UDC 631 ISSN 1848-4425

RC H 2019
- 7 MA
th
th

AT I A , 5
, CRO
O P AT I J A
PROCEEDINGS OF THE
th
47 INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM

ACTUAL TASKS ON
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF AGROBIOTECHNICAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF OSIJEK
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE AND LIFE SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR
AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF SLOVENIA
INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING, BOKU, VIENNA
NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY - INMA BUCHAREST
CROATIAN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING SOCIETY
 SVEUČILIŠTE U ZAGREBU AGRONOMSKI FAKULTET
ZAVOD ZA MEHANIZACIJU POLJOPRIVREDE
SVEUČILIŠTE J. J. STROSSMAYERA U OSIJEKU
FAKULTET AGROBIOTEHNIČKIH ZNANOSTI
UNIVERZA V MARIBORU
FAKULTETA ZA KMETIJSTVO IN BIOSISTEMSKE VEDE
KMETIJSKI INŠTITUT SLOVENIJE
INSTITUT ZA POLJOPRIVREDNU TEHNIKU, BOKU, BEČ
NACIONALNI INSTITUT ZA POLJOPRIVREDNU MEHANIZACIJU
INMA BUKUREŠT
HRVATSKA UDRUGA ZA POLJOPRIVREDNU TEHNIKU

AKTUALNI ZADACI
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ZBORNIK RADOVA
47. MEĐUNARODNOG SIMPOZIJA
Opatija, 5. – 7. ožujak 2019.
Published by University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture
Department of Agricultural Engineering,
Svetošimunska 25, 10000 Zagreb
Izdavač Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Agronomski fakultet
Zavod za mehanizaciju poljoprivrede
Svetošimunska 25, 10000 Zagreb

Editors / Urednici Igor Kovačev ([email protected])

Nikola Bilandžija ([email protected])
Technical editor / Tehnički urednik Igor Kovačev
Organising committee / Organizacijski odbor
Nikola Bilandžija Dubravko Filipović
Krešimir Čopec Zlatko Koronc
Goran Fabijanić Igor Kovačev
Mateja Grubor Stjepan Sito

Scientific committee / Znanstveni odbor

Prof. dr. Đuro Banaj, HR Prof. dr. Joachim Mueller, DE
Ing. Jaroslav Čepl, CSc., CZ Prof. dr. Pietro Picuno, IT
Prof. dr. Aleksandra Dimitrijević, RS Prof. dr. Stjepan Pliestić, HR
Assist. prof. dr. Đorđe Đatkov, RS Prof. dr. Egidijus Sarauskis, LT
Prof. dr. Ettore Gasparetto, IT Prof. dr. John Schueller, USA
Prof.dr. Ivo Grgić, HR Prof. dr. Peter Schulze-Lammers, DE
Prof. dr. Andreas Gronauer, AT Prof. dr. Denis Stajnko, SI
Dr. Viktor Jejčič, SI Prof. dr. Dumitru Tucu, RO
Prof. dr. Silvio Košutić, Chairman, HR Assist. prof. dr. Vjekoslav Tadić, HR
Prof. dr. Miran Lakota, SI Assist. prof. dr. Peter Vindiš, SI
Prof. dr. Milan Martinov, RS Dr. Valentin Vladut, RO
Prof. dr. Dumitru Mnerie, RO Prof. dr. Daniele De Wrachien, IT

ISSN 1848-4425
http://atae.agr.hr

Cover painting / Slika s naslovnice: Dušan Jejčič

Cover design / Oblikovanje naslovnice: Kreativna Točka by Marko Košutić
All papers in the Proceedings are peer reviewed / Svi radovi u Zborniku su recenzirani
Papers from the Proceedings have been indexed since 1997 into databases /
Radovi u Zborniku su indeksirani u bazama podataka od 1997.:
Clarivate Analytics: Web of Science Core Collection: Conference Proceedings Citation Index
CAB International: Agricultural Engineering Abstracts

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

 SPONZORI – SPONSORS

MINISTARSTVO ZNANOSTI, OBRAZOVANJA I SPORTA

REPUBLIKE HRVATSKE
MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION OF THE
REPUBLIC OF CROATIA

ZAKLADA HRVATSKE AKADEMIJE ZNANOSTI I

UMJETNOSTI
FOUNDATION OF THE CROATIAN ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES AND ARTS

INA MAZIVA D.O.O. – ZAGREB

FINDRI – SESVETE

GEOMATIKA-SMOLČAK – STUPNIK

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

 PRIČA O TRAKTORU S NASLOVNICE

FIAT 702
U počecima razvoja traktora najveći doprinos dale su englesko - američka, njemačka i
talijanska "škola traktora". Italija, koja se danas smatra jednim od vodećih proizvođača
strojeva i opreme za poljoprivredu, do 1918. nije imala industriju traktora, slično kao i
Njemačka ili Velika Britanija. Čak i u tim zemljama ubrzani razvoj i proizvodnja traktora
započinje nakon Prvog svjetskog rata. U to vrijeme u Italiji su korišteni razni američki tipovi
traktora, koji su uglavnom dolazili kao američka vojna pomoć tijekom Prvog svjetskog rata
(International, Mogul, Titan, Fordson, itd.) kako bi se olakšala proizvodnja hrane. Prva se u
proizvodnju traktora u Italiji uključila legendarna tvrtka FIAT, koja je zagovarala
raznovrsnost svoje proizvodnje – „biti prisutan na kopnu, u vodi i u zraku“ bila je ideja
osnivača tvornice. Cilj je bio masovna motorizacije Italije po pristupačnoj cijeni. Godine
1918., u vrijeme završne faze Prvog svjetskog rat u Europi, u Italiji je zbog potrebe za
intenzivnom proizvodnjom hrane, svjetlo dana ugledao Fiatov traktor Model 702. Traktor je
omogućio rješavanje problema nedostatka radne snage u poljoprivredi, potrebne za obradu
velikih površina za proizvodnju hrane. Nakon opsežnog testiranja, FIAT je talijanskim
vlastima 14. kolovoza 1918. predstavio Model 702 u oranju. Na ovoj prezentaciji se traktor
pokazao u najboljem svjetlu, bio je daleko ispred svih suparnika, pa je 1919. izabran za
opremanje talijanske poljoprivrede traktorima.
Zanimljivo je da je FIAT, za razliku od ostalih talijanskih proizvođača koji su ugrađivali
motore s užarenom glavom, izabrao svoj razvojni put temeljen na traktorima s četverotaktnim
benzinskim motorima. U dizajniranju modela 702 iskorišteni su neki elementi dizajna
legendarnog traktora Fordson (samonosiva konstrukcija traktora bez šasije, gdje motor,
mjenjač i stražnji most traktora od čeličnih odljevaka predstavljaju nosivu konstrukciju cijelog
traktora). Model 702 bio je prikladniji za nagnute terene zastupljene u europskim uvjetima
poljoprivredne proizvodnje, te zbog veće snage motora i za obradu težih tala. Fordson je bio
prikladniji za ravne površine s prevladavajućim lakšim tlom. Serijska proizvodnja Fiatovog
modela 702 započinje 1919. godine. Benzinski četverocilindrični tekućinom hlađeni motor
razvijao je 30KS pri 800 o/min. Masa traktora je bila 2.700 kg, a bio je opremljen
nesinkroniziranim mjenjač s tri stupnja prijenosa za kretanje naprijed i jedan nazad. Na
temelju modela s kotačima, razvijene su i verzije traktora gusjeničara. 1932. godine na tržište
je uveden model 700 C (oznaka C prema talijanskoj riječi cingoli - gusjenica) s motorom od
30 KS, a Model 702 C je opreman motorima od 28-35 KS. Model 702 je otvorio put za
uspješno uvođenje mnogih narednih modela traktora. Proizvodnja modela 702 je s velikim
uspjehom trajala do 1927. kada je zamijenjen modernijim modelom 700, koji je uz
modifikacije u proizvodnji ostao do 1950. godine. FiatTrattori je 1970-ih bio vodeći Europski
proizvođač traktora, a 1991. preuzima Američki Ford Tractor koji je nešto ranije preuzeo
proizvođača kombajna New Holland. Danas tradiciju Fiatovih traktora nastavlja New
Holland, FiatAgri je ostao u simbolu lista na zaštitnom znaku, a Ford s plavom bojom traktora.

Dr. sc. Viktor Jejčič

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

 STORY ABOUT TRACTOR FROM COVER PAGE

FIAT 702
In the beginnings of the tractor development the greatest contribution was made by the
English-American, German and Italian "tractor schools". By 1918, Italy, which today is
considered one of the leading manufacturers of machinery and equipment for agriculture, did
not have a tractor industry, similar to Germany or the UK. Even in these countries, intensive
development and production of tractors began after the First World War. At that time, various
US types of tractors were used in Italy, which mainly came as US military aid during the WWI
(International, Mogul, Titan, Fordson, etc.) to facilitate food production. One of the first
involved in the tractor production in Italy was the legendary company FIAT, which advocated
the diversity of its production - "to be present on land, in water and in the air" was the idea of
the factory founders. The aim was mass-driven motorization of Italy at an affordable price. In
1918, during the final phase of the WWI in Europe, in Italy due to the need for intensive food
production, was introduced Fiat Tractor Model 702. The tractor solved the problem of lack of
labour force in agriculture needed for cultivation of large areas for food production. After
extensive testing, on 14th August 1918, Fiat presented to Italian authorities the Model 702 in
ploughing. At that presentation the tractor showed best performance, far ahead of all rivals,
and in 1919 it was chosen to equip Italian agriculture with tractors.
It is interesting that Fiat, unlike other Italian manufacturers, which were built-in hot-bulb
fired engines, chose its path of development based on tractors with four-stroke gasoline
engines. In designing Model 702 were used some design elements of the legendary tractor
Fordson (self-supporting structure of the tractor without the chassis, where the engine,
gearbox and rear axle of steel castings were supporting structure of the entire tractor). Model
702 was more suitable for work in hilly areas, present in the European conditions of
agricultural production, as well as for tillage of heavy soils due to greater engine power.
Fordson was more suitable for flat surfaces with prevailing lighter soil types. The serial
production of Fiat's Model 702 began in 1919. The four-cylinder, liquid cooled, petrol engine
developed 30 HP at 800 rpm. The weight of the tractor was 2.700 kg and it was equipped
with a non-synchronous transmission with three gears to move forward and one back. Based
on the wheeled model, the version of the crawler tractor has also been developed. In 1932 the
market was introduced with the Model 700 C (C according to the Italian word cingoli -
caterpillar) with a 30 HP engine, while the Model 702 C was equipped with engines of 28-35
HP. Model 702 has paved the way for the successful introduction of many following tractor
models. Production of the Model 702 was very successful until 1927 when it was replaced by
a more modern model 700, which with modifications stayed in production until 1950. In the
1970s, FiatTrattori was the leading European tractor manufacturer and in 1991 it purchased
the American Ford Tractor, which had previously acquired the harvester producer New
Holland. Today the tradition of Fiat tractors continues with New Holland, FiatAgri remained
in the symbol of a leaf on the trademark, and Ford with blue colour of tractor.

Viktor Jejčič, Ph.D

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

 PREDGOVOR

Poštovane kolegice i kolege,

Poštovani čitatelji,

Simpozij Aktualni zadaci mehanizacije poljoprivrede ove je godine održan 47. puta, u
godini kada Agronomski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, jednako kao i Zavod za mehanizaciju
poljoprivrede kao organizator Simpozija, obilježavaju znamenitu obljetnicu – 100 godina
postojanja, znanstveno-istraživačkog rada i prenošenja znanja novim generacijama. Dugu
tradiciju Simpozij može zahvaliti predanom radu uglavnom malog organizacijskog tima,
znanstvenom doprinosu autora i recenzenata, te sponzorima i kolegama mehanizatorima
diljem svijeta. Suorganizatori ovogodišnjeg Simpozija od strane međunarodnih strukovnih
udruga su CIGR (Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering), EurAgEng
(European Network for Advanced Engineering in Agriculture and Environment) i AAAE
(Asian Association for Agricultural Engineering). Znanstveni značaj ATAE Simpozija
vrednovan je uvrštavanjem u citatne baze, od 1997. godine se radovi objavljeni u Zborniku
nalaze u bazama Clarivate Analytics: Web of Science Core Collection - Conference
Proceedings Citation Indeks i CAB International - Agricultural Engineering Abstracts.
Ovogodišnji Zbornika radova sadrži 57 radova autora iz 10 zemalja, među kojima se
nalaze po jedan (1) iz Češke i Estonije, po dva (2) rada iz Bugarske i Litve, četiri (4) iz
Njemačke, po pet (5) iz Italije, Slovenije i Srbije, dvanaest (12) iz Hrvatske i dvadeset (20)
radova iz Rumunjske. Pristup elektroničkom izdanju Zbornika je besplatan na web adresi
http://atae.agr.hr/proceedings.htm.
Ovom prilikom najavljujem promjenu u dinamici održavanja ATAE Simpozija, idući će
se održati 2021. godine s namjerom zadržavanja takvog dvogodišnjeg ciklusa. S ciljem
kontinuiranog podizanja kvalitete Simpozija i bolje povezanosti poljoprivredne tehnike s
drugim područjima agronomije započeli smo suradnju s CASEE (The ICA Regional Network
for Central and South Eastern Europe). U godinama između ATAE Simpozija, autori će svoja
postignuća moći prezentirati na „mehanizatorskoj“ sekciji u sklopu CASEE konferencije.
Kako bi sudionicima ATAE Simpozija približili mogućnost publiciranja radova i izvan
Zbornika, znanstveni odbor Simpozija će autore najkvalitetnijih prezentacija pozvati da svoje
radove prijave za specijalno izdanje znanstvenog časopisa „Die Bodenkultur“ posvećeno
poljoprivrednoj tehnici.
Zahvaljujem svim autorima, recenzentima te kolegama iz organizacijskog i znanstvenog
odbora, koji su svojim predanim radom omogućili održavanje ovogodišnjeg Simpozija. U ime
organizatora zahvaljujem i sponzorima, Ministarstvu znanosti i obrazovanja Republike
Hrvatske, Zakladi Hrvatske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti te tvrtki INA MAZIVA d.o.o.

Zagreb, ožujak 2019. Igor Kovačev, urednik

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

 PREFACE

Dear Colleagues,
Dear readers,

Symposium Actual tasks on agricultural engineering this year was held for the 47th year,
when the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, as well as the Department of
Agricultural Engineering as the organizer of the Symposium, celebrated notable anniversary:
100 years of existence, scientific and research work and transfer of knowledge to new
generations of students. Its long tradit ion the Symposium can thank to devoted work of usually
small organizing team, the scientific contribution of authors and reviewers, as well as sponsors
and colleagues around the world. International professional associations as co-organizers of
this year's Symposium are CIGR (Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering),
EurAgEng (European Network for Advanced Engineering in Agriculture and Environment)
and AAAE (Asian Association for Agricultural Engineering). The scientific significance of
the ATAE Symposium is evaluated by the fact that the papers from the Proceedings have been
indexed since 1997 into databases: Clarivate Analytics: Web of Science Core Collection -
Conference Proceedings Citation Index and CAB International - Agricultural Engineering
Abstracts. This year's Proceedings includes 57 articles by authors from 10 countries: Bulgaria
2, Croatia 12, Czech Republic 1, Estonia 1, Germany 4, Italy 5, Lithuania 2, Romania 20,
Serbia 5 and Slovenia 5. Access to the web edition of the Proceedings is free at the website
http://atae.agr.hr/proceedings.htm.
On this occasion, let me announce a change in the dynamics of the ATAE Symposium,
the next will take place in 2021, with the intention of continuing such a two-year cycle. With
the aim of continually raising the quality of the Symposium and better integration of
agricultural engineering to other areas of agriculture, we started cooperation with CASEE
(The ICA Regional Network for Central and South Eastern Europe). In the years between
ATAE Symposia, the authors will be able to present their achievements at the AgEng
section within the CASEE conference.
To open up a possibility for ATAE participants to publish their papers outside of the
Proceedings, the Scientific Committee of the ATAE will invite authors of the best
presentations to submit their manuscripts for a special edition of the scientific journal "Die
Bodenkultur" dedicated to agricultural engineering.
I would like to thank all authors, reviewers and especially members of the Organising and
Scientific Committee for their efforts which made this conference possible. ATAE organisers
also acknowledge the continuous financial support from the Ministry of Science and
Education of the Republic of Croatia, The Foundation of the Croatian Academy of Sciences
and Arts and the INA MAZIVA company.

Zagreb, March 2019 Igor Kovačev, editor

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

 SADRŽAJ – CONTENTS

Silvio KOŠUTIĆ, Andreas GRONAUER, Milan MARTINOV,

Peter SCHULZE LAMMERS ........................................................................................ 17
Highlights of 28th Club of Bologna Meeting
Sažetak 28. sastanka kluba Bologna

Maximilian TREIBER, Franz HILLERBRAND, Josef BAUERDICK,

Heinz BERNHARDT ...................................................................................................... 27
On the current state of agricultural robotics in crop farming: chances and risks
Sadašnje stanje poljoprivredne robotike u uzgoju usjeva: prilike i rizici

Goran FABIJANIĆ, Krešimir ČOPEC, Igor KOVAČEV ........................................... 35

Steam locomobile in Croatian agriculture with a stress on 19th century
Parni lokomobil u Hrvatskoj poljoprivredi s naglaskom na 19. stoljeće

Jochen Georg WIECHA, Tim BÖGEL, Thomas HERLITZIUS,

Heinz BERNHARDT ...................................................................................................... 51
Electrification of mounted implements - concepts of traction assistance
Elektrificiranje nošenih oruđa - koncept pospješenja trakcije

Kęstutis ROMANECKAS, Dovilė AVIŽIENYTĖ, Aida ADAMAVIČIENĖ,

Vaclovas BOGUŽAS, Aušra SINKEVIČIENĖ, Egidijus ŠARAUSKIS,
Algirdas JASINSKAS, Rasa KIMBIRAUSKIENĖ, Jovita BALANDAITĖ,
Aleksandra MINAJEVA, Marek MARKS, Jozef TYBURSKI, Ashirali SMANOV ... 61
Impact of reduced tillage on spring oil seed rape, winter wheat, maize and spring barley
production in Lithuania
Utjecaj reducirane obrade tla na proizvodnju uljane repice, ozime pšenice i jarog ječma

Rajko BERNIK, Filip VUČAJNK ................................................................................. 69

The impact of different secondary tillage on quality and yield of carrot crop
(Daucus carota L.)
Utjecaj različitih načina dopunske obrade tla na kvalitetu i urod mrkve (Daucus carota L.)

Gabriel GHEORGHE, Cătălin PERSU, Iulia GAGEANU, Dan CUJBESCU............. 79

Structural and modal analysis of the subsoiler equipment to prepare the germinative bed
Strukturalna i modalna analiza podrivača za pripremu sjetvene posteljice

Anamarija BANAJ, Đuro BANAJ, Vjekoslav TADIĆ, Davor PETROVIĆ,

Vinko DUVNJAK ........................................................................................................... 89
Application of MaterMacc Twin Row–2 sowing machine in corn sowing on experimental
field „Tenja“
Rezultati sjetve kukuruza sijačicom MaterMacc Twin Row–2 na pokušalištu „Tenja“

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

Ranko KOPRIVICA, Vera ĐEKIĆ, Biljana VELJKOVIĆ, Dragan TERZIĆ,
Dragoslav ĐOKIĆ Zoran MILEUSNIĆ ........................................................................ 97
The decrease of wheat yield on the plot edges – headlands due to soil compaction
Smanjenje uroda pšenice na uvratinama uslijed sabijanja tla

Raimondo GALLO, Gabriele DAGLIO, Gianluca RISTORTO, Alex BOJERI,

Giuliano SAULI, Nadia ZORZI, Fabrizio MAZZETTO ............................................ 107
The WEQUAL project: A Web Platform for multidimensional evaluations of Green
Infrastructures assessment
WEQUAL projekt: Mrežna platforma za multidimenzionalna vrednovanja ”zelenih”
infrastruktura

Bojan SRDJEVIC, Paulo MELO, Zorica SRDJEVIC, Luisa JORGE,

Tihomir ZORANOVIC ................................................................................................ 117
Water allocation for agricultural users based on multi criteria analysis and use of
decision-making tools
Raspodjela vodnih resursa za poljoprivredu višekriterijskom analizom i primjenom
alata za odlučivanje

Zorica SRĐEVIĆ, Bojan SRĐEVIĆ ............................................................................ 127

Multiagent conflicts and resolutions in water resources management
Sukobi i rješenja samoorganizirajućih sustava u upravljanju vodnim resursima

Augustina PRUTEANU, Despina Maria BORDEAN, Valentin VLǍDUȚ ................ 135

Accumulation of heavy metals in vegetables grown on contaminated soils
Nakupljanje teških metala u povrću uzgajanom na onečišćenim tlima

Nicoleta UNGUREANU, Valentin VLĂDUŢ, Irina-Aura ISTRATE,

Bianca – Ștefania ZĂBAVĂ, Carmen TOCIU, Mariana FERDEȘ, Mirela DINCĂ .... 147
Advanced electrochemical treatment of the wastewater from cattle farm
Napredni elektrokemijski tretman otpadnih voda s govedarske farme

Bianca - Ștefania ZĂBAVĂ, George IPATE, Gheorghe VOICU, Mirela DINCĂ,

Nicoleta UNGUREANU, Mariana FERDEŞ, Valentin VLĂDUŢ .............................. 159
Smart system to monitor wastewater treatment based on Raspberry Pi computer
”Pametan” sustav nadzora tretmana otpadnih voda baziran na Raspberry Pi računalu

Cristina HALBAC-COTOARA-ZAMFIR, Rares HALBAC-COTOARA-ZAMFIR,

Jarbas H. DE MIRANDA ............................................................................................. 167
Economic design of drain depths and spacing using different EU and non-EU models
Ekonomski dizajn drenova obzirom na dubinu i razmak primjenom EU i modela
izvan EU

Rares HALBAC-COTOARA-ZAMFIR ...................................................................... 175

Nature-based solutions for flood risk management: a Romanian case study
Prirodna rješenja upravljanja rizikom od poplava: Rumunjski slučaj-studija

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

Mariana FERDEȘ, Mirela DINCĂ, Nicoleta UNGUREANU, Bianca ZĂBAVĂ,
Gigel PARASCHIV, Laura TOMA, Carmen TOCIU ................................................ 183
Effect of ozone on Salmonella enteritidis and Escherichia coli in contaminated water
Utjecaj ozona na Salmonelu enteritidis i Escherichia colli u onečišćenim vodama

Jaroslav ČEPL, Pavel KASAL, Jiří ZÁMEČNÍK, Jan LUKÁŠ,

Andrea SVOBODOVÁ ................................................................................................. 191
Drip irrigation in potato cultivation
Navodnjavanje kapanjem u proizvodnji krumpira

Katerina GABROVSKA-EVSTATIEVA, Boris EVSTATIEV,

Dimitar TRIFONOV, Nikolay MIHAILOV ................................................................ 203
Autonomous powering of an orchard irrigation system and fruit storage
Autonomni sustav napajanja za navodnjavanje voćnjaka i skladišta za voće

Boris EVSTATIEV, Katerina GABROVSKA-EVSTATIEVA,

Dimitar TRIFONOV, Nikolay MIHAILOV ................................................................ 213
Solar energy potential to power the irrigation of orchards in Bulgaria
Potencijal sunčeve energije za pogon navodnjavanja voćnjaka u Bugarskoj

Davor PETROVIĆ, Đuro BANAJ, Vjekoslav TADIĆ, Dario KNEŽEVIĆ,

Anamarija BANAJ ....................................................................................................... 223
Impact of orchard sprayer type and technical spraying factors on spray deposit
Utjecaj tipa raspršivača i tehničkih čimbenika raspršivanja na depozit tekućine

Mihaela NITU, Augustina PRUTEANU, Mihai MATACHE, Iulia GAGEANU,

Dan CUJBESCU ........................................................................................................... 233
Influence of working pressure on spraying angle for different types of agriculture
nozzles
Utjecaj radnog tlaka i kuta prskanja različitih tipova poljoprivrednih mlaznica

Tomaž POJE ................................................................................................................. 243

Analysis of pesticide aplication equipment inspection in 2017 in Slovenia
Analiza strojeva za primjenu pesticida pregledanih u 2017. godini u Sloveniji

Damijan KELC, Peter VINDIŠ, Jurij RAKUN, Denis STAJNKO,

Miran LAKOTA ........................................................................................................... 251
Technology for a ‘baby leafe’ production of a Corn salad and Radicchio
Tehnologija proizvodnje tzv. ”mladolisne” kukuruzne salate i radiča

Gabriele DAGLIO, Raimondo GALLO, Stefania PETRERA,

Fabrizio MAZZETTO .................................................................................................. 259
Preliminary results on blooming charge assessment in apple orchards for automatic
thinning activities
Preliminarni rezultati određivanja stupnja cvatnje u jabučnjaku sa svrhom automatskog
prorjeđivanja

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

Oana Corina GHERGAN, Dumitru ȚUCU, Anuța IUSCO,
Daniela DRĂGHICESCU, Roxana Mihaela BABANATIS MERCE ......................... 267
Small greenhouse robotized solutions: state of the art and future perspectives
Robotizacija malih staklenika: sadašnje stanje i perspektiva

George IPATE, Gabriel CONSTANTIN, Gheorghe VOICU, Gabriel MUSUROI,

Elena Madalina STEFAN, Mariana Gabriela MUNTEANU,
Lucian DUMITRESCU ................................................................................................ 277
Small agribot for monitoring environmental variables in greenhouse
Mali agrirobot za nadzor okolišnih varijabli u stakleniku

Aleksandra DIMITRIJEVIĆ, Carmela SICA, Rajko MIODRAGOVIĆ,

Zoran MILEUSNIĆ...................................................................................................... 287
Energy efficiency of the tomato and lettuce greenhouse production systems
Energetska učinkovitost stakleničkih proizvodnih sustava za rajčicu i salatu

Dina STATUTO, Pietro PICUNO, Ahmed M. ABDEL-GHANY .............................. 297

Shading methods for crop protection under greenhouse in Mediterranean areas
Metode zasjenjivanja za zaštitu usjeva u staklenicima na području Sredozemlja

Ana MATIN, Tajana KRIČKA, Tugomir MAJDAK, Mateja GRUBOR,

Vanja JURIŠIĆ............................................................................................................. 307
Influence of harvest time and drying methods on the qualitative properties of rosemary
Utjecaj roka berbe i načina sušenja na kvalitativna svojstva ružmarina

Cătălina STAN (TUDORA), Laurențiu VLĂDUȚOIU, Valentin Nicolae VLĂDUȚ,

Adriana MUSCALU ..................................................................................................... 315
Harvest and quality of hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L.)
Žetva i kvaliteta Miloduha (Hyssopus officinalis L.)

Tajana KRIČKA, Mateja GRUBOR, Ana MATIN .................................................... 323

Impact of the maize hybrids FAO group on the water release rate by drying and grain
nutritional value
Utjecaj FAO grupe hibrida kukuruza na brzinu otpuštanja vode sušenjem i hranidbenu
vrijednost zrna

Vlad Nicolae ARSENOAIA, Nicolae Valentin VLĂDUȚ, Ioan ȚENU,

Iulian VOICEA, Petru Marian CÂRLESCU .............................................................. 333
Drying process modeling with effects of physical parameters on dehydrated seeds
Modeliranje postupka sušenja s učincima fizikalnih parametara na dehidrirano sjeme

Peter LIEBHARDT, Peter WEINDL, Jan MAXA, Gerhard BELLOF,

Heinz BERNHARDT, Stefan THURNER ................................................................... 343
Ensiling alfalfa leaves as a high protein feed for monogastric animals
Siliranje lišća lucerne kao visoko proteinske hrane za monogastrične životinje

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

Viktor JEJČIČ, Tomaž POJE ..................................................................................... 351
Energy consumption in hay making
Potrošnja energije za spremanje sijena

Milan MARTINOV, Djordje DJATKOV, Miodrag VISKOVIC ............................... 359

Potentials of crop residues as energy sources and feedstock
Potencijal žetvenih ostataka kao energenta i stočne hrane

Anamarija PETER, Mateja GRUBOR, Dubravka DUJMOVIĆ PURGAR,

Ana BUDIMIR, Neven VOĆA ..................................................................................... 369
Use of invasive plant species tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima Mill.) biomass in
energy production
Korištenje biomase invazivne biljne vrste pajasen (Ailanthus altissima Mill.) u
proizvodnji energije

Aleksandra MINAJEVA, Algirdas JASINSKAS, Egidijus ŠARAUSKIS,

Kęstutis ROMANECKAS, Andres ANNUK ............................................................... 379
Investigation and comparison of indicators of fodder bean waste and wood pellets
Istraživanje i usporedba svojstava peleta od otpada stočnog graška i drvenih peleta

Vanja JURIŠIĆ, Domagoj ŠKORIĆ, Ana MATIN, Tajana KRIČKA,

Mateja GRUBOR ......................................................................................................... 389
Pyrolysis of BSG with the aim of gaining energy and added-value products
Piroliza ostataka nakon proizvodnje piva s ciljem dobivanja energije i proizvoda dodane
vrijednosti

Georgiana MOICEANU, Gheorghe VOICU, Gigel PARASCHIV,

Valentin VLADUT, Petru CARDEI, Mirela DINCA .................................................. 399
Relationships analysis between the grinding parameters of Miscanthus giganteus stalks
using a hammer mill
Analiza međuodnosa parametara mljevenja stabljike Miscanthus giganteus mlinom
čekićarem

Gabriel-Alexandru CONSTANTIN, Gheorghe VOICU, George IPATE,

Gabriel MUSUROI, Elena Madalina STEFAN, Mariana Gabriela MUNTEANU,
Dorel STOICA .............................................................................................................. 409
Influence of motion type on granulometric distribution of grist obtained from some
varieties of wheat and corn
Utjecaj vrste gibanja na granulometrijsku raspodjelu meljave od nekih varieteta pšenice i
kukuruza

Daniela DRĂGHICESCU , Dumitru ȚUCUˡ, Oana Corina GHERGAN,

Anuta IUSCO................................................................................................................ 419
Nuts varieties influence on walnut breaking and peeling process
Utjecaj varijeteta oraha na postupak lomljenja i ljuštenja

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

Dan CUJBESCU, Cătălin PERSU, Iuliana GĂGEANU, Iulian VOICEA,
Gabriel GHEORGHE, Nicoleta UNGUREANU ......................................................... 429
Mechanizing the garlic bulbs detaching into cloves
Mehaniziranje odvajanja režnjeva češnjaka iz glavica

Paul GĂGEANU, Leonid FADEEV, Iuliana GĂGEANU, Alexandru ZAICA.......... 437

New solutions for the interphase transport - decreasing the degree of injuring seed in
bucket elevators
Nova rješenja za međufazni transport - smanjenje stupnja oštećenja sjemena elevatorima s
vjedricama

Kaarel SOOTS, Andres OLT, Jüri OLT ..................................................................... 445

Manufacturing technology and mechanical properties of biodegradable tableware made
from cereal bran
Tehnologija proizvodnje i mehanička svojstva biorazgradivog posuđa od pšenične pljeve

Martin HÖHENDINGER, Sophie KERN, Jörn STUMPENHAUSEN,

Heinz BERNHARDT .................................................................................................... 453
Estimation of effects on the workload at dairy farms caused by automatization
Procjena učinaka automatizacije na radno opterećenje na mliječnim farmama

Denis STAJNKO, Damijan KELC, Miran LAKOTA................................................. 463

Potential reduction of ecological footprint, CO2 emissions and GWP using auto tandem
parlour system with heat exchanger
Potencijalno smanjenje ekološkog otiska, emisije CO2 i potencijala globalnog zagrijavanja
(GWP) korištenjem automatiziranog tandem izmuzišta s izmjenjivačem topline

Anuţa IUSCO, Dumitru ȚUCU, Oana-Corina GHERGAN, Septimiu LICA ............ 473
Energy production from the walk of the animals in paddock by the use of piezoelectric
elements
Proizvodnja energije kretanjem životinja stazama s piezzoelektričnim elementima

Dumitru ȚUCU, George Cătălin CRIȘAN, Alexandru ȚUCU ................................... 479

The use of self-assessment in occupational risk management system in SMEs from
agriculture
Primjena samoprocjene u upravljanja profesionalnim rizicima na malim i srednjim
poljoprivrednim gospodarstvima

Ivo GRGIĆ, Stjepan KRZNAR, Vjekoslav BRATIĆ ................................................. 487

Agricultural production of the Republic of Croatia before and after EU accession
Poljoprivredna proizvodnja Republike Hrvatske prije i nakon pristupanja EU

Marin ČAGALJ, Ivo GRGIĆ, Josip GUGIĆ .............................................................. 497

Analysis of absorbed funds till the end of 2017 from the Rural Development
Programme of the Republic of Croatia for the Period 2014-2020
Analiza korištenja sredstava iz programa ruralnog razvoja Republike Hrvatske
2014. – 2020. do kraja 2017. godine

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

Nicolae FILIP, Victor ROS, Teodora DEAC, Lucian FECHETE-TUTUNARU ....... 507
Romanian’s experience and perspectives regarding to education in biosystems
engineering
Iskustvo i perspektive obrazovanja iz područja biosistemskog inženjerstava u Rumunjskoj

Ivo GRGIĆ, Kristina BATELIĆ, Kristina SVRŽNJAK, Jernej PRIŠENK,

Magdalena ZRAKIĆ .................................................................................................... 519
Attitudes of students on the role of agrotourism in preserving rural space
Stavovi studenata o ulozi agroturizma u očuvanju ruralnog prostora

Carmela SICA, Aleksandra DIMITRIJEVIC ............................................................. 527

Water mills in Basilicata region – a hertiage to be preserved
Vodenice u regiji Basilicata – očuvanja vrijedno naslijeđe

Giuseppe CILLIS, Dina STATUTO, Pietro PICUNO ................................................ 535

Valorisation of historical farm buildings for protecting the rural landscape
Vrednovanje povijesnih poljoprivrednih građevina s ciljem zaštite ruralnog krajolika

Ivo GRGIĆ, Marina PETRIĆ, Vladimir LEVAK, Magdalena ZRAKIĆ .................. 545
Wine roads as a tourist offer of rural areas: attitudes of inhabitants of Zagreb City
Vinske ceste kao turistička ponuda ruralnog prostora: stavovi stanovnika grada Zagreba

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Stručni izvještaj
ZADACI Expert report
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

HIGHLIGHTS OF 28TH CLUB OF BOLOGNA MEETING

Silvio KOSUTIC1*, Andreas GRONAUER2, Milan MARTINOV3,
Peter SCHULZE LAMMERS4
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Agricultural Engineering Department, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb
2 Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Sustainable Agricultural Systems, University of
Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna
3 Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Serbia
4 System Technic in Plant Production, Institute for Agricultural Engineering, University of Bonn

SUMMARY

Club of Bologna, world task force on strategies for development of

agricultural mechanization, at 28th annual meeting in Bologna, during its
agenda, three important sessions were presented: 1st Remote machinery repair,
maintenance and assistance, 2nd Agricultural machinery new technologies:
challenges and limits for users, 3rd Specific mechanization: machines for
horticulture. Besides Sessions, agenda comprised: Giuseppe Pellizzi Prize
2018 Award Ceremony, Report of Study Group and Programme of activities for
2019.
Keywords: Club of Bologna, remote machinery repair, maintenance and
assistance, agricultural engineering strategy, machines for horticulture

INTRODUCTION

Club of Bologna (CoB), a world task-force on the strategies for the development of
agricultural mechanization belongs, for sure, to the worldwide most important organizations
in the field of agricultural and biosystems engineering. It was founded 1989 as a free and
nonprofit organization, supported by Italian agricultural and earth moving machinery
manufacturers association FederUnacoma. CoB gathers members from 31 countries and has
93 full members. Common, and most significant, CoB's activity is annual members' meetings,
held alternatively in Bologna, during exhibition EIMA, and Hannover, during Agritechnica.

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 S. Kosutic, A. Gronauer, M. Martinov, P. Schulze Lammers

REMOTE MACHINERY REPAIR, MAINTENANCE AND ASSISTANCE

First presentation “Product Services in the digital age (Industrie 4.0)” was given by E.
Westkämper, former head of Fraunhofer Inst. Manufacturing Engineering& Automation in
Germany. The presentation was mainly focused on the future challenges for machine
manufacturers in service and support. Future fields of action ranges from the state of the art
in pure technical workshop services to web-based consulting services and finally to remote
operations such as process diagnostics, process monitoring, automatic process optimization
and thus up to automatic online operations. Main resume puts a focus on demands and trends
of future development. All participants in the ICT framework have be involved “from cradle
to grave”, from resource deliverer to residue maintainers (including machinery producer and
after consumer sector). Consequently, tools for life cycle assessment have to be implemented
in ICT.
The main challenge for the machine manufacturer within the scope of digitization are the
expansion of the product horizon from pure machine production to applied production
processes in which the machines are used both regionally and in the global environment of
goods and information flows. The next stages will be focused: Implementation of remote
production via real-time communication. Meeting security requirements and challenges to
create and secure trust. The increasing demand for Big Data Management must be adequately
met in order to take account of the rapid development of sensor technologies (frequency in
msec, more than 200 basic technologies available) and the need for technologies for data
analysis. Big data management and artificial intelligence" have already become a key
technology for the future, as a lot of data has to be retrieved from very complex systems and
processes. The future research challenge must include the analysis and modelling of processes
as crucial needs for future development (including high importance). To this end, the
evaluation of process simulation and the development of "feedback loops and artificial
intelligence" needs a learning environment of technical systems.

Figure 1 Sustainability of Manufacturing (Westkämper, 2018)

http://www.clubofbologna.org/ew/ew_proceedings/2018%20_S1.1_PPTX_Westkmper.pdf

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 Highlights of 28th Club Of Bologna meeting

In terms of costs and benefits, the manufacturing and operating costs for the use and
maintenance of machines as well as the costs for recycling and deposit must be reduced.
Increasing the service life is a challenge to achieve higher sustainability of products and
processes and last but not least a higher added value and increased reuse.
Final statement: “The transformation of “Industrie 4.0” is a clear revolution, which will
change the management and will have winner and looser in all sectors. It requires new
qualification of employees, new methods of economic control and changeable structures of
organisation.”
F. Protano from CNH Industrial, responsible for Precision Solutions and Telematics
Product Management showed an inside into the strategy for “The Farm Data Ecosystem”.
She presented definitions of Agriculture 1.0 up to 4.0 and what can be understood by digital
farming (Figure 2).

Figure 2 The agricultural Evolution (Protano, Vandecaveye, 2018)

http://www.clubofbologna.org/ew/ew_proceedings/2018_S1.2_PPTX_PROTANO_VANDECAVEYE.pdf

A clear focus was given on opportunities for Equipment Manufacturers and related
strategies for operational organization between customer, dealer and manufacturer. Especially
future possibilities regarding innovations in telematics connections (bi-directional
communication for high density and transmission speed of online data between partners) and
new infrastructures for e.g. pro-active intervention, to improve the customer service quality
and the products and processes for the manufacture. “But the ultimate goal is to build the
perfect vehicle.” Using the combine harvester as an example (equipped with automatic
steering solutions and various crop sensors, a modem on board, which allows the vehicle to
be monitored in real time), the possibilities of future developments and their advantages from

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 S. Kosutic, A. Gronauer, M. Martinov, P. Schulze Lammers

the different perspectives of machine manufacturers, dealers and end customers were
presented. The CNHI Agricutural Control Room, a central control room and web-based
communication node between machines and all stakeholders, was presented to implement
networked communication between machines, users and experts from different backgrounds
online (Figure 3.)

Figure 3 The Control Room Concept (Protano, Vandecaveye, 2018)

http://www.clubofbologna.org/ew/ew_proceedings/2018_S1.2_PPTX_PROTANO_VANDECAVEYE.pdf

Several examples were given how the stored data can be used for many services from
optimization of farm processes up to food traceability and documentation duties. The
operational details (e.g. machine information from CAN-bus to technical support including
expert knowledge online from abroad) were presented exemplary. The possibilities for an
improved efficiency of the production processes were presented. For example, how to achieve
proactive troubleshooting of machines in action and thus reduced repair cases and repair times
or to obtain practice-relevant information for the successive further development of machines
for "the next generation". “To conclude, a data-driven approach is nowadays a major factor
of competitive advantage for enterprises, and especially a support for remote maintenance
applications.”
M. Pier (Grimme) demonstrated in his presentation “InnoServPro: Innovative Service
Products for individual and availability-oriented business models in capital goods industry”
the technical details from sensor technology to telecommunication structures in order to
demonstrate the possibilities and benefits of smart farming technologies used by premium
partner contractors using the example of potato harvesters. Main topic was "After sales
management". To achieve an innovative service three main goals were defined: First the
development of customized, availability-oriented business models; Second the development

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 Highlights of 28th Club Of Bologna meeting

and integration of smart components with the ability to communicate; Third a design and
configuration of an information management platform to provide and exchange service
relevant data. Beginning with the sensor technology using the example of a sensor which
detects the load limits at the conveyer belt chains of the potato harvester (by analyzing “the
process of the elongation of the conveyer belt chains in test bench trials. Results showed that
the elongation increased slowly with the applied stress, and can be predicted.”), the entire data
transfer (from signal post processing to a prediction of the conveyer belt conditions) and
telecommunication system including a predictive maintenance were presented followed by
the stepwise development of a business model between manufacturer and contractor. It was
pointed out very clearly that “manufacturers of industrial goods integrate several components
from different component suppliers into their specific machines”. A central cloud platform is
obligatory due to the interconnection of component suppliers up to the machine user for cross-
company data exchange (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Value network map (Pier, 2018)

http://www.clubofbologna.org/ew/ew_proceedings/2018_S1.3_PPTX_PIER_rid.pdf

User, contractor, manufacture and component supplier are connected in a network to

increase machine and process efficiency continuously.
For the future global logistic networks will be build predicting the frequency of
maintenance by intelligent interfaces of machines.

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 S. Kosutic, A. Gronauer, M. Martinov, P. Schulze Lammers

AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY, NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND

LIMITS FOR USERS
H. Auernhammer gave a short introduction for the Session 2., reminding audience on at
Club of Bologna annual meeting during Agritechnica fair in Hanover 2017 introduced term
4.0 Agriculture.
Section started with presentation of B. Pichlmaier related to trends and new technologies
for agriculture and agricultural machinery. Actual aspects of expected future development,
based on complex principles of sustainability were discussed and commented. He tackled
issues of machinery power and weight growth, aimed to contribute reduction of operational
costs. It was concluded that the growth reached limit. Fig. 5 presented tractor operational costs
as a function of engine power, and fig. 6. the same for application of future autonomous,
driverless, solutions.

Figure 5 Operational costs versa tractor power

According to fig. 5. the power growth over 120 kW does not result in reduction of
operational cost per hectare. Regarding autonomous vehicles, whose introduction is expected
in the future, no labor costs, small units will have lower overall costs per hectare. This
motivated author to express motto for future development: multitude instead of magnitude.
Author elaborated and presented few other aspects of future technologies, like advanced
controlled environment agriculture (greenhouses), robots, smart machines, new fuels (e.g.
electricity) and information visualization. Very interesting, intelligent and usable presentation
was finished with few messages.
Two most significant are:
− Sustainable productivity is the fundamental objective for farming. Support fresh
thinking for a truly circular agricultural economy.
− Evaluate paradigm shifts: Machinery → Agronomy; Magnitude → Multitude;
Complexity → Simplicity.

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 Highlights of 28th Club Of Bologna meeting

Figure 6 Operational costs versa power for autonomous, driverless, tractors

M. Shulman informed about European Associations of Agricultural (family) Farms Copa

and Cooperatives –Cogeca. These two entities are, since merged in 1962, the biggest and
most active lobby organizations in Brussels. Organization appreciates idea of "Smart Village"
and is ready to accept digitization, “big-data”, robotics, biotechnology, smart farming, etc.,
but this should be on a level to provide concrete solutions and ensure full security. In this
regard EU Code of Conduct on agricultural data sharing by contractual arrangement should
be usable tool. The final message of the presentation was: Innovation needs to provide
concrete solutions and all farmers need to access latest technology in order to respond to
dynamic markets and maintain high quality of agricultural products!
This was followed by untypical presentation of advanced farmer J. Bosch, who
demonstrated his and other farmer's experiences with new technologies in agriculture, mostly
related to application of IT and digitalization. He mentioned advantages of IT, but some
problems as well. Most significant are those related to putting systems into operation and
fighting with malfunctions. To overcome mentioned is needed between less than hour, till few
months, including engagement of sellers' team. It was also mentioned the problem of coupling
tractors and implements by using different stages of ISOBUS. That means, full commercial
maturity of compatibility of ISOBUS is still in front of us. However, it was concluded that
introduction of IT and digitalization already support agriculture, and future expectations are
unlimited. Section was finalized by presentation on status in P.R. China, given by M. Yang.
This was overview of current development and future plans, but was more like political
declaration, with less concrete achievements and future outlooks.

SPECIFIC MECHANIZATION: MACHINES FOR HORTICULTURE

The future of horticulture mechanisation, by prof. Silvana Nicole, Univ. of Turine

Author emphasize several basic characteristics and future challenges of horticulture
production such as: 1. High costs and low productivity, 2. Internal and external business risks,
3. Maintain product performance and quality control, 4. Threat from emerging economies
with larger and cheaper labor and 5. Various risks in managing work health and safety.
Besides previous, Prof. Nicole pointed out that future horticulture production needs Intelligent
sensing systems, robotics and precision agriculture automation as means to reduce production

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 S. Kosutic, A. Gronauer, M. Martinov, P. Schulze Lammers

costs due to increase of productivity. Robots in horticulture are useful in nurseries and
greenhouses, parks and golf courses, in the field for monitoring, serve as mechanical aids,
allow high level of mechanization and can be real machines, help during post-harvest practices
for picking and harvesting, grading and sorting, and packing. Harvesting fruits and vegetables
proves to be a difficult problem to automate, but several companies are up to the challenge.
According to prof. Nicole opinion by interconnecting crops, tools and vehicles to smart
devices and sensors, farmers will soon be able to increase productivity saving money and
conserving natural resources by making the right decision at the right time based on data.

Figure 7 Pathogen monitor and control by micro robots, advanced automatic vegetable
grafting machines, crops monitoring by drones and greenhouse robot sprayers (S. Nicole)

Horticulture mechanization and automation in open-field: state of the art and future
perspective, by prof. Danilo Monarca from Univ. Tuscia
The author describes the machines for the production in open field, starting from the
sowing and transplanting machinery and their most recent innovations (transplanters,
mulchers, combined machines). After a short description of some machines for pesticide
application and weed control, ample space was given to the harvesters. The distinction
between product for the fresh market and for the processing industry is fundamental. For the
product destined directly to the table, the use of manual and only partially facilitated
harvesting yards is still very widespread (asparagus, artichoke, cauliflower), while for the
productions destined for industry, harvesting operations

24
 Highlights of 28th Club Of Bologna meeting

Figure 8 Final conclusions of future development and using smart machines in open field
horticulture production (D. Monarca)

Automation and robotics in the protected environment, current development and

challenges for the future, by Jochen Hemming, Vageningen University
The modern consumer demands guaranteed and constant quality. Moreover, there are
intensified hygiene, food safety and traceability demands. Automated production and quality
assessment systems can contribute to fulfill these demands. It is proven that the use of more
technology in protected cultivation results in more yield, better product quality, and much
higher resource efficiency. Many highly automated systems are already applied in commercial
greenhouses. This includes logistics and autonomous transport of plants and harvested product
in the greenhouse, spraying robots, machine vision based sorting systems for pot-plants and
cut-flowers and robotic cutting, planting and grafting machines. Actual research focus on
automated crop scouting (e.g. insect and disease detection), phenotyping (e.g. monitoring and
predicting fruit setting) and robotic harvesting (e.g. of tomatoes, sweet pepper, strawberries).
Still more research is needed to make such systems performing fast, simple and safe to use in
practice. The current developments in high-tech horticulture are supported by the worldwide
rapid improvements in computer hardware, software and artificial intelligence.

Figure 9 Some research achievements in harvesting (J. Hemming)

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 S. Kosutic, A. Gronauer, M. Martinov, P. Schulze Lammers

Equipment innovations in postharvest handling and minimally processing of fresh fruit

and vegetables, by Giancarlo Colelli (University of Foggia – Italy)
Fresh fruit and vegetables are constituted by living tissues which carry on metabolic
processes related to ripening and senescence. They are important for human diet as they
represent an important source for bioactive compounds. Postharvest handling of these
products is aimed to conditioning (cooling, grading and packaging) and to storing and/or
shipping to more or less distant markets. Minimally processing is aimed to trim, wash, and
cut into 100% usable product that is then packaged to offer high nutrition, convenience and
value while still maintaining freshness. Despite available measures for maintaining quality of
raw and processed material, degradation due to minimally processing is unavoidable, also
considering that peeling, trimming and/or cutting operations are often present. In addition,
other operations as washing and drying are known to cause mechanical stresses and loss of
sugars and nutrients. However, the extent to which quality is compromised depends on the
produce and on the processing conditions, including equipment and their operational settings.

Figure 10 Group photo of Club of Bologna members at 28th meeting, November 2018.

NOTE: All presentations and written papers are free available at web address:
https://www.clubofbologna.org/en/meetings-proceedings.php

26
47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ON THE CURRENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL

ROBOTICS IN CROP FARMING CHANCES AND RISKS
Maximilian TREIBER1*, Franz HILLERBRAND2, Josef BAUERDICK1,
Heinz BERNHARDT1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 Lehrstuhlfür Agrarsystemtechnik, Technische Universität München,
Am Staudengarten 2, D-85354 Freising, GERMANY
2 Hofgut Schrittenlohe, Schrittenlohe 1, D-85283 Wolnzach, GERMANY

ABSTRACT
For decades, labour shortage in agriculture has been met by clout increase
through heavy machinery, creating environmental problems. Latest automation
technology offers additional opportunities for a more sustainable land use.
Therefore, new information and communication technology can be merged into
Cyber Physical Systems providing the basis for agricultural robotics.
A widely discussed concept is swarm farming, where many small robots work
and organize autonomously. The human operator is left with planning,
surveillance and emergency management chores. This work examines the
current state of agricultural robotics in the market and identifies chances and
threats the technology poses to the work environment of farmers.
Robots can improve the efficiency of crop farming and help mitigate negative
environmental impacts of heavier farm machinery. Low-input robots offer
special potential, as they can perform tasks that originally required the
precision of human body work. A combined approach of small robots and
middle-sized tractors, working together in swarm configuration will foster the
scalability of the resulting system, but also requires more complex
surveillance- , management- and data infrastructure systems. Robots in
agriculture can mitigate physical loads and stress of monotonous work, but the
required level of skill, education and always-alert-times will rise. On the other
hand, these changes in technology will create new, well paid jobs for educated
experts in rural areas.
Keywords: Digitization, Smart Farming, Swarm Robotics, Field Robots,
Data Management

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

27
 M. Treiber, F. Hillerbrand, J. Bauerdick, H. Bernhardt

INTRODUCTION
Agriculture must produce food, feed and fibre for up to 10 billion people by 2025.
Simultaneously agriculture faces severe and increasing labour shortage. Within the last
decades, the agricultural technology path has therefore solely developed through clout
increase and heavy power vehicles. Since the last disruptive innovation of the self-driving
tractor and mobile combustion engine combines in the early twentieth century, farming
operations stayed the same, reaching their maximum capacity. Further, labour shortage in the
agricultural sector urges the need of additional automation in the field. New ideas of farm
management need to be developed. Throughout this process, information and communication
technology must be merged into new Cyber Physical Systems (CPS). Such systems have been
introduced by several institutions already (Herlitzius, 2017). As the adoption of these smart
systems increases, the optimization, regulation and control of machines, logistics, quality
control and traceability is made possible. That opens the fields for robots, that have been
hindered so far by diverse environmental conditions in agricultural landscapes and production
systems. Furthermore, Blockchain technology is on the rise to revolutionize information
sharing in agricultural value chains. For a successful connection of information sharing
systems to agricultural robotics, still, new communication networks must be established in
rural areas (Fitzek, 2018). Pedersen et. al. (2008) already discussed the current state of Field-
Robots, preparing the ground for a discussion on the potential of self-communicating
machines. In the future, Robotics, will change agricultural practices on both small- and large-
scale scenarios (Minßen et al., 2015), earthbound as well as airborne (Scherer et al., 2017).
The potential of robotic farming can be put into practice by fully automating conventional
heavy agricultural machinery and by arranging machine-to-machine communication of self-
managed, autonomous small vehicles. A widely discussed idea is the concept of swarm
farming with small vehicles working together in the field, organizing themselves, with the
only remaining human task of surveillance and emergency management.
Aim of this research, is to display the current state of agricultural robotics in crop farming,
including innovations that are “in the pipeline” already. This work shall further identify
chances and risks and help to predict future developments in the crop production value chain.
Based on the technological possibilities at hand, changes in the work environment shall be
analyzed from a farmer’s perspective.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Starting from an overview of businesses and use-cases of agricultural robotics available at
present, a thorough literature review is carried out. Further use-cases and possible
evolvements of agricultural robotics in the future (mid-term and long-term) are identified.
Furthermore, an own classification system of agricultural robotics is applied (Figure 1). The
robotic solutions are categorized into airborne and earthbound solutions. In the next step the
interaction towards telemetry- and data-management Systems is discussed. Finally, the way
robotics influence external stakeholders and the human decision-making unit (farmer) by
interaction over these systems is evaluated. In the end, the findings are discussed regarding
impacts the changes in technology will have on the farmers profession and what chances and
opportunities may arise in the future.

28
 On the current state of agricultural robotics in crop farming chances and risks

Figure 1 Categorization of Agricultural Robotics and the interaction of such categories

towards external stakeholders

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Throughout the research, 228 companies and their robotic solutions regarding agriculture
have been reviewed. Out of these, 49 companies do have robots that are in the market at
present already. 137 Companies do have technology, that is very probably going to hit the
market mid-term and 42 companies do have robotic solutions applicable for agriculture in the
pipeline long-term.
Figure 2 shows, that there is already a significant number of robotic solutions for
agriculture on the market. In the mid-term, up to three times as many may follow. For the long
term, there are some innovations in the pipeline already, that can make a big impact in the
field of agricultural robotics, but of course the amount of solutions available in the long-term
is impossible to entirely predict.
The further categorization of the found solutions is shown in Figure 3. In absolute
numbers, the earthbound robots play the most important role. Airborne robotic systems like
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for mapping, surveillance or precision farming chores like
spraying or fertilizing special cultures (e.g. vineyards) are available as well and expected to
rise further in the midterm. The last two categories are the data-management and telemetry
solutions. Interpretation of these numbers must be done cautiously, as the borders between
these two categories can be blurry. As data-management solutions are on a strong rise at
present and in the mid-term, their long-term developments are hard to predict. The same goes
for telemetry solutions, that may have their strongest rise for agricultural robotics in the mid-
term, judged by the number of companies having solutions in the pipeline already. However,
after further review, the data-management and telemetry solutions should have been merged
into one category, as they often form the joint basis for a robotic system being successful in
the market. That’s why their importance should not be underestimated.

29
 M. Treiber, F. Hillerbrand, J. Bauerdick, H. Bernhardt

250

200
No. of companies

150

100

50

0
total present mid-term long-term
availability of solutions for agricultural robotics

Figure 2 Availability of solutions for agricultural robotics on a timely horizon

From a more general point of view, Figure 3 shows, that the field of agricultural robotics
is on the rise mid-term. Earthbound robots, the use of drones and the telemetry and data-
management systems, going hand in hand with this hardware, will become more and more
common in agricultural practice in the next few years. As a result, farmers must get used to
the presence of this technology in their working lives. For the long-term, the development is
hard to predict, but the fact, that there are thus many innovations in the pipeline already, that
are supported by public relations and marketing measures, speaks for an ongoing trend.

80
No. of solutions

60

40

20

present mid-term long-term

availability on the market in categories

Figure 3 Availability of solutions for agricultural robotics in categories

30
 On the current state of agricultural robotics in crop farming chances and risks

Regarding the standalone earthbound robots that are on the market already, there are eight
major approaches that can be identified. They are shown in Figure 4 in conjunction with their
relative frequencies in the dataset of earthbound robots, that are already available today (at
least as prototypes for proof of concepts). The most common application for robots in the
dataset is a weeding robot, followed by implement carriers, that are versatile platforms for
multiple tasks in crop farming. Next in frequency are sensing platforms and pickers, that rely
heavily on sensor technology and image evaluation processes. Finally, Sprayers and
combinations from sprayers and weeders are of importance, as well as platforms for special
crops like for example asparagus or hop, that differ massively in construction from the other
categories and each other. An important observation regarding this dataset is, that most of the
earthbound robots are small and light, matching the expectations of agricultural robotics in
public perception. Others, like some sprayers and especially the implement carriers are bigger
in size and weight and can be compared to small or medium sized conventional tractors in
size and weight. Concerning that a cropping system consists of many different machines and
different tasks, a single agricultural robot can only partly automate the system. Therefore, it
is very likely, that on future robot farms, different robots will perform different tasks in a
cropping system and must communicate and work together with the help of telemetry data
exchange and smart data-management and decision-support systems.

weeder&sprayer
approach to agricultural robotics

weeder

sprayer

special crops

sensing platform

picker

implement carrier

fertilizing platform

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

relative frequency in dataset

Figure 4 Earthbound robots for agriculture, available at present (at least as POC prototype),
with relative frequencies in the dataset

The smaller robots, in general, are more suitable for tasks like weeding, seeding, sensing
or spraying. Some of them will have significant impacts on the work environment of farmers,
as they can, to a certain degree, substitute human labour in tasks like picking fruits or
harvesting special crops, that required many human workers in the past (Calderone, 2014).
There are tasks like tillage however, that require the bigger implement carriers. It is likely,

31
 M. Treiber, F. Hillerbrand, J. Bauerdick, H. Bernhardt

that in robot farming systems of the future, small and medium sized machines will work
cooperatively. From a farmer’s perspective, not only is there a need for self-organizing robot
swarms of small machines that handle one single task, but more diverse systems, with many
different agricultural robots, working on different tasks, are needed. That requires single
robots of different kinds to communicate with each other and the farmer. Therefore, the
importance of farm management information systems and new approaches for machine-to-
machine (M2M) and human-to-machine (H2M) communication will keep on rising.
Nonetheless, the farmer must always have the possibility to gain direct control over any
machine as a last-resort fall back solution (Griepentrog, 2017). The combined approach of
small and big autonomous machines can help to maximize the benefits, the use of robots in
agricultural systems offers. Achievable benefits are for example a higher precision of work,
the mitigation of soil compaction, driver relief, avoidance of accidents and optimal usage of
machine capacities (Eder, 2016). They stand against the risks of the technology, like for
example loss of autonomy in decision making, polarization of work, higher complexity of
work or the increase of stress due to permanent availability of the farmer (Zecha, 2018). But
the transfer of technology, originally developed for other applications than agriculture, brings
great opportunities as well. The attraction of skilled workers and young graduates to the
agricultural sector is of utmost importance. Also new jobs can be created in rural areas,
offering these professionals work and mitigating the adverse effects of urbanization (Duckett
et al., 2018)

CONCLUSIONS
Agricultural robots improve the efficiency of crop farming and help mitigate negative
environmental impacts of bigger farm machinery. Low-input robots offer special potential, as
they can perform tasks in the field that originally required the precision of human body work.
There are several concepts for agricultural robots in the market already. The most common
of which are weeding machines or concepts for multi-use implement carriers. A big increase
in offerings and adoption is to be expected for the near future.
A combination of two approaches, conventional automation of heavy farming machinery
and swarm robotics, or an integration of both into one system of middle-sized tractors that are
part of swarm farming will foster scalability of the agricultural robot systems.
Therefore, the development of telemetry-solutions, data-infrastructure, management- and
decision-support systems must go hand in hand with hardware development for successful
adoption in agriculture.
Regarding the impact on the work environments of farmers, the socio-economic risks of
robotic farming remain uncertain and even rise the question of redundancy of the human
farmer as such. With his experience and expertise being outcompeted by smart systems,
artificial intelligence and rapidly extending knowledge backed by Big Agricultural Data, the
required level of skill, education and always-alert-times will rise. On the other hand, robots
in agriculture can improve the quality of work, or mitigate physical strains, exposure to
dangerous work environments and stress of monotonous work. Further, they offer the big
opportunity to create new, well paid jobs for educated experts in rural areas.

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 On the current state of agricultural robotics in crop farming chances and risks

REFERENCES
Calderone, L. (2014). Robotic Farming for The Future. Industrial Robotics. Retrieved 15.10.2018, from
https://www.roboticstomorrow.com/article/2014/12/robotic-farming-for-the-future/5238
Duckett, T., Pearson, S., Blackmore, S., Grieve, B. (2018). Agricultural Robotics: The Future of Robotic
Agriculture. UK-RAS Network, London.
Eder, J. (2016). Autonomie: Die Traktroboter kommen. Traction 3. Retrieved from
https://www.agrarheute.com/traction/tests-technik/autonomie-traktroboter-kommen-522818
Fitzek, F. (2018). Echtzeitfähige Funkvernetzung für hochautomatisierte Arbeitsmaschinen und -
prozesse in der Landwirtschaft. Landtechnik der Zukunft - Großtraktoren + Giganten oder
Feldschwärme. TU Dresden, Dresden.
Griepentrog, H. (2017). Der Landwirt bleibt unverzichtbar. Agrarzeitung 45, 13.
Herlitzius, T. (2017). Automation and Robotics - The Trend Towards Cyber Physical Systems in
Agriculture Business. AVL List GmbH, TU Dresden and SAE International, Dresden.
Minßen, T.-F., Urso, L-M., Gaus, C-C., Frerichs, L. (2015). Mit autonomen Landmaschinen zu neuen
Pflanzenbausystemen. ATZoffhighway 8/3, 6-11.
Pedersen, S., Blackmore, B. S., Fountas, S. (2008). Agricultural Robots - Applications and Economic
Perspectives. Service Robot Applications, Yoshihiko Takahashi, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/6048.
Available at: https://www.intechopen.com/books/service_robot_applications/agricultural_robots_-
_applications_and_economic_perspectives
Scherer, M., Chung, J., Lo, J. (2017). Commercial Drone Adoption in Agribusiness - Disruption and
Opportunity. Ipsos Business Consulting, Beijing.
Zecha, C. (2018). XAVER - Roboterschwarm für das Feld. Landtechnik der Zukunft - Großtraktoren +
Giganten oder Feldschwärme. TU Dresden, Dresden. Retrieved 14.10.2018, from http://nbn-
resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:14-qucosa-234755

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Pregledni rad
ZADACI Review paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

PARNI LOKOMOBIL U HRVATSKOJ POLJOPRIVREDI

S NAGLASKOM NA 19. STOLJEĆE
Goran FABIJANIĆ*, Krešimir ČOPEC, Igor KOVAČEV
*
E-mail dopisnog utora: [email protected]
Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Agronomski fakultet, Zavod za mehanizaciju poljoprivrede
Svetošimunska c. 25, 10000 Zagreb

SAŽETAK
Razvoj lokomobila kao prijenosnog parnog stroja započinje 1840-tih godina
u Engleskoj i u poljoprivredi se koristio više od 100 godina, 1920-tih godina
počinje gubiti na značaju uvođenjem traktora s motorom s unutarnjim
izgaranjem. U početku se najviše koristio za pogon vršalica, a kasnije i za
obradu tla pomoću vitla i čeličnog užeta. Procesi industrijalizacije i
modernizacije poljoprivrede u Hrvatskoj su započeli kasnije i odvijali su se
sporije u odnosu na zapadnoeuropske države. Hrvatske zemlje su do 1918.
godine bila u sastavu Austro-Ugarske monarhije, gdje su Hrvatska i Slavonija
bile zaseban politički teritorij sa Saborom i banom. Druga agrarna kriza koja
je zahvatila Europu između 1870. i 1895. godine je potaknula velika
poljoprivredna gospodarstva u Hrvatskoj i Slavoniji na uvođenje parnih
strojeva radi racionalizacije biljne proizvodnje, no dio gospodarstva s
ekstenzivnim ratarstvom nije bio financijski u mogućnosti provesti
modernizaciju. Na poljoprivrednim gospodarstvima u Hrvatskoj i Slavoniji je
1895. godine bilo ukupno 1.211 strojeva i gospodarskog oruđa na paru, od
kojih su 451 bili lokomobili. Slavonija kao poljoprivredno najrazvijenije
područje i glavna žitnica se isticala s 1.041 strojem i gospodarskim oruđem na
paru (85,96%), od kojih su 381 bili lokomobili (84,48%). Lokomobili su bili
najzastupljeniji na gospodarstvima s površinom od 575,5 ha (1.000 jutara) i
više, njih ukupno 212, od kojih je 107 bilo u Virovitičkoj županiji. Prof.
Raimond Fantoni, utemeljitelj Zavoda za mehanizaciju poljoprivrede
Agronomskog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, proveo je 1920-tih godina
ispitivanja kvalitete oranja s lokomobilom, mehanizmom za mijenjanje brzina i
plugom vučenim čeličnim užetom. Obrada tla s parnim plugom je na imanju
Belje u Baranji bila dominantna do 1956. godine i primjenjivala se sve do
proljeća 1958. godine.
Ključne riječi: lokomobil, prijenosni parni stroj, parni plug, Hrvatska i
Slavonija, industrijalizacija poljoprivrede

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

35
 G. Fabijanić, K. Čopec, I. Kovačev

UVOD
Potkraj 18. stoljeća u Engleskoj počinje korištenje parnog stroja u poljoprivredi, vodećoj
gospodarskoj grani tog vremena. U početku su to bili stacionarni strojevi za pogon vršalica,
preveliki i preskupi za korištenje na poljoprivrednim gospodarstvima prosječne veličine.
Razvojem polustacionarnih i pokretnih parnih strojeva počinje njihova intenzivnija primjena
u poljoprivredi. Produktivnost rada u poljoprivredi je između 1816. i 1861. godine porasla za
78%, i daljnji razvoj poljoprivrede će sve više ovisiti o industriji strojeva i umjetnih gnojiva
što će voditi „industrijalizaciji poljoprivrede“ (Defilippis, 2005). Proces industrijalizacije i
izgradnja prometnica kao osnova za razvoj i modernizaciju poljoprivrede u Hrvatskoj počinju
kasnije i odvijaju se sporije u odnosu na razvijene zemlje zapadne Europe. U drugoj polovici
19. stoljeća Hrvatska je bila dominantno seljačka zemlja, prema M. Zoričiću u Hrvatskoj i
Slavoniji je 1890. godine od poljoprivrede živjelo 84,64%, a u Dalmaciji 86,12%
stanovništva. Nakon ukidanja feudalnih odnosa 1848. godine i uvođenja procesa zemljišnog
rasterećenja trebalo je nekoliko desetljeća za konsolidaciju i modernizaciju poljoprivrede.
Primjena parnih strojeva je osjetno zaostajala i industrijska revolucija u Hrvatskoj započinje
tek sredinom 19. st., a veći zamah dobiva u razdoblju od 1850. do 1875. godine. Nakon
sklapanja Austro-ugarske nagodbe 1867. godine otvaraju se mogućnosti intenzivnije
provedbe industrijalizacije, obilnijom ponudom kapitala, izgradnjom modernih prometnica,
jačanjem i širenjem urbanih središta (Vranješ-Šoljan, 1998). Prvi parni stroj u ovom dijelu
Europe nabavljen je 1833. godine za tvornicu papira Smith & Meynier u Rijeci (Grgurić,
2007) i pušten u pogon 1835. godine. U početnoj fazi industrijalizacije najzastupljeniji su
parni mlinovi, a osobito jača drvno-prerađivačka industrija i prerada šećerne repe. Do 1854.
godine je zabilježeno svega petnaest parnih strojeva i glavnina industrijskih pogona
utemeljuje se tijekom šezdesetih i na početku sedamdesetih godina (Galović, 2000). Prema
Hrvatskoj tehničkoj enciklopediji do 1864. godine u Hrvatskoj je bilo 39 parnih strojeva s
ukupnom snagom od 518,5 kW (696 KS), polovica ih se rabila na poljoprivrednim
gospodarstvima i u tvornicama prehrambenih proizvoda.
Za unapređenje poljoprivrede bila je neophodna izgradnja kopnenih i vodenih prometnica
koje bi omogućile proširenje tržišta i bolje iskorištenje postojećeg poljoprivrednog
potencijala. Poljoprivredna gospodarstva su svoje proizvode dopremali cestom do tržišta ili
do željezničkih stanica odnosno riječnih pristaništa (Jelinović, 1986). Prva željeznička pruga
izgrađena je 1860. godine u Međimurju, a zatim 1862. godine slijedi željeznička pruga Sisak-
Zagreb-Zidani Most, prva u ondašnjoj Kraljevini Hrvatske i Slavonije. Razvoj prometnica je
potaknuo modernizaciju hrvatske poljoprivrede i uvođenje parnih strojeva na poljoprivredna
gospodarstva u šezdesetim i sedamdesetim godinama 19. stoljeća. Do 1867. godine Hrvatske
zemlje su bile u sastavu Habsburške Monarhije, a zatim do 1918. godine u Austro-Ugarskoj
Monarhiji. Istra s Kvarnerom je bila pod upravom Austrije, a Kraljevina Hrvatska i Slavonija
je bila bez Baranje, Međimurja i Rijeke s okolicom koji su bile pod upravom Ugarske.
Trojedna kraljevina je bio političko-pravni naziv za Kraljevinu Hrvatsku, Dalmaciju i
Slavoniju kao jedinstveno državno i političko tijelo. Tadašnja Hrvatska i Slavonija je
površinom prekrivala oko 67% današnje Hrvatske ne računajući istočni dio Srijema koji od
1918. godine pripada Srbiji. Srijemska županija s gradom Zemunom je prema Statističkom
godišnjaku I. iz 1905. godine imala površinu od 6.866 km2 i prema Hrvatskoj enciklopediji
danas je 2.454 km2 (oko 35%) u Hrvatskoj, u Vukovarsko-srijemskoj županiji, a 4.360 km2
(oko 65%) u Srbiji, u Vojvodini. U radu su korišteni statistički podaci iz prvog Popisa
gospodarstva i stoke od 31. prosinca 1895. godine koji su naknadno detaljnije obrađeni u

36
 Lokomobil u hrvatskoj poljoprivredi s naglaskom na 19. stoljeće

Statističkom godišnjaku Kraljevine Hrvatske i Slavonije I. iz 1905. godine. Uz zastupljenost

lokomobila prema tadašnjim županijama prikazana je i zastupljenost parnih plugova koji su
predstavljali složeniju primjenu lokomobila.

LOKOMOBIL
Lokomobil (lat. locus: mjesto + mobilis - pokretan) je pokretni ili nepokretni parni uređaj
koji se sastojao od stapnog parnog stroja i parnog kotla spojenih u jednu cjelinu, a služio je
za pogon radnih strojeva. U hrvatskoj poljoprivredi je bilo uvriježeno za lokomobil smatrati
parni stroj na kotačima koji je bio vučen zapregom ili samokretan, kako ga i opisuju u
tadašnjoj domaćoj literaturi (Fantoni, 1929a; Šah i Kišpatić, 1882). Koristili su se za pogon
drugih radnih strojeva preko remenice (najčešće vršalica), zatim za vuču oruđa za obradu tla
s čeličnim užetom preko vitla, pogon pumpi za vodu itd. Parni strojevi koji su se koristili za
vuču plugova s čeličnim užetom pomoću vitla nazivali su se i lokomotive, odnosno parne
lokomotive ako su bile samokretne (Fantoni, 1929a). Lokomobilski parni stroj stacionarnog
postrojenja koji se ne kreće zove se polulokomobil (Serdar, 1986) odnosno koji nema kotače
i postavljen je stalno na jednom mjestu, zove se i polustabilni parni stroj (Fantoni, 1929a).
Razvoj lokomobila kao pokretnog parnog stroja s kotačima započeo je u Engleskoj oko
1840. godine. Prvo javno predstavljanje pokretnog parnog stroja za pogon vršalice bilo je na
Izložbi poljoprivrednih oruđa, priključaka i strojeva 1841. godine u Liverpool-u,
organiziranoj od Royal Agricultural Society of England - RASE (Parkes et al., 1843). Robert
i James Allen Ransome iz Ipswich-a su predstavili parni stroj i kotao snage od 3,7 kW (5 KS)
postavljene na okvir s kotačima. Na farmi pored Liverpool-a je ispitivan učinak i kvaliteta
rada vršalica pogonjenih ručno ili Ransome-ovim prijenosnim parnim strojem. Utvrđeno je
da za 23 minute i 30 sekundi rada parni stroj ima isti učinak kao i 24 do 25 osoba u vršidbi, s
time da bi kod duljeg rada s ručnim pogonom bio potreban odmor ili smjena ljudi (Parkes,
1841). Na Izložbi 1842. godine u Bristol-u (RASE) prikazan je Ransome-ov samokretni parni
stroj na četiri kotača s platformom dovoljne površine za transport vršalice s farme na farmu
(slika 1a), mogao se kretati po cesti brzinom od 6,4 do 9,7 km h-1 (Parkes et al., 1842).

a b
Slika 1 a Ransome-ov samokretni parni stroj s vršalicama, jedna u transportu i druga u radu,
1 b lokomobil s vitlom (izvor: Ritchie, 1849; Černý, 1926)
Figure 1 a Ransome's selfpropeled portable steam engine with threshing machines, in
transport and in work, 1 b selfpropeled steam engine (locomobile) with winch (winding
drum) (source: Ritchie, 1849; Černý, 1926)

Svrha samokretnog lokomobila nije bila vuča oruđa preko polja ili transport tereta po cesti,
nego jednostavnije premještanje pogonskog stroja s farme na farmu korištenjem vlastitog
pogona umjesto životinjske vuče (zaprege). Lokomobili su se prvenstveno koristili za pogon
radnih strojeva i imali su veliku masu te nisu bili prikladni za kretanje preko polja zajedno s

37
 G. Fabijanić, K. Čopec, I. Kovačev

plugom. Za oranje se koristio sustav vuče oruđa s čeličnim užetom pomoću vitla na
lokomobilu koji je stajao na rubu polja. Daljnjim razvojem se povećava snaga parnog stroja,
povećavaju se tlakovi u parnom kotlu i uvode se pregrijači pare u dimnoj komori. Lokomobili
s 10,3 kW (14 KS) nisu mogli ostvariti dovoljnu vučnu silu za oranje na težim tlima na dubini
od 36,9 cm i počeli su se proizvoditi modeli sa snagom od 14,7 do 18,4 kW (20-25 KS) (G.l.
br. 8, 1870). Kasnije izvedbe lokomobila (parnih lokomotiva) koji su se koristili za oranje
imali su efektivnu snagu od oko 36,8 kW (50 KS) do oko 147,1 kW (200 KS), odnosno do
oko 220,6 kW (300 KS) prolazne maksimalne snage (Fantoni, 1954). Za rad s lokomobilom
bilo je potrebno od 4 do 5 osoba i bila je prisutna opasnost od samozapaljenja zbog iskrenja
iz dimne komore ili od eksplozije parnog kotla.
Obrada tla s lokomobilom se primjenjivala na velikim posjedima u Europi i SAD-u, no
počela je gubiti na značaju iza I. svjetskog rata. Do 1920-tih godina je prevladavala
proizvodnja lokomobila, a zatim se postepeno smanjivala (Jejčič, 2010).

OBRADA TLA S PARNIM PLUGOM

U 19. stoljeću se razvija obrada tla s parnim strojem i nastaje termin parni plug s obzirom
na vrstu pogonskog odnosno vučnog stroja. Jedan ili dva parna stroja (lokomobil) stajala su
uz rub parcele i vukli plug s čeličnim užetom pomoću vitla (slika 2a) ili je parni stroj
(poljoprivredna parna lokomotiva) vukao priključni plug s kojim se kretao preko polja.
Priključni plugovi su se manje koristili jer se parni stroj teško kretao po lakšem tlu zbog velike
mase, sabijao je tlo i trošio je dodatnu snagu za vlastito kretanje. U početku su se gotovo
redovito koristili parni plugovi vučeni čeličnim užetom s jednim ili dva lokomobila koji su
bili samokretni ili vučeni zapregom.

a b
Slika 2 a Oranje s parnim plugom (izvor: Černý, 1926), 2 b dvokrilni, balansni plug
(izvor: Černý, 1926; Fantoni, 1929a)
Figure 2 a Steam ploughing (source: Černý, 1926), 2 b balance plough
(source: Černý, 1926; Fantoni, 1929a)

Razvoj
Zamisao korištenja užeta i mehaničke snage za vuču pluga krtičnjaka nastaje u Engleskoj,
prvi ju je razvio Richard Lumbert oko 1800. godine, a najraniji patent za vuču ratila užetom
s parnim strojem je iz 1810. godine od Major Pratt-a (Partridge, 1973). Prvi potencijalno
praktičan i isplativ postupak vuče pluga krtičnjaka s vitlom i užetom je razvio John Fowler
(Engleska) 1850-tih godina. Godine 1854. uspješno predstavlja vuču pluga krtičnjaka s
lokomobilom od 4,4 kW (6 KS) na RASE izložbi u Lincoln-u. Nakon dvije godine predstavlja
sustav za obradu tla s dvokrilnim odnosno balansnim plugom s lokomobilom proizvođača
Ransomes, Sims and Jefferies Limited iz Ipswich-a. Prema katalogu iz 1860. godine
samokretni lokomobil je imao snagu od 7,4 kW (10 KS), i od oruđa se navode plug za četiri
brazde, kultivator, drljača i podrivač. Fowler je 1856. godine patentirao sustav oranja s dva

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 Lokomobil u hrvatskoj poljoprivredi s naglaskom na 19. stoljeće

samokretna lokomobila bez kola za usidrenje, a 1863. godine ga predstavlja na RASE izložbi
u Worcester-u. Za oranje se koristio dvokrilni plug premetnjak, tzv. balansni plug (slika 2b)
koji je bio vučen čeličnim užetom dužine od 450 do 600 m. Parni plugovi se od 1867. godine
u velikoj mjeri koriste i u Francuskoj i Njemačkoj te u prekomorskim zemljama, a preko 300
ih je oralo u egipatskom Ponilju (G.l. br. 8, 1870). Pojavljuju se i tzv. „putujući orači“ koji su
lokomobile i parne plugove prevozili od sela do sela i obavljali ugovorena oranja (G.l. br. 25,
1871).
Princip rada
Za oranje s jednim lokomobilom bila su potrebna kola za usidrenje s koloturom
postavljena uz rub parcele nasuprot lokomobila i između njih se vukao plug s čeličnim užetom
(slika 3a). Lokomobil i kola za usidrenje su se pomicali prema naprijed uz rubove parcele
nakon prohoda pluga. Moglo se koristiti i više kola za usidrenje s koloturom i tada je
lokomobil mogao biti postavljen na uglu parcele a plug se vukao između kola za usidrenje
koja su se postepeno uz rubove parcele primicala prema lokomobilu.
Parni plugovi su se najviše koristili s dva lokomobila postavljenim jedan nasuprot drugog
uz rubove parcele (slika 3b). Okretanjem vitla na jednom lokomobilu uže se namatalo i vuklo
plug, a na drugom lokomobilu na suprotnoj strani parcele se čelično uže automatski odmatalo
s vitla. Radna brzina oranja s dva lokomobila je bila od 6 do 9 km h-1 na većim dubinama.
Samokretni lokomobili su se sami bez vuče sa zapregom postepeno pomicali uz rub parcele
nakon prohoda pluga.
Lokomobil se koristio i za vuču kultivatora, brana, strojeva za vađenje repe itd., i često se
s plugom istovremeno vuklo i drugo oruđe, npr. valjak. Oranje s lokomobilom se isplatilo
samo na velikim površinama približno pravilnog oblika, osim toga morale su postojati
prilazne ceste do parcela zbog velike mase lokomobila.

a b
Slika 3 Sheme parnog oranja: 3 a lokomobil i kola za usidrenje (izvor: Partridge, 1973),
3 b dva lokomobila (izvor: Fantoni, 1954)
Figure 3 Steam ploughing schemes: 3 a one portable steam engine/locomobile and portable
anchor (source: Partridge, 1973), 3 b double-engine system with two portable steam
engines/locomobiles (source: Fantoni, 1954)

LOKOMOBIL U HRVATSKOJ POLJOPRIVREDI U MONARHIJAMA

Nakon ukidanja kmetstva u Hrvatskoj 1848. godine pojavljuje se problem nedostatka
sezonske radne snage i iznosa nadnice u poljoprivredi (G.l. br. 44, 1856). Kao jedno od
rješenja predlaže se uvođenje poljoprivrednih strojeva, npr.: sječkarice za slamu, mlatnice za
žito, ruljače za kukuruz (G.l. br. 45, 1856). U Gospodarskom listu br. 24. iz 1857. godine se
navodi: „Za našu zemlju strojevi potrebni su, to suvišno bilo bi dokazivati; mi imamo mnogo
zemljah malo rukah i skupih težakah“. Razlozi za sporo uvođenje i rjeđu upotrebu parnih
strojeva u hrvatskoj poljoprivredi bili su: nepoznanica i bojazan korištenja strojeva koji su bili

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 G. Fabijanić, K. Čopec, I. Kovačev

novina, njihova velika nabavna cijena i troškovi rada, upitna iskoristivost odnosno isplativost
kupnje stroja velike snage s obzirom na obim poslova, zatim nedostatak stručnih osoba koje
bi njime rukovale kao i dostupnost servisiranja i popravljanja stroja (G.l. br. 47, 1859).
Sredinom 19. stoljeća u Hrvatskoj su se za lokomobil koristili i izrazi „parno kretalo“ i
„parokret“ (G.l. br. 25, 1858; G.l. br. 29, 1861). Godine 1882. izdan je niz knjiga pod imenom
„Novovjeki izumi u znanosti, obrtu i umjetnosti“ autora Mije Kišpetića i Ivana Šaha. Bio je
to prvi znanstveno-tehnički bestseler napisan na hrvatskome jeziku. U prvoj knjizi „Novovjeki
izumi“ autor Ivan Šah u poglavlju Lokomobil navodi: „Trebao je parostroj, koji bi mogao
prenašati na razna mjesta bez velikih neprilika, da mu on jednom ore, žanje, sije polje, da mu
drugi put grabi i vuče vodu .... On stoji na kotačih, te nije osobito težak, tako da ga jedan ili
dva konja mogu i po lošijoj cesti lahko odvući na opredieljeno mjesto.“
Nabava parnog stroja kao što je lokomobil bila je isplativa za velike posjednike ili za više
srednjih i manjih posjednika kroz udruge ili društva. U početku su jedino u Engleskoj a zatim
i u sjevernoj Njemačkoj postojali kontraktori koji su svoje usluge s parnim strojevima nudili
poljoprivrednim gospodarstvima (G.l. br. 47, 1859). U Hrvatskoj je bio problem što posjednici
nisu imali dovoljno gotovine za kupovinu skupih strojeva, a u početku nije bilo mogućnosti
kreditiranja, također nije postojala domaća proizvodnja parnih strojeva koji bi bili niže
nabavne cijene. U početku je u Monarhiji cijena parnog pluga, lokomobila i kola za usidrenje
bila dvostruko veća od cijene u Engleskoj i kamata je iznosila od 10 do 20%, dok je u
Engleskoj kamata iznosila samo od 2 do 4% i postizali su se veći prinosi uz bolju cijenu
pšenice (G.l. br. 29, 1861). Hrvatsko-slavonsko gospodarsko društvo je osnovano 1841.
godine kao strukovno društvo s ciljem razvoja i unapređenja poljoprivrede, a od 1910. godine
je omogućavalo povoljniju nabavu i velikih strojeva poput lokomobila uz „najveći mogući
popust i najpovoljniju otplatu od 3 do 6 godina“ (G.l. br. 19, 1910).

Počeci
Na imanju Belje u Baranji provodila se preobrazba veleposjedničke ekonomike pod
upravom nadvojvode Albrechta od 1847. godine. Sredinom 19. stoljeća u pogonu su bila četiri
parna stroja od kojih je jedan je radio u Čemincu, drugi u pustari Kneževo, treći u Villanyu
za destiliranje vinske žeste, a od 1858. godine parni stroj snage od 5,9 kW (8 KS) pogoni
vršalicu. Iste godine je u Habsburškoj Monarhiji u Ugarskoj ispitivana vršalica koju je
pogonio lokomobil od 6,6 kW (9 KS) i za 30 minuta se ovršilo 285 snopova pšenice s oko
770 kg zrna, a za 12 sati 17.500 kg zrna (G.l. br. 25, 1858). Za posluživanje lokomobila bilo
je potrebno dvoje ljudi, a za vršalicu 12 ljudi. Prvi parom pogonjen plug u Habsburškoj
Monarhiji je bio predstavljen u lipnju 1861. godine s desne strane Dunava u blizini tadašnjeg
Požuna (današnja Bratislava). Primijenjen je Fowler-ov sustav oranja sa samokretnim
lokomobilom s kotvom ili sidrom, te plugom s 6 brazdi radnog zahvata od 122 cm. Postignut
je učinak od 0,58 h-1 na dubini od 13 cm, a sustav je posluživalo 10 osoba uključujući i 2
osobe za nalijevanje i dovoz vode kolima sa zapregom (G.l. br. 29, 1861). Nakon uspješnog
predstavljanja parnog pluga donesen je prijedlog o osnivanju društva za uvođenje parnih
strojeva u gospodarstvo i imenovan je njegov odbor.
Tada snažni lokomobili od 5,9 do 8,8 kW (8-12 KS) su bili preskupi i prejaki za manje
zahtjevne radove, te su se izrađivali i jeftiniji lokomobili od 1,5 do 2,2 kW (2-3 KS) koji su
imali niže troškove rada, prvenstveno manju potrošnju goriva. Nisu mogli raditi cijeli dan, ali
su investicijski bili isplativi jer su se mogli koristiti 8 mjeseci godišnje za pogon: vršalica,

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 Lokomobil u hrvatskoj poljoprivredi s naglaskom na 19. stoljeće

strojeva za rezanje sječke i korijena, žrvnja za zrno i uljani trop, pumpi za vodu i za piljenje
drva (G.l. br.47, 1859).
Izgradnjom željezničke pruge omogućeno je i organiziranje Prve dalmatinsko-hrvatsko-
slavonske gospodarske izložbe 1864. godine u Zagrebu koja je predstavila gospodarsko i
kulturno stanje ondašnje „trojedne kraljevine“. Sudjelovali su i izlagači iz ostalih dijelova
Habsburške Monarhije, a pod XIV. Podrazredom bilo je izloženo „gospodarstveno orudje i
strojevi, kola, štrcaljke, pjeneznice itd.“. Najistaknutiji je bio lokomobil snage 5,9 kW (8 KS)
proizvođača Clayton Shutlworth & Co. iz Lincolna iz Engleske s podružnicom u Beču koji je
izložio i vršalicu, razne strojeve i oruđa (katalog 1864).

Od 1870. godine
U tadašnjoj Monarhiji nadvojvoda Albrecht je prvi naručio parne plugove s lokomobilima
za svoja imanja u Baranji (G.l. br. 8, 1870) i prvo oranje parnim strojem u Hrvatskoj je bilo
1870. godine na veleposjedu Belje. Naručena su dva kompleta Flower-ovog sustava oranja s
dva lokomobila, ukupno dva parna pluga i četiri lokomobila koji su bili namijenjeni za oranje
površina za uzgoj kukuruza i šećerne repe. Na Belju je 1880. godine bilo 7 kompleta sustava
za oranje s dva lokomobila koji su obrađivali 12.234 ha, od čega je 8 lokomobila bilo snage
od 14,7 kW (20 KS) i 6 lokomobila snage od 10,3 kW (14 KS) (Musa, 1986). Koristili su se
i za pogon vršalica, runilica, kao i za pogon pumpi za potrebe odvodnje, radi prebacivanja
vode iz kanala u kanal (G.l. br. 17, 1896).
Na Belju se vodila evidencija prosječnog dnevnog i satnog učinka oranja s parnim plugom
i u razdoblju od 1872. do 1900. godine učinak se postepeno povećavao. Počevši od 1872. i
zaključno s 1900. godinom dnevni učinak za oranje na 30 cm dubine je iznosio od 4,30 ha do
8,21 ha, a satni učinak od 0,31 ha do 0,59 ha. Za plitko oranje na 15 cm dubine dnevni učinak
je iznosio od 5,93 ha do 9,48 ha, a satni učinak od 0,42 ha do 0,68 ha. Obrada tla s parnim
plugom je na Belju bila dominantna do 1956. godine i prvenstveno se koristila za oranje,
drljanje i tanjuranje. Parni plugovi su ostali u radu sve do proljeća 1958. godine, a prema
procjeni tadašnjih stručnjaka usjevi su bili bolji gdje se oralo parnim strojem naspram oranih
zapregom. Oranje se izvodilo kvalitetno bez sabijanja tla, osim toga strojevi su bili dugovječni
u radu (50 i više godina) i snažniji u odnosu na tadašnje traktore (Musa, 1986).
Druga agrarna kriza zahvatila je Europu između 1873. i 1895. godine, nastala je zbog
pritjecanja velikih količina jeftinog žita na europsko tržište iz SAD-a, Kanade, Indije, Rusije
i Ukrajine. Najviše su stradali veliki posjedi s ekstenzivnom proizvodnjom žitarica, te da bi
kompenzirali gubitke nastale zbog pada cijena glavnih žitarica uvodi se nova mehanizacija i
smanjuje broj najamnih radnika te konjskih i volovskih zapreka kojima se dotad obrađivalo
zemljište (Stipetić, 1986). U tom razdoblju posjed „Belje“ u Slavoniji unosi sve više parnih
plugova, parnih vršalica i drugih strojeva (Stipetić, 1986). No, agrarna kriza je ipak zakočila
razvojne tendencije velikog dijela slavonskih veleposjeda (Karaman, 1986).

Popis gospodarstava i stoke 1895. godine

Krajem 19. stoljeća Hrvatska i Slavonija se sastojala od osam županija, od kojih su
Požeška, Virovitička i Srijemska županija bile u Slavoniji, poljoprivredno najrazvijenijoj
regiji i glavnoj žitnici. Prema popisu gospodarstva i stoke od 31. prosinca 1895. godine, u svih
osam županija se u poljoprivredi koristilo 1.211 strojeva na paru, to su bili pogonski i radni
strojevi, kao i parni plugovi. Od toga: 451 lokomobil, 359 vršalica, 20 parnih plugova i 151
pod ostali strojevi na paru. U Slavoniji je na poljoprivrednim gospodarstvima bio ukupno

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 G. Fabijanić, K. Čopec, I. Kovačev

1.041 stroj na paru (85,96%), od toga 381 lokomobil (84,48%), 501 vršalica (85,06%), 15
parnih plugova (75,00%) i 144 ostalih parnih strojeva (95,36%). Prema navedenom vidljivo
je da je Slavonija suvereno dominirala u korištenju parnih strojeva i parnog pluga u
poljoprivredi. Prednjačile su Virovitička i Srijemska županija koje su ukupno imale 957
strojeva na paru (79,03%) od čega 347 lokomobila i 15 parnih plugova, a ostale županije su
ih imale znatno manje ili ih nisu imale (tablica 2).

Tablica 1 Površina svih gospodarstva i broj gospodarstva s površinom od 575,5 ha (1.000

jutara) i više prema županijama (Popis gospodarstva i stoke od 31. prosinca 1895. i
Statistički godišnjak Kraljevine Hrvatske i Slavonije I. 1905.)
Table 1 Area of the farms by counties and number of farms with 575,7 ha and over
(Statistical data from 1895 and 1905)
Površina gospodarstva / Area of the farms ('000 ha) No. of
farms
Županija Sva gospodarstva Gospodarstva s 575,5 ha i više
with
County All farms Farms with 575,7 ha and over 575,5
ukupno oranica i vrt1 šuma ukupno oranica i vrt šuma ha and
total arable land forest total arable land forest over
Lika-Krbava 163 90 4 - - - -
Modruš-Rijeka 250 100 57 48 0,3 45 6
Zagreb 497 233 121 75 13 44 44
Varaždin 221 90 72 35 9 20 30
Bjelovar-Križ 313 196 33 24 4 16 11
Požega 322 157 93 94 7 82 14
Virovitica 436 202 155 245 54 153 72
Srijem 481 337 43 81 25 40 32
Ukupno/Total 2.683 1.405 580 603 112 399 2092
1 Ukupna površina oranica za Hrvatsku i Slavoniju je iznosila 1.350.507 ha (96,12%), a vrtova 54.554
ha (3,88%).
1 Total area of arable land in Croatia and Slavonia was 1,350,507 ha (96,12%), and vegetable gardens

54,554 ha (3,88%)
2 Ukupno je bilo 30 gospodarstva s površinom većom od 5.755 ha (10.000 jutara), 15 u Virovitičkoj, 5

u Požeškoj županiji i 10 u ostalim županijama

2 Total of 30 farms larger than 5,755 ha (10,000 k.j.) existed, 15 in Virovitica county, 5 in Požega county,

and 10 in other counties

Lokomobili su bili najzastupljeniji na velikim gospodarstvima s površinom od 575,5 ha

(1.000 jutara) i više, dok su parni plugovi bili najzastupljeniji na gospodarstvima s površinom
od 11,5 do 57,5 ha (20-100 jutara) i to u Srijemskoj županiji (tablica 2). Može se pretpostaviti
da su ta gospodarstva bila udružena s drugim gospodarstvima ili su nudila uslugu oranja
drugim poljoprivrednicima. Velike površine oranica i veći broj velikih gospodarstava u
županijama kao što su Virovitička i Srijemska (tablica 1) omogućavali su veća ulaganja u
parne strojeve. Niz krupnih imanja u Slavoniji je raspolagalo s velikim šumskim kompleksima
koji su često donosili veću dobit od poljoprivredne djelatnosti, što je sve do prvog svjetskog
rata nepovoljno utjecalo na zainteresiranost slavonskih veleposjednika za daljnje

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 Lokomobil u hrvatskoj poljoprivredi s naglaskom na 19. stoljeće

unapređivanja vlastitih agrarnih privrednih jedinica (Karaman, 1986). Bez obzira na činjenicu
da je slavonska zemljoposjednička aristokracija veći dio prihoda ostvarivala prodajom drvne
sirovine parnim pilanama i drvnoprerađivačkim poduzećima, provela je modernizaciju i
racionalizaciju poslovanja na poljoprivrednim gospodarstvima uvođenjem parnih strojeva.
Može se pretpostaviti i da se dio profita iz šumskog kompleksa preusmjeravao i u
modernizaciju poljoprivrede. U Virovitičkoj županiji su gospodarstva s površinom od 575,5
ha (1.000 jutara) i više imala ukupno 152.553 ha pod šumama, a u Požeškoj županiji 81.674
ha, što je zajedno iznosilo oko 40% od ukupnih površina pod šumama za sva gospodarstva
(tablica 1).

Tablica 2 Broj lokomobila i parnih plugova prema županijama i površini gospodarstava u

1895. godini (Statistički godišnjak Kraljevine Hrvatske i Slavonije I. 1905.)
Table 2 Number of portable steam engines and steam ploughs by counties and farms area in
1895 (Statistical data from 1905)

Površina gospodarstva / Farm size (ha)

Županija Br. 2,9 - 11,5 11,5 - 57,5 57,5 - 115,1 115,1 - 575,5 ˃ 575,5 Ukupno
County No. jutro (1 k.j. ≈ 0.5755 ha) Total

5 - 20 20 - 100 100 - 200 200 - 1000 ˃ 1000

Lika- LM 1 - - - - - -
Krbava PP - - - - - -
Modruš- LM - - - - 1 1
Rijeka PP - - - - - -
LM - - - 7 17 24
Zagreb
PP - - - - - -
LM - - - 6 18 24
Varaždin
PP - - - - - -
Bjelovar- LM 1 9 1 4 6 21
Križevci PP 1 2 - 2 - 5
LM 5 3 2 13 11 34
Požega
PP - - - - - -
LM 1 10 17 34 107 169
Virovitica
PP - - - - 1 1
LM 8 48 37 33 52 178
Srijem
PP - 11 - - 3 14
Hrvatska i LM 15 70 57 97 212 451
Slavonija PP 1 13 - 2 4 20
Površina i broj gospodarstava u Hrvatskoj i Slavoniji / Size and number of farms in Croatia and Slavonia
('000 ha)
Ukupno / Total 1.112 601 42 98 603 2.456
Oranica / Arable land 670 374 25 43 111 1.223
Šuma / Forest 81 46 7 29 399 562
Br. gosp./ No. of farms 192.656 33.433 550 380 209 227.228
1 LM – lokomobil, PP – parni plug / LM – locomobile, PP – steam plough

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 G. Fabijanić, K. Čopec, I. Kovačev

Vršidba žitarica strojevima u Hrvatskoj i Slavoniji 1918. godine

Prema izvještaju o uspjehu vršidbe u 1918. godini ukupno se koristilo 5.961 strojeva za
vršidbu (Glavni izvještaj, 1918), i ovršeno je 304.664 t žitarica (pšenica, raž, ječam i zob).
Pogon s parnim strojem je imalo 2.174 strojeva za vršidbu (36,47% od svih vršalica), i oko
96% ih se koristilo u tadašnjoj Slavoniji. Motor s unutarnjim izgaranjem je pogonio 618
strojeva za vršidbu (10,37% od svih vršalica). Zanimljivo je napomenuti da se u Fantonijevoj
knjizi Gospodarsko strojarstvo (1929a) navode i motorni lokomobili s motorom s unutarnjim
izgaranjem umjesto parnog stroja i kotla, a „Motori i lokomobil za petrolej, benzin, špirit i
plin. Bez pogibelji od vatre i eksplozije!“ se počinje oglašavati u Gospodarskom listu od 1900.
godine (br. 13). U prvim desetljećima 20. stoljeća zavisno od snage lokomobila i dimenzije
bubnja učinak vršalica je iznosio od 430 do 1.700 kg zrna pšenice u 1 h; za efektivnu snagu
od 3,7 do 19,9 kW (5-27 KS), dužinu bubnja od 760 do 1.530 mm i promjer bubnja od 500
do 610 mm (Fantoni, 1929a).

PRIMJENA LOKOMOBILA U ISPITIVANJIMA ZAVODA ZA OPĆE I

GOSPODARSKO STROJARSTVO
Današnji Zavod za mehanizaciju poljoprivrede osnovan je 1919. godine kao Zavod za
opće i gospodarsko strojarstvo na Gospodarsko – šumarskom fakultetu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu
i 1922. godine dobiva pravo ispitivanja gospodarskih strojeva i oruđa. Osnivač Zavoda, prof.
Raimond Fantoni je 1926. godine na fakultetskom dobru u Maksimiru u Zagrebu proveo
ispitivanje kvalitete oranja s lokomobilom koji je preko remenice pogonio mehanizam za
mijenjanje brzina s vitlom kao zasebnim strojem (slika 4).

a b
Slika 4 a Ispitivanje oranja iz 1926. godine s lokomobilom i plugom vučenim užetom preko
mehanizma za mijenjanje brzina, 4 b mehanizam za mijenjanje brzina
(izvor: Fantoni, 1929a i 1929b)
Figure 4 a Ploughing research with agricultural locomotive and haulage system with
plough, steel cable and gearbox mechanism in 1926, 4 b gearbox speed-change mechanism
(source: Fantoni, 1929a i 1929b)

Jednobrazdni plug s ručkama je vuklo čelično uže koje se namatalo na vitlo na mehanizmu
za mijenjanje brzina (slika 5). Cilj istraživanja je bio utvrditi utjecaj brzine kretanja pluga na
kvalitetu oranja, na izvršeni rad (utrošak snage) te kod koje je brzine oranje najpovoljnije.
Donesen je zaključak da se za tlo na kojem su izvedeni pokusi i za oblik korištenog pluga,
kod iste dubine oranja i za istu površinu troši manje rada u oranju s volovima koji oru brzinom

44
 Lokomobil u hrvatskoj poljoprivredi s naglaskom na 19. stoljeće

od oko 1,6 km h-1, nego s konjima koji oru brzinom od oko 2,5 km h-1, a kvaliteta oranja je
ista. Zatim, da se kod oranja strojnim plugom bolje ore pri većim brzinama, jače se sitni i rahli
tlo. Na kraju rada Fantoni R. (1929a) u zaključku navodi: „da je u prilikama, u kojima su
provedeni pokusi, optimum oranja brzinama između 4,9 i 6,2 km na sat“.

Slika 5 Shema ispitivanja oranja iz 1926. godine, A - lokomobil, B - remen, C - mehanizam

za mijenjanje brzine na kolima, b - vitlo, F - uređaj za pravilno namatanje užeta na vitlo, D -
čelično uže, G - uređaj za vuču pluga u pravcu i E - plug (izvor: Fantoni, 1929a)
Figure 5 Ploughing research scheme in 1926, A – portable steam engine/agricultural
locomotive, B – belt, C – gearbox speed-change mechanism on the waggon, b – winch, F –
device for proper winding of a steel cable to a winch, D – steel cable, G – device for keeping
ploughing in the direction and E – plough (source: Fantoni, 1929a)

Radovi s rezultatima istraživanja su objavljeni u vanjskim časopisima (Fantoni, 1927a,

1927b i 1934), u knjizi Gospodarsko strojarstvo (Fantoni, 1929a) i u prvoj Spomenici
fakultetskog savjeta 1919. - 1929. (Fantoni, 1929b).

LOKOMOBIL SREDINOM 20. STOLJEĆA

Prestanku korištenja lokomobila u europskoj poljoprivredi sredinom prošlog stoljeća
pridonijela je isporuka traktora iz SAD-a kao poslijeratna pomoć, povećanje broja žitnih
kombajna, nestašica ugljena iza rata itd., ipak su se još neko vrijeme zadržali u cestogradnji
(Jejčič, 2010). Nakon II. svjetskog rata su se još neko vrijeme koristili za pogon vršalica žita
i oranje, a u nekim zemljama i do 1970-tih godina. Na imanju Belje je uloga parnih strojeva
u osnovnoj obradi tla bila dominantna sve do 1956. godine i koristili su se do proljeća 1958.
godine, godišnje se s lokomobilima oralo prosječno 8.400 ha, uz drljanje i tanjuranje (Musa,
1986). Za sustav oranja s dva lokomobila bilo je potrebno od 8 do 12 osoba, ovisno o
udaljenosti od mjesta opskrbe vodom i gorivom. Na svakom lokomobilu su bila po dva ložača,
zatim dvije osobe za upravljanje plugom, te od jedne do dvije osobe za dovoz vode i isto
toliko za dovoz goriva. Radni dan osoblja na lokomobilu je započinjao od 2 ili 3 sata ujutro
radi loženja i postizanja radnog tlaka pare za što je trebalo od 1,5 do 2 sata, i onda je moglo
započeti oranje koje je trajalo sve do 18 ili do 20 sati. Lokomobil od 110,3 kW (150 KS) je
mogao postići učinak u oranju od 2,27 ha h-1, na dubini od 24 cm pri specifičnom otporu tla
od 0,6 kg cm-2, s korisnim učinkom oranja od 0,9 (računajući okretanja na uvratinama) i
korisnim koeficijentom prijenosa snage na vitlo od 0,85 (Fantoni, 1954). Prema procjeni
tadašnjih stručnjaka na Belju oranje se izvodilo kvalitetno bez sabijanja tla, osim toga strojevi
su bili dugovječni u radu (50 i više godina) i snažniji u odnosu na tadašnje traktore (Musa,
1986).

