Preparetory notes for Semester V, Subject

Code:HMTDS5021T,Subject: Advanced Algebra

Md. Rabiul Islam, email: [email protected], phone no: 9475340595.

[Below R, Q, Z and N denote the set of reals, rationals, integers and

natural numbers respectively]

1. Automorphisms of groups:
Definition: Let G be a group. A bijective map f : G → G is called
an automorphism if it is an structure preserving map. That is f (x.y) =
f (x).f (y), ∀x, y ∈ G.
Examples: (a) Consider the group (Z, +), observe that there are only
two automorphisms on this group.
(b) Every integer gives an automorphism of the group (R, +).
(c) Every automorphism of the group (Zn , +) corresponds to an integer
k, 1 ≤ k ≤ n, gcd(k, n) = 1.
(d) Let G be any group. Besides the identity map is there any other
automorphism? The answer is Yes. Infact for each g ∈ G we may define
τg : G → G by τg (x) = gxg −1 . Observe that such τg are automorphisms
on G and are called inner automorphisms. Let us consider Inn(G) =
{τg : g ∈ G} to be the set of all such inner automorphisms. Observe that
Inn(G) is a subgroup of Aut(G).
2. Group elements viewed as automorphisms of some group:

Examples:
Exercises: (a)Show that the group Aut(Zn ) is isomorphic to the group
Un = {[k] ∈ Zn : 1 ≤ k < n, gcd(k, n) = 1}.
(b) Show that the group of all inner automorphisms Inn(G) is isomorphis
G
to the quotient group Z(G) .
(c) Show that the group Aut(S3 ) is isomorphic to S3 .
solutions: (a) Define the map f : Aut(Zn ) → Un by f (φ) = φ([1]). Since
φ is an automorphism on Zn so φ([1]) ∈ Un , therefore the map f is well
defined. Let us show that f is a gtroup homomorphism, indeed f (φ ◦ ψ) =
(φ◦ψ)([1]) = φ(ψ([1])) = φ([k]) = φ([1]+.....+[1]) = φ([1])+......+φ([1]) =
kφ([1]) = k[k 0 ] = [k.k 0 ] = [k 0 .k] = [k 0 ].[k] = φ([1]).ψ([1]) = f (φ).f (ψ), by
considering ψ([1]) = k and φ([1]) = k 0 .
To check the injectivity of the group homomorphism f , let us assume
f (φ) = [1], then we get φ([1]) = [1], so φ([x]) = φ([1] + .... + [1]) =
φ([1]) + .... + φ([1]) = [1] + ... + [1] = [x], so φ is the identity mapping.
Hence f is injective.
To show the surjectivity of f , consider [k] ∈ Un , define φ : Zn → Zn by
φ([x]) = [k.x], check that the above newly defined φ is an automorphism
on the group (Zn , +) and satisfies the required condition f (φ) = φ([1]) =

1
 [k] ∈ Un .

(b) Since we have to show the group Inn(G) is isomorphic to a factor

group so we plan to use the first isomorphism theorem or the fundamental
theorem of isomorphism, let us define f : G → Inn(G) by f (g) = τg ,
where τg : G → G is defined by τg (x) = gxg −1 .
Show that f is a surjective group homomorphism and kerf = Z(G).
(c) We know that S3 = {e, (12), (13), (23), (123), (132)}.
Let φ : S3 → S3 be an automorphism. We get φ(e) = e. To have full
description of this φ it is enough to know φ((12)) and φ((123)).
3. Characteristic subgroups and commutator subgroups:
Definition: Let G be a group and f : G → G be an automorphism. A sub
group H of G is said to be invariant under f if f (H) ⊆ H.
Example: (a) The trivial sub group {e} and the whole group G are in-
variant sub groups of G under any automorphism on G .
(b) The centre Z(G) of a group G is invariant under any automorphism
on G.
Indeed, for any automorphism f on G and any x ∈ Z(G) , sf (x)s−1 =
f (t)f (x)f (t)−1 = f (txt−1 ) = f (x), as x ∈ Z(G), for any s ∈ G. Therefore
sf (x) = f (x)s, for any s ∈ G.Hence f (x) ∈ Z(G).

Definition: A sub group H of a group G is called a characteristic sub

group ofG if H is invariant under any automorphism on G.
Example and non- examples: (a) The trivial sub group {e} and the
whole group G are characteristic sub groups of G.
(b) The centre Z(G) of a group G is a characteristic sub group of G.
Indeed, for any automorphism f on G and any x ∈ Z(G) , sf (x)s−1 =
f (t)f (x)f (t)−1 = f (txt−1 ) = f (x), as x ∈ Z(G), for any s ∈ G. Therefore
sf (x) = f (x)s, for any s ∈ G.Hence f (x) ∈ Z(G).

(c) Consider the Klein0 s4 − group G = {e, a, b, a.b}. the sub group
H = {e, a} is not invariant under the automorphism f : G → G given
by f (e) = e, f (a) = b, f (b) = a.b, f (a.b) = a.

(d) Let G be a group. The subgroup H of G geberated by all the elements

of G of the form xyx−1 y −1 , for some x, y ∈ G is a characteristic sub group
of G.

Definition:Let G be a group. The subgroup of G geberated by all the ele-

ments of the form xyx−1 y −1 , for some x, y ∈ G is called the commutator
sub group of G. We denote the commutator sub group of G by [G, G].
Therefore [G, G] =< {xyx−1 y −1 : x, y ∈ G} >.
Properties: • [G, G] is a normal subgroup of G.
Indeed, for any g ∈ G, gxyx−1 y −1 g −1 = gxg −1 gyg −1 gx−1 g −1 gy −1 g −1 =

2
 aba−1 b−1 ∈ [G, G]. Therefore, for any h ∈ [G, G] and for any g ∈ G,
ghg −1 ∈ [G, G].
G
• The quotient group [G,G] is commutative. Indeed, x[G, G].y[G, G] =
xy[G, G] = xyy x yx[G, G] = yx[G, G], as y −1 x−1 yx[G, G] = [G, G].
−1 −1

Therefore, x[G, G].y[G, G] = y[G, G].x[G, G].

G
• If N is Commutative then [G, G] ⊆ N .
Indeed, for any x, y ∈ G we get xN.yN = yN.xN ⇒ xyN = yxN ⇒
xy(yx)−1 ∈ N ⇒ xyx−1 y −1 ∈ N ⇒ [G, G] ⊆ N , as N is a sub group.

Exercises: Find the commutator sub groups of the following groups:

(a) S3 .
(b) D4 .
(c) Q8 .
(d) D2n , for any n ∈ N.
4. Internal and External Product of groups: Let G be a group and H, K are
sub groups of G. Is the internal product of H andK, HK = {hk : h ∈
H and k ∈ K} a sub group of G?
Ans: No, cite examples.
Could you put some restrictions on H, K so that their internal product
HK becomes a subgroup?
On the other hand the external product or the direct product of two groups
G1 and G2 is defined to be the cartesian product G1 × G2 = {(x, y) : x ∈
G1 and y ∈ G2 } with the component wise composition law defined as
(x, y).(a, b) = (xa, yb). Check that with this law of composition G1 × G2
becomes a group with the identity element (e, e) and inverse of (x, y) as
(x−1 , y −1 ).

• What are sub groups of G1 × G2 ?

• Is there any relation between HK and H × K?
5. Group Action: