8.

15 Problems 377

8.15 PROBLEMS
Answers to problems marked with an asterisk are given at the end of the book.

Knowledge and Comprehension Problems

8.1 Define (a) a phase in a material and (b) a phase diagram.
8.2 In the pure water pressure–temperature equilibrium phase diagram (Fig. 8.1), what
phases are in equilibrium for the following conditions: (a) along the freezing line, (b)
along the vaporization line, and (c) at the triple point.
8.3 How many triple points are there in the pure iron pressure–temperature equilibrium
phase diagram of Figure 8.2? What phases are in equilibrium at each of the triple
points?
8.4 Write the equation for the Gibbs phase rule and define each of the terms. What does
the Gibbs rule tell you in general?
8.5 Refer to the pressure–temperature equilibrium phase diagram for pure water (Fig. 8.1)
and answer the following:
(a) How many degrees of freedom are there at the triple point?
(b) How many degrees of freedom are there along the freezing line?
8.6 (a) What is a cooling curve? (b) What type of information may be extracted from a
cooling curve? (c) Draw a schematic of a cooling curve for a pure metal and one for
an alloy. Discuss the differences.
8.7 What is a binary isomorphous alloy system?
8.8 What is an alloy? What is the difference between the melt temperature of a pure metal
and an alloy of this metal?
8.9 What are the four Hume-Rothery rules for the solid solubility of one element in another?
8.10 What is the significance of the liquidus curve? The solidus curve? Describe how
the liquidus and solidus of a binary isomorphous phase diagram can be determined
experimentally.
8.11 Explain how a cored structure is produced in a 70% Cu–30% Ni alloy.
8.12 How can the cored structure in a 70% Cu–30% Ni alloy be eliminated by heat treatment?
8.13 Explain what is meant by the term liquation. How can a liquated structure be produced
in an alloy? How can it be avoided?
8.14 Describe the mechanism that produces the phenomenon of surrounding in a peritectic
alloy that is rapidly solidified through the peritectic reaction.
8.15 Can coring and surrounding occur in a peritectic-type alloy that is rapidly solidified?
Explain.
8.16 What is a monotectic invariant reaction? How is the monotectic reaction in the
copper–lead system important industrially?
8.17 Write equations for the following invariant reactions: eutectic, eutectoid, peritectic,
and peritectoid. How many degrees of freedom exist at invariant reaction points in
binary phase diagrams?
8.18 How are eutectic and eutectoid reactions similar? What is the significance of the –oid
suffix?
8.19 Distinguish between (a) a terminal phase and (b) an intermediate phase.
8.20 Distinguish between (a) an intermediate phase and (b) an intermediate compound.
378 CHAPTER 8 Phase Diagrams

8.21 What is the difference between a congruently melting compound and an incongruently
melting one?

Application and Analysis Problems

8.22 Consider an alloy containing 70 wt% Ni and 30 wt% Cu (see Fig. 8.5).
a. At 1350°C, make a phase analysis assuming equilibrium conditions. In the phase
analysis, include the following:
i. What phases are present?
ii. What is the chemical composition of each phase?
iii. What amount of each phase is present?
b. Make a similar phase analysis at 1500°C.
c. Sketch the microstructure of the alloy at each of these temperatures by using cir-
cular microscopic fields.
8.23 Consider the binary eutectic copper–silver phase diagram in Figure P8.23. Make
phase analyses of an 88 wt% Ag–12 wt% Cu alloy at the temperatures (a) 1000°C, (b)
800°C, (c) 780°C + ΔT, and (d) 780°C − ΔT. In the phase analyses, include:
i. The phases present
ii. The chemical compositions of the phases
iii. The amounts of each phase
iv. Sketch the microstructure by using 2-cm-diameter circular fields.