45
 G. Fabijanić, K. Čopec, I. Kovačev

ZAKLJUČAK
Sredinom 19. stoljeća počinje intenzivnija industrijalizacija poljoprivrede razvojem
lokomobila, odnosno mobilnih parnih strojeva na kotačima koji su pogonili radne strojeve i
koristili se za obradu tla. Obrada tla s parnim plugom se koristila na velikim posjedima i
počela je gubiti na značaju 1920-tih godina što je uzrokovalo postepeno smanjenje
proizvodnje lokomobila. U Hrvatskoj su procesi industrijalizacije i modernizacije
poljoprivrede počeli kasnije i odvijali su se sporije u odnosu na zapadnoeuropske zemlje.
Izgradnja kopnenih i vodenih prometnica, spajanje s postojećom željezničkom prugom Beč-
Trst, jačanje i širenje urbanih središta, kao i početak druge agrarne krize potakli su 1870-tih
godina uvođenje parnih strojeva na velikim poljoprivrednim gospodarstvima u Hrvatskoj i
Slavoniji. U tadašnjoj Slavoniji kao poljoprivrednoj regiji i glavnoj žitnica bio je 1041 stroj
na paru, što je iznosilo 85,96% od svih strojeva na paru koji su se koristili na gospodarstvima
prema Popisu iz 1895. godine. Udio u lokomobilima je iznosio 84,48%, što također potvrđuje
prevlast Slavonije u korištenju strojeva i oruđa na paru u poljoprivredi tadašnje Hrvatske i
Slavonije. Virovitička županija je imala najviše velikih gospodarstva s površinom od 575,5
ha (1.000 jutara) i više, na kojima je bilo 107 lokomobila, a 15 gospodarstva je imalo površinu
veću od 5.755 ha (10.000 jutara). U svih osam županija na velikim poljoprivrednim
gospodarstvima s 575,5 ha (1.000 jutara) i više bilo je ukupno 212 lokomobila, a 50,48% (107
lokomobila) ih je bilo u Virovitičkoj županiji. Veleposjedi u Slavoniji su raspolagali s velikim
površinama pod šumama koje su često donosile veću dobit od poljoprivrede, što je sve do
prvog svjetskog rata nepovoljno utjecalo na daljnju modernizaciju velikih poljoprivrednih
gospodarstva. Lokomobil se na Gospodarsko – šumarskom fakultetu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu
koristio i u znanstvenoistraživačkoj djelatnosti. Prof. R. Fantoni je 1926. godine na
pokušalištu Maksimir proveo pokuse s ciljem utvrđivanja utjecaja brzine gibanja pluga na
kvalitetu oranja. Ispitivanja su izvedena s lokomobilom, mehanizmom za mijenjanje brzina i
plugom vučenim užetom, te je utvrđeno da se kod oranja strojnim plugom bolje ore pri većim
brzinama, jače se sitni i rahli tlo. Optimalne brzine oranja su iznosile između 4,9 i 6,2 km h-1
s obzirom na stupanj rahlosti tla i uloženi rad. Lokomobil se u poljoprivredi zadržao još do
sredine 20. stoljeća, uglavnom za pogon vršalica žita. Glavni razlog prestanka korištenja
lokomobila je bila sve veća dominacija traktora s motorom s unutarnjim izgaranjem, a kasnije
i sve raširenija primjena kombajna. Obrada tla s parnim plugom se na imanju Belju koristila
do 1958. godine.

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 Lokomobil u hrvatskoj poljoprivredi s naglaskom na 19. stoljeće

STEAM LOCOMOBILE IN CROATIAN AGRICULTURE

WITH A STRESS ON 19TH CENTURY
Goran FABIJANIĆ*, Krešimir ČOPEC, Igor KOVAČEV
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Engineering,
Svetošimunska c. 25, Zagreb, HR-10000

ABSTRACT
The development of locomobile as a portable steam engine began in the
1840s in England and it has been in use in agriculture for over 100 years. In
the 1920s it began to lose importance with the introduction of tractors powered
by internal combustion engines. At first, it was mainly used to propel threshers,
and later in soil tillage by means of winding drum and steel cable. The
processes of industrialization and modernization of agriculture in Croatia
began later and unfolded slower compared to West European countries.
Croatian lands were until 1918 part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, within
which Croatia and Slavonia were a separate territory with parliament and
governor (ban). The second agrarian crisis which hit Europe between 1870 and
1895 stimulated large agrarian estates in Croatia and Slavonia to introduce
steam machines for the purpose of rationalization of plant production, but there
was also part of the economy with extensive agriculture which was not
financially capable of carrying out this modernization. On agrarian estates in
Croatia and Slavonia in 1895 there was a total of 1211 machines and
agricultural tillage tools powered by steam, of which 451 were locomobiles.
Slavonia as the most developed agrarian area and the main source of wheat
headed this trend with 1041 engines and agricultural tillage tools powered by
steam (85.96%) of which number 381 were locomobiles (84.48%). Locomobiles
were mostly represented on estates with an area of 575.5 ha (1000 acres) and
larger. They accounted for 212 of such machines, 107 of which were in the
Virovitica County. Prof. Raimond Fantoni, the founder of the Department for
Agricultural Engineering at the Faculty of Agriculture of the University of
Zagreb, began in the 1920s to test the quality of tillage with locomobiles,
gearbox mechanism and plough pulled by steel cable. Steam ploughing was a
dominant technology on the Belje estate in Baranja until 1956 and was applied
until spring of 1958.
Keywords: locomobile, transportable steam machine, steam plough, Croatia
and Slavonia, industrialization of agriculture

49
47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ELECTRIFICATION OF MOUNTED IMPLEMENTS -

CONCEPTS OF TRACTION ASSISTANCE
Jochen Georg WIECHA1*, Tim BÖGEL2, Thomas HERLITZIUS2, Heinz BERNHARDT1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Chair of Agriculture Systems Engineering, Technical University of Munich,
Am Staudengarten 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
2Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technical University Dresden,

Bergstrasse 120, 01069 Dresden, Germany

ABSTRACT
Electrification is a futuristic agricultural technology. Some tractor
manufacturers offer electrical generators on their tractors. Transferring
traction power into electrical energy is still a novel concept in agriculture;
however, the technology can be realized. Although electrical assistance of
trailer axles is available, mounted implements with traction assistance are not
available yet.
We present, test, and analyze new concepts for electrical traction support.
Possible scenarios are tested and analyzed. With the intent to maximize the
variety of possible operation modes, ultimately to enable agricultural
implements using electrical assistance to achieve high market penetration and
to be a worthwhile investment for farmers.
The results of our work show that traction support between crop rows is
possible. Our work has also led to new agriculture methods using mounted
implements in untilled soil. Considering the space needed for the crop rows,
the driving unit is formed without spaces between the traction elements. For a
wide range of row spacing, no damage to crops will occur. Mounted implements
are usefully applied several times a year for different purposes, according to
concepts presented herein.
We also examined the feasibility of supplementary features. For example, in
addition to a system height adjustment while operating, we added a soil-
reworking function: Depending on the prevailing soil conditions, it is possible
to generate positive slippage on the soil surface and, thus, actively shift the
uppermost soil layer.

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

51
 J. G. Wiecha, T. Bögel, T. Herlitzius, H. Bernhardt

The concept of electrification of mounted implements is just a starting point

for further developments. It will promote the general use of electrical support
in agriculture.
Keywords: Electrification, mounted implements, concept study, traction
assistance

INTRODUCTION
Liquid manure and fermentation residues of biogas are important suppliers of nutrients in
present-day agriculture. Because, penetrate the soil immediately during application, nutrient
losses and ammonia emissions can be avoided. In addition, microbial biomass is rises with
soil tillage using a grubber (Murugan et al. 2014). For tilling loamy soils and clay, either a
high draft force is needed for the grubber, as investigated by Ranjbarian et al. (2017) for
different tillage implements, or the upper soil layer has to be cut first (Middelton 1821). Chen
(et al. 2013) worked on a design for slurry-injection tools that would prevent high draft force
before a prototype mounted implement was built. Laguee (1991) presented a semi-liquid
manure spreader/injector; however, he also had considered draft force. Slurry penetration into
loamy soils and clay is unusual; however, with electrification of mounted implements, it is
possible to develop traction units intended to reduce the required draft forces for these soils
and clay. These developments allow multiple uses of such slurry-application units.
Concepts presented here are preparatory for the construction of different models and
functional configurations. First, we must consider all the requirements and needs of every
possible agricultural crop. The status quo is not the only reason for such considerations. Since
electrification is a futuristic technology, we have to evaluate the potential of this new class of
implements. We expect the electrification of mounted implements to accelerate developments
in agriculture.
Some tractor manufacturers already offer electrical generators on their tractors. By using
concepts such as transferring electrical energy to apply traction to draft force, novel designs
in agricultural technology can be realized. Although electrical assistance for trailer axles is
already available - there are new studies such as those about electrification of tractors (Ueka
et al. 2013) or about combinations of tractor and mounted implements (Tetzlaff, 2015).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All the concept studies were created with Autodesk Software. The application-unit toolset
generally specifies that a traction unit is in front of a slurry grubber unit and that both of them
are in front of the resealing unit. These defaults were applied to all the following concept
levels during our investigation. We used an electric motor in the first traction unit to provide
better traction on unloosened soil. After the traction unit passed over the soil surface, the
grubber unit cut into the soil for liquid-manure application, and then we resealed the soil to
prevent ammonium emissions and water losses.
Basic design and dimensions of the mounted implement
The traction unit has a width of three meters. This is necessary so that a folding mechanism
can extend the working width to six meters. For each tree-meter-wide component of the
traction roller, only one electric motor is needed. The total weight should not exceed three

52
 Electrification of mounted implements - concepts of traction assistance

tons. Otherwise, problems could occur when the implement is mounted to a slurry trailer, for
which it is designed. The traction roller is the heaviest component. Therefore, it has to be
placed nearby the mounting point of the implement.
Specification and layout of the traction roller for maximum traction power reduction
The aim of this concept study is to achieve a traction power reduction of 40% up to 50%.
Comparing the values given in Heyde (1971) for different soil types and moisture grades, tires
are not a good choice to be mounted on the traction roller. Preferably, we will choose elements
like a spike tooth roller. Thus, the expected values of 0.7 up to 0.8 presented by Heyde (1971)
as maximum for driving force values on soils with caterpillar track might be reached.
We divided the overall concept into several levels involving successive considerations
and/or steps, as follows.
Concept Level 1: As a first step, construction choices are considered in view of having
an agricultural crop already growing in the field. An optimal contact between soil surface and
traction element is important for the traction unit to allow safe and effective traction force.
The second consideration is customized construction, if a standing crop is in the field, as the
agriculture crop has to be protected. The traction elements should run between the plants and
account for row spacing. For this purpose, we researched prior-published information on usual
row distances for agricultural crops. We also focus on newer crops and renewable resources.
Concept Level 2: We stipulated that the results from Concept Level 1 should be
interchangeable and convertible. For this purpose, we expand construction considerations
further based on outcomes from Concept Level 1.
Concept Level 3: After configuring the basic layout of electrified mounted implements,
we present potential new features based on requirements of the agricultural crops. We
considered the use of the new electrified application units several times a year and sought to
maximize a variety of effective methods for use in agriculture.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Concept Level 1
This first model uses a continuous roller that can work in the field even without a standing
crop. Figure 1 shows the possible construction of the mounted implement. Exemplary, we use
a spike-tooth-roller design in the graphics.
In a field without a growing crop, the electrified traction roller can be constructed uniformly.
The whole soil surface can be used for generating traction with the electrified element. After
the traction roller is used, the manure unit passes with the application grubber. This unit opens
up the soil and applies the fertilizer to the defined penetration depth. Finally, a third tool unit
reseals the soil. Having a single roller as the traction element can mean very cost-effective
construction. Having more rollers traverse the whole soil surface can increase soil moisture
because of the higher surface traffic (Altikat et al., 2018).
When a standing crop is in the field, to prevent damage to the agriculture crop, we have to
separate the single traction roller into multiple traction elements that run between the planted
rows. Consequently, the contact area of the traction elements with the soil surface is smaller.

53
 J. G. Wiecha, T. Bögel, T. Herlitzius, H. Bernhardt

Concept Level 1 with

single traction roller

Figure 1 Application unit in field without standing crop

(Traction element is single roller covering whole working width)

Concept Level 1 with

multiple traction elements

Figure 2 Traction roller segmented several times

(Traction takes place only at row spacing of agricultural crop)

54
 Electrification of mounted implements - concepts of traction assistance

The traction elements` bearing surface is smaller. The slurry can only be applied between
the plants in the evenly spaced rows. Another consideration is standing-crop height, as it is
easy to imagine that the axis of the traction elements could streak and damage the plants. Until
the later stages of plant growth, the electrified mounted implement can be used several times
to apply manure to the soil. For multiple traction elements to be fixed on an axle, much more
money is needed to construct the prototype and generate the final design.

Table 1 Row spacing for construction of multiple traction elements.

Crop Minimum row spacing (cm) Maximum row spacing (cm)
maize 37.5 75
winter rape 37.5 50
beet 45 50
potato 75 90
corn 20 25
millet 30 75

In most agricultural settings, maize is cultivated with a row spacing of 75 cm. For
prototype construction, this width could be a good choice for the traction elements. To use
electrified mounted implements for corn, the small row spacing reduces the traction area
between rows of the standing crop. In addition, we have to consider that new plant breeding
may lead to crops with different optimum row spacing. Therefore, we need to consider
existing and potential crops in the design for prototype construction. For example, millet is
not a focus of agriculture in industrialized nations; however, in the face of climate change and
global warming, millet could gain importance for plant breeders and farmers. With the ability
to stop plant growth under drought conditions and restart growth as conditions improve, millet
is able to handle climatic difficulties much more easily than many other crops.
Concept Level 2
The requirement of just simple tools to convert the electrified traction unit from a single
full-width roller to multiple elements on continuous axle is important. Figure 3 shows such
changeable.

Figure 3 Two possible widths of traction elements

55
 J. G. Wiecha, T. Bögel, T. Herlitzius, H. Bernhardt

Dividing the continuous roller (Concept Level 1) into smaller elements, we can exchange
the one large roller for several smaller elements to be combined and mounted on axis. Thus,
in theory, many different roller widths and distances between the elements are possible. The
structure of the traction unit can be changed in both directions - in the continuous roller (by
adding more and smaller elements) as well as in the segmented traction elements (by adding
small elements until the traction element accommodates row-spacing width). This design
flexibility allows the entire tool combination to be adapted to different ground and crop
conditions. If changeability is made an integral part of the design of the application unit,
several structures for the assembly on the traction axle can be tested and considered. Figure 4
shows further structural elements.

Figure 4 Two possible structural elements for traction unit, each of which can consist of
multiple smaller design segments

For the replacement of the traction elements, the electric unit and the electric motor should
not have to be completely disassembled. For making a quick exchange of the structural
elements, it is advantageous if they are designed as half-shell elements. One person can
disassemble these half-shells easily, separate them, or put them together again in a different
order. A continuous electrified axis that connects all elements is required.
Figure 5 shows a single traction element. The vertical lines on both sides of the elements
represent the possible separation range of the half-shell elements. Simple assembly can be
done by machine-screw mounting in two sides of every half-shell.

Figure 5 Half shells with vertical lines through traction element

56
 Electrification of mounted implements - concepts of traction assistance

Concept Level 3
After introducing new concepts of electrified traction tools on mounted implements
(Concept Level 1), we can test the feasibility of adding further functions (presented below).

Aspect 1: Active high adjustment

Figure 6 Manure application unit with two slurry pipes for different row spacing

In Figure 6, the manure grubber on the right side shows the possible height adjustment of
the application unit (to accommodate different slurry penetration depths of the whole system)
and two fertilizer tubes (to provide two single-slurry working depths). Each pipe can be closed
or opened individually. This configuration offers a form of dosing system for slurry
application. The expected working depth can be up to 0.25 meters.

Aspect 2: Positive slippage system

Figure 7 Traction elements with variable rotation speed between the row spacing in
standing crops

57
 J. G. Wiecha, T. Bögel, T. Herlitzius, H. Bernhardt

The traction elements as shown in Figure 7 can operate at a higher rotation than necessary
for the driving speed. This creates positive slippage on the soil surface and may loosen soil
particles. Moving the upper soil layer, weed control can be applied between the standing crop
plants. The left arrow (pointing upward) represents the higher speed on the elements and the
right arrow (pointing downward) represents loosened soil, which is redeposited toward the
rear.
To visualize this new feature, we plan to make a virtual slippage test as described by Yin
and Lu (2010). For calculating the balance between tractor and implement, we intent to use
several computer-based models as described by Battiato and Diserens (2017). A next step also
might be a test scenario running on a software platform as shown by Lee et al. (2016) or a
mathematical calculation as presented by Janulevicius et al. (2018).

CONCLUSIONS
The presented concept study for electrified implements mounted on farm equipment
evaluates new modes of operation for agriculture. Using the example of fertilizer application,
the working scenarios are flexible and reliable. The further development of such electrified
devices will also lead to changes in crop cultivation, including making other crops practicable.
In addition, the modular design of the tool combination makes it possible to adapt the
agricultural system quickly in the field. Without a changeability of traction elements, the
whole machinery design would be easier; however, the disadvantages would predominate.
The upcoming field trails will show whether we receive the expected traction power reduction.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My thanks go to Prof. Dr. Dr. Bernhardt and his support for the project KombiWKZ. As
well, I would like to thank the partners on the Technical University of Dresden for the support.
The Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture fund the KombiWKZ project. The project
carrier BLE also provides support.

REFERENCES
Altikat, S., Kucukerdem, Hk., Altikat, A. (2018). Effects of wheel traffic and farmyard manure
applications on soil CO2 emission and soil oxygen content. Turkish Journal Of Agriculture And
Forestry, Vol. 42(4), 288-297
Battiato, A., Diserens, E. (2017). Tractor traction performance simulation on differently textured soils
and validation: A basic study to make traction and energy requirements accessible to the practice.
Soil and Tillage Research, Vol. 166, 18-32.
Chen, Y., Munkholm, L.J., Nyord, T. (2013). Selection of Design Parameters for a Slurry Injection Tool.
Transactions of the ASABE, Vol. 56(5), 1653-1663.
Heyde, H. (1971). Landmaschinenlehre – Leitfaden für Studierende der Landwirtschaft. VEB Verlag
Technik, Berlin, Band 1, 284.
Janulevicius, A., Pupinis, G., Juostas, A. (2018). Mathematical description of tractor slippage with
variable tire inflation pressure. Engineering for rural development, Jelgava, 2018.
Laguee, C. (1991). Design of a semi-liquid dairy cattle manure spreader/injector. Applied Engineering
in Agriculture, Vol. 7(6), 655-660.

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 Electrification of mounted implements - concepts of traction assistance

Lee, J.W., Kim, J.S., Kim, K.U. (2016). Computer simulations to maximize fuel efficiency and work
performance of agricultural tractors in rotovating and ploughing operations. Biosystems Engineering
Vol. 142, 1-11.
Middleton, J. (1821). General Rules for the Cultivation of Arable Land. Monthly magazine, or, British
register, Feb. 1800-June 1836, London Vol. 51 (355), 503-506.
Murugan, R., Koch, H.J., Joergensen, R.G. (2014). Long-term influence of different tillage intensities
on soil microbial biomass, residues and community structure at different depths. Biology and Fertility
of Soils 50-3, 487-498.
Ranjbarian, S., Askari, M., Jannatkhah, J. (2017). Performance of tractor and tillage implements in clay
soil. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences Vol. 16(2), 154-162.
Tetzlaff, S. (2015). Schnittstellenübergreifende Elektrifizierung und Funktion von Traktor und
Anbaugerät. Landtechnik 70(5), 203-217.
Ueka, Y., Yamashita, J., Sato, K., Doi, Y. (2013). Study on the Development of the Electric Tractor.
Engineering in Agriculture, Environment and Food. Vol. 6(4), 160-164.
Yin, X., Lu, B. (2010). Development of Tractor Slippage Virtual Test System. IFAC Proceedings
Volumes, Vol. 43 (26), 310-315.

59
47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

IMPACT OF REDUCED TILLAGE ON SPRING OIL SEED

RAPE, WINTER WHEAT, MAIZE AND SPRING BARLEY
PRODUCTION IN LITHUANIA
Kęstutis ROMANECKAS1*, Dovilė AVIŽIENYTĖ1,2, Aida ADAMAVIČIENĖ1,
Vaclovas BOGUŽAS1, Aušra SINKEVIČIENĖ1, Egidijus ŠARAUSKIS3,
Algirdas JASINSKAS3, Rasa KIMBIRAUSKIENĖ1, Jovita BALANDAITĖ1,
Aleksandra MINAJEVA3, Marek MARKS4, Jozef TYBURSKI4, Ashirali SMANOV5
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Institute of Agroecosystems and Soil Sciences, Vytautas Magnus University,
Studentu 11, LT 53361, Akademija, Kaunas distr., Lithuania
2Rumokai Experimental Station, Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry,

70462 Rumokai, Lithuania

3Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Safety, Vytautas Magnus University,

Studentu 11, LT 53361, Akademija, Kaunas distr., Lithuania

4Department of Agroecosystems, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland
5Kazakh National Agrarian University, Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT
Climate and soil conditions strongly effects impact of reduced tillage systems
on productivity of agricultural crops. Plenty scientific investigations conclude
that the most positive effect of tillage reduction was found in warm arid climate
conditions.
A long-term stationary field experiment (30 years) was performed at the
Experimental Station of the Aleksandras Stulginskis University (ASU, 54º52′ N,
23º49′ E) on silty light loam Endohypogleyic-Eutric Planosol and in semi
humid (about 650 mm annual precipitation rate) subarctic climate (annual
average temperature 6.5-7.2° C) conditions. Sugar beet, maize and faba bean
crops were investigated.
Five different primary tillage systems were tested: conventional (22–25 cm)
and shallow ploughing (12–15 cm) with a mouldboard plough, chiselling (25-
30 cm), disking (10-12 cm) and no-till.
According to the results of investigations, long-term reduced tillage mainly
had no significant effect of crop productivity. No-till system slightly decreased
crop productivity because of problems with seed germination in untilled stubble
of winter wheat. However, differences were weak and mostly insignificant. We

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

61
 K. Romaneckas, D. Avižienytė, A. Adamavičienė, V. Bogužas, A. Sinkevičienė, E. Šarauskis, A. Jasinskas…

found negative correlations between stubble coverage and germination rate

and germination rate and productivity parameters.
Keywords: long-term tillage, productivity, spring rape, winter wheat, maize,
spring barley.

INTRODUCTION
In agricultural crop production, a very high proportion of the total labour and energy costs
are used for tillage and sowing operations. Seed emergence, crop growing conditions, yield
and its quality indicators are dependent on the quality of performance of these operations. In
recent years in agriculture, it has become increasingly important to produce low-cost, high-
quality produce able to compete on the global markets. As a result, one of the ways to decrease
agricultural production costs is simplification of production technological processes through
the application minimum (reduced) soil tillage systems. It has been evidenced that reduced
tillage intensity results in greater conservation of soil, which is the main means of agricultural
production (Telles et al., 2018; Chaghazardi et al., 2016).
With the application of reduced pre-sowing tillage, the soil structure is subject to lesser
damage, the microorganism activity becomes more intensive, post-harvest residues are mixed
in the upper soil layer, which prevents them from being stratified. Moreover, reduced tillage
requires less fuel and labour input. In the soils exposed to wind and water erosion, reduced
tillage or even direct drilling into undisturbed soil is a good protection against these
undesirable factors (Latifmanesh et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018; Jodaugienė, 2002). D.
Šimanskaitė (2007) has reported that the productivity of direct-drilled winter wheat and maize
was the same as that in the soil ploughed at a usual depth. Noticeable differences or even
contradictory or ambiguous findings are often observed among the results of reduced tillage
investigations carried out in Lithuania and other countries. The data of other researchers
evidenced that with the application of reduced tillage crop productivity declined (Cannell,
Hawes, 1994; Diaz-Zortia, 2000). The effect depends on specific soil and climate conditions,
amount of plant residues, peculiarities of design of implements and other factors.
Considerable know-how on the feasibility of direct drilling into undisturbed soil, especially
under drier climate conditions, has been accrued in foreign countries. However, direct drilling
into undisturbed soil under wetter Lithuania’s climate conditions has hardly been studied
before. The shift to reduced tillage, and especially to direct drilling into undisturbed soil, poses
quite a few problems and requires more knowledge about soil and crop properties (Bogužas
et al., 2010).
The study was aimed to establish the effects of different long-term autumn tillage on
agrocenoses when applying intensive technologies and crop rotation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The long-term (since 1988) stationary field experiment has been performed at Aleksandras
Stulginskis University, Experimental Station (54º52′ N, 23º49′ E). Research objects were
agrocenoses of spring oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.), winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.),
maize (Zea mays L.) and spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). The soil of the experimental
field is Endohypogleyic-Eutric Planosol – PLe-gln-w (WRB 2014). The depth of the

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 Impact of reduced tillage on spring oil seed rape, winter wheat, maize and spring barley production in Lithuania

ploughing layer is 23–27 cm. Soil texture – loam on heavy loam. The upper part of the plough
layer (0–15 cm) contained: pHKCL – 6.6–7.0, available phosphorus – 131.1–206.7 mg kg-1,
available potassium – 72.0–126.9 mg kg –1 (Romaneckas et al., 2015).
Prof. dr. A. Stancevičius was the initiator and leader of the experiment. At that time the
experiment was conducted in the six-course crop rotation. Since 2001, the experiment has
been modified by prof. dr. V. Bogužas by introducing direct drilling treatment and four-course
crop rotation. The experiment is being continued. Five primary (autumn) tillage methods were
investigated:
1. Deep conventional ploughing at 22–25 cm depth (DP) (control treatment);
2. Shallow ploughing at 12–15 cm depth (SP);
3. Deep cultivation at 23–25 cm depth (DC);
4. Shallow cultivation-discing at 12–15 cm depth (SC);
5. No tillage (direct sowing) (NT).
Crop rotation was used: spring rape – winter wheat – maize – spring barley. Experiment
design: 4 replications, 20 plots per crop, randomised distribution. The brutto size of plots was
126 m2 (14 x 9 m), and the netto size was 70 m2 (10 x 7 m).
Tillage practice in the experiment is presented in Table 1. Before a sowing, the soil was
shallowly cultivated with a cultivator Laumetris KLG-3.6), fertilizers were distributed with a
fertilizer spreader AMAZONE-ZA-M-1201. The crops were sown with Väderstad Rapid
300C Super XL sowing machine. Weeds control was performed by spraying with a sprayer
AMAZONE UF-901. Crops were harvested with a small plot combine harvester
“Wintersteiger Delta” (Avižienytė et al., 2013). Organic fertilizers and legumes were not
applied (Derpsch et al., 2014).

Table 1 Primary tillage practice in the experiment, 2010-2012

Stubble Primary Depth of tillage

Tillage system Equipment
tillage tillage (cm)
Deep Mouldboard plough Gamega
ploughing Yes Inversion PP-3-43 with semi-helical 22–25
(DP) mouldboards
Shallow
ploughing Yes Inversion The same as DP 12–15
(SP)
Deep
Chisel cultivator Kverneland
cultivation Yes Non-inversion 23–25
CLC
(DC)
Shallow
Yes, Disc harrow Väderstad
cultivation No 12–15
twice CARRIER 300
(SC)

No tillage
No No None 0
(NT)

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 K. Romaneckas, D. Avižienytė, A. Adamavičienė, V. Bogužas, A. Sinkevičienė, E. Šarauskis, A. Jasinskas…

Crop emergence and crop stand density (1st assessment) were assessed in 10 spots of a
record plot in 1 m row. Emergence of cereals and oilseed rape was estimated 3 and 10 days
after beginning of emergence and for maize – 3 and 25 days.
Crop stand productivity was determined by estimating oilseed rape and maize stand density
(2nd assessment), productivity indicators (for spring rape: seed yield, 1000 seed weight; for
winter wheat: productive stems number, grain yield, 1000 grain weight; for maize: kernel
yield, 1000 kernel weight; for spring barley: productive stems number, grain yield, 1000 grain
weight). Crop stand density (for spring rape and maize) and productive stems number (for
cereals) were evaluated in 10 spots per plot in 0.06 m2 area (for spring rape) or 1 m
longitudinal row (for cereals and maize). Cereal and spring rape productivity was estimated
by mechanical harvesting. Maize samples were collected manually.
Quality indicators of crops were established at the Agrochemical Research Laboratory of
Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry. Cereal and maize grain protein
content was determined according to directive 72/199/EEC, rapeseed fat content – according
to 71/393/EEB.
Tests data was statistically analyzed by ANOVA. Significant differences between
treatments and the control treatment (deep conventional ploughing) were marked in the
following way: * – differences are significant at the 95% probability level (P<0.05), or ** –
differences are significant at the 99% probability level (P<0.01).
In Lithuania, climate is subarctic transitional maritime-continental with wet winters and
moderate summers. Annual mean (last 59 years) precipitation rate in experimental site is
625.5 mm. In 2010 and 2011, crop vegetation was warmer and more humid than usual average
of many years. The humidity of 2012 was similar with 2010 and 2011 but temperatures were
nearly the average.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In our previous investigations in the same experiment plots, we did not find significant
influence of different tillage practice on sugar beet productivity (Romaneckas et al., 2006;
Romaneckas et al., 2009). Similarly, in 2010-2012, different tillage practices did not have any
significant influence on spring rape crop density and seed oil content, and for seed yield and
1000 seed masses (Table 2).

Table 2 The impact of different primary soil tillage on spring rape stand density, seed yield
and quality parameters, the data averaged over 2010–2012
Crop density at
Soil Seed yield 1000 seed Seed fat content
the end of
tillage t ha-1 weight g (%)
vegetation m-2
DP 131.5 1.29 4.14 42.67
SP 136.8 1.26 4.11 42.67
DC 124.9 1.25 3.82 42.20
SC 128.2 1.35 4.02 42.01
NT 89.1* 1.47 3.93 42.00
Notes: * - significantly different at P≤0.05 from the control treatment (DP) within rows. Abbreviations
as in Table 1.

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 Impact of reduced tillage on spring oil seed rape, winter wheat, maize and spring barley production in Lithuania

The correlation-regression analysis of the research data showed that the yield of spring
rapeseed seeds largely depended on the crop density at the beginning and the end of vegetation
(r = 0.606*; 0.533*), the 1000 seed weight – on crop density at the end of vegetation (r =
0.612*), and the fat content of seeds - on weed incidence (rnumber = 0,846**; rbiomass = 0.780**).
The effect of different primary tillage on winter wheat grain yield, 1000 grain mass and
protein content were not significant. However, in NT plots, grains had by the 5.1% more
protein that in DP plots (Table 3).

Table 3 The impact of different primary soil tillage on winter wheat stand density, grain
yield and quality parameters, the data averaged over 2010–2012
Crop density at
Soil Grain yield 1000 grain Grain protein
the end of
tillage t ha-1 weight g content (%)
vegetation m-2
DP 356.6 7.33 40.01 9.77
SP 355.6 6.83 37.49 9.85
DC 366.5 6.48 40.15 10.07
SC 359.3 6.69 39.46 10.16
NT 328.2 7.36 41.63 10.34
Abbreviations as in Table 1. P>0.05

The winter wheat seed yield was partly dependent on the soil structure stability ((r =
0.563*), the photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) conditions (r = 0.671**); the 1000 seed
weight - on the soil's physical and chemical properties (ragregate stability = 0.579*; rpH = 0.721*;
rP2O5 = 0.713*; (rK2O = 0.785**) and weed number (r = –0.561*); grain protein content - on
the soil chemical composition (rpH = 0.748*; rP2O5 = 0.861**; rK2O = 0.872**).
Different tillage practice has not significant influence on maize productivity and quality
parameters (Table 4). All indices have the highest value in DP plots.
The kernel yield of maize and the mass of 1000 seeds partly depended on the density of
crop (r = 0.725**; 0.904**) and weed number (r = –0.917**; –0.965**); and the protein
content in the seeds was affected by the soil structure stability (r = –0.888**) and the PAR
conditions (r = 0.797**).

Table 4 The impact of different primary soil tillage on maize stand density, productivity and
quality parameters, the data averaged over 2010–2012
Crop density at
Soil Kernel yield 1000 kernel Kernel protein
the end of
tillage t ha-1 weight g content (%)
vegetation m-2
DP 8.3 7.68 210.09 6.46
SP 7.3 7.13 206.68 6.46
DC 7.5 6.93 188.19 6.68
SC 7.6 7.21 204.86 6.83
NT 7.8 7.29 214.91 6.61
Abbreviations as in Table 1. P>0.05

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 K. Romaneckas, D. Avižienytė, A. Adamavičienė, V. Bogužas, A. Sinkevičienė, E. Šarauskis, A. Jasinskas…

In the NT plots, the number of productive stems for spring barley was modestly on average
0.7% higher, and grain yield was 6.0% lower, 1000 seed mass, essentially 9% higher
compared to the control; incidentally 8.2% lower grain protein content was observed in SC
plots (Table 5).

Table 5 The impact of different primary soil tillage on spring barley stand density, grain
yield and quality parameters, the data averaged over 2010–2012
Crop density at
Soil Grain yield 1000 grain Grain protein
the end of
tillage t ha-1 weight g content (%)
vegetation m-2
DP 342.8 4.96 46.09 11.11
SP 347.5 4.93 47.79 10.61
DC 333.1 5.04 48.00 10.26
SC 332.1 5.10 47.87 10.20
NT 311.1 4.66 50.25* 10.24
Abbreviations as in Table 1. P>0.05

Grain yield of spring barley mostly depended on soil structure stability (r = 0.698**) and
amount of phosphorus (r = 0,851**), stand density (r = 0.648*), weed number (r = –0.788**)
and protein content – on mentioned indices and PAR conditions (r = 0.673**).

CONCLUSION
Generally, in almost all cases, different primary tillage generally did not have any
significant impact on the seed yield, 1000 seed weight and seed quality parameters of the
crops tested. Significantly higher 1000 seed weight for spring barley was evidenced in the NT
plots. Due to high amount of pre-crop residues on the soil surface in NT plots, sowing quality
was worse than in tilled plots. That decreased crop stand density, but mainly insignificantly.

REFERENCES
Avižienytė, D., Romaneckas, K., Pališkytė, R., Bogužas, V., Pilipavičius, V., Šarauskis,
E., Adamavičienė, A., Vaiciukevičius, E. (2013). The impact of long-term reduced primary soil
tillage on maize (Zea mays L.) productivity. Zemdirbystė-Agriculture 100(4) 377-382.
Bogužas, V., Kairytė, A., Jodaugienė, D. (2010). Soil physical properties and earthworms as affected by
soil tillage systems, straw and green manure management. Zemdirbystė-Agriculture, 97(3) 3–14.
Cannell, R. Q., Hawes, J. H. (1994). Trends in tillage practices in relation to sustainable crop production
with special reference to temperature climates. Soil and Tillage Research 30(2–4) 245–282.
Chaghazardi, H. R., Jahansouz, M. R., Ahmadi, A., Gorji, M. (2016). Effects of tillage management on
productivity of wheat and chickpea under cold, rainfed conditions in western Iran. Soil & Tillage
Research 162 26-33.
Derpsch, R., Franzluebbers, A. J., Duiker, S W., Reicosky, D. C., Koeller, K., Friedrich, T., Sturny,
W.G., Sá, J. C. M., Weiss, K. (2014). Why do we need to standardize no-tillage research? Soil and
Tillage Research 137 16–22.

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 Impact of reduced tillage on spring oil seed rape, winter wheat, maize and spring barley production in Lithuania

Diaz-Zortia, M. (2000). Effect of deep tillage and nitrogen fertilization interaction on dry land corn (Zea
mays L.) productivity. Soil and Tillage Research 54(1–2) 11–19
Jodaugienė, D. (2002). The influence of long term ploughing and loosening on soil and crops in the
system of reduced soil tillage. Doctoral thesis. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Lithuania.
Latifmanesh, H., Deng, A., Nawaz, M. M., Li, L., Chen, Z., Zheng, Y., Wang, P., Song, Z., Zhang J.,
Zheng, C., Zhan, W. (2018). Integrative impacts of rotational tillage on wheat yield and dry matter
accumulation under corn-wheat cropping system. Soil & Tillage Research 184 100-108.
Romaneckas, K., Romaneckienė, R., Šarauskis, E. (2006). The effect of primary soil tillage methods on
sugar beet growth on a light loam luvisol. Zemdirbyste-Agriculture 93(4) 81-87.
Romaneckas, K., Romaneckienė, R., Šarauskis, E., Pilipavičius, V., Sakalauskas, A. (2009). The effect
of conservation primary and zero tillage on soil bulk density, water content, sugar beet growth and
weed infestation. Agronomy Research 7(1) 73-86.
Romaneckas, K., Šarauskis, E., Avižienytė, D., Adamavičienė, A. (2015). Weed control by soil tillage
and living mulch. In: Weed biology and control Pilipavičius V., eds, INTECH, Rijeka, 87-108.
Šimanskaitė, D. (2007). The effect of ploughing and ploughless soil tillage on soil physical properties
and crop productivity. Žemės ūkio mokslai 14(1) 9-19 (in Lithuanian with English summary).
Tellesa, T. S., Reydon, B. P., Maia, A. G. (2018). Effects of no-tillage on agricultural land values in
Brazil. Land Use Policy 76 124-129.
World reference base for soil resources (WRB) (2014). International soil classification system for
naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. World Soil Resources Reports No. 106. FAO, Rome.
Zhang, Y., Wang, S., Wang, H., Ning, F., Zhang, Y., Dong, Z., Wen, P., Wang, R., Wang, X., Li, J.
(2018). The effects of rotating conservation tillage with conventional tillage on soil properties and
grain yields in winter wheat-spring maize rotations. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 263 107-
117.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENT SECONDARY TILLAGE

ON QUALITY AND YIELD OF CARROT CROP
(DAUCUS CAROTA L.)
Rajko BERNIK, Filip VUČAJNK*
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Agronomy,
Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia

ABSTRACT
The field trial was carried out trying to establish the effect of soil tillage on
the quality and yield of carrot (Daucus carota L.) on loamy soil with stones in
the soil layer. Early spring carrot variety Bilbo was used in the trial. Two types
of soil cultivation machines were compared in order to prepare ridges with no
stones for carrot production and harvesting. The first machine was rottary
harrow which is used only for the cultivation and mixing of the soil aggregates
in the upper soil layer (15-20 cm). The second machine was rottary cultivator
with tines, which crush the soil aggregates in small pieces, while stones and
larger soil aggregates are placed in lower soil layers. In such a manner the
ridges are made of small soil aggreagets without stones and larger soil
aggregates in them. The carot seeding and other agricultural operations were
applied according to good agriculture practice. When the rotary harrow was
used the ridges contained 20.5% of stones larger than 2 mm, while when using
rotary cultivator with tines only 9.1% of stones remained in ridges. The average
germination was 73.3%, the total yield reached 64.8 t ha-1 of which 32.6 t ha-1
(50.3 %) were labeled as extra grade, when the rottary harrow was used. The
carrots were in general distorted 7,1° from the head to the nib of the carrot.
The soil cultivation using the rottary cultivator with tines resulted with the
average germination of 91 % with the total yield of 75.6 t ha-1, of which 49.5 t
ha-1 (65.5 %) were labeled as extra grade. The carrots, in this case, had
curvature of 5.2°.
Keywords: rotary cultivator, rotary harrow, carrot, quality, yield.

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 R. Bernik, F. Vučajnk

INTRODUCTION
Cultivated carrot (Daucus carota L.) is biennial plant, developing roots of different shapes
in the first year and in the second year it develops flowers and seeds later (Osvald and Kogoj
Osvald, 2005). The enlargement of the upper part of the root begins, when 70 % of leaves
mass is formed. The roots are used for human nutrition, when technological ripeness is
achieved (Lešić et al., 2004).
When growing carrot roots push the soil upwards, so the good soil preparation is necessary
for high and quality yield. The deep soil ploughing of 25 to 30 cm is needed for the growing
of early carrot cultivars in the autumn. It is even better that lower soil layers are loosened
using subsoil loosener just before ploughing. For later carrot seeding for autumn or winter
harvest, the soil is cultivated in the spring, however it depends on soil condition and the
previous crop (Lešić et al., 2004).
The soil should be suitable for cultivation, so that there are no compacted soil layers, which
can cause significant root deformations (Strandberg and White, 1979). Carrot is usually sown
on ridges, which are prepared before seeding. Seeding of carrrot on the ridges contributes to
better soil aeration and lower percentage of greening upper parts of roots. Seeding layer of the
ridge should be good leveled and fine structured, which is required for equal seeding depth.
The soil should be consolidated, so that capillary connection with ground water is not
disturbed (Bajec, 1994). It is also useful to use rollers after the seeding is done, which enables
equal germination (Černe et al., 1989). Evers et al. (1997) reported that the total and
marketable yields were larger in flat land and narrow ridge than in the broad- and compacted
broad ridges at higher plant densities.
The aim of the trial is to establish how different secondary tillage helps to better quality of
market yield and to find out the difference between total yield and yield of »extra class«. The
carrots from extra claas yield should be of excellent quality and washed, with no surface
defects, so that they not influence the quality, durability, and look in the packing box. The
carrot roots should be smooth, fresh, regular shapes, without slots, mechanical damage and
cracks and without damage because of frost. Green or violet root tops are not allowed.
We assumed that intensive secondary soil cultivation will contribute to higher and more
uniform yield. We hypothesize that when using rotary cultivator with tines the percentage of
market yield will be higher and better quality in comparison with the use of rotary harrow for
secondary soil preparation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The field trial was designed in the spring of 2016 on stony soil in Drnovo, Slovenia (46,2°
N; 14,6° E). The soil is shallow to medium deep with low field water capacity (31 – 80 mm)
(Atlas okolja, 2017). In the autumn of 2015 the trial plot was subsoiled to the depth of 50 cm
with the subsoiler. Then the trial plot was ploughed so that plant residues were incorporated
using 5 furrow reversible plough, Lemken Variopal 8. The ploughing depth was from 25 to
30 cm and the speed ranged from 7 to 8 km/h. For the soil leveling hydraulically folding
leveling bar 9 m width was used in the spring of 2016. The field was fertilised after the
leveling of the soil and just before secondary tillage was done. Bogballe L2W plus fertilisier
spreader was used with 18 m spreading width and calibration weighing system which is
operated from the tractor cab. The hopper capacity was 2000 kg.

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 The impact of different secondary tillage on quality and yield of carrot crop (Daucus carota L.)

In the trial two types of machines for secondary tillage were used just before seeding of
carrots. The first machine was rotary harrow Ranger Celli P 500 with tooth roller (Figure 1).
The rotary harrow was hidraulically foldable with working width of 5 m and mass of 2100
kg. The maximal tractor power is 154 kW and the recommended power is 118 kW. The
measures of the knives are 90 x 12 x 285 mm.

Figure 1 Rotary harrow Celli ranger P500 (Celli, 2008)

Figure 2 Ridges after the cultivation with rotary harrow

The second machine used in the trial was rotary ridging cultivator with tines Baselier
UKFB 300, which crushes larger soil particles due to high rotor speed and separates stones
from the soil particles (Figure 3). Stones are placed below the seeding layer, while fine soil is
sieved through the special fork and it is used for the ridge formation (Figure 4). Rotor is driven
by two cardan shafts in the centre of the machine, its rotational speed is 248 min-1. 80 tines
are fastened to the rotor with the working width of 3000 mm. The recommended tractor power
is 125 kW, while the maximal is 191 kW. Mass of the machine is 2200 kg, its lenght 220 cm,
width 348 cm and height 140 cm. Ridging bodies and the seeding machine could be attached

71
 R. Bernik, F. Vučajnk

to the rotary ridging cultivator (Baselier, 2017). The size of the individual trial unit was 3,0
ha.

Figure 3 Rotary ridging cultivator Baselier UKFB 300

Figure 4 Ridges after the cultivation with rotary ridging cultivator

In the trial unit where the rotary harrow was used ridges were formed by the special ridging
machine in the front part of the tracor. In this way 3 ridges were formed with the row width
of 75 cm (Figure 2). Behind the ridging body was the leveling bar for the ridge leveling. The
ridge height was 20 cm, while the righe top width reached 12 cm. At the same time the carrot
seeding was carried out using seeding machine at the back part of the tractor.
The carrot seeding on the ridges was performed by the 4 row vacuum seeding machine
Agricola Italiana SN-2-130 (Figure 5). The seed quantity was 1.330.000 seeds per hectare and
the intra row distance was 1 cm. The seeding speed ranged between 5 to 8 km h-1. The hybrid
Bilbo was used in the trial. It is cylindrical shape with sharp top, its length is 20 cm and
diameter of 2 to 3 cm.
Tractor Fendt GT with attached sprayer Rau with 2000 l tank and working width of 18 m
was used for the chemical control of carrot.

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 The impact of different secondary tillage on quality and yield of carrot crop (Daucus carota L.)

Figure 5 Carrot seeding on ridges using pneumatic seeding machine

At the beginnig of July 2016 the soil samples were taken from the ridges, where the rotary
harrow and also rotary ridging cultivator was used. On each treatment three random samples
were taken. For two weeks soil samples were dried on 40 °C. Then the samples were crushed
and stones were removed. Stones were sieved through sieves with meshes of 25 mm, 10 mm,
5 mm and 2 mm. Later on the mass and volume of stones of different fractions was measured.
Soil texture was determined by standard procedure using texture triangle for the American
texture classification (SIST ISO 11277, 2011; Soil survey, 1992 ).
Carrots were sampled at the stage of technological maturity at the beginnig of August 2016.
From individual treatment sample carrots were randomly taken on 20 spots. Each sample was
taken from 1 m long ridge, which coresponds the area of 0.75 m2. Samples were placed to
cooling room with air temperature of 1 to 2°C and relative humiditiy of 80 to 90 %. 39 to 98
carrots were in the individual sample. First the mass of individual carrot, its length and
diameter were measured. Later on curvature of carrots were measured with the caliper in such
a way that the deviation of carrot nib from the straight line was determined. From these data
the angle was calculated, which represented curvature of carrots. Carrots of iregular shapes
were eliminated from our analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results of volume percentage of stones in the ridges show significant differences between
ridges cultivated with rotary ridging cultivator and ridges cultivated with rotary harrow
(Figure 6). 9.1 % of stones, larger than 2 mm, were found in ridges where rotary cultivator
with tines was used. On the other hand there was 20.5 % of stones in ridges, larger than 2 mm,
when rotary harrow was used, which was significantly higher in comparison with ridges
cultivated with rotary ridging cultivator. When cultivation was done using rotary harrow there
was 4.3 % of stones in the ridges, larger than 25 mm, which was significantly higher as by the
use of rotary ridging cultivator with tines where no stones in ridges appeared. By the use of
rotary ridging cultivator with tines 4.4 % of stones, with the size of 10 to 25 mm, appeared in
the ridges while 9 % by the use of rotary harrow. The difference was significant.

73
 R. Bernik, F. Vučajnk
Volume percentage (%)

Rotary ridging
cultivator
Rotary harrow

alltogether

Figure 6 Volume percentage of stones in the ridges

There was 3 % of stones, with the size of 5 to 10 mm, when rotary ridging cultivator was
used and 4.8 % by the use of rotary harrow. Also in this case the difference was significant.
No significant differences occured between two machines by the stone size of 2 to 5 mm (2
%).
Soil texture was loam according to American soil texture classification and the soil belongs
to middle heavy soil.
More intensive soil cultivation with the rotary ridging cultivator resulted also on
significantly higher carrot yield of 75.6 ton ha-1, while by the use of rotary harrow it reached
only 64.8 tons ha-1 (Table 1). Mean germination was significantly higher (91 %), when rotary
ridging cultivator was used, compared to 73.3 % by the use of rotary harrow. Higher seed
germination by the use of rotary ridging cultivator resulted on higher crop density, on larger
mass, length and diameter of one carrot. Mass of one carrot amounted 62.5 g by the use of
rotary ridging cultivator and 69 g by the use of rotary harrow.
The lenght of carrots from the trial units cultivated with rotary ridging cultivator (153.1
mm) was higher than from the trial units cultivated with rotary harrow (151.9 mm). The carrot
diameter amounted 26.9 mm by the rotary ridging cultivator and 28.8 mm by the rotary
harrow. The difference was significant. The curvature of carrot was significantly lower (5.2°)
in ridges formed with rotary ridging cultivator compared to ridges formed with rotary harrow
(7.1°).
The carrots which do not fulfill demands for »extra« class, were removed from the yield.
For the inclusion of carrots in the »extra« class it is necessary that mass of individual carrot
is in the range between 30 g and 150 g. The carrot diameter should not be less than 20 mm
and should not exceed 45 mm. The carrot curvature should not exceed 10°.

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 The impact of different secondary tillage on quality and yield of carrot crop (Daucus carota L.)

Table 1 Morphological properties of carrot

Yield Mass Length Diameter Curvature Germination
Treatment
(t ha-1) (g) (mm) (mm) (°) (%)
Rotary
ridging 75.7 ± 2.5 a* 62.5 ± 3.8 a 153.1 ± 3.5 a 26.9 ± 0.7 a 5.2 ± 0.4 a 91.0 ± 2.0 a
cultivator
Rotary
64.8 ± 5.2 b 69.0 ± 5.1 a 152.0 ± 8.7 a 28.8 ± 1.1 b 7.1 ± 1.1 b 73.3 ± 6.2 b
harrow
* Different letters in the same column represent significant difference at p < 0.05.

Considering all the requirements for extra class, the yield was smaller and the differences
between two types of soil cultivation machinery became greater. The extra class yield was
significantly higher (49.5 t ha-1) by the use of rotaty ridging cultivator and only 32.6 t ha-1 by
the use of rotary harrow (Table 2). There were no large differences between two soil
cultivation machinery regarding mass, length, diameter and curvature of carrots from extra
class.
Table 2 Morphological properties of carrots from extra class

Yield Mass Length Diameter Curvature

Treatment
(t ha-1) (g) (mm) (mm) (°)
Rotary ridging
49.5 ± 4.5 a* 66.6 ± 2.2 a 154.2 ± 5.4 a 26.5 ± 0.5 a 3.6 ± 0.2 a
cultivator

Rotary harrow 32.6 ± 7.3 b 70.9 ± 9.4 a 151.7 ± 6.9 a 28.0 ± 1.4 a 4.5 ± 0.1 b

* Different letters in the same column represent significant difference at p < 0.05.

The curvature of carrots from extra class was significantly lower (3.6°), when rotary
ridging cultivator was used compared to 4.5° by the use of rotary harrow. Because of curvature
23.3 % of carrots was removed from extra class, when rotary harrow was used and only 12.7
% by the use of rotary ridging cultivator (Table 3). The difference was significant.

Table 3 Percentage of removed carrots from extra class

Percentage of removed carrots because of

Treatment diameter curvature deformation
mass (%) length (%)
(%) (%) (%)
Rotary ridging cultivator 4.3 ± 1.5 a* 4.8 ± 4.6 a 3.5 ± 1.4 a 12.7 ± 3.2 a 7.0 ± 2.9 a
Rotary harrow 7.9 ± 0.9 b 6.5 ± 4.3 a 4.8 ± 1.5 a 23.3 ± 4.3 b 7.1 ± 4.5 a
* Different letters in the same column represent significant difference at p < 0.05.

There is a lack of research lately regarding machinery for ridge formation and their
influence on the amount of stones in the ridges and yield parameters. Ponjičan et al. (2012)
compared flat and ridge cultivation and their influence on the soil physical properties and
carrot root physical characteristics and yield. They found out that carrot roots grown under

75
 R. Bernik, F. Vučajnk

ridge cultivation were morphologically more uniform and resulted in lower values of variation
coefficient of carrot root dimensions and yields which further significantly influenced the
estimation of market quality and overall carrot root price, in comparison to flat cultivation.
Their results are not directly comparable to ours. In our research similar conclusions were
made in the ridges with less stone amount, which were formed with rotary ridging cultivator.
In these ridges higher yield and usually better morfological properties (germination,
curvature) were obtained in comparison with ridges formed with rotary harrow, which
contained higher percentage of stones. Blazewicz-Wozniak et al. (2015) reported that carrot
emergence was the highest, when carrots were sown on ridges in comparison with flat
cultivation. Hovewer their results are not comparable with ours, while in our research we did
not compare ridge cultivation with flat cultivation. Also their research was to determine the
influence of cover crops and tillage techniques on carrot emergence and growth, which was
completely different as our research. Similar research was done by Gruszecki et al. (2015),
who studied the effect of sowing perennial ryegrass, white clover and their mixture between
carrot ridges in order to reduce growth of weeds and increase yield. Hovewer they found
decrease of total and marketable yield using these methods.

CONCLUSIONS
By the secondary soil tillage using rotary harrow was 20.5 % of stones in ridges, where
carrots will grow. When using rotary ridging cultivator only 9.1 % of stones remained in
ridges.
Total carrot yield amounted 64.8 t ha-1 and 32.6 t ha-1 was the yield from extra class (50.6
%), when rotary harrow was used. However when rotary ridging cultivator was used the total
yield amounted 75.7 t ha-1 and 49.5 t ha-1 was from extra class (65.5 %).
We found out that the curvature of carrots was 7.1° by the use of rotary harrow and only
5.2° by the use of rotary ridging cultivator.
Because of carrot curvature 23.3 % of carrots was removed from extra class when rotary
harrow was used and only 12.7 % when rotary ridging cultivator was used.
The secondary tillage mostly influenced carrot germination, which was 73.3 % by the use
of rotary harrow and 91 % when rotary ridging cultivator was used.

