Part 1 Properties of matter

Elements, compounds and mixtures

Atomic theory
Elements - are pure substances composed entirely of one type of atom and therefore, cannot be
decomposed into simpler substances.

Compounds - are substances that contain 2 (or more) types of atoms which are chemically bonded
together in a fixed ratio, and therefore can be decomposed into simpler substance

Homogeneous and heterogenous mixtures

Mixtures are impure substances that contain a combination of different elements and/or
compounds physically bonded together.

Mixtures can be classified as:

Homogenous mixtures have uniform composition throughout.

Heterogeneous mixtures have non-uniform composition where there are substances or materials of
different varieties.

Solutions
The most well-known homogenous mixture is a solution

A solution has one or more solutes that are dissolved in a solvent.

A solvent is a substance in which the solute dissolves and a solute is a substance that dissolves in a
solvent.

Water as solvent – aqueous solution

Suspensions and colloids

When a substance is mixed with a solvent, it does not always dissolve to form a solution. It can form
a suspension or a colloid.

A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture, with visible distinguishable parts, that form when a
substance does not dissolve significantly.

A colloid is a mixture of particles that consists of smaller clusters of ions or molecules. They are
evenly dispersed throughout the solvent and do not settle on standing.
Physical properties and changes of state
Properties of solids, liquids, and gases
Property Solids Liquids Gases
particle packing Particles are close together. Particles are loosely packed. Particles are far apart.
density high fairly high low

No—there is no space to
No—there is no space to push Yes—there is space to push
compressible push particles closer
particles closer together. particles closer together.
together.

Fixed—particles are held Not fixed—particles can slide over Not fixed—particles move in
shape
together. each other. all directions.

mixing and No—particles remain in a Yes—particles can change Yes—particles move in all
diffusion fixed position. position. directions.

pressure on Yes—particles impact

no some
container container.

diagram of
state

Liquids are incompressible and Gases are compressible and

Solids are incompressible
description flow to adopt the shape of the take the shape of the
and hold their shape.
container. container.

Classification of matter
Separation methods

Separation method Physical property used in the separation

sieving particle size

filtration One substance is a solid and the other a

liquid or solution; particle size
vaporisation (evaporation or The liquid has a lower boiling point than the
boiling) solid
distillation Large difference in the boiling points of the
components
fractional distillation Significant difference in boiling points of the
components
sedimentation and decantation density

Using a separating funnel Components are immiscible liquids; different

densities

Calculating percentages

The percentage composition by mass of an element = mass of element x 100

mass of compound

Mass of component in mixture = component % x mass of mixture

100

Properties and position of elements on the periodic table

Alloy
A metallic mixture composed of two or more elements, as either a compound or a solution. An alloy
is a physical mixture, and the properties of the mixture can be quite different from the properties of
the components. The properties of an alloy can also vary depending on how the alloy is prepared.
Iron-based alloys are the most well-known, and the alloy of iron and carbon is known as steel.

Distinguishing between physical properties and chemical properties

Physical properties describe features that can be observed or measured. Common physical
properties of elements include appearance, colour, density, brittleness, electrical conductivity,
magnetic effects and crystal shape. These can be observed or measured without changing the
element.

The temperature at which an element melts or boils is also a physical property. When measuring the
melting point of sulfur, the element transforms from solid sulfur to liquid sulfur, but it remains
sulfur; as the liquid sulfur cools, it transforms reversibly back to solid sulfur.
Elements react chemically in different ways. Some react with water, some do not react and some
don’t. Some are acidic and some alkaline. Some burn easily. These and other characteristics make up
the elements’ chemical properties.

Chemical properties relate to how easily an element undergoes chemical change.

Chemical change - A chemical change happens when one chemical substance is transformed into
one or more different substances
Part 2 Atomic structure and atomic mass

Atomic structure
The subatomic particles in the nucleus, the protons and neutrons, are referred to collectively as nucleons.

Particle Symbol Charge Size relative to a proton

proton p +1 1
neutron n 0 1
electron e −1 1/1800

How are atoms different?

Atomic number (Z) – the atomic number or proton number of a chemical element is the number of
protons found in the nucleus of an atom. It determines which element it is.

Mass number (A) – number of protons plus neutrons.

E.g.,

In carbon-12, 12 is the mass number

Isotopes and radioisotopes

Isotopes – atoms of the same element which have different number of neutrons in the nucleus,
resulting in different mass number

The force that is holding the positive protons together withing the nucleus without repelling each
other is called the strong nuclear force.

The relative atomic mass, Ar, of an element is a weighted average of its isotopic masses.

Radioisotopes
Some isotopes are radioactive, so they are referred to as radioisotopes. Radioisotopes will decay
(break down) to form stable nuclei. During the decay process, radiation is emitted in the form of
alpha particles, beta particles or gamma radiation.
Alpha decay
Energy and a helium nucleus are released in the process of an alpha decay

Beta decay
In beta decay, a neutron becomes a proton and a high-speed electron (beta particle)

Gamma emission
Release of high energy electromagnetic radiation. This usually happens after alpha or beta decay, as
the nucleons are in high energy states.