Atomic percent silver

°C 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 °F
1100
1084.5°
1900
1000
L 961.93°
1700
900
L+α 1600

α L+β
800
β
780° 1400
7.9 71.9 91.2
700
1200
600 α+β

1000
500
850
400
Cu 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Ag
Weight percent silver

Figure P8.23
The copper–silver phase diagram.
(Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 8, 8th ed., American Society for Metals, 1973, p. 253.)
 8.15 Problems 379

8.24 If 500 g of a 40 wt% Ag–60 wt% Cu alloy is slowly cooled from 1000°C to just below
780°C (see Fig. P8.23):
a. How many grams of liquid and proeutectic alpha are present at 850°C?
b. How many grams of liquid and proeutectic alpha are present at 780°C + ΔT?
c. How many grams of alpha are present in the eutectic structure at 780°C − ΔT?
d. How many grams of beta are present in the eutectic structure at 780°C − ΔT?
8.25 A lead–tin (Pb–Sn) alloy consists of 60 wt% proeutectic β and 60 wt% eutectic α + β
at 183°C − ΔT. Calculate the average composition of this alloy (see Fig. 8.12).
8.26 A Pb–Sn alloy (Fig. 8.12) contains 40 wt% β and 60 wt% α at 50°C. What is the aver-
age composition of Pb and Sn in this alloy?
8.27 An alloy of 30 wt% Pb–70 wt% Sn is slowly cooled from 250°C to 27°C (see Fig. 8.12).
a. Is this alloy hypoeutectic or hypereutectic?
b. What is the composition of the first solid to form?
c. What are the amounts and compositions of each phase that is present at
183°C + ΔT?
d. What is the amount and composition of each phase that is present at 183°C − ΔT?
e. What are the amounts of each phase present at room temperature?
8.28 Consider the binary peritectic iridium–osmium phase diagram of Figure P8.28. Make
phase analyses of a 70 wt% Ir–30 wt% Os alloy at the temperatures (a) 2600°C, (b)
2665°C + ΔT, and (c) 2665°C − ΔT. In the phase analyses include:
i. The phases present
ii. The chemical compositions of the phases
iii. The amounts of each phase
iv. Sketch the microstructure by using 2-cm-diameter circular fields.
8.29 Consider the binary peritectic iridium–osmium phase diagram of Figure P8.28. Make
phase analyses of a 40 wt% Ir–60 wt% Os at the temperatures (a) 2600°C, (b) 2665°C
+ ΔT, (c) 2665°C − ΔT, and (d) 2800°C. Include in the phase analyses the four items
listed in Problem 8.28.

Atomic percentage osmium

°C 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 3033°
3000
5200 F L+β
23.0 2665°C
2600 L+α
43.0 61.5
4400 F
2447°
2200
3600 F α α+β β
1800

2800 F
1400
Ir 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Os
Weight percentage osmium

Figure P8.28
The iridium–osmium phase diagram.
(Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 8, 8th ed., American Society for Metals, 1973, p. 425.)
380 CHAPTER 8 Phase Diagrams