REFERENCES
Atlas okolja. (2017). ARSO. Ljubljana, Agencija RS za okolje.
Bajec, V. (1994). Vrtnarjenje na prostem, pod folijo in steklom. Kmečki glas, Ljubljana.
Baselier. (2016). Overtop cultivator type UKF-UKFB. Instruction manual & parts list UKF-EN 2016.
Blazewicz-Wozniak, M., Wach, D., Konopinski, M., Patkowska, E., Baltyn, M. (2015). Effect of cover
crops on emergence and growth of carrot (Daucus carota L.) in no-plow and traditional tillage. Acta
Agrobotanica 68, 63-73.
Černe, M., Jakić, O., Urek, G. (1989). Pridelovanje korenčka. Tehnološki list 14/1989. Kmetijski inštitut
Slovenije, Ljubljana.
Evers, A.M., Tuuri, H., Hagg, M., Plaami, S., Hakkinen, U., Talvitie, H. (1997). Soil forming and plant
density effects on carrot yield and internal quality. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 51, 283-294.

76
 The impact of different secondary tillage on quality and yield of carrot crop (Daucus carota L.)

Gruszecki, R., Borowy, A., Salata, A., Zawislak, G. (2015). Effect of living mulch and linuron on weeds
and yield of carrot under ridge cultivation. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum Hortorum Cultus 14, 67-82.
Lešić, R., Borošič, J., Buturac, I., Herak-Ćustič, M., Poljak, D. (2004). Povrćarstvo. Zrinski d.d,
Čakovec.
Osvald, J., Kogoj-Osvald, M. (2005). Vrtnarstvo. Splošno vrtnarstvo in zelenjadarstvo. Biotehniška
Fakulteta, Oddelek za agronomijo, Ljubljana.
Ponjičan, O., Bajkin, A., Jačimović, G., Tomić, M., Savin, L., Dedović, N., Simikić, M. (2012). Tillage
quality affecting physical characteristics, number of plants and carrot root yield under flat and ridge
cultivation. Journal of Food Agriculture & Environment 10, 304-311.
SIST ISO 11277. (2011). Kakovost tal - Določevanje porazdelitve velikosti delcev v mineralnem delu
tal - Metoda s sejanjem in usedanjem. Ljubljana.
Soil survey laboratory methods manual. (1992). National Soil Survay Centre, New York.
Strandberg, J.O., White, J.M. (1979). Effect of soil compaction on carrot roots. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci.
104, 344-349.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

STRUCTURAL AND MODAL ANALYSIS OF THE

SUBSOILER EQUIPMENT TO PREPARE THE
GERMINATIVE BED
Gabriel GHEORGHE*, Cătălin PERSU, Iulia GAGEANU, Dan CUJBESCU
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
National Institute of Research - Development for Machines and Installations designed to Agriculture
and Food Industry - INMA BUCHAREST

SUMMARY
This article presents the way to obtain the structural model for elementary
linear-elastic static analysis of subsoiler equipment to prepare the germinative
bed. Also, to prove the functionality of the obtained structural model, structural
analysis results for the linear elastic static test are presented. These results are
useful for estimating the safety factor and for assessing the behaviour in major
overstress situations at the main part of the machine. Structure dynamics is a
very broad discipline that uses a huge arsenal of theoretical and experimental
methods to solve a fundamental problem of structures: the dynamic response to
variable tasks over time. Vibrations and especially vibration in resonance
modes are problems that occur frequently in large structures. Because large
structures with large numbers of components can’t be optimally engineered for
resonant regimes, it is often done to resolve structures or improve them by using
modal analysis of the mathematical models of these structures. The usefulness
of this analysis is particularly evident in the testing phase and even in the first
stages of operation, when it is necessary to improve the working regime of a
product of the type analysed. The main results of the static linear-elastic
structural analysis are: the values of the reactions in the holders, vector field
distribution of the relative - resultant displacement in the structure, tensor
fields’ distribution of the specific deformation and the Cauchy stress tensor in
the same structure. Also, an important result for the structure safety is the
distribution of the safety factor. The analysis of the equipment’s own spectrum,
allows the proper identification of the main frequencies on which a
resonant working regime can occur.
Keywords: static analysis, von Mises Stress, fundamental frequency, safety
factor

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

79
 G Gheorghe, C Persu, I Gageanu, D Cujbescu

INTRODUCTION
Optimal design or improvement of a complex mechanical structure are activities that are
currently carried out in the work of advanced companies working in the field of mechanical
and other types structures. Designing an optimal product (at least from some points of view)
or optimizing existing products requires complex working tools that are nowadays integrated
into CAD-CAE complex programs. The workflow in the CAD - CAE complex is often
fragmented, due to the great workload and complex knowledge it requires. For these reasons,
in general, the CAD model (Fig.1) may come from suppliers who don’t have the qualification
to do the structural analysis and vice versa. CAE models are used by structuralists who don’t
have all the engineering knowledge needed to create manufacturing drawings. Moreover, it is
known that, in order to make manufacturing drawings, in CAD drawings some gaps are left
to be filled by weld seams or other techniques. Such a CAD model is not functional from the
point of view of structural analysis. Another problem that generates difficulties in obtaining
CAD models is that CAD model providers can use an older and less performing design
software, while the team performing structural analysis needs the CAD model appropriate to
another program. Global concerns in most of the directions that our research addresses are
very common (Arjun and Narendra, 2017; Gheorghe et al., 2016; Gheorghe et al., 2018; Biris
et al., 2016; Gheorghita et al., 2018).

Figure 1 CAD model of the structure in the usual form for SolidWorks 2018 program

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fixing conditions (Structure bearing)

The structure is borne in three points by the tractor attachment system, (Fig. 2). The
attachment to the tractor is (exaggeratedly) made by inserting (cancelling all degrees of
freedom on the contact surfaces between the tractor and subsoiler attachment elements) grip
are not taken into account.

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 Structural and modal analysis of the subsoiler equipment to prepare the germinative bed

Figure 2 Structure bearing

Structure loading
In this article, we study the response of the structure only for the normal maximum
workload. The total force applied to the projection of working parts on the normal plane to
the travel direction was calculated using the method of (Letosnev, 1959; Krasnicenko, 1964;
Sandru et al., 1983).
𝐹𝐹0 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎0 𝑏𝑏0 + 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 ; 𝐹𝐹1 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 𝑣𝑣 2 ; 𝐹𝐹2 = 𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 + 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 𝑣𝑣 2
(1)
𝐹𝐹2𝑜𝑜 = 𝐹𝐹2 sin 𝛼𝛼 ; 𝐹𝐹2𝑣𝑣 = 𝐹𝐹2 cos 𝛼𝛼
where the sizes with index 0 correspond to the chisel type working parts, and those with
index 1 correspond to the working parts holders (corresponding to the working depth, up to
the working parts level). In (1) F0 and F1 are the resistance forces of the soil at the action of
the two parts of the working body, a0, b0, respectively a1, b1 are the working depth and width
of the working body’s respective parts, while k0, ε0, respectively, k1, ε1, are soil specific
resistances to deformation and soil resistance to deformation coefficients due to the working
speed. The working speed has been denoted with v. In the example considered we used the
following values: a0=0.31 m2, a1=0.128 m, b0=0.07 m, b1=0.07 m, k0= 100000 Pa, k1= 20000
Pa. ε1= ε2= 2200 kg m-3, v= 10 km h-1. We have also considered a traction force, due to the
discs, and to the fangs, calculated according to the formulas (1), with a2=0.115, b2=0.04 m,
k2=20000 Pa, ε2=1000 k m-3. We have also considered a 9-discs battery, and 18 fangs on the
first roller with fangs with orientation angles α=15o. Forces (2) were applied to the structure
according to the graphical representation in Fig. 3.

𝐹𝐹0 = 2538 𝑁𝑁; 𝐹𝐹1 = 1048 𝑁𝑁; 𝐹𝐹2 = 127,5 𝑁𝑁; 𝐹𝐹2𝑜𝑜 = 99 𝑁𝑁; 𝐹𝐹2𝑣𝑣 = 369 𝑁𝑁 (2)
Similar estimations of the interaction forces between the working bodies of the machines
for soil tillage and the soil, as well as the experimental results, are mentioned in (Cardei et al.,
2012; Nagy et al., 2011).
To perform linear-elastic static analysis, the global contact command was applied. This
condition applied by the finite element analyser eliminates any kind of clearance, creating
stress conditions corresponding to a more rigid structure than the real one. Thus, tensions will
be higher than in reality, and relative displacements (deformations) are expected to have lower
values than in reality. The discretization of the structure can be seen in Figure 4.

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 G Gheorghe, C Persu, I Gageanu, D Cujbescu

Figure 3 Loads application (forces)

Figure 4 Structure discretization: Projection of finite elements on the structure border

The materials used for the components of the analysed structure are shown in Figure 5
together with the respective properties. For the pipes, S275JR was used, S355 was used for
the plate parts and 16MnCr5 was used for the working parts.

a) S75JR b) S355 c) 16MnCr5

Figure 5 Material properties

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 Structural and modal analysis of the subsoiler equipment to prepare the germinative bed

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The main results of the static linear-elastic structural analysis are: the values of the
reactions in the holders, vector field distribution of the relative - resultant displacement in the
structure, tensor fields’ distribution of the specific deformation and the Cauchy stress tensor
in the same structure. Also, an important result for the structure safety is the distribution of
the safety factor.
Table 1 shows the values of the resultant forces components, which are also found in the
values of the reaction forces (in the three bearing areas).

Table 1 Resultant Forces

Components X Y Z Resultant
Reaction force, (N) 18524.9 -2189.9 0.008 18,653.9
Reaction Moment, (N·m) 0 0 0 0

The equipment was divided into two, for more efficient results and the power of the
computer needed to run the analysis. Results will be presented separately.
Figure 6 graphically represents the distribution maps of the relative displacement field
values on the structure border. It is noticed that the maximum value (about 1 mm) is located
at the back of the structure. This maximum value can be exceeded if we consider the
clearances of the structure and of the connection system between the scarifier and the tractor.
Increasing the movement, in the conditions of the considered stress, admitting the clearances,
contributes to the relaxation of the structure and consequently to the increase of the safety
factor. However, exaggerated clearances generally lead to more or less premature wear.

Figure 6 Distribution of the relative displacement field values resulting on the structure
border

In figure 7, the distribution of the total specific deformation values is graphically

represented by color map. The maximum stress area is also indicated in detail. Due to the fact
that we are working in the elastic-linear field, the maximum tension will be located in the
same area as the maximum specific deformation. The maximum equivalent tension is
graphically indicated in the same way in Figure 8.

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 G Gheorghe, C Persu, I Gageanu, D Cujbescu

Figure 7 Field values distribution of the total specific deformation on the structure border

Figure 8 Representation of the equivalent tension distribution on the structure border

Finally, Figure 9 shows the graphical representation of the safety factor distribution
in the structure.

Figure 9 Field values distribution of the total specific deformation on the structure border

The results of second part of the article is about the modal analysis. This modal analysis
was made only for the first three frequencies.
The result of calculating frequencies or modal analysis relies essentially in the list of a
number of its own frequencies (in Hz) (pulsations, in rad/s and periods, in s), in ascending
order, starting with the lowest (fundamental frequency). There are presented also the relative
displacements on the directions and resultants in the structure, for each vibration mode,

84
 Structural and modal analysis of the subsoiler equipment to prepare the germinative bed

separately. Also, color maps of the field of relative displacements, on component or resultant,
are presented.
In Table 2, it is shown, from the SOLIDWORKS 2018 program report, which was used
(the SIMULATION module) for making the frequency analysis, a list of the first three own
frequencies, 20 frequencies have been calculated but only the first ones are important.

Table 2 Mass Participation (Normalized)

For the part of front For the part of back
Mode No. Frequency (Hz) Mode No. Frequency (Hz)
1 11.836 1 5.6996
2 16.548 2 9.9854
3 20.833 3 11.076

Another way of showing these results appears in Table 3. Table 3 presents own frequencies
and maps of the amplitudes on the deformed shape of the structure, in the vibration modes
corresponding to the respective frequency. In Table 3, only two of the twenty calculated
vibration modes are given, for reasons of fitting into a certain number of pages of an article.

Table 3 The first two amplitude maps on its surface

Mode Maps of the amplitude on the deformed shape of the structure, (mm)
No. For the part of front For the part of back

We tried to cover the frequency spectrum that could affect the tractor operator’s health,
according to the standards (Bruel and Kjaer, 1989). Affecting the operator by the subsoiler
own frequencies is also unlikely, as the periodic signals transmitted from the subsoiler to the
tractor are weak in intensity also due to the coupling mode and attenuated in the tractor
suspension system (including wheels for wheeled tractors). Concerns on the ergonomic line
remain in place and receive new dimensions (Makoto et al., 1998).

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 G Gheorghe, C Persu, I Gageanu, D Cujbescu

CONCLUSIONS
The minimum safety coefficient value is 13.936, respectively 11.260. For agricultural
machinery destined for tillage, the usual safety coefficient values are between 1.8 and 2.2.
Therefore, this machine is either much oversized, or it works under much tougher conditions.
The latter may appear either due to use under improper conditions or due to accidents (impact
with hard rocks or roots in soil).
The results obtained and provided by modal analysis for mechanical structures are
relatively few and their uses are accurate.
As it is known, the main result of the modal analysis is the set of calculated frequencies.
In principle, we can ask the program to calculate an unlimited number of own frequencies. In
fact, just the first few are useful. The most important is the fundamental frequency, which has
the lowest value of the calculated ones. Most of the time, the list of own frequencies is used
to avoid resonance working regimes and, in general, resonance phenomena that may occur
under various circumstances.
For the structure analyzed in this paper, we limited the number of frequencies calculated
to the first twenty. We considered that this way we cover all the basic frequencies that may
occur in the equipment working process. The highest frequencies we had in view were those
that usually come from the tractor engine (33-67 Hz), although through the coupling mode
between the subsoiler and tractor, the transmission of these frequencies from the tractor to the
subsoiler is highly unlikely to amplitude that is noticeable by the usual measurement and
control equipment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was funded from the European Regional Development Fund through the
Competitiveness Operational Program 2014-2020, contract no. 80 / 08.09.2016, within the
project entiled “Rapid knowledge transfer and technical-scientific support in competitive
technologies and competitive technologies in enterprises specific to bioeconomy and
bioresuring production”.

REFERENCES
Kadam A., Chhapkhane N. (2017). Design and analysis of subsoiler, International Journal of Modern
Trends in Engineering and Science, ISSN: 2348-3221, pp. 11-14.
Bruel & Kjaer, Human Vibration (1989).
https://www.bksv.com/~/media/literature/Primers/br056.ashx?la=en
Petru C., Kostadinov G. (2012) Working regimes of the agricultural machines designed to soil tillage:
From optimization to fundamentals (1), INMATEH, vol. 37, No. 2, pp.13 – 20.
Cardei P., Kostadinov G. (2012) Working regimes of the agricultural machines designed to soil tillage:
From optimization to fundamentals (2), INMATEH , vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 21 – 28.
Gheorghe G., Persu C., Matache M., Mateescu, M., Cujbescu D. (2016) Finite element method use in
the calculation and optimization of the active parts of mulch films applying equipment, Agricultural
and mechanical engineering, ISSN 2537 – 3773, pp.629-634.

86
 Structural and modal analysis of the subsoiler equipment to prepare the germinative bed

Gheorghe G., Persu C., Gageanu I., Cujbescu D. (2018) Structural and modal analysis in solidworks of
basic structure of equipment to prepare germinative bed in strips, Proceedings Engineering for rural
development, Jelgava, pp. 818- 826.
Gheorghiță N., Biris S.-St., Ungureanu N. (2018) Contributions to the analysis of the vibratory working
tools by FEM, Conference: International Symposium ISB-INMATEH – Agricultural and Mechanical
Engineering, pp. 579-582.
Krasnicenko A. V. (1964) Agricultural machinery manufacturer manual, volume 2, Technical
Publishing House, Bucharest.
Letosnev M. N. (1959) Agricultural Machines, Agrosilvica State Publishing House, Bucharest.
Futatsuka M., Maeda S., Inaoka T., Nagano M., Shono M., Miyakita T. (1998) Whole-Body Vibration
and Health Effects in the Agricultural Machinery Drivers, Industrial Health, Vol. 36, No. 2 P 127-
132.
Nagy M., Cardei P., Cota C., Fechete L. (2011) Method of estimating the soil resistance force to soil
working machine parts with applications to the optimization of working regimes of machines used
in horticulture, INMATEH , vol. 35, No. 3, pp.27 – 32.
Sandru A., Popescu S., Cristea I., Neculaiasa V. (1983) Agricultural machinery exploitation, Didactic
and Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest.
Biris S.-St., Maican E., Vladut V., Sorin B., Ungureanu N., Vlăduț D.I. (2016) Stress and strains
distribution in the frame of agricultural cultivators using the finite element method, Proceedings of
the 44th International symposium on agricultural engineering "Actual Tasks on Agricultural
Engineering", pp. 111-117.

87
47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

REZULTATI SJETVE KUKURUZA SIJAČICOM

MATERMACC TWIN ROW–2 NA POKUŠALIŠTU
„TENJA“
Anamarija BANAJ1*, Đuro BANAJ1, Vjekoslav TADIĆ1, Davor PETROVIĆ1,
Vinko DUVNJAK2
*
E-mail dopisnog autora: [email protected]
1Fakultetagrobiotehničkih znanosti Osijek, Sveučilište J. J. Strossmayera u Osijeku,
Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Hrvatska,
2Poljoprivredni Institut Osijek, Južno predgrađe 17, 31000 Osijek, Hrvatska

SAŽETAK
U radu su prikazani rezultati prinosa zrna primjenom standardne i sjetve
kukuruza u twin row tehnologiji na površinama pokušališta „Tenja“,
(45°31'1,83" N 18°46'37,5" E) Osijek. Za sjetvu kukuruza u standardne redove
na razmak od 70 cm korištena je PSK4 OLT sijačica, a za sjetvu u udvojene
redove korištena je MaterMacc Twin Row-2 sijačica. U istraživanju bila su
zasijana dva hibrida sjemenske kuće RWA, Chapalu (FAO 350) i Ferarixx
(FAO 360). Prinos zrna kod hibrida Chapalu u standardnoj sjetvi iznosio je
13731 kg ha-1 sa standardnom devijacijom od 767,011 i koeficijentom varijacije
od 5,59 %. Prinos zrna u sjetvi twin row tehnologijom iznosio je 14.501 kg ha-
1
ili 5,61% više u odnosu na standardnu sjetvu. Povećanjem sjetvenog sklopa
na 88.040 biljaka ha-1 utvrđen je prinos od 14.981 kg ha-1. U standardnoj sjetvi
prinos hibrida Ferarixx iznosio je 13.516 kg ha-1 sa standardnom devijacijom
od 611,0 i koeficijentom varijacije od 4,52%. Prinos istog hibrida u sjetvi u
udvojene redove iznosio je 14.570 kg ha-1 ili 7,79 % više u odnosu na
standardnu sjetvu. Povećanjem sklopa kod hibrida Ferarixx na 88.395 biljaka
ha-1 ostvaren je prinos od 15.056 kg ha-1.
Ključne riječi: kukuruz, sjetva, twin row sijačica, prinos

UVOD
Sjetva kukuruza na našem prostoru obavlja se na standardni razmak redova od 70 i 75 cm.
U novije vrijeme provode se znanstvena istraživanja sjetve kukuruza u udvojene redove,
poznate u svijetu kao twin row tehnologija. Ovisno o proizvođačima sijačica, udvojeni redovi
zasijavaju se na razmak od 20, 22 ili 25 cm, a središnji razmak susjednih udvojenih redova

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 A. Banaj, Đ. Banaj, V. Tadić, D. Petrović, V. Duvnjak

iznosi 70 ili 75 cm tako da se berba može obaviti sa standardnim beračima za kukuruz. Prema
literaturnim navodima izvođenje sjetve sa tzv. “Twin-Row“ tehnologijom započeto je već
početkom devedesetih godina u SAD-u kao težnja da se poveća prinos zrna s povećanjem
sjetve većeg broja biljaka (sklopa) po proizvodnoj površini (ha). U RH s sjetvom u udvojene
redove započeo je Čuljat (1986.). Prema navodima istog autora došlo je do znatnijeg
povećanja prinosa u svim sjetvama od 6 do 18 %. U novije vrijeme rezultate dobivenih prinosa
twin row sjetve u odnosu na standardnu sjetvu navode Banaj i sur. (2018). Tako autori navode
da su ostvarili prinos zrna kod hibrida P0023 u standardnoj sjetvi od 12.882 kg ha-1 sa
standardnom devijacijom od 631,012 i koeficijentom varijacije od 4,90 %. Prinos zrna hibrida
kukuruza P0023 u sjetvi twin row tehnologiji iznosio je 13.477 kg ha-1 ili 4, 62 % više u
odnosu na standardnu sjetvu.
U standardnoj sjetvi prinos hibrida P0412 iznosio je 12.605 kg ha-1. Prinos hibrida P0412
u sjetvi u udvojene redove iznosio 5,83 % više u odnosu na standardnu sjetvu. Sjetvom hibrida
„P0412“ i hibrida „P0023“ u standardnoj tehnologiji s razmakom redova od 70 cm i u twin
row tehnologiji s razmakom udvojenih redova od 22 cm, navode Banaj i sur. (2017a.) da je
hibrid P0023 dao prinos u berbi 13.814 kg ha-1.
Isti hibrid u twin row tehnologiji ostvario je prinos 10,35 % više u odnosu na standardnu
sjetvu. Prinos zrna kod standardne sjetve hibrida P0412 iznosio je 15.427 kg ha-1. U sjetvi
twin row tehnologijom prinos je iznosio 10,59 % više u odnosu na standardnu sjetvu.
Rezultate prinosa u istraživanju hibrida sjemenske kuće KWS, hibrida iz FAO grupe 380 -
Kamparis i hibrida iz FAO grupe 410 - Balasco navode Banaj i sur. (2017b.). Prinos hibrida
Kamparis u standardnom načinu sjetve iznosio je 12.457 kg ha-1, a u sjetvi twin row
tehnologijom sa sklopom od 62.835 biljaka ha-1 iznosio je 13.712 kg ha-1 ili 10,07% više u
odnosu na standardnu sjetvu. Kod hibrida Balasco zabilježeni prinos iznosio je 14.533 kg ha-
1
, a sjetvom u twin row tehnologiji iznosio je 13.718 kg ha-1 ili 5,6 % manje u odnosu na
standardnu sjetvu.

MATERIJAL I METODE
Sjetva dva hibrida kukuruza na površinama pokušališta „Tenja“ obavljena je 19. travnja
2018. sijačicama PSK4 OLT i MaterMacc Twin row-2. U istraživanju su korišteni hibridi
Chapalu i Ferarixx zasijani u standardnoj sjetvi s razmakom redova od 70 cm i u twin row
sjetvi s razmakom udvojenih redova od 22 x 48 cm. Hibridi Chapalu i Ferarixx posijani su na
teoretski sklop od 82.992 biljaka ha-1 u standardnoj sjetvi te na 84.435 i 97.767 biljaka ha-1 u
twin row sjetvi. Na sjetvenoj površini predkultura je bila pšenica, a gnojidba kukuruza
obavljena je sa 130 kg ha-1 N, 120 kg ha-1 P2O5 i 125 kg ha-1 K2O. Osnovna i dopunska obrada
tla bila je konvencionalna, a za zaštitu od korova korišten je herbicid Adengo. Ručna berba
pokusne parcele kukuruza obavljena je 1. listopada 2018. godine berbom dva reda kukuruza
u duljini od 20 m sa četiri ponavljanja. Za oba hibrida kukuruza određen je sklop biljaka po
hektaru u vrijeme nicanja, razmak biljaka unutar reda nakon nicanja (cm), prinos (kg ha-1) i
vlaga zrna (%). Dobiveni podaci obrađeni su u „SAS 9.4“ programu, odnosno određena je
srednja vrijednost, standardna devijacija te koeficijent varijacije za sve vrijednosti. Odlike tla
na lokaciji pokušališta „Tenja“ prikazane su u Tablici 1.
Značajke klime sa meteorološke postaje Osijek Klisa aerodrom izmjerene za višegodišnji
period (1981. - 2017.) u periodu vegetacije kukuruza (Tablici 2).

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Tablica 1 Osnovna kemijska svojstva tla na pokušalište „Tenja“

Table 1 Basical agrochemical soil analysis on field „Tenja“
Pokušalište / experimental field Dubina / Depth AL-P2O5 AL-K2O Humus / Humus
„Tenja“ (cm) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) content (%)
(45°31'1,83"N 18°46'37,5"E)
(k. o. Tenja 1308 i 1309) 0 - 30 15,58 24,29 3,71

Slika 1 Pokušalište „Tenja“ (izvor: Arkod)

Figure 1 Experimental field „Tenja“ (source: Arkod)

Tablica 2 Srednje mjesečne temperature zraka i ukupne godišnje količine oborina

Table 2 Mean air temperature and total monthly precipitation
Meteorološka postaja Osijek Klisa aerodrom ( 1981. - 2017.)
Osijek meteo. station Klisa airport (1981 - 2017)
Mjesec / Month IV V VI VII VIII IX Suma
Količina oborina
48,4 77,9 77,9 58,2 60,1 52,6 375,1
Total precipitation (mm)
Srednja temperatura zraka
12.1 17,3 20,6 22,5 21,7 17,1 18,55
Mean air temperature (⁰C)
2018. godina / year
Količina oborina
25,1 77,6 102,9 89,2 45,6 106,1 446,5
Total precipitation (mm)
Srednja temperatura zraka
17,0 20,6 21,7 22,5 24,4 17,9 20,68
Mean air temperature (⁰C)

REZULTATI I RASPRAVA
Utvrđene vrijednosti sklopa biljaka po ha u vrijeme nicanja, prinosa (kg) i vlage zrna za
oba hibrida su prikazani u Tablicama 3. i 4. U standardnoj sjetvi sa sijačicom PSK4 OLT
hibrid Chapalu u sklopu od 73.130 biljaka ha-1 nakon nicanja, ostvario je prinos od 13.731 kg
ha-1 zrna s prosječnom vlažnošću od 28,30 %. Twin row sjetva sa ostvarenim sklopom od

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 A. Banaj, Đ. Banaj, V. Tadić, D. Petrović, V. Duvnjak

74.905 biljaka ha-1 kod istog hibrida ostvarila je prinos od 14.501 kg ha-1 zrna s prosječnom
vlažnošću 30,18 % što je 5,61% više u odnosu na standardnu sjetvu.
U sklopu od 88.040 biljaka ha-1 utvrđen je prinoss od 14.981 kg ha-1 zrna s prosječnom
vlažnošću 30,35 %. Promatrajući srednje mjesečne temperature i količinu oborina za vrijeme
vegetacije kukuruza na području Osijeka - Klisa aerodrom, vidljivo je kako su srednje
mjesečne temperature u 2018. godini bile znatno više od višegodišnjeg prosjeka za to
područje, kao i ukupna suma oborina koja je bila 71,4 mm (19.1% više od prosjeka) (Tablica
2.).

Tablica 3 Utvrđen broj biljaka unutar reda nakon nicanja kukuruza

Table 3 Number of plants and spacing inside rows after emergence

Sjetvena norma / Broj biljaka ha-1 u vrijeme nicanja

Hibrid / Number of plants per hectare after emergence
Sowing rate
Hybrid
(seeds/ha) Xi s.d. C.V. (%) Min Max
Standardna –
73.130 3.666 5,01 68.870 77.390
82.992
Twin row I –
Chapalu 74.905 4.832 6,45 68.160 79.520
84.435
Twin row II –
88.040 2.592 2,94 85.200 90.880
97.757
Standardna –
74.018 2.920 3,95 70.290 76.680
82.992
Twinrow I –
Ferarixx 75.970 3.380 4,45 72.420 79.520
84.435
Twinrow II –
88.395 8.390 9,49 76.680 95.140
97.757

Tablica 4 Ostvareni prinosi zrna kukuruza (svedeno na vlagu od 14%) kod standardne i
Twin row sjetve hibrida Chapalu i Ferarixx (Berba 1.10.2018.)
Table 4 Corn yield (calculated at 14% grain moisture) with standard and Twin row planting
of hybrids Chapalu and Ferarixx (Harvest 1st October 2018.)
Sjetvena norma / Prinos /Yield (kg ha-1)
Hibrid /
Sowing rate
Hybrid Xi s.d. C.V. (%) Min Max
(seeds/ha)
Standardna –
13.731 767 5,59 12.848 14.594
82.992
Twin row I –
Chapalu 14.501 952 6,57 13.266 15.580
84.435
Twin row II –
14.981 339 2,27 14.578 15.373
97.757
Standardna –
13.516 611 4,52 12.740 14.178
82.992
Twinrow I –
Ferarixx 14.570 465 3,19 14.122 15.212
84.435
Twinrow II –
15.056 1.146 7,62 13.638 16.422
97.757

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 Rezultati sjetve kukuruza sijačicom MaterMacc TwinRow–2 na pokušalištu „Tenja“

Tablica 5 Vlaga zrna u vrijeme berbe

Table 5 Grain moisture in harvest
Sjetvena norma / Vlaga zrna u vrijeme berbe /
Hibrid / Grain moisture in harvest (%)
Sowing rate
Hybrid
(seeds/ha) Xi s.d. C.V. (%) Min Max
Standardna –
28,30 1,257 4,44 27,20 30,10
82.992
Twin row I –
Chapalu 30,18 1,575 5,22 28,10 31,80
84.435
Twin row II –
30,35 1,752 5,77 28,30 32,00
97.757
Standardna –
21,20 0,796 3,75 20,40 22,30
82.992
Twinrow I –
Ferarixx 22,43 0,334 1,49 21,90 22,80
84.435
Twinrow II –
22,55 0,252 1,12 22,30 22,90
97.757

Standardnom sjetvom hibrida Ferarixx (74.018 biljaka ha-1 nakon nicanja) ostvaren je
prinos od 13.516 kg ha-1 zrna s prosječnom vlagom od 21,20 %. Twin row sjetva istog hibrida
sa sijačicom MaterMacc Twin Row-2, sa ostvarenim sklopom od 75.970 biljaka ha-1, ostvarila
je prinos od 14.570 kg ha-1 zrna s prosječnom vlagom od 22,43 %. Prinos zrna twin row sjetve
hibrida Ferarixx bio je za 7,79 % veći u odnosu na prinos ostvaren u standardnoj sjetvi.
Dobiveni rezultati slični su vrijednostima koje navodi autor Banaj i sur. (2017. a) od 10,35 %
kod hibrida P0023 na drugoj lokaciji istraživanja. Dobivene vrijednosti povećanja prinosa od
5,83 % kod hibrida P0412 također su potvrđene od strane istih autora. Dobiveni rezultati
istovjetni su podacima koje navodi Blandino i sur. (2013.) u Italiji. Jurković i sur. (2018.)
također potvrđuju povećanje prinosa primjenom twin row sjetve od 3,56 do 7,66 %. Rezultate
prinosa zrna ostvarenih u sjetvi kukuruza u udvojene redove u vegetacijskoj 2016. godini u
bosanskoj Posavini, Bosna i Hercegovina, navode Jurković i sur. (2017.). Standardnom
sjetvom hibrida P0412 ostvaren je prinos od 15798 kg ha-1 u procijenjenom sklopu od 60.705
biljaka ha-1. Sjetvom istog hibrida u udvojene redove ostvaren je prinos od 16.671 kg ha-1 ili
5,53 % više u odnosu na standardnu sjetvu. Nešto veći prinosi zrna zabilježen je u sjetvi twin
row tehnologijom hibrida BC525 od 13,95 % (16.613 kg ha-1) više u odnosu na standardnu
sjetvu (14.579 kg ha-1) kod procijenjenog sklopa poniklih biljaka od 62.658 biljaka ha-1. Tadić
i sur. (2017.) navode rezultate prinosa zrna kukuruza ovisno o načinu sjetve uporabom
podtlačne sijačice PSK4 OLT za standardni način sjetve i primjenom sijačice MaterMacc
TwinRow-2. Hibrid „ZP 488“ ostvario je u standardnoj sjetvi prinos od 14.055 kg ha-1, te
15.028 kg ha-1 u udvojenim redovima ili 6,48 % više od standardnog načina sjetve. Autori
navode da je zabilježen prinos zrna kod hibrida „ZP 560“ u standardnom načinu sjetve od
14.394 kg ha-1. Ostvareni prinos sjetvom u udvojene redove iznosio je 14.747 kg ha-1 ili 2,40
% više nego kod standardne sjetve. Kod sjetve hibrida Os 403 Jurković i sur. (2018.) u razmak
redova od 70 cm ostvaren je prinos zrna kukuruza od 15.153 kg ha-1, a sjetvom u udvojene
redove 15.693 kg ha-1 ili 3,56% više u odnosu na standardnu sjetvu.
Prinos hibrida Os 378 u standardnoj sjetvi, kako navode autori iznosio je 13.426 kg ha-1,
a u sjetvi u udvojene redove iznosio je 14.455 kg ha-1 ili 7,66% više u odnosu na standardnu
sjetvu. Blandino i sur. (2013.) proveli su ispitivanje twin row tehnologije u Italiji na 12

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 A. Banaj, Đ. Banaj, V. Tadić, D. Petrović, V. Duvnjak

lokacija. Koristili su hibrid DKC 6815, FAO grupe 600, u sklopovima od 7,5 do 9,5 pa čak i
10 biljaka m-2. Dobiveni rezultati ukazuju na povećanje prinosa na 8 lokacija u prosjeku za
5,5 %. Povećanje prinosa iznosilo je od 0,6 t ha-1 (+3,6 %) te 0,9 t ha-1 što je iznosilo povećanje
prinosa za 6,2 %.

ZAKLJUČAK
Temeljem dobivenih rezultata mjerenih parametara tijekom jednogodišnjeg istraživanja
kod oba hibrida, utvrđen je pozitivan učinak primjene twin row tehnologije u odnosu na
standardnu sjetvu kukuruza.
- Temeljem meteoroloških podataka prvenstveno promatrajući srednje mjesečne
temperature zraka i mjesečne količine oborina možemo zaključiti da je vegetacijska
godina 2018. bila pogodna za proizvodnju kukuruza na pokušalištu “Tenja”
- U standardnoj sjetvi s pneumatskom sijačicom “PSK-4” tvrtke MIO OLT Osijek,
hibrid Chapalu u sklopu od 73130 biljaka ha-1nakon nicanja ostvario je prinos od
13731 kg ha-1 zrna s prosječnom vlažnošću od 28,30 %,
- Twin row sjetva sa ostvarenim sklopom od 74905 biljaka ha-1kod istog hibrida polučila
je prinos od 14501 kg ha-1 zrna s prosječnom vlažnošću od 30,18 % što čini povećanje
u odnosu na standardnu sjetvu od 5,61 %.
- Standardnom sjetvom hibrida Ferarixx u sklopu od 74018 biljaka/ha nakon nicanja
ostvaren je prinos od 13516 kg ha-1 zrna s prosječnom vlagom 21,20 %,
- Twin row sjetva istog hibrida s sijačicom MaterMacc “Twin Row-2” sa ostvarenim
sklopom od 75970 biljaka ha-1 dobiven je prinos od 14570 kg ha-1 zrna s prosječnom
vlagom od 22,43 % što predstavlja povećanje od 7,79 % u odnosu na standardnu sjetvu,
- Iako postignuti rezultati pokazuju da Twin row sjetva daje 5,61% i 7,73% veće
prosječne prinose zrna od standardne sjetve, ovi rezultati nisu statistički potvrđeni
odnosno nisu značajni te se predlaže nastavak postupka istraživanja.

LITERATURA
Banaj, Đ., Banaj, Anamarija., Jurković, D., Tadić, V., Petrović, D., Lovrić, Ž. (2018). Sjetva kukuruza
sijaćicom MaterMacc Twin Row-2 na OPG-u Jasna Puhar, 11. međunarodni znanstveno-stručni skup
"Poljoprivreda u zaštiti prirode i okoliša", Vukovar, str. 323-327.
Banaj, A., Šumanovac, L., Heffer, G., Tadić, V., Banaj Đ. (2017a). Yield of corn grain by sowing in
twin rows with MATERMACC-2 planter, International Scientific Symposium: Actual Tasks on
Agricultural Engineering, Agronomy faculty in Zagreb; Opatija, Croatia, 141-152.
Banaj, A., Kurkutović, L., Banaj Đ., Menđušić, I. (2017b). Application of MATERMACC twin row-2
seeder in corn sowing, 10. međunarodni znanstveno-stručni skup "Poljoprivreda u zaštiti prirode i
okoliša", Vukovar, 180-186.
Blandino, M. Reyneri A., Testa G. (2013). Aumentare la produttività del mais con alti investimenti e
file binate, 76 Terra e Vita, nr. 7/2013, 76-78.
Čuljat, M. (1989). Primjena tehnike za proizvodnju soje s naglaskom na tehniku sjetve i zaštite, Zbornik
radova VIII savjetovanja „Biološki, tehnički i organizacijski aspekti unapređenja i proširenja
proizvodnje soje u Slavoniji i Baranji“, 154-158.
Jurković, D., Kajić, N., Banaj, A., Tadić, V., Banaj, Đ., Jović, J. (2017). Twin Row technology maize
sowing, Agriculture Symposium “Agrosym 2017, 62-66.

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 Rezultati sjetve kukuruza sijačicom MaterMacc TwinRow–2 na pokušalištu „Tenja“

Jurković, D., Kajić, N., Banaj, A., Banaj, Đ. (2018). Utjecaj načina sjetve na prinos zrna kukuruza, 53.
hrvatski i 13. međunarodni simpozij agronoma 18. do 23. veljače 2018., Vodice, 299-303.
Tadić, V., Banaj A., Banaj, Đ., Petrović, D., Knežević, D. (2017). Twin Row tehnology for maize
seeding, The third International Symposium on Agricultural Engineering ISAE–2017, Belgrade-
Zemun, 20th-21st October 2017, 69-74.

RESULTS OF CORN SOWING USING MATERMACC

TWIN ROW–2 SOWING MACHINE ON EXPERIMENTAL
FIELD „TENJA“
Anamarija BANAJ1*, Đuro BANAJ1, Vjekoslav TADIĆ1, Davor PETROVIĆ1,
Vinko DUVNJAK2
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek,
Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
2Agricultural Institute Osijek, Južno predgrađe 17, 31000 Osijek, Croatia

SUMMARY
The paper presents the results of corn yield with application of standard and
twin row seeding system on experimental field „Tenja“, Osijek (45°31'1.83"N
and 18°46'37.5"E). Standard sowing was conducted with PSK4 OLT sowing
machine with 70 cm row spacing, and for twin row sowing system, MaterMacc
TwinRow – 2 sowing machines were used with double row spacing of 22 cm.
For this investigation, two different corn hybrids are used: Chapalu (FAO 350)
and Ferarixx (FAO 360). The yield of the Chapalu hybrid in standard sowing
was 13,731 kg ha-1 with the standard deviation of 767.01 and the variation
coefficient of 5.59%. The yield of the same hybrid in twin tow sowing system
was 14,501 kg ha-1 or 5.61% more than the yield of standard sowing. With the
increasing of seeding rate to 88,040 plants ha-1 the yield was 14,981 kg ha-1.
The yield of the Ferarixx hybrid in standard sowing was 13,516 kg ha-1 with the
standard deviation of 611.00 and the variation coefficient of 4.52%. The yield
of the same hybrid in twin tow sowing system was 14,570 kg ha-1 or 7.79% more
than the yield of standard sowing. With the increasing of seeding rate to 88,395
plants ha-1 the yield was 15,056 kg ha-1.
Keywords: corn, sowing, twin row sowing machine, yield

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

SMANJENJE URODA PŠENICE NA UVRATINAMA

USLIJED GAŽENJA
Ranko KOPRIVICA1, Vera ĐEKIĆ2, Biljana VELJKOVIĆ1*, Dragan TERZIĆ3,
Dragoslav ĐOKIĆ3 Zoran MILEUSNIĆ4
*
E-mail dopisnog autora: [email protected]
1 Agronomski fakultet Čačak, Univerzitet u Kragujevcu, Cara Dušana 34 Čačak, Srbija
2 Centar za strna žita Kraguujevac, Save Kovačevića 31, Srbija
3 Institut za krmno bilje, Kruševac, Globoder 37251, Srbija
4 Poljoprivredni fakultet, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Nemanjina 6 Zemun 11080, Srbija

SAŽETAK
Obavljanjem odgovarajućih agrotehničkih mjera u procesu proizvodnje
poljoprivrednih kultura (pšenice), zbog brojnih prolaza mehanizacijom dolazi
do gaženja tla. Na obiteljskim poljoprivrednim gospodarstvima u Srbiji
tehnološki procesi proizvodnje poljoprivrednih kultura provode se
pojedinačnim agrotehničkim mjerama. Počevši s rasipanjem gnojiva,
višenamjenskim sustavom za obradu tla, zatim sjetvom, zaštitom, gnojidbom -
prihranom, žetvom, transportom zrna i biljnih ostataka. Tako je u realizaciji
tehnoloških operacija u proizvodnji biljnih kultura površina tla na parceli
pregažena u 10 do 15 prohoda traktorskim i samohodnim sistemima. Velikim
brojem prolaza mehanizacijom gazi se tlo po unutarnjem dijelu parcele, a
osobito na uvratinama što negativno utječe na prinos kultiviranih usjeva i
dovodi do fizičkog i mehaničkog poremećaja strukture tla.
Cilj istraživanja je bio ustanoviti razliku u prinosu, visini biljaka, duljini
klasa, masi 1000 zrna i hektolitarskoj masi zrna pšenice u unutarnjem dijelu u
odnosu na uvratine parcele.
U svrhu ovog rada postavljen je eksperiment sorte pšenice Pobeda na tri
lokaliteta i praćena je visina uroda pšenice na unutarnjem dijelu-sredini i
krajevima-uvratinama parcele na kojima je bilo izraženije zbijanje tla. Tijekom
istraživanja, pored prinosa, određena je razlika u visini biljke, duljini klasa,
mase 1000 zrna i nasipne (hektolitarske) mase zrna na sredini i uvratini
parcele. Urod pšenice na unutarnjem dijelu parcele su na svim lokalitetima bili
veći od 44% do 69,06% u usporedbi na urod na uvratinama. Prosječna visina
biljke je veća od 4,76% do 13,75%, a duljine klase od 6,11% do 15,93% na
unutarnjem dijelu u odnosu na uvratine parcele. Na unutarnjem dijelu parcele

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 R. Koprivica, V. Đekić, B. Veljković, D. Terzić, D. Đokić Z. Mileusnić

mase 1000 zrna i nasipna masa manje su u odnosu na vrijednosti tih svojstava
na uvratinama.
Ključne riječi: pšenica, uvratina, urod, visina biljaka, duljina klasa, masa
1000 zrna i hektolitarska-nasipna masa zrna.

UVOD
Prema službenim podacima Republičkog zavoda za statistiku Srbije u proizvodnoj
2016/17. godini pšenica je uzgajana na površini od 556.115 ha sa prosječnim prinosom od 4,1
tha-1. Na obiteljskim poljoprivrednim gospodarstvima u Srbiji tehnološki procesi proizvodnje
poljoprivrednih kultura provode se pojedinačnim agrotehničkim mjerama. Počevši s
rasipanjem gnojiva, višenamjenskim sustavom za obradu tla, zatim sjetvom, zaštitom,
gnojidbom - prihranom, žetvom, transportom zrna i biljnih ostataka. Tako je u realizaciji
tehnoloških operacija u proizvodnji biljnih kultura površina tla na parceli gažena u 10 do 15
prohoda traktorskim sistemima i samohodnim kombajnima. Izvođenjem odgovarajućih
agrotehničkih mjera u procesu proizvodnje pšenice zbog brojnih prolaza mehanizacijom po
parceli dolazi do opadanja plodnosti i degradacije tla. Velikim brojem prohoda
mehanizacijom tlo se gazi po unutarnjem dijelu parcele a posebice na uvratinama, što
nepovoljno utječe na njegovu strukturu i plodnost, a time i na urod pšenice.
U provođenje agrotehničkih mjera traktorski i mobilni sustavi gibaju se po unutarnjem
dijelu parcele a okreću na uvratinama, pri čemu dolazi do zbijanja tla, ali različitog intenziteta
(Ronai, 1989 i Schwngard, 1991). Pri okretanju traktorski sustavi i kombajni na uvratinama
dovode do većeg zbijanja tla u usporedbi sa unutarnjim dijelom parcele zbog manjih brzina
kretanja i većeg broja prohoda. Manje brzine kretanja na uvratinama dovode da tlo bude dulje
vrijeme izloženo djelovanju normalnog tlaka-napona što ga čini zbijenijem. Na povećano
zbijanje tla uz nižu brzinu kretanja utječe broj prolaza po uvratini, kao i povećani specifični
tlak. Broj prolaza po parceli utječe ne samo na dubinu traga kotača već i na pogaženu
površinu. Duljina puta koju pređe traktorski sustav na uvratinama je veća nego u unutarnjem
dijelu parcele sveden na širinu uvratina. Na zbijanje tla na uvratinama također utječe način
povezivanja poljoprivrednih strojeva. Nošene i polunošene mašine namijenjene za pripremu
tla, sjetvu, zaštitu i njegu kultura, pri okretanju na uvratinama podižu se u transportni položaj
što dovodi do preraspodele njihovih masa. Мasa sa prednjih kotača preraspodjeljuje se na
zadnje kotače traktora (Savin i sur., 2007; Savin i sur., 2008), zbog čega je tlo zbijenije na
uvratini u u uporedbu sa unutarnjim dijelom parcele.
Tijekom oranja i predsjetvene pripreme tla, traktori sa priključnim strojevima prelazom
preko parcela dovode do intenzivnog zbijanja tla, formiranja “plužnog đona” i stvaranja loših
uvjeta za nicanje, rast i razvoj korjenovog sistema. Korijen koji raste prema sloju koji je
sabijen slabo prodire kroz njega i smanjuje količinu vode i hranjivih tvari dostupnih biljkama.
Osim toga, tijekom njege usjeva, prolazak kotača traktora preko korijenskog sustava dovodi
do deformacije tla i korijena, što smanjuje njegovu čvrstoću i normalan razvoj.
U proizvodnji poljoprivrednih kultura, poljoprivredna mehanizacija je ključni element jer
njezina primjena donosi brojne prednosti. Ispravna primjena mehanizacije je važna, jer
prekomjerno korištenje zbija tlo i stvara niz problema, što se očituje negativnim utjecajem na
rast i prinos uzgajane biljke (Ramazan, 2012). Gibanje traktora i mobilnih sistema po parceli
Ronay (1997) tijekom oranja, pripreme tla, sjetve, zaštite, berbe i prijevoza, što rezultira

98
 Smanjenje uroda pšenice na uvratinama uslijed gaženja

zbijanjem tla. Posebice je utjecaj povezan s transportnim sredstvima, s obzirom na velika

opterećenja na osovinama prikolice i visoki tlak u pneumatiku, gdje nakon žetve usjeva ostaje
vrlo zbijeno tlo.
Ungureanu i sur. (2015) obavili su eksperimente u kontroliranim laboratorijskim uvjetima
kako bi simulirali tlak traktora U 650, koji rade s silom od 7380 N, i uočio neravnomjernu
raspodjelu tlaka preko dubine. Najveće zbijanje tla je na samoj površini 11,39 N cm-2.
Porastom dubine od 5 cm tlak zbijanja opada na 7,12 N cm-2, a na 25 cm na 2,68 N cm-2, da
bi se na dubini od 35 cm povećao na 4 Ncm-2, a zatim ponovo opao na 1,37 N cm-2. Prema
Jug i sur. (2015.) zbijeni sloj tla debljine preko 5 cm predstavlja izrazito veliki rizik koji može
uzrokovati pad prinosa i preko 40%.
Zbijanja tla na dubini od 7-21 cm u fazi nicanja na uvratinama je 14,45 daN cm-2, а u
unutarnjem dijelu parcele 10,48 daN cm-2. Na istoj dubini, zbijanje tla prije žetve na
uvratinama je 14,21 daN cm-2 а u unutarnjem dijelu parcele 9,73 daN cm-2. Prosječno
povećanje zbijenosti tla na uvratinama od 30,56% u fazi nicanja i 37,65% u vreme žetve,
utjecalo je na smanjenje uroda pšenice za oko 26% u odnosu na unutarnji dio parcele (Savin
i sur., 2007; Savin i sur., 2008; Savin i sur., 2008a).
Nakon nicanja pšenice prosječna zbijanja tla u unutarnjem dijelu parcele iznosila su 1,75
MPa, dok je na uvratini povećana za 36,57% (2,39 MPa). U fazi žetve pšenice na unutarnjem
dijelu parcele zbijanje tla varira u rasponu od 2,14-2,81 MPa, a na uvratinama od 3,38-4,28
MPa, što je više za 54,29%. Prinos suhog zrna pšenice u unutarnjem dijelu parcele kretao se
od 3,24-3,90 tha-1, a na uvratini od 2,53-3,14 tha-1. (Barać i sur., 2012). Isti autor (Barać i
sur., 2014), navodi da je zbijanje tla na početku mjerenja u pšenici na unutarnjem dijelu
parcele bilo u prosjeku 1,64 MPa, a na uvratini 2,55 MPa, što predstavlja povećanje za
58,37%. U vrijeme žetve pšenice na unutarnjem dijelu parcele zbijenost tla iznosila je 2,59
MPa, a na uvratinama 3,98 MPa, što je u prosjeku veća zbijenost za 53,56%. Prinos suhog
zrna pšenice u unutarnjem dijelu parcele bio je u prosjeku 5,20 tha-1, a na uvratini 3,52 tha-1,
pa je urod manji za 47,81%.
Veliki broj prolaza, naročito na uvratinama uzrokuje intenzivnije zbijanje tla što negativno
utječe na promjene u samom tlu kao i na urod koji je bio manji kod pšenice za 44,86%,
kukuruza 54,48%, suncokreta 19,09%, soje 11,41% i šećerne repe 52,72% (Nikolić i sur.,
2006).
Veći sadržaj organske tvari, bolja prozračnost i veća količina topline uzrokuju veću
mikrobiološku aktivnost u oraničnom sloju tla (10-25 cm), što potvrđuju i rezultati
istraživanja Јаrак i sur. (2005) i Savin i sur. (2008).
Zbijenost tla koje nastaje uslijed primjene teške mehanizacije izaziva smanjenje brojnosti
svih sistematskih i fizioloških grupa aerobnih mikroorganizama, a povećava brojnost
anaerobnih bakterija (Govedarica i sur., 1996). Uzorci tla s uvratina imaju viši sadržaj
humusa u usporedbi s onima iz unutarnjeg dijela parcele što se objašnjava većim zbijanjem
tla na uvratinama i smanjenjem mikrobiološke aktivnosti i intenziteta mineralizacije humusa.
Iako je sadržaj humusa veći na uvratinama, zbog zbijenosti tla postižu se manji prinosi
pšenice. Ukupan broj mikroorganizama i broj azotobaktera bio je veći u unutarnjem dijelu
parcele što se može objasniti poremećenom strukturom i lošim prozračivanjem tla na
uvratinama kao posljedicom intenzivnog gaženja i veće zbijenosti tla. Kako dubina raste, broj
mikroorganizama u pokusnom tlu se smanjuje (Govedarica i sur., 1996, Nikolić i sur., 2004,
Jarak i sur., 2005, Savin i sur., 2007, Savin i sur., 2008, Savin i sur., 2008a).

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Prema Nikoliću i sur. (2002) oštećenja zbog prekomjernog zbijanja tla očituju se u porastu
troškova proizvodnje od 20% do 40%, prosječnom smanjenju uroda za 10-25%, prosječnom
porastu potrošnje goriva za 20-25%, te povećanju investicija za strojeve, objekte i osoblje za
10-25%. Realizirani gubici kao posljedica pretjeranog zbijanja tla iznose 224,5 USD ha-1
godišnje.
Cilj ovog rada je odrediti razliku u prinosu na unutarnjem dijelu-sredini parcele u odnosu
na urod na krajevima parcele-uvratinama.

