The resistant of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method:
R. S
G=
RS
Where R: resistance connected in series with the galvanometer
S: shunt resistance
E
(ii) Figure of merit: k =
( R G)
Where E : emf of the cell
: deflection produced with resistance R.
Page 6 (PHYSICS)
Calculation: Mean G = 70.8
(i) For G : Calculate G using formula.
Take mean of all values of G recorded in table.
(ii) For k: Calculate k using formula & record in table.
Take mean of values of k.
Result:
(i) Resistance of Galvanometer by half – deflection method:
G = 70.8
(ii) Figure of merit, k = 2.19 x 10-5 A/div
Precautions:
(i) All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
(ii) The emf of cell or battery should be constant.
(iii) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit. Otherwise for small
resistance, an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter & damage them.
Sources of error:
(i) Plug of the resistant boxes may not be clean.
(ii) The screws of the instruments maybe loose.
(iii) The emf of the battery may not be constant.
EXPERIMENT – A5
Aim: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance & figure of merit) into an ammeter of desired range &
to verify the same.
Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer whose resistance & figure of merit are given, a constantan or manganin
wire, a battery, one-way key, a rheostat, a milli-ammeter, connecting wires, sand paper etc.
Formulae Used:
To convert a galvanometer which gives full scale deflection for current IG into an ammeter of range O to IO amperes,
IG
the value of required shunt is given by: S = G
Io IG
Required shunt resistant S is made using a uniform wire whose, specific resistance is (known) & its length:
r 2 S
l
Observations: Given resistance of galvanometer, G = 70.8
Given value of figure of merit, k = 2.19 x 10-5 A div-1
Total no. of divisions on either side of zero, No = 30
Current for full scale deflection, IG = No x k = 6.57 x 10-4 A
a) Calculation of value of shunt resistance:
* Required range of converted ammeter, Io = 3A
* Value of shunt resistance,
IG
S = G 0.0155
Io IG
* Computing the length of the wire to make resistance of 0.155
b) Observations for diameter of the wire:
(i) Pitch of screw gauge, p = 1 mm
(ii) No. of division of circular scale = 100
(iii) Least count, a = 0.01 mm
(iv) Zero error, e = 0.0 mm
(v) Diameter of the wire = 0.98 mm, Radius = 0.049 cm
c) Specific resistance of material of wire, 1.92 10 6 cm
d) Required length of the wire,
r 2 0.0155 3.14 (0.049) 2
l S = cm = 60.8 cm
1.72 10 6
Verification: Checking the performance of the converted ammeter:
Current indicated by full scale deflection (No) of converted ammeter. Io = 3A
Io
Least count of converted ammeter, k’ = 0.1 A / div.
No
Result:
Current IG for full scale deflection = 6.57 x 10-4 A
Resistance of shunt required to convert the galvanometer into ammeter, S = 0.0155
Required length of wire, l = 60.8 cm
As error l’ – l is very small, conversion is verified.
Precautions & Sources of Error:
(i) All connections should be neat & tight.
(ii) The diameter of the wire for making shunt resistance should be measured accurately for diameter is taken
in two mutually perpendicular directions.
(iii) The terminal of the ammeter marked positive should be connected to positive pole of the battery. Also
ammeter should be in series with circuit.
EXPERIMENT – A6
3000 30 50 15 50.80
3300 28 49 14 49.74
3500 26 47 13 47.63
3900 24 49 12 45.53
3500 30 28.18x10-6
3700 28 28.60x10-6
4090 26 27.88x10 -6
4400 24 28.10x10 -6
30 3 3.2 0.2
28 2.8 3.9 0.1
26 2.6 2.5 0.1
24 2.4 2.5 0.2
ACTIVITY-A1
ACTIVITY -A 2
________________________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY-A3
EXPERIMENT – B1
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
Apparatus: An optical bench with four uprights (2 fixed upright in middle two outer uprights with lateral movement),
convex lens, convex mirror, a lens holder, a mirror holder, 2 optical needles (one thin, one thick), a knitting needle, a
half meter scale.
Formula Used:
R
Focal length of a convex mirror f
2
Where R is radius of curvature of the mirror.
Observation:
(i) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm.