8.30 Consider the binary peritectic iridium–osmium phase diagram of Figure P8.28. Make
phase analyses of a 70 wt% Ir–30 wt% Os at the temperatures (a) 2600°C, (b) 2665°C
+ ΔT, and (c) 2665°C − ΔT. In the phase analyses include:
i. The phases present
ii. The chemical compositions of the phases
iii. The amounts of each phase
iv. Sketch the microstructure by using 2-cm-diameter circular fields.
8.31 In the copper–lead (Cu–Pb) system (Fig. 8.24) for an alloy of Cu–10 wt% Pb, deter-
mine the amounts and compositions of the phases present at (a) 1000°C, (b) 955°C +
ΔT, (c) 955°C − ΔT, and (d) 200°C.
8.32 For an alloy of Cu–70 wt% Pb (Fig. 8.24), determine the amounts and compositions
in weight percent of the phases present at (a) 955°C + ΔT, (b) 955°C − ΔT, and (c)
200°C.
8.33 What is the average composition (weight percent) of a Cu–Pb alloy that contains 30
wt% L1 and 70 wt% α at 955°C + ΔT?
8.34 Consider an Fe–4.2 wt% Ni alloy (Fig. 8.17) that is slowly cooled from 1550°C to
1450°C. What weight percent of the alloy solidifies by the peritectic reaction?
8.35 Consider an Fe–5.0 wt% Ni alloy (Fig. 8.17) that is slowly cooled from 1550°C to
1450°C. What weight percent of the alloy solidifies by the peritectic reaction?
8.36 Determine the weight percent and composition in weight percent of each phase pres-
ent in an Fe–4.2 wt% Ni alloy (Fig. 8.17) at 1517°C + ΔT.
8.37 Determine the composition in weight percent of the alloy in the Fe–Ni system (Fig.
8.17) that will produce a structure of 40 wt% δ and 60 wt% γ just below the peritectic
temperature.
8.38 Draw, schematically, the liquidus and the solidus lines for a Cu–Zn diagram (Fig.
8.26). Show all the critical zinc contents and temperatures. Which one of these tem-
peratures should be important to metal-forming processes? Why?
8.39 Consider the Cu–Zn phase diagram of Figure 8.26.
a. What is the maximum solid solubility in weight percent of Zn in Cu in the termi-
nal solid solution α?
b. Identify the intermediate phases in the Cu–Zn phase diagram.
c. Identify the three-phase invariant reactions in the Cu–Zn diagram.
i. Determine the composition and temperature coordinates of the invariant
reactions.
ii. Write the equations for the invariant reactions.
iii. Name the invariant reactions.
8.40 Consider the aluminum–nickel phase diagram of Figure P8.40. For this phase
diagram:
a. Determine the coordinates of the composition and temperature of the invariant
reactions.
b. Write the equations for the three-phase invariant reactions and name them.
c. Label the two-phase regions in the phase diagram.
 8.15 Problems 381

Atomic percent nickel

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1800

1638°C
1600
L
1455°C
1400
AlNi
Temperature (°C)

(Ni)
1200
1133°C

1000

854°C
800 660.452
~700°C
639.9°C
600
Al3Ni5
Al3Ni2
Al3Ni

(Al) AlNi3

400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Al Weight percent nickel Ni

Figure P8.40
Aluminum–nickel phase diagram.
(Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 8, 8th ed., American Society for Metals, 1973, p. 253.)

8.41 Consider the nickel–vanadium phase diagram of Figure P8.41.

a. What is the maximum solid solubility of V in Ni while maintaining a single
phase?
b. At what temperature does the maximum solid solubility take place?
c. Identify as many intermediate phases as you can.
d. Identify at least one invariant reaction and provide as much information as pos-
sible for the reaction.
8.42 Consider the titanium–aluminum phase diagram of Figure P8.42.
(a) What is the maximum solubility of Al in Ti while maintaining a single phase?
(b) At what temperature does this happen?
(c) Identify as many intermediate phases as you can.
(d) Identify at least one invariant reaction and provide as much information as pos-
sible for this reaction.
8.43 What is the composition of point y in Figure EP8.9?
382 CHAPTER 8 Phase Diagrams

Atomic percent vanadium

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
2000
1910°C

1800

L
1600
1455°C
1400
47 58.1 1280°C
Temperature (°C)

73 (V)
1200 (Ni) 40
51 64
1202°C
1045°C 29.5
1000 σ
922° 900°C
890°C
70.7
906° 35.2 88.1
800 650°C
790°C
Ni3V
600 72
Mag.
Trans. Ni2V NiV3
405°C σ
400
Ni3V

200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ni Weight percent vanadium V

Figure P8.41
Nickel–vanadium phase diagram.
(Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 8, 8th ed., American Society for Metals, 1973, p. 332.)