MATERIJAL I METODE
Tijekom proizvodne godine 2016/17. u agroekološkim uvjetima središnje Srbije na širem
području Kruševca na tri lokaliteta postavljen je proizvodni pokus sa ozimom sortom pšenice
Pobeda. Tehnologija uzgoja pšenice na sva tri mjesta bila je ista. Radi razmatranja gaženja tla
na uvratinama, odabrane su parcele na kojima se okretanje traktorskih agregata i kombajna
obavlja samo na parceli, ne izvan nje, stvarajući na taj način pravu uvratinu. Tijekom žetve
metodom slučajnog uzorka, s površine od 1 m2 u četiri ponavljanja ručno je požnjeven usjev
pšenice na unutarnjem dijelu-sredini i krajevima-uvratinama parcele. Uzorci su označeni i
stavljeni u papirnate vrećice i odneseni u laboratorij. Prije vršidbe iz uzorka je izdvojeno po
20 biljaka da bi se izmjerila visina biljka (VB) i duljina klasa (DK) u tri ponavljanja. U
laboratoriji za Mehanizaciju na Agronomskom fakultetu u Čačku obavljena je vršidba uzoraka
pšenice s vršalicom Hege 15. Zrno je posle vršidbe očišćeno od stranih primjesa na selektoru
Dakota. Pored visine biljaka i duljine klase utvrđen je prinos zrna (P), masa 1000 zrna (AM)
i hektolitarska masa zrna (HM). Za određivanje hektolitarske mase korištena je Šoperova vaga
tip ATŽ, a za brojanje zrna automatski uređaj Elmor C3.
Analiza podataka istraživanja temelji se na izračunatim srednjim vrijednostima i njihovim
standardnim odstupanjima. Za statističku analizu dobivenih rezultata korišten je statistički
model Analyst program SAS/STAT (SAS Institute, 2000). Sve ustanovljene značajnosti
utvrđene su na temelju modela ANOVA testa sa razinom značajnosti od 1% i 5%.

REZULTATI I RASPRAVA
Veliki broj prohoda kotača traktora i kombajna preko površine parcele dovodi do zbijanja
tla na uvratinama i slabije mikrobiološke aktivnosti koje su stvorile nepovoljne uvjete za
razvoj korijenskog sustava i same biljke. Intenzivno gaženje i neravnomjerno zbijanje tla na
uvratinama u usporedbi s unutarnjim dijelom parcela utjecalo je na pojavu velike razlike u
prinosu. Urod zrna na uvratinama je bio manji u usporedbi s unutarnjim dijelom parcele za
1.496 kg na lokaciji 1, za 2.624 kg na lokaciju 2 i za 1.948 kg na lokaciji 3 (Tablice 1; 2 i 3).
Stoga je prinos zrna pšenice na unutarnjem dijelu pokusne parcele bio veći za 44,01% -
69,06% u usporedbi s uvratinom.
Najveća masa 1000 zrna 41,07 g kod ispitivane sorte pšenice Pobeda ustanovljena je na
sredini parcele na lokaciji 2. Najmanja masa 1000 zrna 30,96 g na unutarnjem dijelu i 34,01
g na uvratini parcele ustanovljena je na lokaciji 1. Također, na istoj lokaciji utvrđena je
najmanja vrijednost hektolitarske mase 66,75 kg hl-1 na sredini i 67,60 kg hl-1 na uvratini
parcela, u usporedbi s vrijednošću hektolitarske mase na ostalim dvjema lokacijama.

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Tablica 1 Prosječne vrijednosti ispitivanih osobina ozime pšenice na lokaciji 1

Table 1 Average values of examined properties to wheat winter at location 1
Sredina parcele Uvratina
Sorta Middle of the plot Headlands
Variety
x Min Max Sd Sx x Min Max Sd Sx
P, t ha-1 4,895 3,683 6,062 0,972 0,486 3,399 2,445 4,214 0,853 0,427
AM, g 30,96 30,53 31,80 0,572 0,286 34,01 29,15 38,91 5,560 2,780
HM, kg hl-1 66,75 65,54 68,90 1,509 0,755 67,60 66,85 68,40 0,861 0,431
VB, cm 64,30 60,46 71,46 5,036 2,518 60,94 54,20 65,76 4,911 2,455
DK, cm 58,82 54,83 67,03 5,566 2,783 55,43 40,56 69,36 11,78 5,888
Prinos zrna (P), masa 1000 zrna (AM), hektolitarska masa zrna (HM), visine biljke (VB) i duljina klasa
(DK)
Grain yield (P), 1000 grain weight (AM), volume (hectolitre) grain weight (HM), plant height (VB),
spike length (DK)

Najveća masa 1000 zrna 41,07 g kod ispitivane sorte pšenice Pobeda ustanovljena je na
sredini parcele na lokaciji 2. Najmanja masa 1000 zrna 30,96 g na unutarnjem dijelu i 34,01
g na uvratini parcele ustanovljena je na lokaciji 1. Također, na istoj lokaciji utvrđena je
najmanja vrijednost hektolitarske mase 66,75 kghl-1 na sredini i 67,60 kghl-1 na uvratini
parcela, u usporedbi s vrijednošću hektolitarske mase na ostalim dvjema lokacijama.

Tablica 2 Prosječne vrijednosti ispitivanih osobina ozime pšenice na lokaciji 2

Table 2 Average values of examined properties to wheat winter at location 2
Sredina parcele Uvratina
Sorta Middle of the plot Headlands
Variety
x Min Max Sd Sx x Min Max Sd Sx
P, t ha-1 6,425 5,825 7,463 0,733 0,366 3,801 3,035 4,606 0,654 0,327
AM, g 41,07 40,07 41,80 0,749 0,374 36,40 34,90 37,52 1.095 0,548
HM, kg hl-1 73,29 72,04 75,71 1,731 0,866 69,26 67,77 70,02 1.012 0,506
VB, cm 65,84 63,63 68,10 1,825 0,913 62,85 59,90 68,70 3.967 1,983
DK, cm 59,73 59,36 60,03 0,278 0,139 56,29 53,40 59,83 2.969 1,484
Prinos zrna (P), masa 1000 zrna (AM), hektolitarska masa zrna (HM), visine biljke (VB) i duljina klasa
(DK)
Grain yield (P), 1000 grain weight (AM), volume (hectolitre) grain weight (HM), plant height (VB),
spike length (DK)

Zbijenost tla i slabija mikrobiološka aktivnost utjecali su na osiguravanje manje količine

lako dostupne vode i hranljivih tvari što je rezultiralo manje razvijenim korijenskim sustavom
i nižom visinom biljaka na uvratinama u usporedbi s unutarnjim dijelom parcele. Najveća
razlika između visine biljaka pšenice na uvratini i unutarnjem dijelu parcele od 8,82 cm ili
13,75% zabilježena je na lokaciji 2. Također, na lokacijama 1 i 2 u središnjem dijelu parcele

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visina biljaka je veća za 3,36 cm ili 5,51% i za 2,2 cm ili 4,76% u usporedbi s uvratinom
(prema redoslijedu).
Na unutarnjem dijelu parcele i uvratini najveća visina biljaka i najkraći klas ustanovljen
je na lokaciji 3, dok je najmanja visina biljaka i najduži klas zabilježena na lokalitetu 2.

Tablica 3 Prosječne vrijednosti ispitivanih osobina ozime pšenice na lokaciji 3

Table 3 Average values of examined properties to wheat winter at location 3
Sredina parcele Uvratina
Sorta Middle of the plot Headlands
Variety
x Min Max Sd Sx x Min Max Sd Sx
P, t ha-1 5,916 3,775 6,940 1,450 0,725 3,968 3,031 5,174 0,900 0,450
AM, g 35,67 28,65 39,36 4,836 2,418 36,42 35,62 37,58 0,828 0,414
HM, kg hl-1 73,11 61,36 77,60 7,850 3,925 75,20 73,46 76,13 1,205 0,602
VB, cm 72,94 67,96 75,76 3,505 1,753 64,12 56,73 71,48 6,145 3,072
DK, cm 46,64 41,00 53,43 5,126 2,563 40,23 36,76 45,09 3,922 1,961
Prinos zrna (P), masa 1000 zrna (AM), hektolitarska masa zrna (HM), visine biljke (VB) i duljina klasa
(DK)
Grain yield (P), 1000 grain weight (AM), volume (hectolitre) grain weight (HM), plant height (VB),
spike length (DK)

Veliki broj prohoda traktora i kombajna rezultirali su gaženjem i većim zbijanjem tla na
uvratinama u usporedbi s unutarnjim dijelom parcele što je utjecalo na smanjenje prinosa u
prosjeku za 54,31 % na sve tri lokacije kod ispitivane sorte pšenice (Graf. 1).

Slika 1 Prosječne vrijednosti uroda zrna pšenice u tha-1

Figure 1 Average values grain yield of wheat in tha-1

Rezultati istraživanja u ovom radu o utjecaju zbijanja tla na razliku u prinosu između
unutarnjeg dijela parcele i uvratine su u suglasju s rezultatima drugih autora (Nikolić i sur.,
2006; Savin i sur., 2007; Savin i sur. 2008; Savin i sur. 2008a; Barać i sur. 2012; Barać i sur.
2014).
Analiza varijance prinosa zrna i produktivnih osobina na središnjem dijelu parcele i
uvratinama ispitivane sorte ozime pšenice uzgajane na tri lokacije date su u tablici 4.

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Tablica 4 Analiza varijance ispitivanih osobina ozime pšenice

Tablica 4 Analysis of the variance of the examined properties of winter wheat
Utjecaj lokacije na ispitivane osobine
Influence of plot location on tested properties
Osobina/Property Mean Effect Mean Error F (2, 21) p-level
P, t ha-1 2,1257 2,0233 1,0506 0,3674
AM, g 78,5344 11,1703 7,0306** 0,0046
HM, kg hl-1 98,5480 12,0500 8,1783** 0,0024
VB, cm 73,8906 26,2925 2,8103* 0,0829
DK, cm 533,9849 37,5904 14,2053** 0,0001
Utjecaj mjesta uzorkovanja na ispitivane osobine
Influence of sampling location on tested properties
Osobina/Property Mean Effect Mean Error F (1, 22) p-level
P, t ha-1 24,5471 1,0088 24,3320** 0,0001
AM, g 0,5046 17,7791 0,0284 0,8677
HM, kg hl-1 0,7921 20,4252 0,0388 0,8457
VB, cm 153,6722 24,8296 6,1891* 0,0209
DK, cm 116,8651 79,1138 1,4772 0,2371
Utjecaj interakcije lokacije x mjesto uzorkovanja na ispitivane osobine
Influence of interaction between plot location and sampling location
Osobina/Property Mean Effect Mean Error F (2, 18) p-level
P, t ha-1 0,6460 0,9250 0,6984 0,5104
AM, g 31,4101 9,5140 3,3015 0,0601
HM, kg hl-1 20,9599 11,6854 1,7937 0,1948
VB, cm 21,3501 19,7650 1,0802 0,3605
DK, cm 5,9511 36,7017 0,1621 0,8515
Prinos zrna (P), masa 1000 zrna (AM), hektolitarska masa zrna (HM), visine biljke (VB) i
duljina klasa (DK)
Grain yield (P), 1000 grain weight (AM), volume (hectolitre) grain weight (HM), plant height
(VB), spike length (DK)

Mjesto uzorkovanja je značajno utjecalo na visinu prinosa (Fexp=24,3320**), na visinu

biljaka (Fexp=6,1891*), dok na druga ispitivana svojstva nije utjecalo (Tab. 4). Pored mjesta
uzorkovanja, i faktor lokacija je visoko značajno utjecao na masu 1000 zrna (Fexp=7,0306**),
hektolitarsku masu (Fexp=8,1783**) i duljinu klasa (Fexp=14,2053**), dok je utvrđen značajan
utjecaj na visinu biljke (Fexp=2,8103*). Podaci dobiveni u tablici 4. mogu se tumačiti time da
su ispitivane osobine masa 1000 zrna, hektolitarska masa, duljina klasa i visina biljaka
svojstva sorata i da uz istu tehnologiju uzgoja na njihove vrijednosti pored sorte, tj. Genotipa
utječu agroekološki uvjeti, tj. klimatski uvjeti i vrsta tla.

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ZAKLJUČAK
U Srbiji, smanjenje plodnosti i pojava degradacije tla, posljedica je primjene
konvencionalne obrade tla i velikog broja prolaza traktorskih sustava po parceli. Na temelju
dobivenih rezultata može se zaključiti da je intenzivnije zbijanje tla na uvratini u usporedbi s
unutarnjim dijelom parcele uzrokovalo stvaranje nepovoljnih uvjeta za rast i razvoj usjeva
ozime pšenice i smanjenje uroda.
U konvencionalnoj tehnologiji proizvodnje pšenice, veliki broj prolaza traktorskih kotača
i kombajna preko površine parcele dovodi do zbijanja tla na uvratinama i stvaranja
nepovoljnih uvjeta za razvoj korijenskog sustava i same biljke. Povećana zbijanja tla na
uvratinama smanjila su prinos pšenice od 44% do 69,06%, a u prosjeku za 54,31 % u
usporedbi s unutarnjim dijelom parcele. Zbijenost tla i slabija mikrobiološka aktivnost utjecali
su na osiguranje manje količine lako dostupne vode i hranljivih tvari što je utjecalo da visina
biljaka na uvratinama u prosjeku bude manja za 8 %, a dužina klasa od 6,11% do 15,93 %
manja u usporedbi s unutarnjim dijelom parcele. Nije bilo značajnih razlika u vrijednostima
hektolitarske mase i mase 1000 zrna pšenice utvrđene na uvratini i unutarnjem dijelu parcele.

ZAHVALA
Rad je dio istraživanja na projektima TR31051 - Unapređenje biotehnoloških postupaka u
funkciji racionalnog korištenja energije, povećanja produktivnosti i kvaliteta poljoprivrednih
proizvoda; TR 31054 - Razvoj novih tehnologija gajenja strnih žita na kiselim zemljištima
primenom savremene biotehnologije; TR 31057 - Poboljšanje genetičkog potencijala i
tehnologije proizvodnje krmnog bilja u funkciji održivog razvoja stočarstva, financiran od
strane Ministarstva prosvete, nauke i tehnološkog razvoja Republike Srbije.

LITERATURA
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zemljišta na prinos ozime pšenice. Poljoprivredna tehnika, br. 2, 41-49.
Barać S., Petrović, D., Radojević, R., Vuković, A., Biberdžić M. (2015). Influence of soil compaction
on soil changes and yield of barley and rye at the headlands and inner part of plot Second International
Symposium on Agricultural Engineering, ISAE-2015, 9th-10th October 2015, Belgrade-Zemun,
Serbia. Proceedings 2015, 27-34.
Govedarica, M, Milošević, N., Jarak, M. (1996). Uticaj sabijanja zemljišta na mikrobiološku aktivnost,
Savremena poljoprivredna tehnika, vol. 22, No 7, 375-611.
Jarak, M., Furman, T., Gligorić, R., Đurić, S., Savin, L., Jeličić, Z. (2005). Svojstva zemljišta i prinos
pšenice i kukuruza na uvratinama, Traktori i pogonske mašine, Vol.10, br. 3, 98-103.
Jug, D., Birkás, M., Kisić, I. (2015). Obrada tla u agroekološkim okvirima. Sveučilišni udžbenik.
Hrvatsko društvo za proučavanje obrade tala (HDPOT), Osijek, Hrvatska, 275.
Nikolić, R., Hadžić, V., Savin, L., Furman, T., Nešić, Lj., Gligorić, R., Belić, M., Tomić, M. (2003).
Sabijanje zemljišta, uzroci, posledice, mere. Naučni Institut za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo. Zbornik
radova, Novi Sad, 37-48.
Nikolić, R., Savin, L., Furman, T., Tomić, M., Gligorić, R., Simikić. M., Sekulić. P., Vasin. Ј., Kekić.
M., Bertok. Z. (2007). Uticaj sabijanja na promene u zemljištu i prinos pšenice, kukuruza, suncokreta
soje i šećerne repe na uvratinama i unutrašnjem delu parcele. Traktori i pogonske mašine, Vol. 12,
br. 3, 42-48.

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Ramazan, M., Daraz, G. K., Hanif, М., Shahid, A. (2012). Impact of Soil Compaction on Root Length
and Yieldof Corn (Zea mays) under Irrigated Condition. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research,
Vol. 11, No. 3, 382-385.
Republički zavod za statistiku Srbije, http://data.stat.gov.rs
Ronai, Đ. (1989). Uticaj konstrukcije pneumatika na sabijanje poljoprivrednog zemljišta, Agrotehničar,
Vol. 25, br. 7/8, 37-39.
Ronai, D., Shmulevich, I. (1995). Tire footprint characteristics as a function of soil properties and tire
operations. Journal of Terramechanics, Vol. 32, No. 6, 311-323.
SAS/STAT (2000). User's Guide, Version 9.1.3. SAS Institute Inc.
Savin, L., Nikolić, R., Simikić, M., Furman, T., Tomić, M., Gligorić, R., Jarak, M., Đurić, S., Sekulić,
P., Vasin, J. (2007). Istraživanje uticaja sabijenosti zemljišta na prinos pšenice i promene u zemljištu
na uvratinama i unutrašnjеm delu parcele. Letopis naučnih radova, br. 1, 167-173.
Savin, L., Nikolić, R., Simikić, M., Furman, T., Tomić, M., Gligorić, R., Jarak, M., Đurić, S., Sekulić,
P., Vasin, J. (2008). Istraživanje uticaja sabijenosti zemljišta na prinos suncokreta i promene u
zemljištu na uvratinama i unutrašnjem delu parcele. Savremena poljoprivredna tehnika Vol. 34, br.
1-2, 87-96.
Savin, L., Nikolić, R., Simikić, M., Furman, T., Tomić, M., Đurić, S., Vasin, J. (2008a). The analysis of
soil compaction influence on wheat yield on headlands and inner part of fields. 36. Symposium
"Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 145-153.
Schwngart, H. (1991). Measurement of contact area, contact preassure and compaction under tires in
soft soil. Journal of Teramechanics, Vol. 28, No. 4, 309-318.
Simikić, M., Savin, L, Tomić, M, Nikolić, M., Furman, T., Gligorić, R. (2005). Uticaj sabijanja zemljišta
na zemljište i biljku. Traktori i pogonske mašine, Vol.10, br. 2, 267-273.
Ungureanu, N., Croitoru, Şt., Biriş, St., Voicu, Gh., Vlăduţ, V., Selvi, K.Ç., Boruz, S., Marin, E.,
Matache, M., Manea, D., Constantin, G., Ionescu, M. (2015). Agricultural soil compaction under the
action of agricultural machinery. 43. Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering",
Opatija, Croatia.

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THE DECREASE OF WHEAT YIELD ON THE PLOT

EDGES – HEADLANDS DUE TO SOIL COMPACTION
Ranko KOPRIVICA1, Vera ĐEKIĆ2, Biljana VELJKOVIĆ1*, Dragan TERZIĆ3,
Dragoslav ĐOKIĆ3 Zoran MILEUSNIĆ4
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 Facultyof Agronomy Čačak, University of Kragujevac, Cara Dušana 34, Čačak, Serbia
2 Center for Small Grains, Save Kovačevića 31, Kragujevac, Serbia
3 Institute for forage crops, Kruševac, Globoder 37251, Serbia
4 Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Nemanjina 6, Zemun 11080, Serbia

SUMMARY
By executing appropriate agro-technical measures in the process of
production of field crops (wheat), due to the numerous passages by machines,
the soil gets compacted. In the family farms in Serbia, technological processes
of production of field crops comprise specific agro-technical measures, starting
with distribution of fertilizers, a multi-phase soil treatment system, followed by
sowing, protecting, fertilization, harvesting, transporting of grain and plant
residues. Thus, in the implementation of technological operations in the
production of plant crops, the land area of the plot is exposed to 10 to 15
passages by tractor and self-propelled systems. A large number of passages by
machines result in the soil compaction in the centre of the plot, and especially
on the edges - headlands, which negatively affects the yield of cultivated crops
and leads to physical and mechanical disturbance of the structure of the soil.
The aim of the research was to determine the difference in yield, plant height,
spike length, 1000 grain weight and volume grain wheat in the central part of
the plot in relation to the headlands of the plot.
For the purpose of this paper, a trial was set up with varieties of wheat
Pobeda at three sites, and the wheat yield was measured on the inner part –plot
centre and the edges -headlands of the plot, with more pronounced soil
compaction. During the research, in addition to the yield, the following were
determined: the difference in plant height, spike length, 1000 grain weight and
volume (hectolitre) grain weight in the middle plot and headlands. The yield of
wheat on the inner part of the plot at all locations was above 44% to 69.06%
to yield realized on the headlands. The average plant height was higher by
4.76% to 13.75%, and the spike length from 6.11% to 15.93% in the middle of
the plot relative to the edges - headlands. On the inner part of the plot the weight
of 1000 grains and volume weight were lower compared to the values of these
properties on the edges.
Keywords: wheat, headlands, yield, plant height, spike length, 1000 grain
weight and volume grain weight.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

THE WEQUAL PROJECT: A WEB PLATFORM FOR

MULTIDIMENSIONAL EVALUATIONS OF GREEN
INFRASTRUCTURES
Raimondo GALLO1*, Gabriele DAGLIO1, Gianluca RISTORTO2, Alex BOJERI2,
Giuliano SAULI3, Nadia ZORZI4, Fabrizio MAZZETTO1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bozen (FUB),
Piazza Universitá 5, 39100 Bolzano (Italy)
2 Mavtech srl, Bozen, 39100, Italy
3 Naturstudio srl, Trieste, 34122, Italy
4 Maccaferri Innovation Center srl, Bozen, 39100, Italy

SUMMARY

The aim of WEQUAL project "Web service centre for QUALIty

multidimensional design and tele-operated monitoring of Green
Infrastructures") is the development of a system able to support a quick
environmental monitoring of riparian areas subjected to the realization of new
green infrastructures (GI). The Wequal´s idea is to organize a service center
managing both the Web Platform and the whole data collection and analysis
process. Each user (designer, technician, researcher), through a personal
account, can access at the service and require the evaluation of alternatives GI
projects.
On the Web Platform a set of algorithms runs in order to calculate, through
automatic procedures, all the ecological criteria required to evaluate a quality
environmental index which describes the ecological state of the monitored
riparian areas. For this aim the WEQUI index was developed. In this paper the
approach followed to collect the environmental data and the procedures to
perform the automatic assessment of the ecological criteria are described. For
the computation, the implemented algorithms use data regarding the NDVI
index, Digital Terrain Model (DTM), Digital Surface Model (DSM) and a 3D
point cloud classification. All the raw data are collected by an UAV (Unmanned
Aircraft Vehicle) equipped with a 3D Lidar, multispectral camera and RGB
camera.

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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The computed ecological index is then used to assess the riparian

environmental quality at ex-ante and ex-post river stabilization works. This
index, integrated with additional not-technical or not-ecological indicators
such as investment required, maintenance costs or social acceptance, can be
used in multicriteria analyses in order to evaluate the intervention from a wider
point of view. The platform is expected to get the interests of GI designers and
policy makers, providing a shared environment able to integrate the way some
complex indexes can be detected and evaluated and an environment for
multidimensional evaluations supported by an expert guide.
Keywords: Remote sensing, Environmental monitoring, Web Platform,
Ecological Index

INTRODUCTION
In the recent years, the European environmental policies aimed to safeguard the
biodiversity of the ecosystems, through the promotion and use of Green Infrastructures (GI)
for river stabilization works. For instance, the Water Framework Directive (WFD-
2000/60/EC) aims to classify the water bodies and to identify the anthropogenic impacts on
that, in order to carry out a qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the improvement of river
systems. Meanwhile, the Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) focuses on the design and planning
phases of hydraulic works with the aim of reducing the risk of natural disasters due to floods,
landslides or erosion and of safeguarding aquatic ecosystems (Rinaldi et al., 2016). The
European project EFRE-FESR Südtirol-Alto Adige WEQUAL "Web service centre for
QUALIty multidimensional design and tele-operated monitoring of Green Infrastructures"
aims at the development of a series of methodologies, integrated in a web platform, able to
quickly and automatically assess the environmental impact of longitudinal and transversal
hydraulic infrastructures. Therefore, the goal of the research, is to develop a tool, as much
objective as possible, to support decision making to various stakeholders in the design and
evaluation of river works, such as technicians, administrators or researchers.
The web platform, the heart of the entire evaluation system, has been organized in such a
way to guarantee two distinct evaluations:
- The current status of the river, which assesses the environmental quality of a section
of river, where a river management system is already installed.
- Forecast state, where the environmental impact of hydraulic infrastructure that could
be hypothetically built with the scope of river regulation is evaluated; this evaluation
system allows users to compare, through multi-criteria analysis, multiple design
alternatives, evaluating the best proposal not only from an environmental impact point
of view.
The proposed system, through the use of specific environmental indicators and through a
multi-dimensional analysis will be able to assess the level of environmental quality of the
evaluated area. The best indicator chosen for this purpose is the River Functionality Index
(IFF) (APAT, 2007), which has been re-adapted for project purposes and has taken the name
WEQUI Index (Wequal Environmental QUality Index). The development of the new index
was necessary in order to obtain a new tool able to perform the assessment in a semi-automatic
procedure. In conclusion, the WEQUAL project aims to create automated procedures capable
to process raw data from different sensors installed on Unmanned Aircrafts Vehicles (UAV)

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and to calculate, through the implementation of specific algorithms, the scores to be assigned
to the individual criteria provided by the WEQUI index for the evaluation of the status of the
rivers environment both ex-ante and ex-post the Green Infrastructures (GI) installation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The WEQUI index, developed for this purpose, is made of 15 criteria. Those criteria define
the WEQUAL evaluation matrix. Following a feasibility analysis, 9 of these can be
automatically evaluated using specific algorithms, while the rest require a direct manual
survey in the field (Table 1).

Table 1 Indicators to be evaluated for the ecological assessment of fluvial areas.

In the present table the indicators are divided in automatically assessable or not.
Automatic survey Manual survey
1) Land use 3) Vertical continuity
2) Lateral continuity 7) Hydrologic regime
4) Longitudinal continuity 8) Chemical quality
5) Morphological heterogeneity 9) Macrobenthos community
6) Retention capability 10) Fish suitability
11) Riparian strip vegetation 15) Carbon footprint
12) Riparian strip width
13) Riparian strip continuity
14) Carbon sequestration

To assign a score for each indicator it is necessary to choose the most representative
answer in a list of 4 or 5 possibilities, depending on the situation to be evaluated. According
to the indicator, the answer can require the evaluation of the whole riverbeds or the river bank
only. Each answer is associated with an exponential score on basis two, from a minimum of
1 to a maximum equal to the base raised to the number of the reference question minus one.
Through this approach it is possible to assess the conditions of low or high naturalness.
Adding up the result obtained for each criterion the total index of environmental quality for
right and left orographic river banks or for the riverbed is calculated.
As previously mentioned, most of the monitoring activities take place using a drone.
During a field survey, several missions are planned according to the requests done by the user
in the Web Platform. Generally, when a survey is defined, one flight with a LiDAR
YellowScan Surveyor sensor, one with multispectral camera Micasense RedEdge and one
with RGB digital camera are planned. Thanks to these combinations, it is possible to monitor
the portion of the river and riverbanks to be evaluated even in case of difficult access. The
collected data are then processed by specific algorithms capable of extrapolating the
information needed to compile the individual criteria. For this scope, some of the automatic
procedures have been implemented taking inspiration from methodologies already present in
the literature (Cavalli et al., 2008; Michez et al., 2013; Tompalski et al., 2017) and adapted to
our case, while others have been developed specifically for this study.

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Currently the implementation and development phases of the algorithms are being studied.
In fact, so far only two algorithms have been developed. Thanks to these algorithms it is
possible to classify the use of land (criteria 1 of Table 1), identify the banks and classify the
riparian vegetation (criteria 11 of the Table 1). In this preliminary phase, the algorithms have
been implemented entirely in MATLAB, then they will be translated into open-source coding
language implementable in an easy way on the Web Platform.
Both algorithms use as a starting point the images collected by the multispectral camera
and the point cloud obtained from the LiDAR survey. The data obtained from the
multispectral images are used for the calculation of different indices for the identification of
vegetation, water and ground (e.g. NDVI, NDRE, GNDVI, BNDVI, CCCI, SAVI and
OSAVI). While the data obtained from the other sensor are used to obtain 3D models of the
terrain (Digital Terrain Model, DTM), of the surface (Digital Surface Model, DSM) and
therefore of the vertical profile (Canopy Height Model, CHM) on the monitored area. The
RGB camera is used just to take pictures and videos of the monitored area in order to collect
a repository of information in case of necessity.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The survey requirement starts with the boundary contouring of the Region Of Interest
(ROI) on the Web Platform done by the user. Then all the external operations of field survey
for raw data collection can be started. At that point the collected data are updated on the server
where all the algorithms can process them to achieve the WEQUI index.
The algorithm used to classify the land use is shown in Figure 1. The evaluation procedure
starts considering the region of interest previously drawn by the user. The polygon is used to
clip (cropping procedure) both the images obtained from the multispectral, and the cloud of
points collected by the LiDAR. Once the analysis area has been extracted, the algorithm
proceeds with the following steps:
1. Request to draw a sample area on vegetation and water surface;
2. Calculation of vegetative indices for the determination of threshold values for the
discrimination of the vegetative layer from the water layer previously drawn;
3. Classification in the entire ROI, based on the previously calculated threshold values,
of the surface where vegetation is present from that where water is present;
4. Calculation of the surface area covered by ground, considering it as the difference
between the total analyzed area and the areas calculated in point 3;
5. Characterization of the raw point cloud (using GlobalMapper) for the extraction of
the DTM and DSM;
6. CHM calculation by raster subtraction operation between DTM and DSM;
7. Cross-reference of the information obtained in points 3, 4 and 6 to obtain the
classification of vegetation and the presence of civil infrastructures;
8. Calculation of the land use percentage for each analyzed type.

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Figure 1 Schematic representation of the algorithm for the automatic classification of land
use in the river portion covered by the monitoring

The following image (Figure 2b) shows the result obtained by the automated classification
of land use. Here only the macro-items of vegetation, water and ground necessary for the
validation of the procedure are considered. In addition to the map, the algorithm can calculate
the area of the surface covered by the different types of use.

a) b)
Figure 2 a) The orthophoto acquired by the multispectral camera is shown. on this picture
the polygon for the clipping operation can be drawn.
2 b) The result of the automatic computation procedures for the classification of the land use
is reported (in green the vegetation, in blue the water and in yellow the ground)

Figure 3 shows the scheme of the computational procedures of the algorithm implemented
for the extraction of the banks and the characterization of the vegetation present on them.

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Figure 3 Schematic representation of the algorithm for automatic identification

of the banks and classification of riparian and floodplain vegetation in the portion
of river affected by the monitoring

Like the previous, this algorithm is based on a first clip operation to extract, from the raw
data, those related to the area interested by monitoring. Once this first analysis has been
carried out, the algorithm proceeds with:
1. Request to trace a sample representative area for vegetation and water;
2. Calculation of the vegetative indexes for the determination of the threshold values
necessary to identify the vegetative layer and the watercourse;
3. Identification of the vegetation layer and river over the entire area of interest;
4. Characterization of the raw point cloud (by GlobalMapper) for the extraction of the
DTM and DSM;
5. Identification of banks and islands through the analysis of the frequency distribution
of the inclination of the land near or inside the river, considering the cross-section of
the river (Figure 4).
6. CHM calculation by raster subtraction operation between DTM and DSM;
7. Cross-reference of the information obtained under 3, 5 and 6 to obtain the
classification of vegetation on the banks or islands within the river;
8. Calculation of the percentage of coverage for each analyzed type.

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Figure 4 Riverbank extraction from DTM. The algorithm identifies the foot and the
riverbank head by means of first derivative analysis of the transverse profile. The slope
values of the banks are used for the physical characterization of the banks.

As in the previous analysis, also for this one, the result is a map on which the classification
of the riparian and floodplain vegetation are reported (Figure 5). Besides this, the calculation
of the areas occupied by the two vegetation types is performed.

Figure 5 Graphical result of algorithm procedures for riverbanks, riparian and alluvial
riparian vegetation (the green, blue and red colors refer to the herbaceous layer, riparian
shrubs and riparian arboreal, respectively)

At this point of the research, unfortunately, the validation of the results could only be
conducted for the algorithm of the land use classification. Using a GIS software, it was
possible to perform a visual classification of the region of interest of the survey. The surface
inside the red polygon displayed in Figure 2a, has been firstly identified as vegetation, water
and ground, secondly for each classification the total surface has been calculated. The
obtained results have then compared with the same results obtained by the automatic method.
Table 2 shows the results.

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Table 2 Validation of the automatic analysis procedure

Manual survey Automatic survey Differences
Vegetations 53.2% 50.3% -2.9%
Water 27.2% 21.0% -6.2%
Ground 19.6% 28.7% 9.1%

The results in Table 2 highlight that the implemented algorithm for the automatic land use
classification is capable to well recognize the areas where vegetation is present, while it has
uncertainties in the identification of water and ground surfaces. This may be due to possible
problems with the recognition of transition zones. In fact, according to the hour and the season
in which the flights were carried out, a portion of the image is affected by a shaded band due
to the presence of the foliage of the riparian plants. This shading causes a slight variation in
the reflectance of these transitional bands which affects the data-processing causing an
overestimation of the ground content. A further cause of soil overestimation may be due to
the similar reflection between thin water layers within the river and the gravel of the riverbed
causing mistakes is the assessment: part of water is identified as ground.

CONCLUSION
The final objective of the WEQUAL project is the realization of a Web platform able to
provide decision support for the assessment of the environmental quality of fluvial
environment through a semi-automated analysis of a matrix composed by 15 indicators. In
this manuscript the preliminary results of the implementation of two algorithms capable of
performing, through an automated procedure, the evaluation of i) land use and ii) riparian strip
vegetation assessment have been reported. The algorithm for the land use assessment has
shown to be enough accurate for identifying vegetation, less accurate in the distinction
between ground and water, while the evaluation phase of the results obtained by the second
algorithm still needs to be validated. The implementation of the remaining algorithms requires
the identification of the river axle. Indeed, with the identification of the river axle it will be
possible to distinguish between the right and left riverside and to track the cross sections along
the monitored river portion. Thanks to the last information, the physical evaluations of the
monitored watercourse can be carried out. Finally, as they cannot be automatically evaluated,
the chemical-biological parameters are expected to be collected manually as well as the
attribution of the respective scores and their inclusion in the web platform.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Research funded by the program EFRE-FESR 2014-2020 for South Tyrol – WEQUAL
Project – CUP I52F16000840005.

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REFERENCES
APAT - Agenzia per la Protezione dell'Ambiente e per i Servizi Tecnici. (2007). I.F.F. 2007 - Indice di
funzionalità fluviale. Manuale APAT.
Cavalli, M., Tarolli, P., Marchi, L., Dalla Fontana, G. (2007). The effectiveness of airbone LiDAR data
in the recognition of channel-bed morphology. Catena, 73 (2008), 249-260.
Michez, A., Piégay, H., Toromanoff, F., Brogna, D., Bonnet, S., Lejeune, P., Claessens, H. (2013).
LiDAR derived ecological integrity indicators for riparian zones: Application to the Houille river in
Southern Belgium/Northern France. Ecological Indicators, 34, 627-640.
Rinaldi, M., Surian, N., Comiti, F., Bussettini, M. (2016). IDRAIM – Sistema di valutazione
idromorfologica, analisi e monitoraggio dei corsi d’acqua – Versione aggiornata 2016 – ISPRA –
Manuali e Linee Guida 131/2016. Roma, gennaio 2016.
Tompalski, P., Coops, N.C, White, J.C., Wulder, M.A., Yuill, A. (2017). Characterizing streams and
riparian areas with airborne laser scanning data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 192, 73-86.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

WATER ALLOCATION FOR AGRICULTURAL USERS

BASED ON MULTI CRITERIA ANALYSIS AND USE OF
DECISION-MAKING TOOLS
Bojan SRDJEVIC1*, Paulo MELO2, Zorica SRDJEVIC1, Luisa JORGE3,
Tihomir ZORANOVIC1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Facultyof Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Trg D.Obradovica 8, Novi Sad, Serbia
2CeBER/ Faculty of Economics, University of Coimbra and INESC Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
3CeDRI/ Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal and INESC Coimbra,

Coimbra, Portugal

ABSTRACT
Recent research has signaled promising options to create a unique
framework to integrate multi-criteria optimization tools with river basin
simulation-optimization models. From the multi-criteria decision-making area
Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is selected to evaluate selected parts of
output generated by the river basin simulation-optimization model
(ACQUANET) which is applied to allocate water to agricultural users within a
given river basin. Multiple runs of a river basin model can produce information
about water allocation under different prioritization of users, namely a set of
allocation scenarios as possible decision alternatives. The analytic hierarchy
process can then be used to efficiently perform the evaluation of scenarios in
both individual and group contexts, the latter being especially important
because stakeholders’ involvement and participation in making decisions is ‘a
must’ in modern decisions. A pilot test of the proposed approach was performed
for one hydro-system in Serbia. Another pilot test is under preparation in
Portugal and will serve as a verification of the methodology briefly described
in this paper.
Keywords: preference water allocation, network modeling, AHP,
ACQUANET

INTRODUCTION
Current developments in water resources management and agriculture are characterized
by use of a wide spectrum of multi-criteria decision-making methods and supporting tools,

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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advanced information technologies, and participation of the involved stakeholders from

different sectors. In spite of significant IT sector developments in last two decades, it is clear
that the use of expert systems, simulation and optimization models and supporting tools for
decision makers does not yet reach an adequate level. Additionally, communication of related
issues to the scientific community and society at large still lacks the desired transparency. To
properly evaluate alternative solutions in search for the most desired one, it is important to
know how the models for decision making are imbedded in computerized systems as closed
applications for planning and management of water resources. At the moment, the lack of
such information is obvious.
The main challenge behind the research presented in this paper is to explore options for
using decision-making supporting tools to interpret outputs from network-based river basin
simulation-optimization models in unique scenario-evaluation framework. Its ultimate goal is
to enable the synergies of two distinct methodologies (decision-making and simulation-
optimization) for evaluating alternative scenarios for water allocation priority to agricultural
users, namely small, medium and large-scale farmers’ properties within a given river basin
(watershed).
The primary goal as stated is to find a way to combine multi-sector information and
quantify the effects of planning and usage of natural (and other) resources in the context of
sustainable agriculture. The paper is aimed at determining ways to conduct a process of
strategic and operational decision-making, preserving long-term, sustainable, and optimal (in
a multi-criteria sense) water distribution to target locations, primarily to farms and irrigation
facilities. It will explore how advanced technologies integrating IT, GIS and DSS can be used
to produce plans for developing water resources. Of interest is to evaluate scenarios for water
distribution to agricultural users while assuring integrity and consistency of data relevant for
deriving trustful decisions. Enabling the creation of valuable solutions can be an extremely
important input to stakeholders (managers, owners, politicians and others) who will be
involved in the executive decisions.
The basic problems for water allocation in any watershed (river basin) can be stated as
follows:
- Water flow is seasonally uneven, leading to quantity problems throughout the
watershed
- In some parts of watershed, water quality could not be satisfactory.
- Usually there is a gap between financial demands and actual investment; existing
sources of financing available at most water management levels and in certain
segments could be several times less than required.
- Management of the water resources system could be inadequate (inefficient)
- Public participation is not encouraged, and sometimes not even possible.
A main strategic goal in the water sector is to enable maintenance and development of a
water regime which attempts to achieve the best and the most complete engineering, financial
and ecologic solutions, accounting for integral water management, water protection,
protection against harmful effects of water, and water use. To accomplish this goal,
contemporary road-maps suggest an integral, complex and unique water resources
development system should be created. Creating this system requires development,
deployment, operation and continuous upgrading of advanced modeling tools, software, and
decision support systems (DSSs).

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A DSS is an integrated interactive computer system combining analytical tools and

information management capabilities. In general, it is designed to aid decision makers in
solving relatively large, commonly unstructured problems. Well known DSSs with
application in the water sector include WEAP (SEI, 2018), Mike Basin (DHI, 2018) and
MODSIM (Labadie, 2015), but much more are reportedly in use (Srdjevic and Srdjevic,
2017). Earlier this century, an overview of internationally recognized DSSs for water
management can be found in (McKenney, 2004). In general, the architecture for DSSs in
water resources include artifacts such as data repositories (databases, spreadsheets), data
processing (statistics), data visualization (spatial visualization modules, GIS), and also
domain technologies such as simulation, optimization, multi-objective decision making,
expert and knowledge-based systems, all supported by an user-friendly interface. An
illustration of such a DSS architecture is presented in Fig. 1.

Figure 1 General framework for a water resources decision support system

(McKenney, 2004).

As can be seen in Fig. 1, ‘Data Processing’, ‘Analysis’ and ‘Decision making’ are
important architectural components, supported by adequate subsystems. The next two
subchapters will briefly describe how processing of data can be performed (ACQUANET
model), and which decision-making tool can be used (AHP tool) to evaluate scenarios, created
after detailed analysis of processed data.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Network simulation-optimization model ACQUANET

The network river basin computer model ACQUANET is a simpler version of MODSIM,
a well-known model/software for solving water allocation problems for multi-year periods.
For given hydrological conditions, ACQUANET simulates the operation of reservoirs located
at most upstream locations of a watershed and allocates water to downstream users according
to initial storages in reservoirs, specified operating rule curves at reservoirs and given priority

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scheme in overall water distribution. A physical model, usually tree-structured, is

automatically modified into a close capacitated network model with a set of no-storage nodes
and numerous physical and (added) artificial links as illustrated for a simplified system in
Fig. 2. As such, a new model is a closed network, which must be in balance during the given
time step (which is defined as one calendar month). After input data is submitted to the model,
the multi-year allocation problem is solved as a chain of consecutive monthly optimizations,
transferring the necessary information from month-to-month to preserve continuous time
flow. This way ACQUANET behaves as a network simulation-optimization model.

Figure 2 Network modeling concept implemented in ACQUANET

(One reservoir, one control point and one demand point)

The model is strictly deterministic, with the base assumption that hydrological conditions
are known for one month ahead. At the beginning of any month within multiyear period, the
model ‘knows’ what inflows will happen during this month, the required storage levels to be
met in reservoirs at the end of that month, the demands at all demand points, capacities at all
links within a system (rivers, canals, pipelines, transfer waterways, etc.) and what are the
priorities of all stated targets (reservoirs’ storage levels and downstream demands).
The one-month allocation problem is stated as network linear programming problem:
min 𝐹𝐹 = ∑𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 , for all i and j (1)
Subject to balance requirements at all nodes:
∑𝑗𝑗 𝑋𝑋𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − ∑𝑗𝑗 𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0 , for all i (2)
and satisfaction of flow conditions at all links:
𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≤ 𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≤ 𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 , for all i and j (3)

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where: i, j are used to identify nodes in a network; Xij is the flow in the link [i,j]; Cij is the
unit cost of flow through the link [i,j]; and Lij,Uij are lower and upper limits on the flow through
the link [i,j].
The allocation problem (1)-(3) is solved for each month using given network parameters
(inflows, demands, rule curves at reservoirs, capacities on links, scheme of demands’
priorities etc.). The solver in ACQUANET is based on Lagrangian over-relaxation algorithm,
the network solver is written in Fortran and its interface is created with Visual Basic.

Multi-criteria decision-making with AHP

Among methods for solving discrete optimization problems with more than one criterion
and number of alternatives, the Analytic Hierarchy Process – AHP (Saaty, 1980) is one of the
most used in both individual and group environments. This method handles efficiently one of
the key issues in decision making: eliciting judgments from the decision maker (DM) about
the importance of a given set of decision elements regarding the overall goal, with criteria set
introduced to locally prioritize (numerically) exposed judgments. If a problem can be
structured hierarchically, then a ratio scale can serve as an effective tool to enable this
hierarchy by performing pair-wise comparisons.
The core of the AHP lies in presenting the problem as a hierarchy (illustrated at Fig. 3)
and pair-wise comparing the hierarchical elements using Saaty’s 9-point scale (Saaty, 1980).
In this way, the importance of one element over another is expressed with regards to the
element in the higher level. The AHP creates so-called local comparison matrices at all levels
of a hierarchy and performs logical syntheses of their (local) priority vectors. The major
feature of the AHP is that it can thus include in the same framework a variety of tangible and
intangible goals, attributes, and other decision elements. In addition, it reduces complex
decisions to a series of pair-wise comparisons; implementing a structured, repeatable, and
justifiable decision-making approach.

Figure 3 A hierarchy with a goal (G), five criteria (C1–C5) and six alternatives (A1–A6)

In the standard AHP, an eigenvector (EV) method is used to derive the weights from local
matrices; the EV is called the prioritization method, and the computational procedure is
consequently called prioritization. After the local weights are calculated at all levels of the
hierarchy, the synthesis consists of multiplying the criterion-specific weight of the alternative
by the corresponding criterion weight and summing up the results to obtain composite weights

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for the alternative with respect to the goal. This procedure is unique for all alternatives and all
criteria.
The AHP is designed to support decision-making processes in both individual and group
contexts. In a group setting various aggregation schemes are applicable, e.g., aggregation of
individual judgments (AIJ) and aggregation of individual priorities (AIP) (Forman and
Peniwati, 1998), as well as various easy to implement consensus-reaching procedures.
Nevertheless, other group decision procedures namely with explicit visual support (e.g.
Bezerra et al., 2014) can also be considered for application.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

ACQUANET implementation for the Nadela watershed

The Nadela watershed is located in the south-east area of Vojvodina Province in Serbia,
(see Fig. 4). There are different water uses of this hydro-system. The main concerns in the
watershed are that along the first 30 km of the Nadela canal, water is of the desired quality
(‘blue and clean’) and mostly used for irrigation; however during the summer season and
along the downstream final 15 km (before canal’s confluence to Danube), it is not always
possible to support the ecological minimum flow of 0.5 m3s-1. In consequence there is high,
uncontrolled, pollution of this canal.

Figure 4 ACQUANET model of the regional hydro-system Nadela

The problem to be solved is thus stated as to identify strategy that will ensure well balanced
system use and long-term satisfaction of prescribed system purposes and users’ expectations.
This strategy has to respect system capacity and its technical characteristics, but also interests
of a society including sharing of benefits, environmental protection and balanced economic
development of municipalities.

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Figure 5 Water users in the Nadela watershed

Part of the strategy is to identify key stakeholders and motivate them to participate in
decision-making processes (supported by the AHP method). One of the main problems,
usually not systematically analyzed in participative decision making, is the selection of
stakeholders.
Reed et al. (2009) provides examples of the comprehensive research on typology of
stakeholder analysis in natural resources management, resources required, level of stakeholder
participation, and strengths and weaknesses of each of the methods identified in the typology.
Among models for stakeholders’ analysis, the following were considered interesting: interest-
influence matrices; focus groups; Q methodology; actor-linkage matrices; social network
analysis; knowledge mapping; and radical trans-activeness. Following his recommendations,
in any-watershed management eight major stakeholders’ groups and their sub-groups should
be considered:
1. users (irrigation, industry, fishing ponds, tourism),
2. government (ministries and provincial secretariats),
3. water sector (public water management company and regional water management
companies),
4. scientific community (university and research institutes),
5. local authorities,
6. non-governmental organizations,
7. citizen’s associations,
8. the general public.

In each situation their stakes should be defined relative to their real involvement,
knowledge, interest and responsibility. This will be one of the challenges that will need
addressing when ACQUANET multi-year simulations are completed for different scenarios
of priority allocation of Nadela waters, particularly to agricultural users along the 83
kilometers long main canal.

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The research proposal presented in this paper was created under the bilateral project
‘Multi-criteria decision making/Analytic hierarchy process applications in solving problems
of priority water allocation for agricultural users’ (2018-2019). This project is realized by the
University of Novi Sad (Serbia) and the University of Coimbra (Portugal).
As a recommendation, in line with the EU Water framework directive, the research team
suggests that exploitation of water resources in watersheds in Serbia and Portugal should be
planed having in mind existence of different interest parties, their possible conflicts, and also
local economic and political environments. Planning should be supported by participative
decision-making tools within a graphically enabled information system, to realistically
determine how much water is available, to whom and when, and to declare management
strategies acceptable to most of stakeholders in watersheds in to countries.

CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents an amended ACQUANET network model application for the water
allocation problem in the Nadela watershed in Vojvodina Province in Serbia. Simulation using
this model included several multiyear management strategies for water allocation to
agricultural users along the 83 km long main canal. Simulations pointed out necessity for the
refinement of strategies and for using additional alternative priority schemes to achieve long-
term targets in water allocation, especially to agricultural users (small, medium and large size
properties). The creation of possible scenarios for water delivery and their evaluation in multi-
criteria environments is foreseen as a future challenge for the research groups in Novi Sad
and Coimbra. Scenarios will be created by considering local, regional and state-wide
conditions, with focus on preferences of local stakeholders (primarily farmers for the Serbia
watershed, tourism and energy production for the Portuguese watershed) in the analyzed
watersheds in both countries.
The need for including the different stakeholders in the participatory GIS environment is
also recognized in this research. Involvement of stakeholders is possible through AHP+GIS
methodology and its application for defining suitability for irrigation of land in selected small
catchments in two countries, primarily irrigated areas near Bragança in northeast Portugal
(Sabor watershed) and the Nadela river catchment in Serbia. Data collection for both case-
study areas is underway, and ACQUANET simulations will be repeatedly performed and
followed by multi-criteria assessment of different water allocation schemes. Search for best
solutions will be combined with assessment of sustainability criteria and related indicators,
following ideas presented in previous research (Sandoval-Solis et al, 2011; Srdjevic and
Srdjevic, 2017).

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the Serbian ministry of
education, science and technological development under Grant No. 451-03-1924/2016-09/38.
The authors would also like to thank FCT/Portugal support via bilateral project grant 441.00
SERBIA.