Electron configuration of atoms and emission spectra

Flame tests
A flame test is a simple method and one of the earliest analytical procedures to determine the
identity of a metal ion in a sample or solution.

 Atoms of the same element display fixed spectra lines

 Each element has a unique emission spectrum due to their unique electron configuration
The Bohr’s model of the atom
The Bohr model proposed the following:
 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed, circular orbits.
 The electrons’ orbits correspond to specific energy levels in the atom.
 Electrons can only occupy fixed energy levels and cannot exist between two energy levels.
 Orbits of larger radii correspond to higher energy levels.

Electrons are able to absorb energy and move from lover to higher energy levels, and move into an
excited state. An excited atom is unstable, so the promoted electrons immediately return to the
ground state. The extra energies that the electrons had absorbed are emitted as photons of light.
These fixed-energy jumps appear in the emission spectra and are unique to each element.

When the electron is in its original lowest energy state, this is known as ground state.
When an electron jumps to a higher energy level, it is known as being in an excited state.

Ionisation energy
Ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from an atom or an ion.

Electrons are grouped in different energy levels, which are called electron shells. Electrons in the
same shell:
 Are about the same distance from the nucleus.
 Have about the same energy.

A valence electron (electron in the outer shell) is the easiest to remove (requires less energy to
remove) compared to electrons in inner shells because they are the least strongly attracted to the
nucleus.
Schrödinger model
Bohr Model Schrödinger Model

Electrons are tiny, hard particles. Electrons behave like a wave.

Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular Electrons occupy a three-dimensional space
orbits or a defined path. around the nucleus known as an orbital.
Orbital – region occupied by electrons.

Shell number Subshells Number of Maximum Maximum

(n) orbitals in number of number of
subshell electrons per electrons per
subshell shell
1 1s 1 2 2
2 2s 1 2 8
2p 3 6
3s 1 2
3 3p 3 6 18
3d 5 10
4s 1 2
4 32

Every orbital in a subshell must first be filled with one electron with the same spin
before an orbital is filled with a second electron.

Each orbital can contain a maximum of two electrons, with each electron having a different spin.

Electronic configuration and the Schrödinger model

Example: the electronic configuration of sodium:

1s22s22p63s1

 Coefficients represent the shell number (n).

 Letters specify the subshell being filled.
 Superscripts denote how many electrons are in the subshell.
 Part 3 Periodicity
The periodic table
Periods are horizontal and columns are vertical

 Elements in groups 1, 2 and 13–18 in the periodic table are known as main group elements.
 The middle group of elements (groups 3–12) are known as the transition metals.
 Rows in the periodic table are known as periods and are numbered 1–7.

States at room temperature

Liquid: bromine, mercury
Gas: hydrogen, nitrogen, fluorine, oxygen, chlorine, helium, argon, xenon, neon, radon, krypton
Solid: other elements

Trends in the periodic table

Property Define / Explain Trend going down the Trend going from left to
group right across a period
Atomic radii Size of an atom Increases Decreases
Electronegativity Ability of an atom to attract shared electrons decreases Increases
in a molecule and how strongly the valence
electrons are attracted to the nucleus
First ionisation Minimum amount of energy required to decreases increases
energy remove the highest energy electron from an
atom or ion and how tightly the highest
energy electron is held to the nucleus
Reactivity with How readily an element will react with water Metals: increases Metals: decreases
water and how readily a metal atom will release its
outer shell electrons and how readily a non- Non-metals: decreases Non-metals: increases,
metal atom will accept an electron except for noble gas

Explanations
The number of shells increases down a group

The core charge increases across a period from left to right

Atomic radii
For ions: when they have the same number of shells, the negative ions are bigger than the positive
ions, as they have less core charge distributed on the electrons
 Part 4 Bonding
Overview
 Metallic
 Ionic (metal/non-metal)
 Covalent (non-metal)
o Intramolecular bonding – covalent bond
o Intermolecular forces
 Dispersion forces (all)
 Dipole-dipole forces (polar molecules)
 Hydrogen bonding (lone pair of FON + (hydrogen – FON bond ))

Dispersion Hydrogen bond ionic

weak strong
Dipole-dipole covalent Metallic

Strength comparison

Metallic bonding
Define
Metallic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between a lattice of positive ions (cations)
and delocalised valence electrons. The lattice of cations is surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalised
electrons.

Properties of metals
Property What this indicates about structure
Hard and have high boiling The strong electrostatic forces of metals in the giant lattice
points. structure are hard to overcome with applied forces and thermal
energy.

Stronger metallic bonds have higher boiling points and are

harder

conduct electricity, both in Free electrons in the sea of electrons are able to carry electricity
the solid state and in the and heat through the metal.
molten liquid state
conduct heat Free-moving delocalised electrons will move towards a positive
electrode and away from a negative electrode in an electric
circuit.

The greater the number of (valence) electrons in the sea, the

greater would the ability of metals to conduct electricity or heat.

malleable and ductile. When a force causes layers of metal ions to move past one
another without fracturing the lattice, the layers are still held
together by their electrostatic attraction to the delocalised
electrons between them.
 Stronger metallic bonds are more malleable or ductile.

high densities. The particles are closely packed in a metal.

are lustrous or reflective Free electrons reflect light

tend to lose electrons when Electrons must be relatively easily removed from metal atoms.
they are involved in chemical
reactions.