Synthesis and Evaluation Problems

8.44 In Figure 8.12, determine the degree of freedom, F, according to the Gibbs rule at
the following points. For each point explain what the determined degree of freedom
indicates.
a. At the melting point of pure tin.
b. Inside the α region.
c. Inside the α + liquid region
d. Inside the α + β region
e. At the eutectic point
8.45 The cooling curve of an unknown metal shows a clear plateau at a specific tempera-
ture and no other interesting features. What does the cooling curve tell you about the
metal?
 8.15 Problems 383

Atomic percent aluminum

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1800

1700
1670°C
1600 L

1500

1400
(βTi)
1300 ~1285°C
Temperature (°C)

δ
TiAl
1200
~1125°C
1100

Superlattice structures
1000 Ti3Al

900
882°C TiAl3
800 (αTi)
700 665°C
660.452°C
600
TiAl2 αTiAl3 (Al)
500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ti Weight percent aluminum Al

Figure P8.42
Titanium–aluminum phase diagram.
(Source: Binary Phase Diagrams, ASM Int., 1986, p. 142.)

8.46 In the Pb–Sn phase diagram (Fig. 8.12), answer the following questions:
a. What is α? (Explain in detail including atomic structure.) What is β?
b. What is the maximum solubility of Sn in α? At what temperature?
c. What happens to the α in part b if it is cooled to room temperature?
d. What is the maximum solubility of Sn in liquid metal at the lowest possible tem-
perature? What is that temperature?
e. What is the solubility limit of Sn in α when liquid is present? (This will be a range.)
8.47 Based on the Cu–Ag phase diagram in Figure P8.23, draw the approximate cooling
curve for the following alloys with approximate temperatures and explanations: (i)
pure Cu, (ii) Cu–10 wt% Ag, (iii) Cu–71.9 wt% Ag, (iv) Cu–91.2 wt% Ag.
8.48 Based on the Pd–Ag phase diagram in Figure EP 8.3, draw the approximate cooling
curve for the following alloys with approximate temperatures and explanations: (i)
pure Pd, (ii) Pd–30 wt% Ag, (iii) Pd–70 wt% Ag, (iv) pure Ag.
8.49 A number of elements along with their crystal structures and atomic radii are listed in
the following table. Which pairs might be expected to have complete solid solubility
in each other?
384 CHAPTER 8 Phase Diagrams

Crystal Atomic Crystal Atomic

Structure Radius (nm) Structure Radius (nm)
Silver FCC 0.144 Lead FCC 0.175
Palladium FCC 0.137 Tungsten BCC 0.137
Copper FCC 0.128 Rhodium FCC 0.134
Gold FCC 0.144 Platinum FCC 0.138
Nickel FCC 0.125 Tantalum BCC 0.143
Aluminum FCC 0.143 Potassium BCC 0.231
Sodium BCC 0.185 Molybdenum BCC 0.136

8.50 Derive the lever rule for the amount in weight percent of each phase in two-phase
regions of a binary phase diagram. Use a phase diagram in which two elements are
completely soluble in each other.
8.51 Based on the Al–Ni phase diagram given in Figure P8.40, how many grams of Ni
should be alloyed with 100 g of Al to synthesize an alloy of liquidus temperature of
approximately 640°C?
8.52 An Al–10 wt% Ni alloy, Figure P8.40, is completely liquid at 800°C. How many
grams of Ni can you add to this alloy at 800°C without creating a solid phase?
8.53 Based on the Al2O3–SiO2 phase diagram in Figure 8.27, determine the wt% of phases
present for Al2O3–55 wt% SiO2 over the 1900°C to 1500°C temperature range (use
100°C increments).
8.54 (a) Design a Cu–Ni alloy that will be completely solid at 1200°C (use Figure 8.5).
(b) Design a Cu–Ni alloy that will exist at a completely molten state at 1300°C and
becomes completely solid at 1200°C.
8.55 (a) Design a Pb–Sn alloy that will have a 50–50 solid and liquid phase fraction at
184°C. (b) How many grams of each component should you use to produce 100 g of
the overall alloy? (Use Fig. 8.12.)
8.56 Given that Pb and Sn have similar tensile strengths, design a Pb–Sn alloy that when
cast would be the strongest alloy (use Fig. 8.12). Explain your reasons for your
choice.
8.57 Consider the sugar–water phase diagram shown in Figure P8.57. (a) What wt% sugar
can you dissolve in water at room temperature? (b) What wt% sugar can you dissolve
in water at 100°C? (c) What would you call the solid curve?
8.58 In Figure P8.57, if 60 g of water and 140 g of sugar are mixed and stirred at a tem-
perature of 80°C, (a) will this result in a single phase solution or a mixture? (b) What
will happen if the solution/mixture in part a is slowly cooled to room temperature?
8.59 In Figure P8.57, if 30 g of water and 170 g of sugar are mixed and stirred at a tem-
perature of 30°C, (a) will this result in a single phase solution or a mixture? (b) If it’s
a mixture, how many grams of solid sugar will exist in the mixture? (c) How many
grams of sugar (solid and dissolved) will exist in the mixture?
8.60 At 80°C, if the wt% of sugar is 80%, (a) what phases exist? (b) What is the weight
fraction of each phase? (c) What is the wt% of water?
 8.15 Problems 385