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 Water allocation for agricultural users based on multi criteria analysis and use of decision-making tools

REFERENCES
Bezerra, F., Melo, P., Costa, J.P. (2014). Visual and interactive comparative analysis of individual
opinions: a group decision support tool. Group Decision and Negotiation, 23(1), 101-125.
Danish Hydraulic Institute (DHI) (2004). MIKE-BASIN environment for integrated water resources
management and planning. Denmark.
http://www.crwr.utexas.edu/gis/gishyd98/dhi/mikebas/Mbasmain.htm
Forman, E., Peniwati, K. (1998). Aggregating individual judgments and priorities with the analytic
hierarchy process. European Journal of Operational Research 108,165-169.
Jaiswal, R. K. Ghosh, N. C., Guru, P., Devakant, A. (2014). MIKE BASIN based decision support tool
for water sharing and irrigation management in Rangawan Command of India. Advances in
Agriculture Vol. 2014, Article ID 924948, 10 pages.
Labadie, J.W. (2010). MODSIM - Decision support system for integrated river basin management.
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McKinney, D.C. (2004). International survey of decision support systems for integrated water
management. Technical report. Bucharest, Romania.
Porto, LaLaina, R. (2015). LabSid – AcquaNet – River basin simulation model, University of San Paulo,
Brasil.
Saaty, T.L. (1980). Analytic hierarchy process. McGraw Hill
Sandoval-Solis, S., McKinney, D.C., Loucks D.P. (2011). Sustainability index for water resources
planning and management. Water Resources Planning and Management 2011, 381-390.
Srđević, Z., Srđević, B. (2017). An extension of the sustainability index definition in water resources
planning and management. Water Resources Management 31, 1695–1712
Srdjevic B., Srdjevic Z. (2016). Water resources systems analysis with applications in water
management. Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad.
Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) (2018). WEAP – Water evaluation and planning system.
https://www.weap21.org/

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

MULTIAGENT CONFLICTS AND RESOLUTIONS IN

WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Zorica SRĐEVIĆ*, Bojan SRĐEVIĆ
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Trg D.Obradovica 8, Novi Sad, Serbia

ABSTRACT
This paper describes a two-stage group consensus model for reaching the
decision as a result of achieved consensus among agents participating in the
decision making process for resolving the conflicts in water resources
management. All agents evaluate the same hierarchy and produce individual
priority vectors for alternatives versus goal. Representing different interest
parties, agents can be grouped into sub groups to articulate parties. The
consensus convergence model enables identifying most desired strategy that
will, expectedly, be more readily accepted and implemented accordingly in
real-life situation. A case study example is presented as a problem of how to
select most acceptable water management strategy for a regional hydro system
in Serbia.
Keywords: multiagent decision making, AHP, consensus, water resources

INTRODUCTION
Integrated water resources management requires that both waters and benefits should be
shared. As far sharing the ‘benefits from the river’ is concerned, depending on the basin in
case, it includes some or all of the following: a) direct payment for agricultural & municipal
water uses; b) payment for fisheries, watershed management, flood control or compensation
for costs for damaged land areas and pollution; c) trade agreements on hydro power, cargo
transport, and agricultural products; d) agreements over financing and ownership of water
projects, infrastructural works and operation and maintenance of existing facilities; e) sharing
provision of unrelated goods and services and less tangible benefits such as rural development,
tourism, outdoor activities etc.
To ensure application of integrated water management principles, involvement of
stakeholders in decision making processes is inevitable. Furthermore, in modern times, with
complexities, uncertainties, equity and sustainability issues involved in environmental
decision making, new forms of stakeholders’ participation are needed. One of the methods

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 Z. Srđević, B. Srđević

that is widely used for participatory decision making is analytic hierarchy process (AHP)
(Saaty, 1980). Its recent applications in group decision making in water management can be
found in literature (Ortega and Berbel 2010, Blagojevic et al., 2016, Amineh et al., 2017,
Woltersdorf et al., 2018, Pluchinotta et al., 2018, Karlsson-Vinkhuyzen et al., 2018, Srdjevic
B et al., 2018).
This paper presents experience of Serbian water-related science and engineering in
implementing the AHP participative decision-making procedure, aimed to consider the
conflict resolution issues in a way that conflict interests can be better recognized, modeled
and resolved if interested parties (key players) are motivated to get involved. The main
problems stated how to build consensus on idea that given hydro system in watershed is a
common good, and how to conciliate different interests and resolve conflicts (at least at basic
level), preserving that solution should be sustainable.
A typical regional hydro system in Serbia is selected as a case study example to
demonstrate application of two-stage consensus convergence model on resolving major
conflicts between upstream and downstream users of the system. The model is based on: (a)
hierarchical structuring of decision making problem; (b) applying the AHP by performing
individual judgments by acting agents (decision makers); (c) grouping agents into interest sub
groups; (d) and two-stage aggregation of computed priorities by the consensus convergence
model (Lehrer and Wagner, 1981), first within each interest sub group, and then between
interest sub groups. The final consensus-based solution is declared as the final group decision
and compared with the solution obtained as a geometric mean, the most widely used method
of aggregating individual decisions made by agents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The AHP-group method

The AHP is a multicriteria decision making method which requires a well structured
problem, represented as a hierarchy. Usually, at the top of the hierarchy is the goal; the next
level contains the criteria and sub criteria, while alternatives lie at the bottom of the hierarchy.
AHP determines the preferences among the set of alternatives by employing pair-wise
comparisons of the hierarchy elements at all levels, following the rule that, at given hierarchy
levels, elements are compared with respect to the elements in the higher level by using the
certain importance scale. The results are placed in comparison matrices. After all judgments
are made, the local priorities of the criteria, sub criteria and alternatives are calculated and
synthesized to obtain the final alternatives utilities with respect to the goal. These utilities are
commonly called relative weights or priorities).
In the AHP group decision making aggregation of individual priorities (AIP) can be
obtained by weighted geometric mean method.
The collective priority vector zG = (z1G, z2G, …znG) is obtained by using equation:

∏ [z (k )]
αk
z iG = i
i = 1, 2, …, n (1)
k =1

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 Multiagent conflicts and resolutions in water resources management

where n is the number of alternatives, K stands for the number of agents, zi (k) for the
priority of ith alternative for kth agent, αk for the ‘weight’ of kth agent, and ziG for the
aggregated group priority value. The weights αk should be additively normalized prior to their
use in (1) and that the final additive normalization of priorities ziG is required.

Consensus in group decision making

In a group decision making process, both consensus and consistency need to be pursued
and sought after. A solution with a high level of consensus is desirable. Many researchers
focus on how to define acceptable level of consensus and, in turn, how to achieve it (Moreno-
Jimenez et al., 2008, Alonso et al., 2010, Blagojevic et al., 2016, Dong et al., 2017, Brandt et
al., 2017, Oliva et al., 2018). Beside methods proposed in given literature, there are also other
formal mathematical methods for reaching the consensus, such as consensus convergence
modeling or central tendency methods (middle ‘value’ is measured using the mean, median
or mode). One of the best known formal models is the consensus convergence model (Lehrer
and Wagner, 1981), where, by repeatable mathematical procedure and through mutual respect,
the decision makers do not only achieve consensus on the issue under consideration, but also
agree on the overall relative weight of each member of the group.
This model is considered as suitable conflict resolution method in water management
problems because its mathematical structure captures typical situation of disagreement.
Refusing to change one's opinion is equivalent, in mathematical terms, to assigning a null
weight to other members and full weight to oneself (Hartmann et al., 2009). This situation is
pure dogmatism that is unacceptable in modern decision making.

The consensus convergence model

Central idea of the consensus convergence model is assigning the agents’ beliefs about
expertise of other epistemic agents on the issue at hand (Hartmann et al., 2009).
The weight of respect, wij, describes the respect agent i has for the opinion or expertise of
n
agent j, and ∑ ωij = 1 for the group of n agents.
j =1

Here we use an adapted version of the consensus convergence model presented in Regan
et al., (2006). The procedure is based on original model introduced by Lehrer and Wagner
(1981) which uses the weights of respect assigned by each agent, and modified model defined
by Regan et al. (2006). The later model proposes using the weights of respect based on the
strength of differences in criteria weights assigned by individuals in the group. In this model
we can assume that initial criteria weights of n agents are p10 , p20 , ..., pn0 and a metric that
calculates weights of respect is:
1 − pi0 − p 0j
ωij = n
(2)
∑ 1 − pi − p j
0 0

j =1

where i refers to the individual who is assigning the weights, j refers to the individual
being assigned a weight, and n is the number of group members.

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 Z. Srđević, B. Srđević

The weights of respect are used to create nxn size matrix W:

 w11 w12 ... w1n 
w w22 ... w1n 
W =  21 . (3)
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 wn1 wn 2 ... wnn 

If P is a vector of initial criteria weights, consensual vector of criteria weights is obtained

by iterative equation:
Pc = WPc −1 . (4)

The procedure is repeated until the values of criteria weights in vectors Pc and Pc −1 are
equal within tolerant error limit. Convergence is guaranteed if weights of respect are constant
throughout the iteration process for each decision maker.

The problem hierarchy

A typical regional hydro system in Serbia is selected to demonstrate the approach. Main
purposes of the system are drainage, industrial water supply, collecting used waters, irrigation,
and other purposes (Srdjevic and Srdjevic, 2008). Participants in the decision making process
(agents) are identified by responsible public water management authority (PWMA). Invited
23 participants (agents) are briefed on main problems related to long term planning and
management of the system, and particularly on a methodology applicable to resolving existing
conflicts between interest parties. The final intent of a meeting was to gather parties around
the same table and try to solve common problem.
The participants are explained how to act in the decision-making session aimed to reaching
a consensus about strategy that will ensure well balanced system use and satisfaction of
prescribed system purposes and users’ expectations, but also that will respect defined system
capacity and wider interests of a society. A discussion helped to elaborate most important
decision making issues and to define a global goal as to identify the most desired long-term
management strategy. Three criteria and five defined purposes of the system are adopted as
evaluation filters that will apply to each of four defined management strategies.
A criteria set on the second level of hierarchy includes three main aspects of the water
management within the region, recognized by involved participants from PWMA Vode
Vojvodine and the Provincial Secretariat for Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management of
the Autonomous Province Vojvodina. The criteria are identified as Economic, Social and
Ecological. Different water uses are set on the next lower (third) level of the hierarchy: IR
(irrigation), DR (drainage), UW (used waters), IS (industrial supply), and OP (other
purposes).
At the lowest (fourth) level, four alternatives are posted representing possible management
strategies for the 10-year period 2011-2020. Strategies are adopted after justification provided
by the PWMA Vode Vojvodine and participants’ notion of global importance of different
water uses. From the Table 1, one can easily see that in each strategy one of the purposes of
the system is assumed to have dominant priority, and that some purposes have tied priority.

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 Multiagent conflicts and resolutions in water resources management

Table 1 Water management strategies (2011-2020) as decision alternatives

Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Strategy 3 Strategy 4
IRR top medium medium low
DR medium top low medium
UW low Low top low
IS medium medium medium top
OP neglectible Low low neglectible

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Phase #1
A session started with a 15 minutes brainstorming during which participants from PWMA
Vode Vojvodine and the Provincial Secretariat for Agriculture, Forestry and Water
Management of the AP Vojvodina found the compromise about relative mutual importance
of the three selected criteria. Resulting weights of criteria are derived by AHP’s eigenvector
prioritization as follows: Economic criterion 0.674, Social criterion 0.226, and Ecological
criterion 0.101.

Phase #2
All agents expressed their semantic preferences while performing pair-wise comparisons
of elements at the third and fourth level of a hierarchy by judging elements in one level
regarding elements in higher level. That means that each agent filled-in 8 comparison
matrices: three 5x5 matrices for comparisons of water uses against three criteria, and five 4x4
matrices for comparisons of four offered strategies against five water uses. The resulting local
weights of water uses are computed in turn and the AHP calculated the final weights of
strategies for each agent.

Phase #3
Agents were grouped into five interest sub groups according to their affiliation,
responsibility and present professional (or political) function related to water resources and/or
regional system. Sub groups are formed as follows: Sub group 1: Irrigation (5 agents); Sub
group 2: Used waters (3); Sub group 3: State/public interest (7); Sub group 4: Industry (4);
and Sub group 5: Local authorities (4). For illustration purposes, individually derived weights
of the strategies within the Sub group 1 by AHP are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Weights of the strategies within the sub group 1

Sub group 1 Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Strategy 3 Strategy 4
Agent 1 0.393 0.239 0.175 0.193
Agent 2 0.414 0.236 0.174 0.176
Agent 3 0.411 0.249 0.204 0.136
Agent 4 0.338 0.235 0.229 0.198
Agent 5 0.334 0.219 0.226 0.220
Consensus convergence weights 0.366 0.233 0.212 0.190

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 Z. Srđević, B. Srđević

To obtain consensus weights of strategies within each sub group, weights of respect of
each agent within the same sub group are calculated for each strategy and placed in ‘weights
of respect matrix’ W. For example, for Strategy 1 within Sub group 1, W S 1 , is provided by
using the vector of initial Strategy 1 weights and applying Eq. (2):

0.206 0.202 0.203

0.195 0.194
 0.203 0.207 0.192 0.191
0.207

W S1 =  0.203 0.206 0.192 0.191 .
0.207 (5)
 
0.197 0.193 0.193
0.209 0.208
0.197 0.192 0.193 0.208 0.209


By applying Eq. (4), consensual convergence weight 0.366 for Strategy 1 is obtained and
this value can easily be compared with individual values in Table 3. The last row of this table
contains consensus convergence weights for all strategies within the sub group 1.
By applying the same method, consensus weights for all other sub groups are computed
and presented in Table 3.

Table 3 Sub group’s consensus weights of strategies

Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Strategy 3 Strategy 4

Sub group 1 0.366 0.233 0.212 0.190
Sub group 2 0.132 0.222 0.421 0.225
Sub group 3 0.187 0.304 0.310 0.199
Sub group 4 0.128 0.163 0.304 0.405
Sub group 5 0.156 0.161 0.386 0.297

Phase #4
Finally, sub group decisions from Table 4 are aggregated into the group decision by
reaching the consensus between the sub groups. Steps in applying consensus convergence
model are: (1) Calculate weights of respect between the sub groups for each strategy; (2) Place
weights in appropriate matrix; and (3) compute consensus convergence weight of each
strategy.
Note that in Phase #3, weights of respect were calculated between the participants within
one sub group at a time, while in this phase weghts represent respect of given sub group
towards the other sub groups.
The final result (consensus weights) is presented in Table 4 along with the weights
obtained by the weighted geometric mean aggregation (Cf. Eq, 1). In geometric mean
aggregations it was assumed that individuals in sub groups have equal weights, while at global
group level sub groups are different and correspond to their real financial input to present
system operation and regular annual investments. That is, sub groups 1, 3 and 4 have been
assigned to the equal weight α = 0.25, while sub groups 2 and 5 have had the weights of 0.125
each.

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 Multiagent conflicts and resolutions in water resources management

Table 4 The final weights of alternative strategies

Weights obtained by Strategy 1 Strategy 2 Strategy 3 Strategy 4

Consensus convergence method 0.167 (4) 0.204 (3) 0.341 (1) 0.285 (2)
Weighted geometric mean aggregation 0.211 (3) 0.115 (4) 0.365 (1) 0.306 (2)

Both aggregation methods identified Strategy 3 as the best management alternative and
Strategy 4 as the second best. Strategies 1 and 2 changed ranks in two aggregation schemes.

CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, consensus of 23 decision makers (agents), divided into 5 interest sub groups,
is reached by formal mathematical model that uses philosophical foundations in the structure
of negotiation and in consensus building to aggregate group members’ values in a way that
guarantees convergence towards a single consensual value that summarizes the group
position.
The consensus convergence model is proposed as a two-stage procedure that should be
applied firstly to reach the consensus within the participants in each sub group, and then re-
applied to reach consensus among sub groups. On real-life example we demonstrated
application of proposed participatory decision making model of action and we have shown
that most acceptable water management strategy for given real-life problem can efficiently be
identified. When the results obtained have been presented to participants, they have agreed by
acclamation that the best strategy is really the one identified by the model, and that it is likely
to have it implemented.
Proposed two-stage consensus model have potential in real-life applications as it has sound
theoretical background, and because it avoids some of common pitfalls of ad hoc methods
used for decision making. Besides, it is mathematically simple, easy to implement and
transparent to participating individuals, subgroups and groups which is of particular
importance in practice.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported in part by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological
Development of Serbia under the grant 174003 (2011–2018) - Theory and application of
Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) in multi-criteria decision making under conditions of risk
and uncertainty (individual and group context).

REFERENCES
Alonso, S., Herrera-Viedma, E., Herrera, F. (2010). A web based consensus support system for group
decision making problems and incomplete preferences. J. Information Sciences 180, 4477-4495.
Amineh, Z.B.A., Hashemian, S.J., Magholi, A. (2017). Integrating Spatial Multi Criteria Decision
Making (SMCDM) with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for delineation of the most suitable
areas for aquifer storage and recovery (ASR). Journal of Hydrology, 551, 577-595.

133
 Z. Srđević, B. Srđević

Blagojevic, B., Srdjevic, B., Srdjevic, Z., Zoranovic, T. (2016). Heuristic aggregation of individual
judgments in AHP group decision making using simulated annealing algorithm. Information
Sciences, 330, 260–273.
Blagojevic, B., Srdjevic, Z., Bezdan, A., Srdjevic, B. (2016). Group decision making in land evaluation
for irrigation: A Case study from Serbia. Journal of Hydroinformatics, 18 (3), 579-598.
Brandt, P., Kvakić, M., Butterbach-Bahl, K., Rufino, M.C. (2017). How to target climate-smart
agriculture? Concept and application of the consensus-driven decision support framework
“targetCSA”. Agricultural Systems, 151, 234-245.
Dong, Q., Zhü, K., Cooper, O. (2017). Gaining consensus in a moderated group: A model with a twofold
feedback mechanism. Expert Systems with Applications, 71, 87-97.
Hartmann, S., Martini, C., Sprenger, J. (2009). Consensual Decision-Making Among Epistemic Peers.
Episteme, 6, 110-129.
Karlsson-Vinkhuyzen, S., Boelee, E., Cools, J., van Hoof, L., Hospes, O., Kok, M., Peerlings, J., van
Tatenhove, J., Termeer, C.J.A.M., Visseren-Hamakers, I.J. (2018). Identifying barriers and levers of
biodiversity mainstreaming in four cases of transnational governance of land and water.
Environmental Science & Policy, 85, 132-140.
Lehrer, K., Wagner, C. (1981). Rational Consensus in Science and Society, Reidel, Dordrecht.
Martin-Ortega, J., Berbel, J. (2010). Using multi-criteria analysis to explore non-market monetary values
of water quality changes in the context of the Water Framework Directive. Science of The Total
Environment, 408 (19), 3990-3997.
Moreno-Jimenez, J.M., Aguaron, J., Escobar, M.T. (2008). The Core of Consistency in AHP-Group
Decision Making. Group Decision Negotiations, 17, 249–265.
Oliva, G., Scala, A., Setola, R., Dell’Olmo, P. (2018). Opinion-Based Optimal Group Formation.
Omega, in press.
Pluchinotta, I., Pagano, A., Giordano, R., Tsoukiàs, A. (2018). A system dynamics model for supporting
decision-makers in irrigation water management. Journal of Environmental Management, 223, 815-
824.
Regan, H.M., Colyvan, M., Markovchick-Nicholls, L. (2006). A formal model for consensus and
negotiation in environmental management. Journal of Environmental Management, 80 (2), 167-176.
Saaty, T. (1980). Analytic Hierarchy Process, McGraw Hill.
Srdjevic, B., Srdjevic, Z., Lakicevic, M. (2018). Validating the importance of criteria for assessing
climate change scenarios. Water and Climate Change, 9(3), 570-583.
Woltersdorf, L., Zimmermann, M., Deffner, J., Gerlach, M., Liehr, S. (2018). Benefits of an integrated
water and nutrient reuse system for urban areas in semi-arid developing countries. Resources,
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Srdjevic, B., Srdjevic, Z. (2008). Multilevel participatory model for decision making on regional hydro-
system basis: Serbian case study. In I. Gonenc, A. Vadineanu, J. Wolflin, and R.C. Russo, Eds.,
Sustainable use and development of watersheds, Dordrecht: Springer, 201-213.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znansvteni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ACCUMULATION OF HEAVY METALS IN

VEGETABLES GROWN ON CONTAMINATED SOILS
Augustina PRUTEANU1*, Despina Maria BORDEAN1,2, Valentin VLǍDUȚ1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1INMA Bucharest, B-dul Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Nr. 6, District 1, Romania
2Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,
Faculty of Food Processing Technology, Romania

ABSTRACT
Vegetables are rich sources of vitamins, minerals, fibers and also have
antioxidative effects. Heavy metal concentrations in edible parts of plants are
directly associated with their concentrations in soils, but their levels differ
significantly with plant species, and sometimes with the genotypes within the
same plant species. Heavy metal uptake and translocation are key aspects of
plants’ ability to accumulate and cope with high concentrations of heavy
metals.
The objective of the present study was to investigate heavy metal
accumulation in four vegetable species. Two leafy vegetables (parsley, spinach)
and two root vegetables (radish, carrot) were cultivated in greenhouses on soil
contaminated with heavy metals mixture (Cu, Pb, Zn) with four concentrations
(c1= 1.5 %; c2= 3.0 %; c3= 4.5 %, c4= 6.0 %). The vegetables were grown in a
greenhouse until the end of the vegetation period, afterwards being harvested
and the concentration of each heavy metal for each plant was determined. Clear
differences were found in the concentrations of heavy metals in edible parts of
the different vegetables. The concentrations of heavy metals decreased in the
sequence as leafy vegetables > root vegetables. Data suggest that growing of
vegetables on contaminated soils may pose considerable health risks due to the
possible heavy metal ingestion.
Keywords: accumulation, contaminated soils, heavy metals, vegetables

INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution is a big concern nowadays. Anthropogenic activities like mining,
industry and agriculture have altered the environment significantly throughout the world,

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 A. Pruteanu, D.M. Bordean, V. Vlǎduț

which causes an increase in the lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As) concentration in soil
and water, thus contaminating them (Singh, 2016).
Heavy metals such as Pb and Cd are one of the most toxic elements in the environment
and are included in the US Environment Protection Agency (EPA). It is important to know
the total metal concentrations for the purpose of evaluating the level of soil contamination,
but many studies have shown that the toxicity and mobility of these pollutants strongly
depends on their specific forms or binding state (Lei et al., 2010), which determine their
bioavailability and thus toxicity in the environment.
Heavy metals, such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), etc., have toxic effects on
human health. Toxic metals can accumulate persistently in the body over a lifetime. High Pb
concentrations can adversely influence the intelligence development of children, or induce
hypertension, nephropathy and cardiovascular disease (Zhou et al., 2016). Other metals such
as copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are important nutrients for humans and animals, but excessive
ingestion can also have adverse effects on their health (Zhou et al., 2016). For example, a Cu
surplus can cause acute stomach and intestine aches, and liver damage, and Zn can reduce
immune function and levels of high-density lipoproteins.
Along with the inhalation of contaminated soil particles, drinking of contaminated water,
or a dermal contact, consumption of contaminated food has been identified as the major
pathway for human exposure to toxic metals (Zhou et al., 2016). Vegetables are important
edible crops and are an essential part of the human diet. They are rich in nutrients required for
human health, and are an important source of carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and fibers
(Zhou et al., 2016). Heavy metals can be taken up by vegetable roots, and accumulated at high
concentrations in the edible parts, sometimes even if heavy metal is found in soil at low
concentrations (Zhou et al., 2016). Several Authors, presented below in detail, have shown
that according to metal concentrations found in vegetable tissues grown on contaminated soil,
their consumption may pose a health risk.
Lei et al. (2010) conducted a study to investigate the pollution load index, fraction
distributions, and mobility of Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn in garden and paddy soils collected from a
Pb/Zn mine in Chenzhou City, China. The samples were analyzed using Leleyter and Probst’s
sequential extraction procedures. Total metal concentrations including Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn
exceeded the maximum permissible limits for soils set by the Ministry of Environmental
Protection of China, and the order of the pollution index was Cd >Zn > Pb > Cu, indicating
that the soils from both sites were contaminated with heavy metals, especially Cd.
Jollly et al. (2013) studied concentration of different elements (P, K, Cr, Fe, Co, Zn, Cu,
Pb, Cd etc.) and transfer factor from soil to vegetables, including spinach, amaranthus, brinjal,
tomato, radish, bean, cauliflower, carrot. In their study, iron was present in small quantities in
all types of samples compared to other macronutrient. Among the micronutrients, Cu and Zn
were abundant in all varieties, and concentration of zinc was higher comparing to copper. Mn
was present in bean only with moderate concentration (26 mg kg-1). Vanadium was present in
spinach, amaranthus, carrot and radish, while Cr was present in radish, amaranthus tomato
and cauliflower in lower concentrations. Co and Ni were found only in leafy vegetables in
low concentrations. Toxic element like As (0.08-0.04 mg kg-1), Se (0.20-0.03 mg kg-1) and Pb
(0.980.13 mg kg-1) were present in almost all varieties of samples, but the concentration of As
and Se was very low, thus did not have a toxic effect. On the other hand, Pb showed

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 Accumulation of heavy metals in vegetables grown on contaminated soils

comparatively higher value than the others which may be attributed to plants grown on the
agricultural lands located near highways.
Mokgolele et al. (2016) measured concentrations of Cu, Ni and Zn in Spinacia oleracea
cultivated at a site near the copper and nickel mine in Selebi Phikwe in Botswana. Mean
concentrations of Cu, Zn and Ni in a whole plant system (leaf, stem, root) at the experimental
site were 7.30 ± 2.51, 6.02 ± 2.16 and 0.03 ± 0.02 mg kg-1, respectively.
Harmanescu et al (2011) measured the concentrations of heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu,
Ni, Cd and Pb) found in common vegetables (parsley, carrot, onion, lettuce, cucumber and
green beans) grown in contaminated mining areas and compared them with those grown in a
reference area. The results showed that the concentrations of all analyzed metals were high,
usually over average concentration for Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb. Particularly, in soil, higher
values than intervention threshold values were found for Cu and Pb, and higher than
maximum allowable limits for Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb for parsley roots and leaves, carrot roots,
cabbage, lettuce and cucumber. Their results suggest that the consumption of some vegetables
(especially parsley, carrot and cabbage and less for lettuce, cucumber and green beans) in
these areas poses a health risk.
Alexander et al. (2006) studied the accumulation of metals by different vegetables grown
on contaminated soil. Five cultivars each of six common vegetables (spinach, carrot, french
bean, pea, onion, lettuce) were grown in a control and in a soil spiked with Cd, Cu, Pb and
Zn. Highly significant differences in metal concentrations were evident between cultivars of
differences were also identified when comparing one vegetable to another, legumes
(Leguminosae) were low accumulators (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn), root vegetables (Umbelliferae and
Liliaceae) moderate and leafy vegetables (Compositae and Chenopodiaceae) high
accumulators.
The present study was conducted with the aim to (1) concentration of Cu, Pb and Zn in
Daucus carota L. (carrot), Raphanus sativus L. (radish), Spinacia oleracea L. (spinach) and
Petroselium hortense (parsley) grown in soil contaminated with Cu, Pb and Zn, (2) to evaluate
the translocation factors (TF) between the soils and vegetable plant, in order to assess potential
health risks which may occur because of the consumption of vegetables grown on
contaminated soil.
Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is a biennial or annual herbaceous plant, which has a pivotal
root in the soil. (Ardelean et al., 2008). The plant has large requirements for moisture, light
and soils with light texture, chunky, rich in humus, with slightly acid or neutral reaction. As
active principles it contains: antide, carbohydrates, carotenes, Na, K, Ca, P, Fe, vitamins A,
B, C, K. The cultivated carrots were of the variety with round roots, the vegetation period 73-
78 days. Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) is a grown herbaceous plant, annual and biannual,
which presents a pivoting root in the soil (Popescu, 2010). Is grown in all the country, is
pretentious to moisture, prefers middle texture soils that are loose and rich in humus. As active
principles it contains proteins, fats, cellulose, mineral salts, carbon hydrates, sodium,
potassium, calcium, phosphorus, vitamins A, B1, B2, C. The cultivated radishes were with
intense red roots, recommended for crops in the greenhouse, vegetation period 55 days.
Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) is an annual herbaceous grown plant, having a pivoting
root in the soil, up to 180 cm deep, with lateral ramifications. The leaves a long or short
petiolate, big, dark-green, smooth with a prominent median nervure. There are 8-12 leaves in
the rosette. (Popescu, 2010). Is grown throughout the entire country, it prefers middle texture

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 A. Pruteanu, D.M. Bordean, V. Vlǎduț

soils that are fertile permeable, loose, rich in humus and with high moisture. As active
principles it contains: protids, carbon hydrates, lipids, chlorophylls, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, I,
vitamins A, B1, B2, C. Spinach was cultivated in an early variety, issuing late flower stems,
leaves smooth, oval, dark green, vigorous growth.
Parsley (Petroselium hortense) is a biennial herbaceous plant that has a pivotal, conical or
elongated root in the soil, white-gray, has sweet taste, and a pleasant, aromatic smell. The
basal and rosette leaves are long-petiolate, having characteristic smell. The plant needs
moderate temperature and humidity. As active principles, it contains: apiol, myristicin,
terpineol, cymenes, vitamins A, B2, C (Ardelean et al., 2008). Parsley was cultivated in an
early variety with dark green leaves, vigorous, powerful smooth and shoots.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiments took place in the period May - August 2018. The plants were harvested
when each of them reached the vegetation period.
The plant species chosen for this study are root vegetables (carrots and radishes) and leafy
vegetables (spinach and parsley) because they are the most consumed vegetables for their
nutrient-rich leafy and roots. The vegetable crops under study are shown in figure 1.

a) Carrot (Daucus carota L.) b) Radish (Raphanus sativus L.)

c) Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) d) Parsley (Petroselium hortense)

Figure 1 Vegetable crops under study

The four plants under study were planted in a controlled medium, using pots to which
contaminated soil was added with four concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn mixtures. In contrast to
the soil contaminated with the four solutions of different concentrations, in parallel as
reference samples, seedlings were planted in pots with uncontaminated fertile soil.
The physical-chemical properties of the fertile soil were: pH 5.0-6.0; total nitrogen 1.68
%, total phosphorus 0.52%, total potassium 0.85 %, electrical conductibility 1.1, particle
elements of over 20 mm maximum 5%, moisture 67.2 %.

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 Accumulation of heavy metals in vegetables grown on contaminated soils

The solutions with concentrations of 1.5, 3.0, 4.5 and 6.0 % were prepared individually
using copper sulphate, lead acetate and zinc sulphate as reagent, the solvent used in the
preparation of the solutions being distilled water.
To obtain mixtures of solutions of Cu, Pb, Zn for each of the concentrations of 1.5, 3.0,
4.5 and 6.0% individually prepared, equal parts were taken from each solution, element
respectively concentration, and were mixed until homogenising resulting in the mixture.
The pots in which the seedlings were planted from the four plants were loaded with fertile
soil that was mixed and homogenized in turn with each of the four solutions of different
concentrations. For each pot the added soil was 250 ml of Cu, Pb, Zn mixture solution per 1
kg of soil.
In the table 1 is presented initial concentration of heavy metals in soil, depending on the
four concentrations (c1, c2, c3, c4). The uncontaminated soil (c0) was considered the referential
sample, and this soil was used to conduct experiments at the four concentrations

Table 1 Initial contet of heavy metal in soil

Heavy metal concentration
c0 = 0 % c1 = 1.5% c2 = 3.0% c3 = 4.5% c4 = 6.0 %
Heavy metal
Initial contet of heavy metal in soil, mg kg-1
Copper (Cu) 17.6 33.2 72.4 265.1 378.2
Lead (Pb) 6.75 11.9 54.1 117.3 152.8
Zinc (Zn) 39.8 129.9 253.5 378.4 454.3

In experiments, heavy metal loading was performed by initially loading the soil with each
of the four mixture concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn, without supplementing until harvest. For
each plant and concentration, three samples were taken.
The heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Zn) from soil samples (uncontaminated/referential 0%,
contaminated with solutions of 1.5 %, 3.0 %, 4.5 % and 6.0 % concentration) was measured
using an x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer QualiX-S2.
The plant samples were dried (70° C, 72 h), grinded and then were digested with nitric
acid (65 %) in a microwave digestion system as follow:
- weigh 300 mg of the sample into the digestion vessel and add 7.5 ml of nitric acid.
- heat in the microwave oven with the following program.
- First step: T 150° C, power (%) – 50, time - 5 min.
- Second step: T 190° C, power (%) – 70, time 5 min.
The metal content was measured using a flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS,
GBC 932AA or GFAAS, GBC Savant AAZ).
Due to the fact that plants have the capacity to accumulate metals from the soil, the ratio
between metal concentration in the plant and in the soil was measured. Using equation (1)
(Nedelescu et al., 2017; Mokgolele et al., 2016), the translocation factor (TF) was determined.

ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
(1)

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 A. Pruteanu, D.M. Bordean, V. Vlǎduț

The transfer coefficient studied reflects the ability of the plant to take up the heavy metal
from the soil depending on its concentration in the soil.
The results obtained were statistically processed using the Excel 2010 software.
On graphs, where there are points for values of initial heavy metal content in the soil lower
than 58.9 mg kg-1, those points represent the heavy metal content of the control plant (grown
in deliberately uncontaminated soil, with the natural heavy metal content of the fertile soil).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The concentrations of the heavy metals in the edible parts of the 4 species vegetables are
presented in figure 2. Considering all cases of vegetables studied with various mixtures of
heavy metal concentrations in the soil, it can be seen that all of them have a tendency to
increase the amount of heavy metal accumulated in the plant, with the increase in the initial
heavy metal content in the soil. By comparing the values with uncontaminated soil, we notice
a high absorption of the three metals in the roots and leaf of the vegetables.

Figure 2 Comparison between the heavy metals initial content (Cu, Zn, Pb) in the soil and
in the vegetables

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 Accumulation of heavy metals in vegetables grown on contaminated soils

Figure 2 (cont.) Comparison between the heavy metals initial content (Cu, Zn, Pb) in the
soil and in the vegetables

For carrot and radish, the values for roots for the three metals progressively increase
compared to the blank sample with uncontaminated soil, with the exception of soil sample
with a maximum concentration of 6.0% where the roots did not form.
For spinach and parsley, the value for leaf for the three metals progressively increase for
the concentrations 1.5 %, 3.0 %, 4.5 % compared to the blank sample (uncontaminated soil).
At the high soil concentration of 6.0% (454.3 mg kg-1) it is observed that the values decrease,
so the leaves assimilate the metals (Cu, Pb, Zn) to the soil concentration of 4.5% (378.4 mg
kg-1).
The analyzed vegetables proved to have different capacity of bioaccumulation, depending
on plant species, type of metal, type of soil, etc. (Nedelescu et al., 2017; Augustsson et al.,
2015).
In figure 3 is presented the translocation factor depending on soil contamination with
different heavy metals for different vegetable species.
The graphs in figure 3 show the following aspects regarding translocation factor
distribution to plants:
- translocation factor (TF) higher than 1 were recorded for spinach in the case of zinc
for mixture concentrations of 1.5, 3.0, 4.5% and for parsley in the case of zinc for
mixture concentration of 1.5%;
- translocation factor (TF) lower than 0.1 were recorded as follows: for carrot in the
case of lead with mixture concentration of 6.0% (0.077) and 4.5% (0.088); for radishes

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 A. Pruteanu, D.M. Bordean, V. Vlǎduț

in the case of lead with mixture concentration of 6.0% (0.097) and in the case of copper
for mixture concentration of 6.0% (0.043) and for mixture concentration of 4.5%
(0.063); for spinach in the case of lead with the following mixture concentrations:
6.0% (0.062), 4.5% (0.071), 3.0% (0.045) and in the case of copper with mixture
concentration of 6.0% (0.032); for parsley only in the case of copper with mixture
concentration of 6.0% (0.02) and 4.5% (0.03).
The mobility of metals from soil to plants is a function of the physical and chemical
properties of the soil and of vegetable species and is altered by various environmental and
human factors (Tasrina et al., 2015). The highest TF value was found at carrots 0.8 for Pb,
radishes 0.978 for Cu, spinach 3.223 for Cu and parsley 1.107 for Cu. These might be due to
higher mobility of these heavy metals with a natural occurrence in soil and the low retention
of them in the soil than other toxic cations (Tasrina et al., 2015). According to the soil to plant
transfer factor (TF) calculated for tested metals and leafy vegetables consumed by local
residents, it can be concluded that Pb and Cu was high accumulator among the investigated
metals.

Figure 3 Translocation factor depending on soil contamination with various heavy metals
for vegetables

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 Accumulation of heavy metals in vegetables grown on contaminated soils

Figure 3 (cont.) Translocation factor depending on soil contamination with various heavy
metals for vegetables

With respect to the soil / plant translocation factor, is observed that copper accumulates
very well in the four plants, then lead, which is the most toxic metal, and finally zinc.
Following the experiments and the statistical processing of their results, as general
phenomenology it is remarked:
- until the end of the vegetation stage (harvest) the plants considered in the experiments
continuously accumulate (monotonously increasing) heavy metals from the
contaminated soil;
- the transfer coefficient decreases with the increase of the heavy metal concentration in
the soil, at least until the end of the vegetation period (harvest).

CONCLUSIONS
As a result of the experimental results obtained after the heavy metal initial soil
contamination and their accumulation in roots or leaf of vegetables, the following conclusions
were drawn:

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 A. Pruteanu, D.M. Bordean, V. Vlǎduț

- the concentrations of heavy metals in the edible parts of the vegetables decreased in
the order of leafy vegetables > root vegetables;
- for roots vegetables, the assimilation of the three metals (Cu, Pb, Zn) was progressive,
no matter the metal concentration; for leafy vegetables, the assimilation of the three
metals was progressive for concentrations 1.5 %, 3.0 %, 4.5 % and for concentration
6.0 % significantly decreased therefore;
- Zn was the most assimilated in all vegetables, followed by Pb and Cu for carrots,
radishes, parsley, and Cu and the least assimilated was Pb for spinach;
- it was found that at concentration 6.0% for each heavy metal (Cu, Pb, Zn), radishes
develop only leaf;
- the translocation factor (TF) higher than 1 was recorded in the case of leaf vegetables
(spinach, parsley) for Zn.
- the translocation factor (TF) lower than 0.1 was recorded for carrot in the case of Pb,
parsley in the case of Cu, radishes for Pb and Cu and spinach for Pb and Cu.
- the translocation factor (TF) of metals from the soil into the roots and leaf of vegetables
has indicated metal uptake in the following decreasing order depending on the type of
soil: for uncontaminated soil, Pb>Cu>Zn for carrots, spinach, parsley and Cu>Pb>Zn
for radish; for soil contaminated with four concentrations Cu>Pb>Zn for all
vegetables.
These results show that there are clear differences in the bioaccumulation of heavy metals
(Cu, Pb, Zn) in the four studied plants.
The general conclusion for the studied plants would be that the bioaccumulation of heavy
metal is lower as the initial heavy metal concentration in the soil is higher. This means that
the more intense the soil contamination with heavy metals, the more difficult will be soil
phytoremediation with plants of the studied or similar type.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper was financed by support of Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research,
Development and Innovation Funding, Exploratory Research Programme, PN-III-P4-ID-
PCE-2016-0860, contr. 174/ 08.08.2017, Research on the development of some mathematical
models to evaluate the impact of soil contamination on fruits and vegetables –
CONTAMOD”.

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by homegrown vegetables – The relative importance in human health risk assessments at
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Harmanescu, M., Alda, L.M., Bordean, D.M., Gogoasa, I., Gergen, I. (2011). Heavy metals health risk
assessment for population via consumption of vegetables grown in old mining area; a case study:
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Jolly, Y.N., Islam, A., Akbar, S. (2013). Transfer of metals from soil to vegetables and possible health
risk assessment, SpringerPlus 2:385, doi:10.1186/2193-1801-2-385.
Lei, M., Zhang, Y.,·Khan, S, Qin, P.-F., Liao B.-H. (2010). Pollution, fractionation, and mobility of Pb,
Cd, Cu, and Zn in garden and paddy soils from a Pb/Zn mining area, Environ Monit Assess 168:215–
222, DOI 10.1007/s10661-009-1105-4.
Zhou, H., Yang, W.T., Zhou, X., Liu, L., Gu J.F., Wang W.L., Zou J.L., Tian T., Peng P.Q., Liao B.H.
(2016). Accumulation of Heavy Metals in Vegetable Species Planted in Contaminated Soils and the
Health Risk Assessment, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 13, 289; doi:10.3390/ijerph13030289.
Mokgolele, M., Likuku,S.A. (2016). Preliminary investigation of transfer of metals from soil to
vegetables: Case study of Spinacia oleracea L., African Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology, vol. 10 (9), 307- 313.
Nedelescu, M., Baconi, D., Neagoe, A., Iordache, V., Constantinescu, P., Ciobanu, A.M., Vardavas,
I.A., Stan, M., Vinceti, M., Tsatsakis, M.A. (2017). Environmental metal contamination and health
impact assessment in two industrial regions of Romania, Science of the Total Environment 580, 984–
995.
Popescu, C. (2010). Heavy metals pollution – major factor in ecosystems deterioration, E C O S 22,
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Tasrina, R.C., Rowshon, A., Mustafizur, A.M.R., Rafiqul, I., Ali, M.P. (2015). Heavy Metals
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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ADVANCED ELECTROCHEMICAL TREATMENT OF

THE WASTEWATER FROM CATTLE FARM
Nicoleta UNGUREANU1*, Valentin VLĂDUŢ2, Irina-Aura ISTRATE1,
Bianca – Ștefania ZĂBAVĂ1, Carmen TOCIU3, Mariana FERDEȘ1, Mirela DINCĂ1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Department of Biotechnical Systems Engineering, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Romania
2NationalInstitute of Research - Development for Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture
and Food Industry – INMA Bucharest, Romania
3National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental Protection – INCDPM

Bucharest, Romania

SUMMARY
Worldwide, areas affected by drought and water scarcity are increasing
rapidly. Thus, nutrient-rich wastewater has become a valuable resource for
farmers. Over 20 million hectares (10% of irrigated land) are irrigated with
untreated, partially treated, diluted or treated wastewater. Over 200 million
farmers in 44 countries recover daily over 15 million m3 of treated wastewater
for irrigation. High chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), heavy metals, nutrients, antibiotics and pathogenic bacteria
pose risks for human health and the environment, and high suspended solids
can affect the irrigation system. In Romania, large agricultural area is affected
by drought and deficient irrigation systems. There is potential for wastewater
reuse in agriculture, but different wastewater treatment for agricultural reuse
is only tested experimentally. Wastewater samples collected from the lagoon
of a cattle farm were tested to determine the microbiological load (total
coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci) and physico-chemical
parameters (pH, turbidity, conductivity, COD, BOD, total N, total P) before
and after applying advanced electrochemical treatment. The aim is to reduce
wastewater load and to obtain an effluent that can be safely used for irrigation
of energy crops in arid, semiarid and sub-humid – dry regions. Removal
efficiencies were 59.8% for COD, 82% for BOD, 23.7% for total N and 46.9%
for total P.
Keywords: wastewater, organic load, electrooxidation, electrode, irrigation

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 N. Ungureanu, V. Vlăduţ, I.-A. Istrate, B.–Ș. Zăbavă, C. Tociu, M. Ferdeș, M. Dincă

INTRODUCTION
As the domestic demand for clean water increases and drought conditions become more
frequent, it is essential to think about non-conventional water resources. It is estimated that
over 40% of the world's population will face water scarcity or drought within the next few
decades, with significant socio-economic, water and food security impact (Becerra - Castro
et al., 2015; Elgallal et al., 2016). Water scarcity is due to several issues: inefficient water
distribution networks, lack of emergency plant to face decreasing rainfall and basic
infrastructure, poor wastewater treatment, environmental resource degradation, and climate
change (Urbano, 2017). In recent years, wastewater recycling in agriculture has gained
importance as component of agricultural water supply in several water-scarce countries
(Pedrero et al., 2010), were farmers in many arid and semiarid areas were forced to find
solutions to irrigate their crops. Worldwide, over 20 million hectares (10% of irrigated land)
are irrigated with nutrient-rich wastewater (treated, untreated or diluted). More than 200
million farmers in 44 countries are reusing over 15 million m3day-1 of reclaimed water for
irrigation purposes (Elgallal et al., 2016).
Romania is relatively poor in water resources, with only 1870 m3 of water per inhabitant
per year, compared to the average of 4000 m3 of water per inhabitant per year in Europe. A
significant part of Romania's agricultural land already shows the negative effects of climate
change and water scarcity. In Southern Romania, known as the Sahara of Oltenia (Dolj
County), the desertification affects 100000 hectares and the dunes expand each year by a
thousand hectares. Awareness of the imminent implications for agriculture and food security
increased the irrigated area to over one million hectares in 2018, compared to less than 300000
ha in 2015, consuming about 1 million m3 water per year (EU-level instruments on water
reuse, 2016). Romania's accession to the E.U. requires compliance with European
requirements, and the reuse of wastewater effluents is in line with Objective 6 of the European
Union's Sustainable Development Strategy. Although the Romanian legislation does not
prohibit the use of irrigated waste water, the relatively low number of users connected to the
irrigation system does not stimulate investment in new waste water treatment technologies in
order to use them as irrigation water. However, in the long term, the interest in reuse of
irrigated water could increase, as Romanian agriculture continues to be dependent on climatic
factors. In Romania, reuse of irrigated water is not largely practiced (there is a low demand
for the global use of treated wastewater), and different wastewater treatment methods for reuse
are only addressed at the experimental level.
High COD, BOD, heavy metals, salts, nutrients (especially nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium), or dissolved organic matter can pose risks in soil fertility and the environment,
viruses and pathogenic bacteria threaten human health, and high suspended solids can affect
the irrigation system (Petterson et al., 2011; Farhadkhani et al., 2018; Libutti et al., 2018).
Regulatory frameworks on the quality of wastewater used in irrigation differ from country to
country and compliance with these frameworks requires the analysis of the treated wastewater
prior to its reuse. Usually, limits are imposed for physico-chemical (turbidity, pH, salinity or
electrical conductivity, suspended solids, heavy metals, BOD, COD, nutrients) and
microbiological (E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, fecal coliforms, fecal enterococci, nematode
eggs) parameters (Becerra - Castro et al., 2015).
Chlorination, ozonation and UVC light are among the conventional disinfection techniques
most widely used for wastewater treatment (Valero et al., 2017). The removal of organic and

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 Advanced electrochemical treatment of the wastewater from cattle farm

inorganic compounds from wastewater by microalgae, ponds, MBR, membrane technology,

advanced electrochemical remediation is widely applied.
Electrochemical remediation technologies have been initially used to remove metals,
radionuclides and polar inorganic pollutants from soil and groundwater (Sahu and Chaudhari,
2015). Electrochemical remediation consists in applying an electrical potential difference to
electrodes, or to a network of electrodes, inserted in different configurations in the
contaminated media (soil or water). Usually, the applied electric potential is in the range of a
few V cm-1, while the current density is over the range of 1 mA cm-2. When the current flows
through the contaminated media, it causes different physical and chemical phenomena that
underline the technologies of continuous current, which include two types of processes,
namely, electrokinetic transport (electro-osmosis, electromigration and electrophoresis –
phenomena that help the transport, mobilization and concentration of pollutants) and electro-
oxidation, which is based on redox reactions that are electrochemically induced (responsible
for the mineralization of immobile organic contaminants) (Ribeiro et al., 2016). Advanced
oxidation used in wastewater treatment include: electro-oxidation; Fenton, electro-Fenton and
photoelectro-Fenton processes; electrocoagulation; electroflotation (Oturan, 2014).
Generally, an electrochemical process involves the oxidation reaction at the anode and the
reduction reaction at the cathode. Current density is the most crucial for the efficiency of the
electrochemical treatment using dimensionally stable anodes (Markou et al., 2017). Despite
the high COD removal, in electrochemical methods it should be taken into account the
“sacrificial” electrodes and their dilution into the wastewater streams (because of their
oxidation) and secondly the generation of significant quantities of sludge during the process
(Bensadok et al., 2011).
Wastewater treatment by electrochemical methods seems to be effective both for the
reduction of pathogens and for the reduction of organic and inorganic compounds that are
resistant to conventional processes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Wastewater samples were taken in September 2018, from a large Romanian cattle farm.
Within the farm, coarse organic residues consisting of fodder residues, paddock litter and cow
manure are collected and stored on the composting platform. Wastewater from the farm is
directly collected in a lagoon next to the composting platform, and no other treatment is
applied. The wastewater is a mixture of wastewater from paddock washing, liquid manure
mixed with solid trapped residues, wastewater from the farm's milk processing plant and
meteoric waters. The lagoon is provided with a mechanical system which homogenizes the
wastewater prior to its use as a fertilizer on the farmland near the paddocks. During sampling,
wastewater collected in the lagoon was continuously homogenized.
Culture medium was prepared to determine the microbiological load of wastewater
samples, i.e. the total coliforms, faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci. Culture medium was
weighed and prepared in 500 mL Erlenmeyer flasks and sterilized in the autoclave (Panasonic
MLS-3781L) at 121 °C for 15 minutes (Figure 2). Petri dishes, pipettes, metal instrumentation
and glassware were sterilized in the oven at 180 °C for 60 minutes and then let to cool until
use.

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 N. Ungureanu, V. Vlăduţ, I.-A. Istrate, B.–Ș. Zăbavă, C. Tociu, M. Ferdeș, M. Dincă

Figure 1 Lagoon prior and after wastewater homogenization, and sampling

Wastewater samples, considered to have highly microbial load (considering their origin),
were diluted in sterile physiological serum, by performing series of decimal dilutions, in
sterile tubes. Prior to being poured into Petri dishes, the culture medium was cooled in water
bath at 45 °C. Petri dishes were prepared and analyzed in a biological safety cabinet fume
hood (ESCO Micro Class II biological safety cabinet).

Figure 2 Microbiological testing of dairy wastewater samples

For the advanced treatment of dairy wastewater we used the electrochemical remediation,
method, classified as continuous current technology, that consists in the application of a
constant voltage on a pair of electrodes and involves a combination of processes: electrolytic
reactions at the electrode surface; formation of anodic metal and metal hydroxide cations in
aqueous phase; adsorption of soluble or colloidal pollutants onto the surface of metal
hydroxides; removal of pollutants by electroflotation, sedimentation and adhesion to the
bubbles.
The experimental setup consisted in an electrochemical reactor filled with dairy wastewater
and two electrodes that were inserted into the reactor. The electrodes were constructed at
INMA Bucharest, of stainless steel pipes with both ends welded on the stainless steel plates
(Table 1 and Figure 3).

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 Advanced electrochemical treatment of the wastewater from cattle farm

Table 1 Characteristics of electrochemical reactor

Electrodes
Material Stainless steel
Shape Network type
Lenght 200 mm
Diameter 12 mm
Arrangement Parallel
Number of electrodes 2
Electrochemical reactor
Material Plexiglas
Reactor type Batch mode
Dimensions 500 x 200 x 200 mm
Power supply
Voltage range 0-150 V
Current range 0-5 A

Three sets of experiments were performed, and different specific voltages were applied to
the electrodes: 0.025 V mA cm-2 (test E1), 0.05 V mA cm-2 (test E2) and 0.1 V mA cm-2 (test
E3). The maximum exposure time for each test was of 120 minutes and the wastewater volume
that was treated was 9 liters.

Figure 3 Experimental setup for electrochemical treatment of wastewater

During the tests, the occurrence of foam around the pipes forming the electrode networks
was observed (Figure 4), the phenomenon being much more pronounced around the anode
(on the right side of the reactor).

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 N. Ungureanu, V. Vlăduţ, I.-A. Istrate, B.–Ș. Zăbavă, C. Tociu, M. Ferdeș, M. Dincă

Figure 4 Foam formation in the anode area

For each test, wastewater samples were taken at middle distance between the electrodes
and then analyzed at exposure times of 15, 30, 60 and 120 minutes. Physico-chemical
parameters of wastewater quality and the microbiological load were analyzed according to the
methods established by the Romanian STAS 9450-88 “Water for irrigation of agricultural
crops”.
After the tests, the wastewater in the reactor was left at rest for a week. Thus, it was seen
that the solid particles were intensely entrained and separated to the anode area where they
were decanted in a thick layer of about 2 cm, unlike the cathode area (left) where the treated
wastewater was much clearer, but the solid particle layer was visibly thinner.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The initial parameters for the wastewater are presented in Table 2. The initial pH of
wastewater was about 7.8 and had a quite small variation during the tests, reaching the highest
value of 8.4. Also, the conductivity ranged between 3.60 up to 3.85 mS cm-1.

Table 2 The initial characteristics of wastewater

Parameter (M.U) Value Parameter (M.U) Value
pH (units) 7.8 Total N (mg L-1) 234.2
Conductivity (mS cm-1) 3.84 Total P (mg L-1) 56.4
Turbidity (NTU) 544 Total coliforms (no. 100 m L-1) 700000
TSS (mg L-1) 1216 Faecal coliform (no.100 m L-1) 92000
COD-Cr (mgO2 L-1) 1512.6 Faecal streptococci (no. 100 m L-1) 34500
BOD5 (mgO2 L-1) 204.6

The intermediary and final values for the monitored physico-chemical parameters for the
dairy wastewater are presented in Table 3. In Table 4, the initial and final values of the
microbiological parameters can be observed. Compared to the initial values of all the analyzed
parameters, the final ones are considerable smaller for all three tests. In time, the removal
efficiency fluctuation is quite evident, but the most important fact is that there is an increase
of its values.

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Table 3 Variation of physico-chemical parameters during the tests

Conductivity COD-Cr BOD5 Total N Total P
Sample pH
(mS cm-1) (mgO2 L-1) (mgO2 L-1) (mg L-1) (mg L-1)
E1_15 7.9 3.86 816.6 102 202.7 47.3
E1_30 7.9 3.86 770.2 89.9 201.3 49.3
E1_60 7.9 3.84 779.5 86.7 207.5 47.5
E1_120 8.1 3.81 705.3 74.3 200.4 44.2
E2_15 7.9 3.85 700.6 93.6 204.6 44.2
E2_30 8.0 3.83 668.2 97.5 205.5 44.5
E2_60 8.1 3.76 626.4 55.9 203.5 43.1
E2_120 8.3 3.71 626.4 36.5 178.7 38.3
E3_15 8.0 3.82 730.3 67.6 212.5 43.1
E3_30 8.1 3.77 663.5 57.6 201 45.7
E3_60 8.1 3.74 756.3 67.7 208.9 43.1
E3_120 8.4 3.60 607.8 42.8 193.1 30.0

The pH of the wastewater had a small variation during the tests, its values ranging from
7.8-8.4. According to STAS 9450-88, wastewater samples are poorly alkaline and they can
be accepted for use as irrigation water. Conductivity decreases over time and the values show
that treated wastewater can be used to irrigate highly saline-tolerant crops.
In Figure 4, the removal efficiency of COD and BOD in time is presented. A specific
voltage of 0.05 V cm-2 is enough to reach a removal percentage of almost 82.1% for BOD5. It
can be observed that also 0.1 Vcm-2 is quite sufficient to remove 79.1% of BOD5. COD-Cr
has an increase of the efficiency in time and the results obtained at the end of test E2 is
comparable with the one for the test E3 (59.8%).