Malleable – can be hammered into a sheet

Ductile – can be drawn into a wire

High tensile strength - maximum load that a material can support without fracture when being
stretched, divided by the original cross-sectional area of the material.

Strength of metallic bonds

Transition metals are harder, denser and have higher melting points than group 1 and 2 metals. This
is due to the atoms of transition metals generally having a smaller atomic volume due to their
greater core charge, which allows them to pack together more tightly with stronger bonds.

The strength of a metallic bond depends on three things:

 The number of electrons that become delocalized from the metal (the more the better)
 The charge of the cation (the bigger the charge the better)
 The size of the cation (the smaller the better)

Metallic bonding model

 Strong attraction between cations and the sea

of delocalised electrons

 Lattice structure of positive ions

 The delocalised electrons are the valence

electrons of the metals
Ionic bonding
Define
Ionic bond, also called electrovalent bond, type of linkage formed from the electrostatic attraction
between oppositely charged ions in a chemical compound. Such a bond forms when the valence
(outermost) electrons of one atom are transferred permanently to another atom.

Strength of ionic bonds

The strength of the ionic bond is directly dependent upon the quantity of the charges and inversely
dependent on the distance between the charged particles.

Naming ionic compounds

Metal (elemental name) + non-metal (ide in the end)

Properties of ionic bonds

Property What this indicates about structure
high melting point a large amount of energy is needed to overcome the
electrostatic attraction in the lattice structure

hard, brittle crystals Due to force being applied, ions of like charge are shifted so
that they are adjacent to each other. Repulsion between ions
of like charge causes the crystal lattice to shatter.

does not conduct electricity in There are no free-moving charged particles in solid state
the solid state

conducts electricity in the Free-moving ions are able to carry electricity through the
molten state substance

Ionic bonding model

Covalent bonding
Define
Covalent bonds form between non-metallic atoms, often enabling the atoms to gain outer shells
containing eight electrons (except hydrogen, which gains an outer shell containing two electrons).

The octet rule

The octet rule is a chemical rule of that reflects the theory that main-group elements tend to bond in
such a way that each atom has eight electrons in its valence shell, giving it the same electronic
configuration as a noble gas.

Naming covalent compounds

1. Name the non-metal furthest to the left on the periodic table by its elemental name. use
prefixes if there is more than one in a compound.

2. Name the other non-metal by its elemental name and an -ide ending.

3. Use the prefixes mono-, di-, tri-.... to indicate the number of that element in the second non-
metal

Properties of covalent compounds

Property What this indicates about structure
Low melting and boiling points They have low melting points and boiling points because the
attractions between molecules are easy to overcome
Soft in solid state

does not conduct electricity A conductor must contain free-moving charged particles, such
as ion or electrons. Covalent compounds do not contain ions or
delocalised electrons and therefore do not conduct an electric
current.

Lewis dot structures

 Lone pairs are not evolved in bonding
 Number of unpaired electrons = the max number of bonds the atom will form
 Electrons must be distributed along the four sides, before it is able to form lone pairs (Hund’s
rule)
 At the end check that each atom has eight electrons
Intermolecular forces
Shape of molecules
VSPRE theory - The valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a model used to predict 3-
D molecular geometry based on the number of valence shell electron bond pairs among the atoms in
a molecule or ion. This model assumes that electron pairs will arrange themselves to minimize
repulsion effects from one another.

Molecular shape is determined by the number of repelling groups around the central atom

VSEPRE groups 0 lone pairs 1 lone pair 2 lone pairs

2 Linear Linear (diatomic) Monoatomic
3 Trigonal planar Bent Linear (diatomic)
4 Tetrahedral Trigonal pyramidal Bent

Polarity
Non-polar molecules – electronegativity difference is zero (overall vector sum of zero)

Polar molecules – electronegativity difference is non-zero (contain polar bonds and overall vector
sum of non-zero)

Spectrum of bond types

 Types of intermolecular forces
Intermolecular force When present Occurs between Strength affected by
Dispersion force All covalent bonds Between more electronegative the molecular mass, hence, the
atom and less electronegative number of electrons present in
atom of another molecule. molecule

Due to the temporary fluctuation

in the symmetry of electron clouds

Dipole-dipole force Polar molecules Between more electronegative The difference in polarity
atom and less electronegative
atom of another molecule.

Hydrogen bonding Hydrogen bonded to Between the lone pairs of FON and The difference in polarity
F.O.N a hydrogen bonded to FON (stronger single bond)

The number of bonds it can form,

due to the number of lone pairs
and hydrogen bonds. (More
extensive bonds)

Physical properties due to intermolecular forces

Boiling and melting point -> stronger intermolecular force = more thermal energy is needed to
overcome it = higher boiling point

Solubility->
Identify adhesive forces between solvent and solute, and cohesive forces in each of the solvent and
solute
 adhesive forces > cohesive force, = soluble
 adhesive forces < cohesive force, = insoluble