100

80

60
Temperature (°C)

Liquid Liquid
40 +
Solid

20

Sugar 0% 20 40 60 80 100
Water 100% 80 60 40 20 0

Figure P8.57

20 Liquid (salt water)

10

0
Temperature (°C)

Liquid
(salt water)
Liquid +
–10 (salt water) Salt
+ (solid)
Ice
Crystal
–20

Ice (solid) + Salt (solid)

Salt 0% 10 15 20 25 30
Water 100% 90 85 80 75 70

Figure P8.61

8.61 (a) Based on the phase diagram in Figure P8.61, explain why city workers throw rock
salt on icy roads. (b) Based on the same diagram, suggest a process that would pro-
duce almost pure water from seawater (3 wt% salt).
386 CHAPTER 8 Phase Diagrams

8.62 Referring to Figure P8.61, explain what happens as 5 wt% salt solution is cooled from
room temperature to −30°C. Give information regarding phases available and the
compositional changes in each phase.
8.63 Referring to Figure P8.61, (a) explain what happens as 23 wt% salt solution is cooled
from room temperature to −30°C. Give information regarding phases available and
the compositional changes in each phase. (b) What would you call this reaction? Can
you write a transformation equation for this reaction?
8.64 Using Figure P8.40, explain what the phase diagram is showing when the overall
alloy composition is Al–43wt% Ni (below 854°C). Why is there a vertical line at that
point in the phase diagram? Verify that the formula for the compound is Al3Ni. What
do you call such a compound?
8.65 Using Figure P8.40, explain why, according to the diagram, the intermetallic Al3Ni is
represented by a single vertical line while intermetallics Al3Ni2 and Al3Ni5 are repre-
sented by a region.
8.66 (a) In the Ti–Al phase diagram, Figure P8.42, what phases are available at an overall
alloy composition of Ti–63 wt% Al at temperatures below 1300°C? (b) What is the
significance of the vertical line at that alloy composition? (c) Verify the formula next
to the vertical line. (d) Compare the melt temperature of this compound to that of Ti
and Al. What is your conclusion?
8.67 Draw an approximate hypothetical phase diagram for two metals that have unlimited
solubility in each other with the following information:
Melt temperature of metal A is 1084°C.
Melt temperature of metal B is 1455°C.
At 1300°C, the wt% of metal B in the liquidus alloy is 45%.
At 1300°C the wt% of metal B in the solidus alloy is 57%.
At 1300°C the wt% of metal B in the overall alloy is 53%.
8.68 Draw the hypothetical phase diagram for a binary system of metals A and B with lim-
ited solubility in each other. The following information is given:
Melt temperature of metal A is 327°C.
Melt temperature of metal B is 225°C.
A invariant reaction in which liquid upon cooling transforms simultaneously into a
mixture of two solid phases occurs at 185°C.
At the invariant reaction point, the alloy contains 62 wt% metal A.
The maximum solubility of metal B in metal A is 20 wt% at a temperature of 185°C.
The maximum solubility of metal A in metal B is 2.5 wt% at a temperature of 185°C.