100.0
COD-Cr BOD5
Removal efficiency (%)

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0

Figure 4 Variation in time of COD-Cr and BOD5 removal efficiency during

three treatment sets

Sengil and Ozacar (2006) treated dairy wastewater by electrochemical treatment using
stainless steel electrodes. COD efficiency reached the value of 98% while the optimum current

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 N. Ungureanu, V. Vlăduţ, I.-A. Istrate, B.–Ș. Zăbavă, C. Tociu, M. Ferdeș, M. Dincă

density, pH and treatment time for COD equal to 18300 mg L-1 were 0.6 mA cm-2, 7 and 1
min. Melchiors et al. (2016) examined the efficiency of electrochemical method for the
treatment of dairy wastewater with initial COD of 8303 mg L-1and obtained a significant
removal of organic matter (97.4%) using iron electrodes at final pH of 7.4.
Figure 5 presents the removal efficiency in time for the nutrients (N and P) found in
wastewater samples. If wastewater rich in nutrients is eliminated in natural receptors, the
eutrophication or biostimulation of plants and algae growth appears, leading to high turbidity
and water deoxygenation.

50
Total P Total N
Removal efficiency (%)

40

30

20

10

Figure 5 Variation in time of nutrients removal efficiency during three treatment sets

This phenomenon could also occur in treated water storage tanks before entering the
irrigation system. Highest removal efficiency in total nitrogen removal was found for test
E2_120 (23.7 %), while highest removal efficiency in total phosphorous removal was found
for test E3_120 (46.9 %).

Table 4 Variation of microbiological parameters before and after the treatment

Total coliforms Faecal coliforms Faecal streptococci

Sample
(no. 100 mL-1) (no. 100 mL-1) (no. 100 mL-1)
Initial 700000 92000 34500
E1_120 141000 10900 2780
E2_120 542000 17500 9200
E3_120 175000 17200 3480

Figure 6 presents the efficiency in terms of pathogens removal for the three sets of tests,
each after 120 minutes of treatment. Even though the highest removal efficiency for all
microbiological parameters is achieved at the end of test E3 (where the highest specific
voltage was applied – 0.1 V cm-2) the differences compared to the test E1 are not so
significant. Hence, it can be said that higher energy consumption is not justified for gaining
only 5 up to 8 % removal.

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 Advanced electrochemical treatment of the wastewater from cattle farm

Removal efficiency (%) 100

80

60

40

20 E1 E2 E3

0
Total Colif. Faecals coliforms Faecals streptococci

Figure 6 Removal efficiency for the analyzed pathogens during three treatment sets

According to STAS 9450-88, efficiency removal of faecal streptococci after applying the
treatment show that the water may be classified as M2 (usable for all soil and plant species
except highly permeable soils and plants intended for use as food and feed, fresh or preserved
by freezing, but without taking into account the values for total coliforms and faecal coliforms,
the water can be classified as type M3 (usable for underground soil with a depth of more than
4 m and for arable crops) whose products are thermally processed, as well as for non-food
vegetal products).
Another important parameter that should be monitored is the specific energy consumption:
U ⋅ I ⋅t
EC = (1)
Vtw
where: EC – energy consumption (kWh L-1), U- the applied voltage (V), I - the average
current intensity during each test (A) and t - the treatment period (h), Vtw –volume of treated
wastewater (L).
For all three tests the specific energy consumption varied from 0.002 kWh L-1 for test E1,
0.007 kWh L-1 for test E2 and 0.039kWh L-1 for test E3. Although energy consumption can
be a drawback in the extensive use of electrochemical treatment of wastewater, it should be
taken into account that there is potential for the partial or total use of renewable energy
sources, such as the photovoltaic panels.

CONCLUSIONS
An electrochemical method was applied using three different specific voltage (0.025 V
cm-2 – test E1, 0.05 V cm-2 – test E2, 0.1 V cm-2 – test E3) for the treatment of cattle farm
wastewater. Wastewater samples were analyzed in order to observe the treatment efficiency
in terms of pathogen removal and physico-chemical parameters reduction.
A specific voltage of 0.05 V cm-2 was enough for removal of almost 82% for BOD5 while
0.1 Vcm-2 was sufficient in order to obtain 79% removal for BOD5. Highest removal

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 N. Ungureanu, V. Vlăduţ, I.-A. Istrate, B.–Ș. Zăbavă, C. Tociu, M. Ferdeș, M. Dincă

efficiency in total nitrogen removal was found for test E2_120 (23.7 %), while highest
removal efficiency in total phosphorous removal was found for test E3_120 (46.9 %)
During test E3 the sedimentation of the particles has been more obvious than in the other
two tests, even though the pH was between 7.8 and 8.4. In general, the treatment efficiency is
better when the pH is closer to acid or basic, compared to a neutral pH.
Efficiency in the removal of pathogens, organic and inorganic pollutants, shows that
electro-oxidation can be effective to treat dairy wastewater, for reuse as irrigation water in
Romania, and there are advantages that energy consumption can be reduced by using
photovoltaic panels, the consumption of Danube or underground water sources could be
reduced, while the investments in advanced treatment systems could be encouraged.

ACKNOLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian Ministery of Research and Innovation
CCDI - UEFISCDI, Project INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR IRRIGATION OF
AGRICULTURAL CROPS IN ARID, SEMIARID AND SUBHUMID-DRY CLIMATE,
project number PN-III-P1-1.2-PCCDI-2017-0254, Contract no. 27PCCDI / 2018, within
PNCDI III.

REFERENCES
Becerra - Castro, C., Lopes, A.R., Vaz– Moreira, I., Silva, E.F., Manaia, C.M., Nunes, O.C. (2015).
Wastewater reuse in irrigation: a microbiological perspective on implications in soil fertility and
human and environmental health. Int. J. Environ 75, 117–135.
Bensadok, K., El Hanafi, N., Lapicque, F. (2011). Electrochemical treatment of dairy effluent using
combined Al and Ti/Pt electrodes system. Desalination 280, 244–251.
Elgallal, M., Fletcher, L., Evans, B. (2016). Assessment of potential risks associated with chemicals in
wastewater used for irrigation in arid and semiarid zones: a review. Agricultural Water Management
177, 419–431.
EU-level instruments on water reuse (2016). Final report to support the Commission’s Impact
Assessment. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
Farhadkhani, M., Nikaeen, M., Yadegarfar, G., Hatamzadeh, M., Pourmohammadbagher, H., Sahbaei,
Z., Rahmani, H.R. (2018). Effects of irrigation with secondary treated wastewater on
physicochemical and microbial properties of soil and produce safety in a semi-arid area. Water
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Libutti, A., Gatta, G., Gagliardi, A., Vergine, P., Pollice, A., Beneduce, L., Disciglio, G., Taratino, E.
(2018). Agro-industrial wastewater reuse for irrigation of a vegetable crop succession under
Mediterranean conditions. Agricultural Water Management 196, 1–14.
Markou, V., Kontogianni, M-C., Frontistis, Z., Tekerlekopoulou, A.G., Katsaounis, A., Vayenas, D.
(2017). Electrochemical treatment of biologically pre-treated dairy wastewater using dimensionally
stable anodes. Journal of Environmental Management 202, 217–224.
Melchiors, M.S., Piovesan, M., Becegato, V.R., Becegato, V.A., Tambourgi, E.B., Paulino, A.T. (2016).
Treatment of wastewater from the dairy industry using electroflocculation and solid whey recovery.
J. Environ. Manag 182, 574–580.
Oturan, M.A. (2014). Electrochemical advanced oxidation technologies for removal of organic
pollutants from water. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 21, 8333–8335.

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Pedrero, F., Kalavrouziotis, I., Alarcón, J.J., Koukoulakis, P., Asano, T. (2010). Use of treated municipal
wastewater in irrigated agriculture - review of some practices in Spain and Greece. Agric. Water
Manage 97, 1233–1241.
Petterson, S.R., Ashbolt, N.J., Sharma, A. (2011). Microbial risks from wastewater irrigation of salad
crops: a screening-level risk assessment. Water Environ. Res 73(6), 667–672.
Ribeiro, A.B, Mateus, E.P., Couto, N. (2016). Electrokinetics across disciplines and countries – New
strategies for sustainable development, Springer International Publishing Switzerland, 10–35.
Sahu, O.P., Chaudhari, P.K. (2015). Electrochemical treatment of sugar industry wastewater: COD and
color removal, Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry739, 122-129.
Sengil, I.A., Ozacar, M. (2006). Treatment of dairy wastewaters by electrocoagulation using mild steel
electrodes. J. Hazard. Mater 137, 1197–1205.
Urbano, V., Mendonca, T., Bastos, R.S., Fonseca Souza, C. (2017). Effects of treated wastewater
irrigation on soil properties and lettuce yield. Agricultural Water Management 181, 108–115.
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Electrochemical advanced oxidation processes for Staphylococcus aureus disinfection in municipal
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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

SMART SYSTEM TO MONITOR WASTEWATER

TREATMENT BASED ON RASPBERRY PI COMPUTER
Bianca - Ștefania ZĂBAVĂ*1, George IPATE1, Gheorghe VOICU1, Mirela DINCĂ1,
Nicoleta UNGUREANU1, Mariana FERDEŞ1, Valentin VLĂDUŢ2
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Department of Biotechnical Systems, University Politehnica of Bucharest,
Splaiul Independentei no. 313, Sector 6, Romania
2INMA, Bucharest, Romania

SUMMARY
Sedimentation is a unit operation of high importance in various wastewater
treatment systems. In a tank in which the water flow velocity is very low, the
particles tend to go to the bottom under the influence of gravity. In this study,
a VL53L0X sensor is used to determine the turbidity of the wastewater. The
experiments were conducted in the Department of Biotechnical Systems at the
Polytechnic University of Bucharest. Experimental data were recorded at
different time intervals to analyze the total solids concentration (TSS),
representing the interface between the particulate area in the full decanting
process and the compacted sludge area. The purpose of this study was to
determine the clarification curve of an aqueous slurry of solid particles, using
the intelligent Raspberry Pi system. The results obtained for the dishwashing
powder used to carry out the experiment, are in line with the other
sedimentation rate research, obtaining a power function. The turbidity,
measured at 20sec intervals in three different points, had a variation between
260 -11 NTU in the time interval in which the measurements were carried out
(about 80 minutes). These results contribute to improving knowledge in the field
of wastewater treatment.
Keywords: settling columns, total suspended solids, turbidity, Raspberry Pi

INTRODUCTION
Sedimentation, also known as settling, is an important process in several of the unit
operations in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The most commonly known of these
unit processes are primary settling tanks, which are a treatment units before the biological
reactor, and secondary settling tanks, which are a clarification step prior to discharge into a

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 B.–Ș. Zăbavă, G. Ipate, Gh. Voicu, M. Dincă, N. Ungureanu, M. Ferdeş, V. Vlăduţ

receiving water. Moreover, settling also plays an important role in new technologies that are
being developed such as granular sludge reactors (Torfs et al., 2016).
Sedimentation is the physical operation that separates solid particles with a density higher
than of the surrounding liquid. In a tank in which the water flow velocity is very low, the
particles tend to go to the bottom under the influence of gravity. As a result, the supernatant
liquid becomes clarified, while the particles at the bottom form a sludge layer and are then
subsequently removed with the sludge. Sedimentation is a unit operation of high importance
in various wastewater treatment systems. The main objective in most of the applications is to
produce a clarified effluent, that is, with a low suspended solids concentration (Marcos von
Sperling, 2007).
The cumulative frequency distribution of settling velocities cannot be calculated in a
theoretical way because the size, shape and mass density of the particles are unknown and
even variable with flocculent settling. The frequency distribution is found experimentally by
plotting the percentage of remaining suspended solids against the settling velocity vs that can
be calculated from the depth of the sampling port under the water surface (H) divided by the
elapsed time t.
In water and wastewater treatment facilities, the mass transport and behaviour of fine-
grained cohesive sediments is influenced mainly by flocculation effects and nominal settling
velocities of particles. Hence the understanding of batch settling processes of flocs is
fundamental for effective thickener/clarifier design and control. The behaviour of flocculating
particles and settling trajectories of individual particles is very complex. Flocculation effects
and velocities are usually investigated using jar tests to establish dose and settling columns to
evaluate the flocculation behaviour. Constant spatial and temporal variations and fluctuating
initial conditions in physical sedimentation systems result in difficulty and uncertainty in the
predictions of medium- and long-term behaviour of the settling particles (Xu et al., 2008).
During the design of sedimentation tanks, data from settling columns are interpreted by a
graphical technique. Firstly, samples are collected from different column depths at different
times and are analysed for total suspended solids concentration (TSS). The batch settling data
is then utilised to compute iso-percentage removal profiles as a function of time and depth.
From the graphs, one can predict or calculate the removal efficiency, overflow rate and
settling velocities of particles. (Nomcebo et al., 2014).
Usher and Scales (2005), developed an algorithm to account for the solid volume fraction
of the thickener underflow and mudline height of fundamental suspension properties. This
algorithm could not predict suspension properties in the shear process. Zhou et al., (Zhou et
al., 2014), established validated mathematical model as well as three-dimensional
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model to characterizing the flow regions in red mud
separation thickener's feedwells. Their results showed that the inlet feed rate and the aspect
ratio of feedwells are the most important parameters which affect the RTD of feedwell. They
showed that under the optimal operation conditions, the volume fraction of dead zone can be
reduced by 10.8% and the volume fraction of mixing flow can be increased by 6.5%.
In this study, a VL53L0X sensor was used to determine the turbidity of the wastewater.
Experimental data were recorded at different time intervals to analyze the total solids
concentration (TSS), representing the interface between the particulate area in the full
decanting process and the compacted sludge area. The VL53L0X is a new generation Time-
of-Flight (ToF) laser-ranging module housed in the smallest package on the market today,

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providing accurate distance measurement whatever the target reflectances unlike conventional
technologies. It can measure absolute distances up to 2m, setting a new benchmark in ranging
performance levels, opening the door to various new applications. The VL53L0X integrates
a leading-edge SPAD array (Single Photon Avalanche Diodes) and embeds ST’s second
generation FlightSenseTM patented technology. The VL53L0X’s 940nm VCSEL emitter
(Vertical Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser), is totally invisible to the human eye, coupled with
internal physical infrared filters, it enables longer ranging distance, higher immunity to
ambient light and better robustness to cover-glass optical cross-talk.
The data recorded with this sensor was used to determine the clarification curve of an
aqueous suspension of solid particles using the intelligent Raspberry Pi system. The
sedimentation velocity was determined, by means of calculations, with the Pi camera attached
to Raspberry Pi device.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experimental research was carried out in a stationary field on a laboratory stand, consisting
on a plexiglass column, with the dimensions: 220 mm long, 30 mm diameter, 100 ml capacity,
VL53L0X turbidity sensor, Raspberry Pi device and Pi camera. Recording of the interface
between the clarified water area and the sludge area was viewed in real-time on a PC screen
by taking photos at a certain time using a camera connected to the Raspberry Pi device.
To achieve experimental research has been used an aqueous suspension of the dishwashing
powder as follows: in 100 mL of tap water was added an amount of 5 g of dishwashing
powder.
If in a glass column there is introduced a certain amount of diluted suspension, composed
of water and settleable solid particles and let it rest, it can be observed, after a period of time,
the appearance of three distinct characteristic areas, namely: a zone of clarified water at the
top of the column, a zone with an aqueous suspension of solid particles in the process of
sedimentation at the middle of the tube and and a zone with concentrated settled sludge at the
bottom of the column, according to the decantation scheme of figure 1 (Safta et al., 2017;
Sajeev et al. 2002).

Figure 1 The decantation scheme of a suspension in the stationary column

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 B.–Ș. Zăbavă, G. Ipate, Gh. Voicu, M. Dincă, N. Ungureanu, M. Ferdeş, V. Vlăduţ

These three areas are separated by two interfaces, namely: a clarified water – aqueous
suspension of solid particles interface and an aqueous suspension of solid particles –
concentrated settled sludge interface.
If the interfaces are recorded in time and plotted, the clarification curve of an aqueous
suspension of solid particles is obtained, representing the variation of the solution's turbidity
over time (Safta et al., 2012).
The purpose of the experiment was to determine the turbidity of the wastewater, the solid
particle concentration (TSS) and the sedimentation velocity of the solid particles in the
wastewater. In the following are presented the steps to determine these parameters.
Regarding the turbidity of the wastewater, it was measured in three points at different
heights on the graduated column, namely at 55mm, 65mm and 75mm respectively. For each
set height, the turbidity of the water was measured for about 80 minutes, the measurements
being made at intervals of 20 seconds.
The measurements were made using a VL53L0X turbidity sensor, and the values recorded
in the NTU were converted to mass concentration using the equation, (Sithebe et al., 2014):
ln (TSS) = 1.5 ln (NTU) + 0.15 (1)
The conversion was based on the method proposed by Packman et al (1999), which consists
of the 10-point calibration line of a TSS versus NTU dataset (R2 = 0.97). Based on the
experimental data obtained for turbidity, the variation curve of the suspension was determined
using a power function of the type:
a = k∙tb (2)
The measured values used to trace the clarification curve of an aqueous suspension of solid
particles.
Regarding the sedimentation velocity of the solid particles, it was determined by
calculation using the image processing method of the separation interface between the
clarified area and the sludge area with the Pi camera attached to the Raspberry Pi device.
To capture the images, the program created for this type of experiment in the Pyton
programming language (version 3.4), running on a Raspberry Pi with Raspbian operating
system, was used. In this case, the measurements were also made at 20s.
Several analytical systems have been proposed in the literature to simulate the removal of
solid particles. In this study, it was used the mathematical expression proposed by Cho et al.
(1993), which introduced the concept of "solid flux" for the calculation of sedimentation. Until
the present, two empirical models have been successfully used to design decanters for solid
material flows. These include the power law model (Eq. (3)) and the exponential model (Eq.
(4)):
v = kh-n (3)
v = k exp (-nh) (4)
where:
k, h and n are the maximum sedimentation rates, the interface level and the model
parameter, respectively.

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The exponential pattern is reasonable in dilute concentrations but is much more

complicated in designing a decanter. The law of power model, on the other hand, becomes
infinite in a range of diluted concentrations (Sithebe et al., 2014).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Turbidity data was determined from the three points located at different heights on the
sedimentation column for 80 minutes. These were converted to the mass concentration
according to equation (1).
In table 1 are presented the turbidity values determined experimentally at three heights:
75mm (T_ex75), 65mm (T_ex65) and 55mm (T_ex55); the turbidity values determined by
the regression function: 75mm (T_75), 65mm (T_65) and 55 mm (T_55) and the mass
concentration determined after conversion, for five moments of time.

Table 1 Experimental results obtained in the process of sedimentation

Time T_ex75 T_ex65 T_ex55 T_75 T_65 T_55 Ln Ln Ln
[min] [NTU] [NTU] [NTU] [NTU] [NTU] [NTU] TSS_75 TSS_65 TSS_55

10 59.42 25.30 57.70 53.57 34.03 43.83 6.27 5.00 6.23

20 19.93 21.05 26.25 38.52 22.84 29.92 4.63 4.72 5.05

40 19.93 16.94 26.25 27.69 15.33 20.43 4.63 4.39 5.02

60 11.05 9.34 26.25 22.83 12.14 16.34 3.75 3.50 5.05

80 11.05 13.04 26.25 20.07 10.39 14.08 3.75 4.00 5.05

Based on experimental data was plotted the clarification curve corresponding to the three
points in which was measured the turbidity (Figure 2).

Figure 2 The turbidity variation over time for the three points of measurement
(T_ex75, T_ex65, T_ex55 - the experimental values
T_75, T_65, T_55 - the values determined by regression)

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The experimental results, for all three set heights, were processed using Microsoft Excel
using regression analysis for each sedimentation area. According to figure 2, it can be seen
that the turbidity value in the 80 minutes in which the measurements were made, for the height
of 75 mm decreased from 260 NTU to approx. 11 NTU, for the height of 65 mm the turbidity
had values between 222 and 13 NTU, and for the height of 55 mm, the turbidity had variations
from 246 to 26 NTU.

Figure 3 The variation of the natural logarithm of the concentrations to solids

In the graphically represented data sets a reasonable match of experimental data with
regression data is observed. According to this variation, it can be observed that as time passes,
the degree of turbidity in the solution decreases. The same can be seen in figure 3, where is
presented the variation in time of the natural logarithm of the solid particle concentration.
In datasets (Figures 2 and 3), it can observe a correlation of the data with those obtained
by Sithebe et al. (2014).
Figure 4a shows the evolution of sedimentation rate over time, determined by calculation
using equation 4, following the experimental determination of the level of the separation
interface between the clear area and the sludge area (Figure 4b), by processing the images
captured by means of the Pi camera. In Figure 4a, the magenta colour curve represents the
experimentally determined sedimentation velocity values and with the blue line, the
sedimentation velocity values calculated by numerical integration of the differential equation
from the model proposed by Je and Chang (2004), in their paper:
dv / dt = a / tk (5)
The dotted line in the graphical representation indicates the values of sedimentation
velocity calculated analytically by solving the differential equation mentioned above.
It is noticed that at the initial moment, the sedimentation velocity value is 4.5 mm s-1, and
in second 120 it decreases to 0.8 mm s-1. This shows that the sedimentation velocity of solid
particles in an aqueous solution decreases over time.

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 Smart system to monitor wastewater treatment based on Raspberry Pi computer

a) b)

Figure 4 a) the rate of sedimentation variation over time

b) the evolution of the solid-liquid interface

In Figure 4b, the blue curve represents the variation of the height of the interface between
the clarified area and the sludge area determined experimentally, and in red is represented the
height of the interface calculated by numerical integration of the differential equation:
dh / dt = 3a∙t2 + b∙t + c (6)
The green line indicates the height values of the analytically calculated interface by solving
the differential equation mentioned above. Figure 4b shows that the height of the solid particle
layer increases over time.
The experimental results obtained are in correlation with those obtained by Sithebe et al.
(2014), as well as those obtained by Je and Chang (2004).

CONCLUSIONS
Sedimentation is a unit operation of high importance in various wastewater treatment
systems. In a tank in which the water flow velocity is very low, the particles tend to go to the
bottom under the influence of gravity. The results obtained for the dishwashing powder used
to carry out the experiment, are in line with the other sedimentation rate research, obtaining a
power function. The turbidity, measured at 20sec intervals in three different points, had a
variation between 260 -11 NTU in the time interval in which the measurements were carried
out (about 80 minutes). It was also noted that the velocity decreases with time as fewer and
less heavy particles remain in suspension.
Automation of data analysis will enable engineers and scientists to perform more advanced
interpolation/optimisation schemes of settling column data to improve design accuracy.

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 B.–Ș. Zăbavă, G. Ipate, Gh. Voicu, M. Dincă, N. Ungureanu, M. Ferdeş, V. Vlăduţ

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian Ministry of Research and Innovation
CCDI - UEFISCDI, Project INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR IRRIGATION OF
AGRICULTURAL CROPS IN ARID, SEMIARID AND SUBHUMID-DRY CLIMATE,
project number PN-III-P1-1.2-PCCDI-2017-0254, Contract no. 27PCCDI / 2018, within
PNCDI III.

REFERENCES
Cho, SH., Colin, F., Sardin, M., Prost, C. (1993). Settling velocity model of activated sludge. Water Res.
27 (7) 1237–1242.
Je, C., Chang, S. (2004). Simple approach to estimate flocculent settling velocity in a dilute suspension.
Environ. Geol. 45 1002–1009.
Marcos von Sperling, (2007). Basic Principles of Wastewater Treatment, ISBN: 1 84339 162 7.
Published by IWA Publishing, London, UK, IWA Publishing
Packman, J.J., Comings, K.J., Booth, D.B. (1999). Using turbidity to determine total suspended solids
in urbanizing streams in the Puget lowlands. In: Confronting Uncertainty: Managing Change in
Water Resources and the Environment, Canadian Water Resources Association Annual Meeting,
Vancouver, BC, 158–165.
Safta, V.V., Dincă, M., Constantin, G.A., Zăbavă B.Ş. (2017). Critical point determination of the
clarifying curve of aqueous diluted suspensions, Proceedings of the 45th International Symposium
"Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", pp. 99-110, ISSN 1848-4425, Croaţia, Opatija, (ISI
Proceedings, ISI - Index to Scientific and Technical Proceedings, CAB International – Agricultural
Engineering Abstracts, Cambridge Scientific Abstracts – InterDok).
Safta, V.V., Toma, M. L., Ungureanu, N. (2012). Experiments in the field of wastewater treatment.
Printech Publishing, Bucharest, ISBN 978-606-521-875-8.
Sajeev, M.S., Kailappan, R., Sreenarayanan, V.V., Thangavel, K. (2002). Kinetics of gravity settling of
cassava starch in its aqueous suspension. Biosystems Engineering, 83(3), 327–337.
Sithebe, N. P., Methula, B.G., Chirwa, E.M.N. (2014). A finite velocity simulation of sedimentation
behaviour of flocculating particles – A real-time model evaluation, Available on website
http://www.wrc.org.za, ISSN 0378-4738 (Print) = Water SA Vol. 40 No. 1 J.
Torfs, E., Nopens, I., Winkler, M.K.H., Vanrolleghem, P.A., Baleman, S., Smets, I.Y. (2016).
Experimental methods in wastewater treatment, ISBN: 9781780404745 (Hardback), ISBN:
9781780404752 (eBook). Published by IWA Publishing, London, UK.
Usher, S.P, Scales, P.J. (2005). Steady state thickener modeling from the compressive yield stress and
hindered settling function [J]. Chemical Engineering Journal, 111(2, 3): 253−261.
Xu, F., Wang, D.P., Riemer, N. (2008). Modelling flocculation processes of fine-grained particles using
a size resolved method: Comparison with published laboratory experiments. Cont. Shelf Res. 28
2668–2677.
Zhou, T., Mao, L.M., LI, Q.L., Lei, B., Chenn, Q.Z., Zhou, J.M. (2014). Numerical simulation of flow
regions in red mud separation thickener’s feedwell by analysis of residence-time distribution [J].
Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 24(4): 1117−1124.
***STMicroelectronics NV. (2016). World smallest Time-of-Flight ranging and gesture detection
sensor, VL53L0X, Datasheet - production data.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Stručni rad
ZADACI Expert paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ECONOMIC DESIGN OF DRAIN DEPTHS AND SPACING

USING DIFFERENT EU AND NON-EU MODELS
Cristina HALBAC-COTOARA-ZAMFIR1, Rares HALBAC-COTOARA-ZAMFIR1*,
Jarbas H. DE MIRANDA2
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Department of Overland Communication Ways, Foundation and Cadastral Survey, Politehnica
University of Timisoara, Timisoara, Romania
2 Luiz de Queiroz” College of Agriculture (ESALQ/USP), Piracicaba, Brazil

ABSTRACT

Many agricultural systems are being affected by regional climate change.

With the increase of the agricultural land prices and the demand for more food,
there have been tendencies to increase productivity and use of new areas for
crop production in which land drainage may be needed. Therefore, the studies
of economic evaluation of agricultural drainage projects are necessary.
Land drainage is a critical water management tool for the sustainability of
cropping productivity systems. Land drainage provides environmental benefits
when it is sustainable designed securing the conservation and improvement of
soil resources quality. A key aspect of this problem is the correct determination
of distance between drains based on a series of environmental and human-
induced factors.
Currently there are many EU and non-EU models used in land drainage
systems design. This paper will approach several of them from EU and South-
America and will apply them for a couple of case studies from western
Romania.
The main aim is to emphasize the necessity of approaching a wide range of
elements (radial head losses, flow regime, complexity of drainage formula) in
designing a sustainable land drainage system. The results gained from applying
different programs (with different characteristics) demonstrated the
importance of implementing this approach.
Keywords: agricultural systems, land drainage, design, models

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 C. Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir, R. Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir, J. H. De Miranda

INTRODUCTION
The climate is changing. Significant increases in precipitation, both average and extreme
are visible around the world. Maintaining and improving soil fertility in areas affected by
excess moisture is a major concern of all many countries in their efforts to ensure basic needs
like food and habitable land for a population which is in a continuous growing and which
presents a high interest for developing their economic activities. Water excess from
agricultural lands can be sustainable managed with an efficient agricultural drainage system
which will need to enable the shift from a strategy of rapid removal of all excess water to one
that continuously controls water levels within an environmental framework (Ritzema and
Stuyt, 2015; Meyer and Keiser, 2016)
The main objective of an agricultural drainage system is to provide for a root zone the
environment that facilitates plant growth and optimizes crop production. Thus, drainage of
agricultural land is a critical water management tool for the sustainability of cropping
productivity systems considering the links between this sustainability and the control of water
logging and salinization processes from root zone. Land drainage also provides environmental
benefits when it is sustainable designed securing the conservation and improvement of soil
resources quality. A key aspect of this problem is the correct determination of distance
between drains based on a series of environmental and human-induced factors.
Land drainage design projects must also consider the improvement of the social-economic
sector but also the compliance of environmental regulations. A special attention must be
granted in planning, design, implementation, exploitation and maintaining a drainage system,
in all development phases in order to ensure that the impact on environment, once determined,
is minimized at acceptable dimensions from all perspectives.
Land drainage became in time a much diversified instrument. If till some decades ago,
land drainage was focused almost exclusively on removing the water excess, modern drainage
is part of water integrated management, removing or conserving the necessary water volumes
and being also preoccupied by water quality and environmental values. Water resources
integrated management represents a process which promotes the coordination of water
development and management with soils and other resources which are relating with it in
order to maximize the economic and social sectors in an equitable manner and without
compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. In this way it is necessary for drainage
to realize a balance between water excess control and conserving soil humidity (Schultz,
2017).
Modern drainage serves today not only agricultural sector but also a large area of
economic objectives and activities. The objectives and results of applying land drainage
systems must be quantified from qualitative and quantitative point of views. The systems of
assessing the performance of a land drainage system are still in an incipient phase, a stage
which assumes continuing the researches in this domain. Because drainage is a vital part of
water integrated management, this thesis supposed an inter-disciplinary research (Vlotman,
2017)
For realizing some efficient technical and economical drainage studies, the IT component
became in the last years very important, modeling programs being those which can offer the
best information on time evolution of environmental components as result of implementing a
land drainage system.

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 Economic design of drain depths and spacing using different EU and non-EU models

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This paper is focused on Folea-Sipet-Cerna land drainage system which is part of a larger
arrangement named Nord Lanca-Birda (see figure 1).
We could identify in this area alluvial soils, with small hydraulic conductivities. The
impermeable soil layer was located at 3 m depth. The climatological data (monthly
precipitation and temperatures) used in this paper were collected from Banloc meteorological
station (see figure 2).
For determining the distance between drains were used several programs based on non-
steady state equations like Glover-Dumm, Jenab, Guyon. These equations were translated in
different excel application or programs like Espadren. The results from these applications
were included in more advanced programs like Sisdrena which are able to forecast the drained
volumes from this land drainage system.
Espadren is an application developed in Costa Rica for simplifying the computation of
distances between drains using steady-state equations (Donnan, Hooghoudt, Dagan, Ernst)
but also non steady-state equations (Glover-Dumm and Jenab) for open channels and buried
drains. Espadren was realized using Visual Basic environment.

Figure 1 Folea - Sipet - Cerna land drainage system

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 C. Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir, R. Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir, J. H. De Miranda

Figure 2 Annual precipitation values for Banloc area

SISDRENA was coded in Visual Basic 6.0 at the Department of Biosystems Engineering
(LEB), "Luiz de Queiroz” College of Agriculture (ESALQ/USP), Piracicaba, SP, Brazil. It is
a one dimensional model that accounts for the major components that affect the water balance
in a section of homogeneous soil with unit surface area, located midway between two parallel
drains and extending from the impervious layer to the soil surface. These components are:
precipitation, runoff, infiltration, percolation to groundwater, upstream from the groundwater
level to the root zone, evapotranspiration, drainage and vertical "seepage".
Folea-Sipet-Cerna land drainage systems was designed using classical methods without
IT support. The authors tried to provide solutions for a future rehabilitation of this
arrangement, severely affected by lack of investments and agricultural system reorganization.
The design methods proposed by authors are not very known in Romania, especially when
we discuss about ESPADREN and SISDRENA programs. Thus, the results presented in this
manuscript will combine Romanian land drainage experience with IT improvements from
South-America and represented a first step in correlating trans-continental researches on land
drainage systems design.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

For the Folea-Sipet-Cerna area, the drainage solution should consist of tubular drains in
filter trenches plus deep loosening on 60 cm (repeated 2-3 years) plus mole drainage to 70
cm. The distances between drain tubes will be calculated based on soils texture and
conductivity
The distance between the drains is most affected by the value of the hydraulic load loss
and respectively the hydraulic conductivity of the soil. For very low Ksol values (0.01 - 0.02
m / day), the results are almost similar, demonstrating almost identical behavior of very little
permeable soils to land improvement measures (in this case underground drainage).

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 Economic design of drain depths and spacing using different EU and non-EU models

The results of running these previously mentioned programs are presented in the following
tables:

Table 1 The results of calculating the distance between drains in non-permanent regime
using the Espadren program, Glover-Dumm formula
Nr. Himp Hdren h0 ht t K r p L d
Crt. m m m m days m/day m % m
1 3 1,44 0,6 0,8 2 0,06 0,04 2 12,97 0,89
2 3 1,44 0,6 0,8 3 0,06 0,04 2 16,47 0,98
3 3 1,44 0,6 0,8 4 0,06 0,04 2 19,46 1,04
where Himp is the depth of impermeable layer, Hdren is the depth of drains line, h0 is the initial depth of
water table level, ht is the final depth of water table level, r – drain radius, p – soil porosity, L – distance
between drains, K – soil hydraulic conductivity.

Table 2 The results of calculating the distance between drains in non-permanent regime
using the Espadren program, Jenab formula
Nr. Himp Hdren h0 ht t K r p L d
Crt. m m m m zile m/zi m % m
1 3 1,44 0,6 0,8 2 0,06 0,04 2 11,73 0,85
2 3 1,44 0,6 0,8 3 0,06 0,04 2 14,93 0,94
3 3 1,44 0,6 0,8 4 0,06 0,04 2 17,66 1,01
Himp is the depth of impermeable layer, Hdren is the depth of drains line, h0 is the initial depth of water
table level, ht is the final depth of water table level, r – drain radius, p – soil porosity, L – distance
between drains, K – soil hydraulic conductivity.

Table 3 The results of calculating the distance between drains in non-permanent regime
using an excel application based Glover-Dumm formula

t h0 ht Hdr K p r u D Lest d Dh Lcalc

days (m) (m) (m) (m) (%) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)

2 0,8 0,6 1,4 0,06 2 0,04 0,13 1,6 4 0,45 0,8 9,39
3 0,8 0,6 1,4 0,06 2 0,04 0,13 1,6 4 0,45 0,8 11,5
4 0,8 0,6 1,4 0,06 2 0,04 0,13 1,6 4 0,45 0,8 13,28
Hdren is the depth of drains line, h0 is the initial depth of water table level, ht is the final depth of water
table level, r – drain radius, u – wet perimeter, D – distance from drain line to impermeable layer,
L est – estimated distance between drains, K – soil hydraulic conductivity, Lcalc – calculated distance
between drains.

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 C. Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir, R. Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir, J. H. De Miranda

Table 4 The results of calculating the distance between drains in non-permanent regime
using an excel application based on Guyon formula

Nr. K p h0 ht D r u t Lest Lcalc

dcalc
Crt. m/day % m m m m m days m m

1 0,06 2 0,8 0,6 1,6 0,04 0,13 2 4 10,07 0,79

2 0,06 2 0,8 0,6 1,6 0,04 0,13 3 4 12,63 0,88
3 0,06 2 0,8 0,6 1,6 0,04 0,13 4 4 14,87 0,95
Hdren is the depth of drains line, h0 is the initial depth of water table level, ht is the final depth of water
table level, r – drain radius, u – wet perimeter, D – distance from drain line to impermeable layer,
L est – estimated distance between drains, K – soil hydraulic conductivity, Lcalc – calculated distance
between drains.

Figure 3 The graph of drains discharched flow for the solution offered by Espadren
program, no-filter option (m3/day for 365 days)

Figure 4 Variation of head losses (hv – vertical head loss; hh – horizontal head loss; hr –
radial head loss) depending on hydraulic soil conductivity (Ksol) for a 5 cm diameter drain
tube without filter (simulation using Espadren input values)

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 Economic design of drain depths and spacing using different EU and non-EU models

The radial head loss is directly proportional to the distance between the drains. As the Ksol
increases, the effect of the filter attached to the drain is reduced, but the relationship between
the radial load loss and the distance between the drains is retained, by example for an increase
in radial head loss of x times, we identfied an increase in the distance between the drains of
10%. Water entrance resistance in drain tube (or drain-filter complex) is a resistance of the
flow form vecinity and is affected by the physical properties of the altered soil around the
drain, the distance between the drains and the materials used. Water entrance resistance can
be calculated theoretically from the shape and distribution of drain tube perforations, or by
accurately shaping the flow of water to drains.

hr

Figure 5 The relationship between hr and L for a 5 cm diameter drain tube without filter
material (simulation based on Espadren data)

By comparing the results obtained with the Espadren program (drainless filter - entrance
loss is not taken into account) with the DrenVSubIr program (drain having sand filtering
material and also considering the head loss of water at the water inlet in the drain filter
complex ) it can be seen that the effect of this filter (filtering material) is very low. However,
ignoring this type of loss of load in determining the distance between drains can lead to
considerable errors with economical impact. With regard to the filter material, the most
important feature with impact in designing the distance between the drains is the thickness of
the filter material (again an economical aspect of land drainage design) and not the initial or
postfill permeability coefficient. For the studied cases, the radial head loss has no influence,
while the horizontal head loss is only related to the hydraulic conductivity of the soil (is
proportional to Ksol) and can be defined by logarithmic equations. The pattern of water flow
in the drainage area is very complex due to soil alteration, where the physical characteristics
are heterogeneous and change over time, making it difficult to predict. A thorough analysis
can be performed to identify dominant variables of head loss in drainage design. The results
obtained can thus be used to determine the parameters used as input data in the design of an
underground drainage system. (Halbac and Miranda, 2012).

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 C. Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir, R. Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir, J. H. De Miranda

CONCLUSIONS
The international technical literature regarding drainage design foresees many equations
for non-steady state regime with various degrees of complexity. Some of these equations
become consecrated among researchers and designers involved in drainage issues. Theoretical
studies, laboratory and field research have all contributed to a gradual increase of knowledge
on drainage materials and their performance. The complexity of the physical properties of the
soil is the reason that some problems are not yet adequately solved.
Land drainage systems should be designed to minimize subsurface drainage but also
maintaining production benefits. Soils have differing optimum spacing for maximizing
production and this should be considered in designing an economic efficient land drainage
system. In addition, the economic return for the drainage system will vary with soil type and
drain spacing.
Using an economic design approach in determining the distance between drains can have
environmental benefits given that in many situations the economic return may be maximized
at a wider drain spacing and the wider drain spacing may reduce the volume of subsurface
drained water and subsequent export of nutrients. The distance between the drains is sensitive
to changes in the radial component and to the hydraulic conductivity of the soil, but is not
subject to alterations in the case of changes in the horizontal and vertical components. Thus,
future land drainage projects should pay attention to the variation of head losses components
and their weights as key indicators for designing sustainable arrangements.

REFERENCES
Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir, R., De Miranda, J.H. (2012). A comparison regarding models used in
agricultural drainage systems design in Brazil and Romania, 40th International Symposium on
Agricultural Engineering, 21-24 February, Opatija, Croatia, ISSN 1333-2651, pp. 97-106;
WOS:000309447100009, IDS BCA45
Meyer, K., Keiser, D.A. (2016). Adapting to Climate Change Through Tile Drainage: A Structural
Ricardian Analysis. Agricultural and Applied Economics Association Annual Meeting, July 31-
August 2, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
Ritzema, H.P., Stuyt, L.C.P.M. (2015). Land drainage strategies to cope with climate change in the
Netherlands. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section B-Soil and Plant Science 65(1), 80 - 92.
Schultz, B. (2017). Agricultural water management and food security in a sustainable environment.
Proceeding of the 13th ICID International drainage workshop, Ahwaz, Iran, March 4 – 7, pg. 23 – 40.
Vlotman, W.F. (2017). Beyond modern land drainage. Proceeding of the 13th ICID International
drainage workshop, Ahwaz, Iran, March 4 – 7, pg. 41 – 57.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

NATURE-BASED SOLUTIONS FOR FLOOD RISK

MANAGEMENT: A ROMANIAN CASE STUDY
Rares HALBAC-COTOARA-ZAMFIR
E-mail: [email protected]
Department of Overland Communication Ways, Foundation and Cadastral Survey,
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Romania

ABSTRACT
Water-related risks are among the most expensive natural disasters. In
particular cities are increasingly vulnerable against such events. Nature-based
solutions (NBSs) are suggested as sustainable way of addressing water-related
risks. In the current research funding landscape, nature-based solutions seem
to be regarded as panacea for many environmental issues. In addition, natural
water retention measure (NWRM) concept offers new opportunities and brings
added-value. These types of measures not only serve to reduce risk and provide
more robust flood protection; they also provide additional environmental
services including increased biodiversity and recreation opportunities.
However, a common characteristic of green infrastructure measures is that they
often claim more land than traditional methods. Making this – often privately
owned – land available respectively getting land user implementing the
measures is thus one of the key challenges of implementing measures to mitigate
or adapt to water-related risks.
This paper will explore several aspects of nature-based solutions and
natural water retention measures flood risk management based on current
relations climate change – water cycle – natural ecosystems.
Keywords: nature-based solutions, water retention, ecosystems, water cycle

INTRODUCTION
Changes in the frequency of extreme water hazards (such as floods), may be one of the
most significant consequences of climate change. Water-related risks – such as floods, coastal
storm surges, flash floods - are among the most expensive natural disasters in Europe.
Worldwide, climate change is expected to increase average air temperatures values and to
increase the spatio-temporal variability of precipitation events, something that most likely will
lead to even more intense and frequent water hazards. Water hazards may have enormous

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 R. Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir

environmental, social and economic consequences, and it is expected that effects from climate
change will exacerbate their occurrence and impacts in the future.
The magnitude of threats attributable to water hazards and climate change, and their
territorial distribution, is presently not fully known. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) states – with “high confidence” – that damages by water-related risks will
substantially increase in Europe (IPCC, 2014) due to changing hydro-meteorological
conditions. In addition to known changes in environmental conditions, there are also
feedbacks between intensification of land and water use, which contribute to increasing risks.
Cities in particular are increasingly vulnerable to such events – as recent flash floods in
Central Europe illustrated during summer 2016. Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) to water-
related risks cannot entirely substitute traditional measures such as flood pathway and receptor
approaches (both structural and behavioural, e.g. flood walls, channels, flood warnings), but
its potential value for mitigation and adaptation has been widely recognized.

NATURE-BASED SOLUTIONS FOR FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENT

There is an increasing interest in adopting NBS globally. A wide range of public and
private stakeholders are keen to explore the potential multiple benefits NBS can deliver. In
addition, such approaches can simultaneously contribute to meeting the objectives of different
European Union (EU) policies (e.g. the Water Framework Directive, the Floods Directive, the
EU Climate Change Adaptation Strategy). Traditional flood protection measures, mainly
based on grey infrastructure (i.e. dikes, dams, etc.) are not sufficient to cope with dynamic
flood risk alone. NBS are promising options to complement grey infrastructure measures in
mitigating flood risks. NBS are actions which are: (1) inspired by, (2) supported by or (3)
copied from nature. NBS for risk mitigation and adaptation in river catchments involve for
example Natural Water Retention Measures (NWRM), space for the rivers, or measures for
resilient cities.
NBS types of measures not only serve to reduce risk and provide more robust flood
protection; they also provide additional environmental services, including increased
biodiversity and recreation opportunities, as well as delivering other, unseen environmental
services such as improved water quality and aquatic habitats. However, a common
characteristic of green infrastructure measures is that they often claim more land than
traditional methods do. This land type, already in use for other purposes, is also often privately
owned. Mobilizing private land for temporary flood storage it means having to coordinate
different actors and institutions in water management. This particularly includes engaging
landowners and land-users actively in developing and implementing management plans
(Hartmann, 2011), but it also implies for managers to employ a more trans-disciplinary
perspective and creating governance mechanisms for transferring benefits from the
downstream beneficiary to the upstream provider (Machac et al., 2017). There are few, if any,
working models for such transfers of benefits and their development will require collaboration
from all communities of end-use implementers – those who must benefit from the
implementation on the ground level. This includes municipal and other governmental
stakeholders, but also the land owners/users who will benefit from the reduced flood risks, in
return for some level of compensating for those benefits. Such a benefit transfer policy will
be extremely difficult to impose from the top. What is particularly needed are dialogue tools

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 Nature-based solutions for flood risk management: A Romanian case study

which, in concert with the latest and most accurate valuable tools, can be used to encourage
the effective adoption of such nature-based technologies.
With NBS, two interconnected issues are at stake: (i) almost all NBS measures require
more land than traditional grey infrastructure do. A dike against inundations is for example
much more land thrifty than a retention area will be. Within retention areas, controlled
retention areas are far more effective, but alluvial forests will be much more valuable in terms
of its ecological benefits. Although somewhat simplified, the more nature-based a solution is,
the higher will be its demand for land; (ii) land needed for NBS is often owned by private
landowners rather than public stakeholders. Green roofs – a NBS for resilient cities – can only
be effectively implemented on a larger scale if landowners agree on implementing them.
Further, such measures can raise conflicts around land-use issues4. Thus, making land
available and getting the land owner/user to implement the measures is one of the key
challenges for NBS to contribute to mitigating and adapting to water-related risks.
Several instruments for land use management already exist in different countries. Water
management usually prefer having full ownership of riverside properties (Hartmann and Spit,
2011). Technical needs and essential requirements for land use in retention areas and polders
justify this position; still it frequently causes conflicts with landowners. Land acquisition often
protracts the realization of a project and expropriations are rarely used because of
administrative hurdles. Prevalent methods in many countries are freehand purchase, other
trade-offs and exchanges of land for requested sites, or rural-land readjustment. Most of these
methods are expensive, time consuming and administratively complex. Therefore, water
authorities experiment with upstream-downstream agreements, such as in Austria, forms of
co-financing and negotiated governance schemes in UK or attempts to solve through existing
planning laws and voluntary, collaborative processes like in Norway (Collentine and Futter,
2016; Seher and Loschner, 2016; NOU, 2013). Also Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES)
are employed. Those redistributive mechanisms have become popular, in particular, in
watershed management to optimize resource management and also for poverty alleviation.
However, despite considerable efforts in flood risk management over the last few decades,
the implementation of measures which increase retention throughout the catchment and
promote resilience in urban/peri-urban areas are still in their infancy, both in research and in
practice (Knieling and Mueller, 2015).

NBSS FOR FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENT: A ROMANIAN CASE STUDY

This paper approaches western and southern parts of Romanian territory, areas
characterized by a high density of land drainage and irrigation system which provide several
important regulating ecosystem services like flood retention, groundwater recharge etc. These
areas were frequently affected floods and droughts requiring breaking down disciplinary
boundaries between engineers, ecologists, agronomists, economists, hydrologists and climate
scientist and the appliance of some reliable climate-energy-economic models as well as land-
use models.
The importance of NBSs was emphasized in 1910 by Romanian Minister Grigore Antipa
in justifying the need for preservation of natural Danube meadows (Figure 1).

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 R. Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir

He argued that:
- Ponds exert a positive moderating influence on the climate (comparable to that of
forests) by acting as sources of moisture and vapor condensation
- The ponds in the Danube meadow act as “valves”, which are needed to prevent flood
water rises that can cause flooding and breaking of dams in the case of historic highs
- Under their natural regime, the Danube’s ponds when used for fish have the highest
productivity in Europe
- Using grey infrastructure for flood defense is very costly
- The meadows prevent loss of nutrients carried away by the Danube
- The meadows are suitable for development of willows, poplars, and even oak forest
belts (Antipa, 1910; Antipa, 1913; Dan, 2014).
Unfortunately, these measures were put into practice only for a very short period of time
(Botzan et al., 1991; Stoiculescu, 2008).

Figure 1 Landforms map in Danube river meadow

Over the last century, the landscape of the Danube River floodplain faced major changes.
Most of the large alluvial plains, mixed with marshlands and small lakes, along the Romanian
side of Danube, have been affected by river embankments, drainage systems and urban
sprawling. A consequence was that an important strip of land (width ranges from 1 to
10 km in our study area), once a wetland prone to floods, has been converted to arable
land (Craciunescu et al., 2010).
During 1960 - 2010, a number of around 400 important floods occurred, among them 39
are considered significant historical floods, based on hydrological criteria and criteria that
took into account the magnitude of the floods negative consequences. Thus, there were
designated 36 significant historical events for the inland rivers and 3 for the Danube, and 375
areas with potential significant flood risk on the inland rivers and 24 on the Danube. During
this period, there have been registered 237 victims (6.6 average victims/event). More recent
history of floods in Romania shows the great impact of this hazard on people and
infrastructure: the 2005 and 2006 floods have affected over 1.5 million people (93 dead), have

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 Nature-based solutions for flood risk management: A Romanian case study

destroyed an important part of the infrastructure and have caused estimated damages of over
2 billion Euro (IGSU, 2016).
Based on flood hazard and flood risk maps elaborated in the third stage of Floods
Directive, National Administration “Apele Române”, under the scientific coordination of
National Institute of Hydrology and Water Management, had developed Flood Risk
Management Plans (FRMPs) for all 11 River Basin Authorities (RBAs) and Danube river.
The main chapter of the FRMP consists in proposed measures by the RBAs that aim to reduce
flood risk. The measures are with applicability at national, river basin and areas with
significant potential flood risk level and include the following aspects:
- Studies for Danube meadow re-naturation including displacement of several
settlements
- Creation of some polders in cascade
- Establishment of several reservoirs
- Maintaining dikes only around major objectives
Unfortunately, a significant part of these measures remained only at intention level.
One of the NBSs implemented in western Romania for the management of excess water
appears to have its origins in this historical period. In a historical perspective, removal of
excess water, which largely affects land in western Romania, was approached by two main
methods: land drainage and examples of measures which bear NBSs characteristics. While
land drainage was intensively practiced later (during the Communist period), with very good
results in agriculture, measures bearing NBSs characteristics were also implemented based on
traditions transmitted by farming families.
Land drainage possess the capabilities to provide important ecosystem services mainly
from the first three categories: supporting, provisioning and regulating services. The main
potential supporting ecosystem services are including soil erosion control, soil nutrients
recycling and soil organic matter accumulation. Land reclamation and improvement works
like land drainage are focused mainly on increasing food production and have the potential to
provide important ecosystem services. Moreover, these works also generate a series of
provisioning, regulating and supporting services including here groundwater recharge, flood
and sediment retention, carbon sequestration, erosion control, accumulation of SOM,
recycling of soil nutrients, supporting species diversity etc.
The actual methodology in designing land reclamation works in Romania has an economic
approach: reducing the effects/ removing the stress factors for maintaining/ increasing
agricultural production at low costs. Unfortunately, many key issues as the potential impact
on environment, adaptation to climatic variability, soil and water conservation aspects,
climate change manipulation techniques using these works, are not considered.
Two of the most important regulating ecosystem services for western Romania are flood
retention and groundwater recharge. Unfortunately, the uncontrolled and intensive drainage
practiced in western Romania severely affected the capacity of groundwater recharge.
Currently, in extreme western part of Romania as well as in some areas from southern part,
aridization becomes more and more clearly a feature of local climate.

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DISCUSSION
A major obstacle in studying NBSs concept in Romania is that the scientific literature on
this subject is relatively poor and the concept of NBSs was insufficiently studied. Currently,
in Romania we can notice a lack of documented information on NBSs. The concept of NBSs
was and still is described almost solely in official documents such as translations of European
Union (EU) documents, different declarations issued by non-government organizations
(NGOs), theories expounded in farming magazines. Moreover, the NBSs concept is very
difficult to identify as pure ‘nature-based solutions’ in Romanian scientific literature.
The NBSs concept is not explicitly used in the national RBMP, which consists in a
synthesis of the 11 River Basin Management Plans, covering Romanian part of the Danube
River basin. Within the proposal for the second RBMP there is no improvement in the general
operationalization of ecosystem service concepts. However, in the second RBMP for entire
Danube River Basin District, there are mentioned the links with Green Infrastructure Strategy,
which is a strategically planned network of natural and semi-natural areas managed to deliver
a wide range of ecosystem services, floodplains being good examples of multiple ecosystem
services provider (ICPDR, 2015; Grizzetti et al., 2016).