(ii) Observed distance between image needle I and back of convex mirror, y = 15 cm
(iii) Index error = y - x = 15 – 15 = 0 cm No index correction
Observation Table:
Position of: Radius of
S. N. Object needle Lens Mirror Image needle Curvature
0 (cm) L cm M cm I (cm) MI (cm)
1 25 50 56 70.5 14.5
2 28.5 50 60 73.3 13.3
3 31.5 50 65 78.4 13.4
4 30.5 50 60 74 14
Mean R = 13.8
Calculation:
R
Mean corrected MI = R = 13.8 cm f= 6.9 cm
2
Result:
The focal length of the given convex mirror = 6.9 cm
Precautions:
(i) The tip of the needle, centre of the mirror & centre of lens should be at the same height.
(ii) Convex lens should be of large focal length.
(iii) For one set of observations, when the parallax has been removed for convex lens alone, the position of the lens &
needle uprights should not be changed.
EXPERIMENT – B2
Aim: (i) To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence
& angle of deviation.
(ii) To determine the refractive index of the material (glass) of the prism.
Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale, office pins, graph
paper & protector.
Formulae Used:
The refractive index, of the material of the prism is given by:
A Dm
sin
2 Where Dm is the angle of minimum deviation & A is the angle of prism.
A
sin
2
Calculations:
From graph between angle of incidence, i and angle of deviation, we get the value of Dm (angle of minimum
deviation): Dm = 37.8o
Thus,
A Dm
sin =
sin 97.8
o
2
2
A
sin 30o
sin
2
1.5077
Result:
(i) From i D graph we see that as i increases, D first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm) & then again
starts increasing for further increase in i .
(ii) Angle of minimum deviation = Dm = 37.8o
(iii) Refraction index of material of prism, 1.5077
Precautions:
(i) The angle of incidence should be between 30o – 60o.
(ii) The pins should be fixed vertical.
(iii) The distance between the two pins should not be less than 8 cm.
Sources of Error:
(i) Pin pricks may be thick.
(ii) Measurement of angles maybe wrong.
EXPERIMENT – B3
Aim: To determine the refractive index of a glass using travelling microscope.
Apparatus: A marker, glass slab, travelling microscope, lycopodium powder.
Formulae Used:
real depth r r
Refractive index 3 1
apparent depth r2 r1
Observations:
Least count of travelling microscope = 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm
Mean values: r1 = 0 mm r2 = 6.81 mm r3 = 10.25 mm
Observations: Reading of Microscope focused on:
Mark without slab Mark with slab on it Powder on top of slab
S. No.
r1 = M + n x LC min r2 = M + n x LC min R3 = M + n x LC min
1 0 6.5 + 29 x 0.01 = 6.79mm 10 + 23 x 0.01 = 10.23mm
2 0 6.5 + 31 x 0.01 = 6.81mm 10 + 25 x 0.01 = 10.25mm
3 0 6.5 + 33 x 0.01 = 6.83mm 10 + 27 x 0.01 = 10.27mm
Calculations:
Real depth = dr = r3 – r1 = Mean dr = 10.25 mm
Apparent depth = da = r2 – r1
Mean da = 6.81 mm
real depth d
Refractive index, r 1.52
apparent depth d a
Result:
The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined as 1.52 =
Precautions:
(i) Microscope once focused on the cross mark, the focusing should not be disturbed throughout the experiment. Only
rack and pinion screw should be turned to move the microscope upward.
(ii) Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on top of slab.
(iii) Eye piece should be so adjusted that cross-wires are distinctly seen.
EXPERIMENT –B4
Aim: To draw the I – V characteristics curve of p-n junction in forward bias & reverse bias.
Apparatus: A p-n junction semi-conductor diode, a three volt battery, a high resistance, a rheostat, a voltmeter (0-
3v), a milli ammeter (0-.30 mA), one – way key, connecting wires.
Observations:
Least count of voltmeter = 0.02 & 1 v/div Zero error = –
Least count of milli-ammeter = 0.2 mA/div Zero error = –
Least count of micro-ammeter = 2 A/div Zero error = –
Observation Table:
Forward Bias Voltage Forward Current Reverse bias Voltage Reverse Current
S. No.
(V) (mA) (V) ( A)
1 10 x 0.02 = 0.20 2 x 0.2 = 0.4 10 x 1 = 10 5 x 2 = 10
2 0.30 4 x 0.2 = 0.8 15 16
3 0.40 6 x 0.2 = 1.6 20 22
4 0.50 11 x 0.2 = 2.2 25 30
5 0.60 18 x 0.2 = 3.6 30 38
6 0.70 23 x 0.2 = 4.6 35 48
7 0.80 31 x 0.2 = 6.2 40 60
8 0.90 39 x 0.2 = 7.8 45 72
EXPERIMENT –B5
ACTIVITY-B1
ACTIVITY-B2
ACTIVITY-B3