CONCLUSIONS
Unfortunately, at national level, after the NBSs concept emerged, there was little interest
in promoting it for flood risk mitigation purposes. The situation worsened due to an emphasis
on the quantity, and not the quality, of implemented measures. Other factors that negatively
impacted NBSs implementation were the low level of knowledge of people involved in this
field, with insufficient skills in ecosystem services and they neglected topics such as water
management, risk management, biodiversity, and the uncertainties regarding NBSs financing.
Most existing research initiatives on flood risk management focus on technical or
hydrological aspects, forecasting, disaster management, or institutional governance. The lack
of collaborative approaches with land owners/users remains a major hurdle for flood risk
management, a fact that has been confirmed in earlier research. Generally, water management
has first dealt with technical and hydrological issues before addressing land management, and
then found implementation to be hampered by the lack of land management approaches. Land
owners/users are often regarded as mere recipients of water management, not as key
stakeholders. Most existing research initiatives on water-related risks focus on technical or
hydrological aspects, forecasting, disaster management, or institutional governance aspects.
Approaches for collaborating with private land users to realize mitigation and adaptation
measures on private land are lacking both in theory and practice. If land management for NBS
is not properly addressed and scaled up to the catchment-scale (or aquifer) NBS for flood risk
management will remain ineffective and inefficient.
New programs must be based on instruments of land management i.e. policy interventions
that influence the activities of the target groups so that these will be compatible with the
political aims. Such instruments can be established from scratch, but experience shows it is
often better if building on already existing structures, even ones rediscovered after periods of
oblivion, transposed from a rural to an urban setting, combined with other in a complex
intervention strategy, and so forth. It demands a more robust understanding of how the impact

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of the changing relationship between climate change, water cycle and natural ecosystems must
be integrated with participative processes aiming at improving implementation.

REFERENCES
Antipa, G. (1910). The Danube flood plain (in Romanian). Bucharest: IAG.
Antipa, G. (1913). Three memories on the improving the floodplain of the Danube (in Romanian).
Bucharest: Independence.
Botzan, M. (1994). The beginning of hydrotechnics of Romania’s territory (in Romanian). Bucharest:
Technical Publishing House.
Collentine, D., Futter, M. N. (2016). Realising the potential of natural water retention measures in
catchment flood management: Trade-offs and matching interests. Journal of Flood Risk
Management, 19(2), 771.
Craciunescu, V., Flueraru, C., Stancalie, G. (2010). The usage of the historical cartographic datasets and
the remote sensing data for the better understanding and mapping of the 2006
Danube floods in Romania. Acta Geodaetica et Geophysica Hungarica, 45, 112–119.
Dan, M.D. (2014). Danube floodplain between Ostroveni and Corabia. A study of land assessment for
floodplain restoration. Bucharest: Bucharest University.
Grizzetti, B., Liquete, C., Antunes, P., Carvalho, L., Geamana, N., Giuca R., Leone, M., McConnell, S.,
Preda, E., Santos, R., Turkelboom, F., Vadineanu, A., Woods, H. (2016) Ecosystem services for
water policy: Insights across Europe, Environmental Science & Policy 66 (2016) 179–190.
Hartmann, T. (2011). Clumsy floodplains: Responsive land policy for extreme floods. Surrey: Ashgate
Hartmann, T., Spit, T. (2012). Managing riverside property: Spatial water management in Germany from
a Dutch perspective. In Hartmann T., Needham B. (Eds.), Planning by law and property rights
reconsidered, Farnham, 97-114.
ICPDR (2015) ICPDR Danube River Basin District Management Plan–Update, 6th Draft,
www.icpdr.org
IGSU (2016) Country report 5.1 Conditionality Romania (www.igsu.ro)
IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. IPCC WGII AR5 Chapter
23 [online]. IPCC. Available from: http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/.
Knieling, J., Mueller, B. (ed.) (2015). Klimaanpassung in der Stadt- und Regionalentwicklung. Ansätze,
Instrumente, maßnahmen und beispiele. Oekom-Verlag, München
Machac, J., Hartmann, T., Jilkova, J. (2017). Negotiating land for flood risk management: Upstream-
downstream in the light of economic game theory. Journal of Flood Risk Management, 21(4), 633.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12317
NOU (2013). Naturens goder – om verdsetting av økosystemtjenester.
Seher, W., Löschner, L. (2016). Balancing upstream-downstream interests in flood risk management:
Experiences from a catchment-based approach in Austria. Journal of Flood Risk Management, 35,
1095. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12266
Stoiculescu, C.D. (2008). The ecological reconstruction of the floodable Danube area (in Romanian).
Bucharest: WWF.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

EFFECT OF OZONE ON SALMONELLA ENTERITIDIS

AND ESCHERICHIA COLI IN CONTAMINATED WATER
Mariana FERDEȘ1, Mirela DINCĂ1*, Nicoleta UNGUREANU1, Bianca ZĂBAVĂ1,
Gigel PARASCHIV1, Laura TOMA1, Carmen TOCIU2
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Department of Biotechnical Systems, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering, University
Politehnica of Bucharest,SplaiulIndependenteiBlv., no. 313, sector 6, Bucharest, Romania
2
National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental Protection – INCDPM Bucharest,
Romania

ABSTRACT
Due to its excellent disinfection and oxidation properties, ozone can be used
to reduce the microbial load in water. Contaminated water often contains a
large number of microorganisms including bacteria and pathogenic germs,
harmful to human and animal health. In this paper, ozone efficiency was tested
for the treatment of water containing cell suspension of Salmonella enteritidis
and Escherichia coli. Ozone was generated by corona discharge method in an
ozone generator OZONFIX 8G. Analyses were performed both for determining
cell viability by total plate count technique, and for recording cell growth
curves in liquid culture after applied ozone treatment. The concentration of
ozone as oxidizing agent in water was determined at different time intervals by
the titrimetric method. The study demonstrated that the two bacterial species
had a high sensitivity to ozone action under the method conditions. Ozone has
shown a strong inhibitory effect on bacteria both in terms of survival and
multiplication of surviving cells.
Keywords: disinfection, microbial inactivation, iodometric method

INTRODUCTION
Ozone is an attractive disinfectant being widely used to inactivate pathogens in drinking
water. It is a strong oxidising agent and an exceptionally good disinfectant, effective in
destroying bacteria, viruses, parasites and other microorganisms when compared with other
widely used chemical disinfectants (Xu et al., 2002; Lazarova et al., 2013). Moreover, ozone
does not leave any trace of the residual product upon its oxidative reaction comparing to
chlorination treatment (Goncalves, 2009). Lately, ozonation treatment represents an
alternative to chlorination in drinking-water disinfection (Verma et al., 2016). Bacteria,

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 M. Ferdeș, M. Dincă, N. Ungureanu, B. Zăbavă, G. Paraschiv, L. Toma, C. Tociu

including Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus megaterium,

Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Vibrio cholerae are sensitive to ozonated
water under various conditions (Restaino et al., 1995).
Rojas-Valencia (2011) reported that ozone disinfection is very effective for removal of
total coliforms and chlorine resistant microbes including pathogens, which are especially
resistant to most other disinfectants.
The presence of pathogens can represent a problem for the human health since they can
reach natural water courses in large amounts. One of the most common enteric
microorganisms is Escherichia coli (Gomes et al., 2018), a coliform bacterium commonly
found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms.
Prabakaran et al. (2012) have analyzed ozone treatment by applying to human pathogenic
bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Salmonella typhi and Klebsiella
pneumoniae. Among the treated bacterial species, E. coli revealed high sensitivity to ozone
treatment compared to other bacterial strains.
For ozone generation, there are four recognized methods namely: corona discharge,
ultraviolet radiation, electrolysis and radiochemical method. The use of electrical power to
generate ozone by corona discharge is the most commercially viable method, due to some
advantages: high ozone concentration, best for water application, fast organic removal
(Goncalves, 2009; Smith, 2018).
The present study investigated the effect of ozone for the treatment of water containing cell
suspension of Salmonella enteritidis and Escherichia coli using an ozone generator
OZONFIX 8G.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ozone production
Ozone was produced by a mobile ozone generator type OZONFIX 8G, with the following
characteristics: ozone production 8 g·h-1, power 16 W, air cooling, gas flow (measured) 2.5
L·min-1, used for air and water treatment. All the experiments were conducted at temperature
of 20 °C.
Methods of analysis
For determination of the formed ozone and oxidizing agents in the liquid medium, the
traditional iodometric analysis method was used (Masschelein, 1998). The gas produced by
the ozone generator was bubbled through a ceramic frit into 200 mL of 0.2 M KI solution in
a cylindrical vessel, thus the height of the liquid was 15 cm. Generated ozone, as well as any
other oxidizing agents, reacted with iodide to form iodine. Samples of 10 mL were taken after
30 seconds to 20 minutes.

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 Effect of ozone on Salmonella enteritidis and Escherichia coli in contaminated water

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of ozone treatment

Bacterial strains and culture media

Volumes of 10 mL of both E. coli ATCC 11229 and S. enteritidis ATCC 13076 bacterial
cells suspension obtained on Nutrient agar medium in tubes were used to inoculate 100 mL
of Nutrient broth in Erlenmeyer flasks. The cultures were incubated in a rotary incubator
(Thermoshake, Gerhardt) at 37 °C and 150 rpm for 24 hours. A volume of 1 mL of each
bacterial culture was used to prepare the 200 mL of cell suspension for ozone treatment. The
ozone produced by the ozone generator OZONFIX 8G was bubbled into the cell suspension
and the samples were collected after 15 sec, 30 sec, 1 min, 2 min, 3 min, 5 min, and 10 min,
for total plate count analysis. The results were compared to initial cells suspension, untreated.
In the same time, for each exposure time, another volume of 1 mL was pipetted into liquid
culture medium in Erlenmeyer flasks and allowed to grow in the rotary incubator. The
dilution of each sample and the addition of agar medium have been made as quickly as
possible, because the interaction of RONS (reactive oxygen and nitrogen species) produced
in ozone generator with bacterial cells was very strong. The number of total viable cells was
determined in Petri dishes, at 37 °C, after 48 hours. The inactivation efficiency was measured
by logarithmic inactivation rate lg(N0/Nt), where N0 and Nt were the number of viable
bacterial cells before and after inactivation. The liquid samples in Erlenmeyer cultures were
analyzed during 24 hours of incubation, by reading the absorbance values at 600 nm. All
samples were performed in triplicate.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The bacterial strains E. coli ATCC 11229 and S. enteritidis ATCC 13076 were analyzed
for total viable cells after ozone treatment by plate count technique and the results are
presented in Table 1. The values of ufc mL-1 for the two bacterial species after ozonation at
different times, compared to untreated control sample, showed great difference. Although
after 15 seconds cell viability showed only a slight decrease, after 30 seconds it decreased
with an order of magnitude for both the bacterial strains. The microbial inactivation efficiency
after 1 minute of ozonation was 1.98 log for E. coli and 2.15 log for S. enteritidis.

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 M. Ferdeș, M. Dincă, N. Ungureanu, B. Zăbavă, G. Paraschiv, L. Toma, C. Tociu

Keeping the bacterial cells in ozone bubbling water for more than 1 minute, caused
irreversible damage and cell death.

Table 1 E. coli and S. enteritidis growth after different time of ozonation

E. coli ATCC 11229 Salmonella enteritidis

Strain/Ozonation time
(ufc·mL-1) ATCC 13076 (ufc·mL-1)
Reference (untreated sample) 1.9x105 2.4x105
15 sec 1.2x105 1.7x105
30 sec 5x104 6x104
1 min 2x103 1.7x103
2 min 0 0
3 min 0 0
4 min 0 0
5 min 0 0

The growth behavior of the tested bacterial strains has been examined through
measurement of absorbance at 600 nm in cultures incubated on rotary shaker, for 24 hours.
The obtained results are shown in figure 2.
The characteristic appearance of growth curves for both bacterial strains showed a lag
phase of 6-7 hours for the reference and cell cultures treated 15 seconds, 30 seconds and 1
minute with ozone, and a longer lag phase, of about 14 hours, for 2 minutes of ozone treatment
cultures. This can be explained both by the lower number of survivors in ozonated samples
and also by the cellular lesions that occur and are repaired in a longer time. For an ozonation
time of more than 2 minutes, the cell damage was too great and could not be repaired. For all
cases, the absorbance values were dependent of the ozonation time, and the lag phase was as
long as the duration of treatment was greater. After 24 hours on the rotary incubator, the
measurement of absorbance showed that in control culture and in cultures exposed 15 sec, 30
sec at ozone treatment the absorbance values were quite close, and slightly lower for the
treated cells for 1 minute. In the case of cells from the samples treated 2 minutes with ozone,
the absorbance after 24 hours was much lower, with values of 2.4 (compared to 3 in control
culture) for E. coli and 1.9 (compared to 2.6 in control culture) for S. enteritidis.
Previous studies on ozone inactivation of microorganisms in water have found similar
results. Xu et al. (2018) showed a significant antimicrobial effect in cultures of Escherichia
coli and Staphylococcus aureus after current air-liquid discharge plasma. They described
damaged bacterial outer structures, decreased concentration of cellular protein and nucleic
acid after ROS treatment. The effect of O3/Cl2 disinfection on opportunistic pathogens in
drinking water distribution systems was studied in 2018 by (Wang et al. (2018). These authors
have shown that ozone disinfection inactivated or damaged the bacterial cells due to its strong
oxidizing properties. In 2009, Lee et al. (2009) measured the total cell count (TCC) and intact
cell count (ICT) by flow cytometry in order to evaluate the inactivation kinetics of bacteria in
ozonated water, showing that the bacterial communities may have high and low ozone
sensitivity.
Patil et al. (2009) studied the inactivation of E. coli in orange juice and showed that the
applied gaseous ozone treatment resulted in a population reduction of 5 log cycles.

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 Effect of ozone on Salmonella enteritidis and Escherichia coli in contaminated water

a)

b)
Figure 2 Values of absorbance at 600 nm in a) E. coli, b) Salmonella enteritidis cultures on
rotary shaker after ozone treatment compared to untreated reference

In the experimental conditions, the variation of the ozone concentration in the bacterial cell
suspension showed that after the first few seconds, the ozone begins to accumulate in the
water. After 30 seconds of ozonation, the concentration of ozone was 43 mg·L-1 and after 2
minutes was 160 mg·L-1.
In Figure 3 can be observed that the accumulation of ozone and, eventually, of nitrogen
oxides (resulted from the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen entered into device) begins
immediately. In theory, plasma generates different reactive species: O2 can generate reactive

187
 M. Ferdeș, M. Dincă, N. Ungureanu, B. Zăbavă, G. Paraschiv, L. Toma, C. Tociu

oxygen species while air can generate both reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen
species (Oh et al., 2016). The results of Oh et al. (2016) are in accordance with the previous
research carried out in distilled water treated with gas bubbling generated by corona discharge
using an ozone generator type OZONFIX 8G (Dinca et al., 2018). The ozonated water
contained nitric oxides and O3, as determined in the UV absorption spectra between 200-300
nm.
All reactive oxygen and nitrogen species that accumulated in water have had a major
impact on the structure of bacterial cell of E. coli ATCC 11229 and S. enteritidis ATCC
13076.
The tested bacterial strains seem to have had a similar sensitivity to ozone treatment in
water. The results obtained by plate count technique and the growth curves differ slightly and
show that higher concentration of reactive species of ozone and nitrogen oxides can caused
major lesions in bacterial cells and their death.

Figure 3 Variation of ozone concentration in time

CONCLUSIONS
The ozonation of contaminated water has considerable antimicrobial effect due to the
strong oxidizing properties of oxidative reactive species formed by corona discharge.
The bacterial strains of E. coli ATCC 11229 and S. enteritidis ATCC 13076 had a great
sensitivity to ozone treatment. After 1 minutes of exposure to ozone, the viability of cells
decreased with 2 orders of magnitude, and the effect became lethal after 2 minutes, as
demonstrated the plate count analysis.
In liquid media, on a rotary incubator at 37 °C, the growth curves showed lower values of
absorbance at 600 nm and larger lag phases for the treated bacterial cells, in both cultures of
E. coli ATCC 11229 and S. enteritidis ATCC 13076 when compared to untreated control.

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 Effect of ozone on Salmonella enteritidis and Escherichia coli in contaminated water

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian Ministry of Research and Innovation
CCDI - UEFISCDI, Project INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR IRRIGATION OF
AGRICULTURAL CROPS IN ARID, SEMIARID AND SUBHUMID-DRY CLIMATE,
project number PN-III-P1-1.2-PCCDI-2017-0254, Contract no. 27PCCDI / 2018, within
PNCDI III.

REFERENCES
Dinca, M., Ferdes, M., Zabava, B.S., Istrate, I.A. (2018). UV absorption spectra, iodometric
determination and ph variation in ozonated water using ozone generator. Proceedings of 17th
International Scientific Conference Engineering for rural development, Jelgava, Latvia, 695-699.
Gomes, J.F., Lopes, A., Goncalves, D., Luxo, C., Gmurek, M., Costa, R., Quinta-Ferreira, R.M.,
Martins, R.C., Matos, A. (2018). Biofiltration using C. fluminea for E. coli removal from water:
Comparison with ozonation and photocatalytic oxidation. Chemosphere 208, 674-681.
Goncalves, A.A. (2009). Ozone: an emerging technology for the seafood industry. Brazilian Archives
of Biology and Technology 52 (6), 1527–1539.
Lazarova, V., Liechti, P.A., Savoye, P., Hausler, R. (2013). Ozone disinfection: main parameters for
process design in wastewater treatment and reuse. J. Water Reuse Desalin. 3 (4), 337–345.
Lee, Y., Imminger, S., Czekalski, N. (2016). Inactivation efficiency of Escherichia coli and
autochthonous bacteria during ozonation of municipal wastewater effluents quantified with flow
cytometry and adenosine tri-phosphate analyses. Water Research 101, 617-627.
Masschelein, W.J. (1998). Measurement of high ozone concentrations in gases by KI titration and
monitoring by UV-Absorption. Ozone Science & Engineering, International Ozone Association 20,
489 – 493.
Oh, J.S., Yajima, H., Hashida, K., Ono, T., Ishijima, T., Serizawa, I., Furuta, H., Hatta, A. (2016). In-
situ UV absorption spectroscopy for observing dissolved ozone in water. Journal of Photopolymer
Science and Technology 29, 427-432.
Patil, S., Bourke, P., Frias, M. (2009). Inactivation of Escherichia coli in orange juice using ozone.
Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 10, 551-557.
Prabakaran, M., Selvi, S.T., Merinal, S., Panneerselvam, A. (2012). Effect of ozonation on pathogenic
bacteria. Advances in Applied Science Research 3, 299-302.
Restaino, L., Frampton, E.W., Hemphill, J.B., Palnikar, P. (1995). Efficacy of ozonated water against
various food-related microorganisms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61(9), 3471-3475.
Rojas-Valencia, M.N. (2011). Research on ozone application as disinfectant and action mechanisms on
wastewater microorganisms. In: Science against Microbial Pathogens: Communicating Current
Research and Technological Advances (Mendes – Vilas, A., Ed.), Mexic, 263-271.
Smith, W. Principles of ozone generation. Watertec Engineering Pty Ltd, Australia. Accessed at 18.10.
2018, Available at:
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Verma, K., Gupta, D., Gupta, A.B. (2016). Optimization of ozone disinfection and its effect on
trihalomethanes. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 4, 3021–3032.
Xu, P., Janex, M.L., Savoye, P., Cockx, A., Lazarova, V. (2002). Wastewater disinfection by ozone:
main parameters for process design. Water Res. 36 (4), 1043–1055.

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Xu, Z., Cheng, C., Shen, J. (2018). In vitro antimicrobial effects and mechanisms of direct current air-
liquid discharge plasma on planktonic Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in liquids.
Bioelectrochemistry 121, 125-134.
Wang, H., Hu, C., Zhang, S. (2018). Effects of O3/Cl2 disinfection on corrosion and opportunistic
pathogens growth in drinking water distribution systems. Journal of Environmental Sciences.
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190
47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

DRIP IRRIGATION IN POTATO CULTIVATION

Jaroslav ČEPL1*, Pavel KASAL1, Jiří ZÁMEČNÍK2, Jan LUKÁŠ2, Andrea SVOBODOVÁ1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Potato Research Institute, Dobrovského 2366, 580 01 Havlíčkův Brod, Czech
2Crop Research Institute, Drnovská 507/73161 06 Praha 6 – Ruzyně, Czech

ABSTRACT
The aim of this research was verification of drip irrigation effect on potatoes
under conditions of higher regions in the Czech Republic. Growing technology
using drip irrigation combined with fertigation was verified. After the planting
irrigation pipes were put under the soil surface on the ridge top. Two cultivars
s differing in vegetation duration were used for planting – early cultivar Monika
and medium-early cultivar Jolana. Eight variants of irrigation combined with
N fertilization were established. A technique for irrigation management was
determined based on soil conditions. Nitrogen fertilization during season was
done in two variants: 120 kg N ha-1 prior to planting and 60 kg N ha-1 at
planting + 60 kg N ha-1 in four irrigation rates (15 kg N ha-1 for each). In the
trials an effect of irrigation on all studied factors was detected. Potato yield
was significantly increased in variants with irrigation compared to non-
irrigated variants. There were no differences found between full and split N
rate application.
Keywords: drought, climatic changes, yield, fertigation, cultivar

INTRODUCTION
Weather conditions have the highest impact on potato production size (Levy and Coleman,
2014; Haverkort, 2018). In recent years, weather has been characterized by fluctuations above
the long-term normal. In the regions of the Czech Republic with higher above sea level, where
the most important potato production is grown, temperatures exceed the long-term normal
and precipitation is slightly below average and unevenly distributed. In decisive stages of the
growing season precipitation is not optimal for potato growth and development. This could
be improved by irrigation, which has been necessary as surface spraying for early potatoes in
drier regions of the Czech Republic with altitudes below 100 m. However, the decisive potato
production is grown in localities with altitudes around 400 m, where water deficit has become
a limiting factor under climate change. Potatoes are highly sensitive to water stress, especially
in early and medium developmental stages, when water shortage results in yield reduction and

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potato quality impairing (Wohleb et al., 2014). On contrary, toward the end of the growing
season consequences of drought are not so significant (Lynch et al., 1995). Harris (1992)
defines a linear relation between potato yield and precipitation during the growing season,
when potato yield was 140 kg ha-1 increased with every mm of precipitation. Now, it is also
important to solve water supply in potato production regions of the Czech Republic in higher
above sea level. The basic measure includes a more effective irrigation technique than surface
spraying, which has its limitations and shortages (Shock et al., 2013). Drip irrigation has been
considered a very effective system and it has been widely used especially in Israel (Tal, 2016).
Based on Trifonov et al. (2017) potato is sensitive to excess or deficit irrigation and therefore
it requires the efficient water use. The trials with drip irrigation, also done in Israel, indicate
the lower the irrigation dose, the higher the water productivity regardless of the dripper
discharge or sparing, so if available agricultural lands are not a limiting factor, higher yields
can be obtained with a low irrigation dose in a larger area, with no significant reduction in
tuber quality. However, it is not the case of Europe, therefore technical irrigation parameters
and/or irrigation management based on crop requirements must be evaluated. Bani-Hani et
al. (2018) use crop evapotranspiration for drip irrigation control. Based on five levels of
modifications in calculations of the dose the results indicated that irrigation to 100 % of
evapotranspiration was the optimum regime for maximizing potato production. Mubarak et
al. (2018) irrigated in their trials when soil moisture in the active root depth was within the
range of 75-80 % of field capacity as determined by the neutron probe technique. Drip
irrigation has many advantages, there are no effects of unfavourable weather, such as strong
wind or high temperature causing rapid soil drying, and this technique enables common
application with fertilizers close to the plants (Zhou et al., 2015).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The trial was established between the years 2016 and 2018 on the fields of Potato Research
Station belonging to Potato Research Institute Havlíčkův Brod located at altitude of 465 m.
The soil type was cambisol, pseudogley and medium sandy loam. Two potato cultivars (early
Monika and medium-early Jolana) were planted at spacing of 750 x 290 mm. Planting dates
in 2016, 2017 and 2018 were 26.4., 10.5. and 25.4., respectively. Eight irrigation variants
were established in four replications and for each cultivar combined with N fertilization
(Tab.1). Trial plot size was 20.9 m2 (2.25 m x 9.3 m) with 96 plants based on randomized
complete block system. For subsurface drip irrigation STREAMLINE 16060 pipes were used,
with distance of 500 mm between drippers and performance of 1.05 l ha-1 (i. e. with parameters
2.79 l ha-1 m-2 =2.79 mm h-1). Pipes were buried in the depth of 30-40 mm under the soil
surface on the ridge top. Soil moisture for irrigation rate calculation was separately measured
for each irrigation variant using VIRRIB sensor. Specific moisture, with that irrigation was
automatically started, is given in Tab. 1. Irrigation rate was uniform – 10 mm. The number of
irrigation rates and total water amount is given in Tab. 2. Nitrogen fertigation during the
growing season was done using YaraLiva Calcinit (15.5% calcium saltpeter) in four irrigation
rates (15 kg ha-1 each) from the stage of flower-bud initiation to full flowering (phenological
stage 55–80 based on international BBCH scale). Fertigation was done at potato crop
elongation (BBCH 80). For fertigation Dosatron D3 was used, mixing the fertilizer solution
with irrigation water based on the set concentration. In the non-irrigated variant with
fertilization during the growing season N rate was broadcasted in the same fertilizer at once
on the soil surface.

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Harvest in 2016 was performed on October 21st, in 2017 on October 18th and in 2018 on
October 5th.

Table 1 Variants of the field trial

Irrigation under N fertilization

N fertigation
Variant volumetric soil prior to planting
(kg ha-1)
moisture (kg ha-1)
1 No irrigation 120 -
2 15% 120 -
3 20% 120 -
4 25% 120 -
5 No irrigation 60 60
6 15% 60 60
7 20% 60 60
8 25% 60 60

Table 2 Number of irrigation rates and total applied water amount in the years 2016 - 2018
2016 year 2017 year 2018 year
Variant Irrigation Total water Total water Total water
Irrigation Irrigation
amount amount amount
rates rates rates
(mm) (mm) (mm)
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 6 55 10 96 8 74
3 10 99 14 136 14 130
4 17 163 24 243 21 184
5 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 6 55 10 96 8 74
7 10 99 14 136 14 130
8 17 163 24 243 21 184

Climatic conditions are given in Tab. 3. All trial years could be characterized as extremely
hot, with significantly higher temperature compared to the long-term mean during the growing
season. The year 2018 was the driest one and low precipitation was also recorded in the other
years, what resulted to drought stress in non-irrigated crops.
Statistical assessment was done using variance analysis in STATISTICA CZ programme
version 10.0 MR1. Distinctive identification of water stress of tested cultivars was monitored
in field conditions on small-scale experimental plots by unmanned aircraft (Phantom 4 Pro,
Matrice 600 Pro). The Wiris 2nd gen thermal camera together with the RGB camera attached
to the UAV was used for image recording. Flights were operated using the DJI GS Pro
software, flown with 80m AGL parameters with 80% overlay of x and y shots at a constant

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speed of 3 m s-1 in scanning time between 12-15pm UTC. The images were orthorectified
based on the GPS coordinates of the OneButton program. For further processing and
evaluation, the ThermoFormat and CorePlayer and ImageJ analytics tools were used. ImageJ
was used for image analysis. From the obtained data, specific vegetation index ExG (2*g-r-
b) indicating the condition of the plants along with canopy temperature was calculated. A
vegetation index is an indicator that describes the greenness and health of each pixel of the
image (Bunting and Lucas, 2006).

Table 3 Weather conditions during the growing season (2016 - 2018)

April May June July August September
Indicator
2016 2017 2018 2016 2017 2018 2016 2017 2018 2016 2017 2018 2016 2017 2018 2016 2017 2018
Monthly
temperature normal 7.3 11.6 15.2 16.5 16.4 12.3
o
( C)

Monthly mean
7.8 6.9 7.3 13.6 14.0 16.3 17.4 18.4 17.4 18.9 18.7 19.7 17.4 19.3 21.1 16.2 11.2 14.6
temperature (oC)

Monthly
precipitation normal 42.5 76.3 91.4 80.9 86.6 48.2
(mm)
Monthly
precipitation 24.2 116.1 21.0 45.8 81.4 58.0 68.8 102.2 11.7 112.2 103.5 30.8 27.8 17.4 29.7 10.9 63.4 84.2
amount (mm)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figures 1-3 show that early cultivar Monika responded with a significant yield increase to
higher irrigation rates. In 2016 and 2017 significant differences for variants without
fertigation were in principal recorded between non-irrigation variant (1) and variants with
higher irrigation rates (3 and 4), although trends of yield increase with higher irrigation rates
were clearly visible in this cultivar. In 2016 potato yield (Fig. 1) under conditions of full N
rate applied prior to planting (120 kg ha-1) was 18.9 % increased between non-irrigation (var.
1) and the lowest irrigation level (var. 2). In variant 3 a significant difference was 32.3 % and
49.3 % with the highest irrigation level (var. 4). At the same time, it was found that split N
rate (60 kg ha-1 prior to planting and 60 kg ha-1 in fertigation) had no impact on potato yield.
In 2017 (Fig 2) a significant yield increase was 57.3 % for medium (var. 3) and 59.3 % for
high irrigation rate (var. 4) compared to the non-irrigated variant.
In 2018 (Fig. 3) really transparent results were obtained for responses of Monika to
increasing irrigation water rates confirmed with statistically significant differences between
all variants 1-4 (with full N rate prior to planting). Between non-irrigation (var. 1) and the
lowest irrigation level (var. 2) a significant yield increase by 42.3 % was found, by 58.7 %
compared to variant with medium irrigation level (3) and by 73.3 % compared to variant with
the highest water rate (4). No significant differences were found between variants with full N
rate prior to planting and split rate with 50 % N supplied in irrigation water during the growing
season; determined trends show that fertigation using fertilizer (nitrate N) has even a negative
effect on potato yields.

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Wilksovo lambda=,09858, F(14, 46)=7,1792, p=,00000

110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
t/ha

55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Monika
Variant Jolana

Figure 1 The effect of variants on potato yield in 2016

Wilksovo lambda=,13237, F(14, 48)=5,9952, p=,00000

110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
t/ha

55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Monika
Variant Jolana

Figure 2 The effect of variants on potato yield in 2017

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 J. Čepl, P. Kasal, J. Zámečník, J. Lukáš, A. Svobodová

Wilksovo lambda=,00250, F(14, 46)=62,430, p=0,0000

110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
t/ha

55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Monika t/ha
Variant Jolana t/ha

Figure 3 The effect of variants on potato yield in 2018

For the medium-early cultivar Jolana similar trends were recorded as for Monika; however
with lower significance of differences. Potato yield in 2016 was increased compared to non-
irrigated variant 1 by 15.0 (2), 22.3 (3) and 47.5 % (4) between mentioned variants and a
significant difference was only determined in the variant of the highest irrigation level (4). In
2017 Jolana did not respond so intensively as Monika; a yield increase was only 11.9 (2), 22.5
(3) and 25.9 % compared to non-irrigated variant 1. In 2018 significant differences were also
not obtained between all variants similarly as for Monika, but only between non-irrigation (1)
and lowest irrigation (2), by 54.3 % and by 93.1 % compared to the variant with the highest
irrigation (4). Between variants with full N rate applied prior to planting and split rate with
50 % in irrigation water during the growing season the same statement is true as for Monika.
Statistical differences between cultivars were only found in 2018 detrimental to Jolana,
although the tendencies from previous years indicated this trend.
The response of cultivars to drip irrigation was studied by several authors, e.g. Mubarak
et al. (2018) concluded that results of trials with two spring potato varieties (Spunta and
Marfona) and four irrigation methods (drip irrigation with two modes of dripper
spacing/dripper flow; 30 cm and 4 l ha-1 and 60 cm at 8 l h-1, sprinkle irrigation and furrow
irrigation) did not show any differences between both varieties. Moreover, no difference in
marketable yield, total dry matter, and harvest index were found between irrigation methods
(these authors applied irrigation water amount based on the same principles of soil moisture
as we used in our trials). On contrary, Samaee et al. (2017), who studied 11 genotypes, could
categorize varieties in 4 groups according to the estimated drought tolerance and sensitivity
indices, based on the significant results in the field of the irrigation effect on potato yields.
It can be concluded that irrigations alone were highly positive as regard as potato yields.
This finding coincides with the results by Wang et al. (2017), in whose trials compared with
the control (natural growth) drip irrigation increased potato yield by 7 644 kg hm-2, the
increasing rate and commodity rate were respectively 12.75 and 98.4 %. Rolbiecki et al.
(2015) also found that drip irrigation significantly increased the marketable potato yield from

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17.4 to 36.3 t ha-1 (109 %), the weight of a tuber and the number of tubers per plant. Nitrogen
fertilization through drip system increased potato yield by 5.9 t ha-1 (25 %).
Variants with split N application did not differ from potato yield level of variants with full
N rate application prior to planting. The same results were obtained by many authors. Zhou
et al. (2015) followed plant needs, when based on the model of nutrient state in drip irrigation
they always supplied 20 kg N ha-1. In total, the authors supplied 100 kg N ha-1 compared to
usual rate of 120 kg ha-1; however, yield results were not significant. The same authors later
concluded the same results again (Zhou et al., 2018). Contrary to that, Jolaini and Karimi
(2017) reported from the results of the combined analysis a significant effect of N and
interaction of N and irrigation frequency on yield and water use efficiency. Similarly, Ghiyal
et al. (2017) found that when fertigation applied on every 3rd day with the application of 120
kg N ha-1 was found significantly superior to all other tested combinations (the experiment
comprising of four N levels, i.e. 90, 120, 150 a 180 N kg ha-1 and three fertigation frequencies,
i.e. every 3rd day, every 6th day and every 9th day). Probably it would be more effective to split
N rate into all fertigation rates in lower amounts than 4 x 15 kg N ha-1. It is also confirmed by
Lu and Liu (2017). An explanation of various effect of fertigation in irrigation water could
also be in use of various N forms. Gao et al. (2018) studied 10 combinations of sources,
placement and timing, as well as fertigation, on irrigated processing potato (cv. Russet
Burbank) grown for a total of five site-years in the Province of Manitoba, Canada. Average
marketable tuber yields for fertilizer treatments were significantly greater than those for the
unfertilized control. Split application of urea at planting and hilling, and urea at planting with
fertigation occasionally increased marketable tuber yields on sites of coarse textured soils.
Use of polymer-coated urea or stabilized urea with inhibitors did not affect yield, quality or
N use of potato. In our trials we used nitrate N that apparently did not have such a positive
effect. In our trials N was only applied in irrigation water; however, recently results have also
been published regarding application of phosphorus and potassium. As referred by Eissa et
al. (2018) the injection of urea phosphate with irrigation water every day caused a 22%
increase in the marketable potato yield compared to the other variants (P forms and application
frequency). Zeid et al. (2017) used four sources of potassium with three rates, applied through
irrigation water. As regards as sources and rates of potassium fertilizers, results showed
significant differences among the sources and rates of potassium fertilizers on total yield,
tuber weight, tuber diameter, specific gravity and starch content of tuber. The data revealed
that K2SO4 was the best among other sources.
It is an example from the whole experiment, how the single plots are evaluated from UAV
platform equipped with different sensors (1” RGB sensor of DJI phantom 4 pro, Wiris 2nd gen
thermal 640 x 512px, 7.5 – 13.5 μm camera flown with DJI matrices 600 pro attached on
Ronin MX) of different spectral range and sensitivity. For example, the plots of two cultivars,
irrigated and non-irrigated was used (Fig 4). The ExG colour index was used to evaluate
current state of the biomass. Monika had a higher biomass compared to Jolana on non-
irrigated plots while Monika had higher biomass than Jolana on irrigated plots (Fig. 5). They
maintain the same relationship even during irrigation treatment. Compared to non-irrigated
plots, they have a higher proportion of biomass in irrigation. The ExG colour index has often
been used to evaluate plant biomass (Box et al., 1989).

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Figure 4 General view on the experimental field showing position of evaluated plots (red –
nonirrigated, blue – irrigated; J for cultivar Jolana, M for cultivar Monika); 80m above
ground level

0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
ExG

0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Jol_NIRR Jol_IRR Mon_NIRR Mon_IRR

Figure 5 Mean value of ExG colour index (2*g-r-b) of experimental plots showed in Fig 6

There is the same view of the all-experimental field from infrared camera expressed in
false colour representing a different canopy temperature (Fig. 6) (Jackson et al., 1981; Rinza
et al., 2018). Obviously, non-irrigated plots have higher temperature than irrigated ones. In
detail, the distribution of temperature frequencies is almost the same for both cultivars without
irrigation (Fig. 7). The temperatures distribution of Jolana was narower in comparison with
wider temperature distribution of frequencies of Monika. The difference in the mean
temperatures of Jolana and Monika was 1.8 °C and 1.1 °C. The difference in the minimum
temperatures of Jolana and Monika was 0.8 °C and 1.2 °C.

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Figure 6 Thermogram of selected experimental plots (see Fig 1) in false colour from 20.9 to
36.2 °C; red cross – maximum temperature, blue cross – minimum temparature of evaluated
plots; PG0 – Monika irrigated, PG1 - Jolana irrigated, PG2 - Monika nonirrigated, PG3 -
Jolana nonirrigated

Figure 7 Distribution of temperature frequencies of experimental plots (for details see Fig 4
and 6)

The results showed that data obtained from the colour image as an Excess Green Vegetation
Index (ExG index) are important for the machine vision of plant canopies. Infrared images
can be used to assess the physiological state of potato plant, and after further studies they can
be used as real data for irrigation management.

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CONCLUSIONS

• A positive effect of drip irrigation on potato yield of two studied cultivars was
evidenced; significantly the highest yields were recorded for the highest irrigation
level;
• any effect of split N rate was not found, when 50 % N was applied in four doses
combined with drip irrigation;
• the cultivar effect was manifested in significant differences only in 2018;
• the year effect was significant; however only between the year 2016 and the other
years;
• infrared images can be used to assess the physiological state of potato plant, and after
further studies they can be used as real data for irrigation management.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The contribution was compiled under financial support of the Ministry of Agriculture of the
Czech Republic in the project NAZV QJ1610020

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

AUTONOMOUS POWERING OF AN ORCHARD

IRRIGATION SYSTEM AND FRUIT STORAGE
Katerina GABROVSKA-EVSTATIEVA1, Boris EVSTATIEV2, Dimitar TRIFONOV2,
Nikolay MIHAILOV3*
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Department of Computer Science, University of Ruse Angel Kanchev, Ruse, Bulgaria
2 Department of Theoretical and Measuring Electrical Engineering,

University of Ruse Angel Kanchev, Ruse, Bulgaria

3 Department of Electrical Power Engineering, University of Ruse Angel Kanchev, Ruse, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT
This study presents a conceptual scheme of an autonomous solar energy
system, which is used to power the irrigation system in orchards, combined with
a fruit storage. It is accepted that the orchards/store have no direct access to
irrigation water, nor electrical energy, therefore the photovoltaic system should
work in an autonomous mode. During the months April to September, the
energy of the photovoltaic system is used to power pumps, which use
underground water for irrigation and store it in a reservoir. During October to
January the generated solar energy is used to maintain the temperature-
humidity requirements of the fruit storage. The analysis also includes the
irrigation and storing requirements of common Bulgarian fruits (apples and
pears), and their compatibility with the climate in Ruse during the storing
months.
Keywords: irrigation system, fruit storage, orchards, PV energy,
refrigeration.

INTRODUCTION
The use of renewable energy sources in the agricultural sector, and especially photovoltaic
(PV) ones, is a topic often investigated. Different studies presented the use of solar energy for
drying of fruits and vegetables. Stiling et al. (2012) presented the use of mobile concentrating
solar panels in a fruit drier. Similarly, Eltawil et al. (2018) used PV energy to enhance the
dryer performance with a DC fan.
Other studies have investigated the use of PV energy in pump irrigation systems. Chen et
al. (2013) concluded that alternative energy sources are unsuitable for irrigation of cotton

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 K. Gabrovska-Evstatieva, B. Evstatiev, D. Trifonov, N. Mihailov

crops. Powell et al. (2016a) and Powell et al. (2016b) stated that unless energy generation
closely matches the timings of irrigation energy demands, it is unlikely the investment will
pay off.
In another study was investigated the use of PV energy for powering a DC motor vapor
compression refrigerator with thermal storage (El-Bahloul et al., 2015). The results were
satisfactory and showed that such system could be used in hot arid areas for refrigeration of
post-harvest crops. In another study, IDCOL (2017) presented a solar hybrid cold storage,
developed for the climate of Bangladesh. The test scenarios included different temperatures
regimes (2° C to 10° C) and the relative humidity was set for 90% with a 5% hysteresis.
The available studies show that if a PV energy source is to be efficiently used in the
agricultural sector, the daily solar energy should closely match the load profile. This would
be hard to achieve unless a combination of different loads is chosen, which can match the PV
energy profile.
There are no known studies, which investigate the applicability of PV energy in irrigation
systems for the region of Ruse, Bulgaria. There are also no known studies, which investigate
the combination irrigation system – fruit storage. The goal of this study is to analyse and
investigate the possibilities to use PV sources to power a combined irrigation system - fruit
storage load for the climate of Ruse, Bulgaria. During the spring and summer months, the
solar energy will power the irrigation system of an orchards and during the autumn and winter
months, it will be used to provide the temperature-humidity regime in a fruit storage system.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Irrigation requirements of fruit crops

The irrigation requirements of common Bulgarian fruit crops, as well as their response to
insufficient water, have been covered in several articles. Kireva and Petrova-Branicheva
(2018) reported an irrigation schedule (number of irrigations) for “Florina” apples as follows:
April – 0 or 1; May – 2; June – 3; July – 5; August – 5; September – 2. The irrigation norm
for 100% irrigation has been reported as 22 mm. Similar results were provided for
“Vilyamova maslovka” pears, with an average of 16 irrigation, 24 mm each. The results also
showed that a 20% reduction in the irrigation norm leads to 7% reduction in the apples yield
and 25% in the fruits yield. Similarly, a 40% reduction in the irrigation norm leads to 13%
and 39% reduction of the apples and fruits yield, respectively.
In an earlier study, Kireva et al. (2017a) reported similar irrigation norms for “Florina”
apples. The results showed that a 100% irrigation norm leads to 64% increase in the apples
yield, compared to no irrigation. If the irrigation norm is fulfilled at 80% and 60%, the apples
yield is increased with 54% and 42%, respectively.
In another study, Kireva et al. (2017b) reported the apples yield increase with 61%, 50%
and 34%, for irrigation norms 100%, 80% and 60%, respectively, compared to no irrigation.
The available information about common fruit cultures in Bulgaria, which are of interest
to the study, has been summarize in Table 1. As can be seen, the fruits will be harvested in
the end of September, therefore their post-harvest processing and storing should begin
afterwards.

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Table 1 Common drip irrigation norms for different orchard crops.

Irrigation Number of Irrigation norm,
Orchard crop Total, mm
months irrigations mm
“Florina apples (Kireva and April -
17 22 374
Petrova-Branicheva, 2018) September
“Vilyamova maslovka”
April -
pears (Kireva and Petrova- 16 24 384
September
Branicheva, 2018)
“Florina” apples (Kireva et May -
17 19 323
al., 2017a) September
“Florina apples” (Kireva et May -
17 19 323
al., 2017b) September

The climate of the region

The climate of the region of Ruse, Bulgaria, is characterized by relatively high
temperatures during the summer, getting up to 40 °C and relatively low temperatures during
the winter, sometimes getting down to -20 °C. The average day, night and daily temperatures
for each month of the year are presented in Figure 1 (HikersBay website). The months of
interest to this study are October, November, December and January, when the harvested
fruits will be stored. In October, the average day and night temperatures are 18 °C and 6.5 °C,
respectively. In November they get down to 10 °C and 1.9 °C, respectively, while in
December and January they get slightly above and below 0 °C. This information will be
further analysed later in this study.

Figure 1 The average day, night and daily temperature in Ruse for each month of the year
(HikersBay website).

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The solar radiation, available in the region, is assessed using experimental data from the
Zita Ruse PV power plant, owned by Zita Ruse Karbochim Ltd., which is freely available on
the SunnyPortal website. The Zita power plant has 117 kWp installed power and is storing
data since 2008. The average specific PV system yield in kWh kWp-1 for each month of the
year, estimated with data from 2008 to 2018, is presented in Figure 2. The most solar energy
(140-160 kWh kWp-1) is available in May, June, July and August. During April and
September, there is also relatively high yield, reaching 120 kWh kWp-1 on average. In the
months March and October, the yield is around 100 kWh kWp-1, while in the winter months
it falls significantly down to (40-60) kWh kWp-1.

Figure 2 Specific PV system yield of the Zita Ruse power plant (SunnyPortal website).

Storing requirements of fruit crops

There are five primary environmental variables, which influence the storage duration of
crops – temperature, relative humidity, and the concentration of O2, CO2, and ethylene
(Saltveit, 2003). The concentration of the different gasses is managed by providing a certain
airflow in the storage, therefore the main two parameters which should be maintained are
temperature and relative humidity. The optimal temperature for apples is considered 0-4 °C
and for pears - 0 °C, and the relative humidity should be kept in the range (90-95) % (Katic
et al., 2010).
The influence of storage temperatures has been thoroughly investigated in numerous
studies. Salomao et al. (2009) investigated the influence of two storage temperatures on
several types of apples: “McIntosh”, “Gala”, “Fuji” and “Golden Supreme”. At 11 ºC all
apples were in good condition after 21 to 93 days of storage and no patulin was detected. On
the other hand, when stored at 20.5 ºC, for the same incubation time the concentration of
patulin was six times the maximum allowed.

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 Autonomous powering of an orchard irrigation system and fruit storage

Khorshidi et al. (2010) investigated the influence of storage temperature on fruits pollution,
diameter, weight, volume, firmness and other characteristics. The parameters were
investigated at 0 ºC, 5 ºC and 12 ºC temperature and 80% relative humidity. The results
showed that after one month of storing the parameters were getting worse with the increase
of temperature. Similarly, Itai et al. (2015) investigated the response of “Gold Nijisseiki”
pears to different storing temperatures: 0 ºC, 4 ºC, 10 ºC, 15 ºC and 22 ºC. The results showed
that after 30 days of storing the fruits firmness suffered seriously only at 22 ºC, although other
parameters of the pears showed similar results at 15 ºC and 22 ºC.
Other studies investigated the impact and management of relative humidity. Tu et al. (2000)
investigated the influence of relative humidity on different parameters of stored apples at 20
ºC. After 30 days of storage, the weight loss at 95% relative humidity was approximately 1%,
while at 65% it was 4 %. In another study, Islam et al. (2013) demonstrated an appropriate
watering regime could maintain appropriate storing parameters inside storage.
The available information clearly indicates that if appropriate relative humidity is
maintained, the common fruits in Bulgaria, apples and pears, have a certain tolerance to the
temperature, from 0 to 12 ºC. Under such conditions, the fruits could be stored for a couple
of months without a significant loss of quality.
Storage systems
There are a couple of cooling methods used for fruit storing (Mitchell and Crisosto, 1995).
The Room cooling method provides cold air over stacks of fruit of containers, therefore
removing heat from them. With this method the air flow should be at least (60-120) m min-1.
Similar methods are the Forced air cooling and the Forced air tunnel cooling, which provide
higher velocity for faster cooling. Similar approaches are the Cold wall forced-air cooling and
the Serpentine forced-air cooling methods.
Another approach is the hydrocooling, whose idea is to get the fruits in contact with cold
water (Mitchell and Crisosto, 1995). This method provides the fastest cooling and is usually
used in packing lines.
The cooling itself can be implemented using different technologies, such as refrigeration,
air conditioning, evaporative cooling and thermal cooling. The air conditioning approach is
generally not used for long-term storage because of the expensive VAC technologies (Sultan
and Miyazaki, 2017). This technology would also be expensive to implement in an
autonomous PV system because of the unsuitable load profile. The evaporative cooling
approach provides cooling by forcing the air through a wet tunnel, which effectively reduces
its temperature and increases its relative humidity. Sultan et al. (2018) and Chinenye et al.
(2013) investigated the applicability of this approach for different climates and showed that
with high environmental temperatures, this method could provide a reduction of temperature
with more than 10 °C. However, the evaporative cooling method is not very efficient with
lower air temperatures, such as the ones expected in Bulgaria during the autumn and winter
months.
A significantly different approach was presented in Katic et al. (2010), where a refrigerator
was powered with PV energy. The energy was used in three ways – to create ice, for
ventilation and for controlling the air exchange openings. The system also had a battery, which
was responsible for the cooling during the night time, yet the experiment was carried out at
high environment temperatures.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

There is an obvious correspondence between the load profile of the irrigation pumps, which
are required during the warm months (April to September), and the available solar energy.
Yet, if the PV energy during the cold months of the year remains unused, this would reduce
the payback of the investment. In this study we suggest the PV energy, which is available
during October, November, December and eventually January, to be used for providing the
temperature-humidity requirements of fruit storage.
Such combination is applicable for the climate of Ruse, Bulgaria for several reasons. As
can be seen from Figure 1 and Figure 2, during October, the average day temperature is 18
ºC, therefore even though the PV production gets lower; this shouldn’t be a significant
problem as less energy would be required for refrigeration. During the nights, the average
temperature is 6.5 ºC, therefore relatively good storing conditions could be provided even
without additional energy (Natural ventilation). This means that in theory the PV refrigeration
system could work without a battery bank, which would lower the investment significantly.
In November, the average day temperature is 10 ºC, therefore the low amounts of available
PV energy should be able to provide the necessary refrigeration. The average night
temperature (1.9 ºC) is inside the optimal storing range of Apples and very close to that of
Pears, thus natural ventilation could again be sufficient. Measures should be taken to ensure
the required relative humidity though.
In December and January, the average day temperature is inside the optimal range for
apples, yet during the nights a heating might be required. When solar energy is available it
could be used to provide the necessary heating, or alternatively a backup diesel generator
could be used.

Figure 3 Conceptual scheme of the PV powered combination of orchard irrigation system

with fruit storage.

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 Autonomous powering of an orchard irrigation system and fruit storage

The use of the fruit storage could be changed annually, depending on the weather forecast.
In case of warmer years, the apples could be stored in December and January in order to obtain
higher prices. On the other hand, in cold years, when the winter temperatures get way below
zero, the owner might either use backup diesel generator to provide the required heating or
consider selling the fruits earlier.
The conceptual scheme of the suggested system is presented in Figure 3. The PV energy
control and distribution system will be responsible for determining the number of pumps that
can be powered and switching them on/off or for powering the Temperature-humidity control
system (refrigeration system), depending on the month. The refrigeration system will control
the temperature and humidity inside the fruit storage and will take measures when PV energy
is available (day time).
The exact refrigeration technology, which should be used in the fruit storage, shall not be
specified in this study, as it requires further investigation. Nevertheless, the performed
analysis suggests that there are several options, considering the climate conditions in Ruse,
Bulgaria during the months November-January.
The suggested combination of irrigation system with fruit storage, powered by an
autonomous PV system, has a number of advantages:
• No electrical energy is bought;
• The price for irrigation water is lower;
• The orchard and fruit storage could be at a site without access to electricity/water,
therefore the land price would be lower;
• No taxes for connecting the site/facility to the electrical/irrigation network are
payed;
• The produced fruits could be stored in the storage, which allows the owner to sell
part of the yield outside the season at a higher price.
There are also some negative aspects to such approach though:
• A greater initial investment;
• The solar energy generation is a random process, therefore there are situations in
which the supplied amount of irrigation water will not be enough. Furthermore,
the temperature-humidity requirements of the fruit store might not be always met
for the same reason. The missing energy could be compensated with backup diesel
generators, but this means additional investment/expense/maintenance costs.

CONCLUSIONS
In this study is performed an analysis of the combination of orchard irrigation system with
fruit storage, powered by an autonomous PV generator. The goal is to assess the applicability
of this combination for the climate of Ruse, Bulgaria. The PV energy is used to power the
irrigation system during the months April to September. For the months October to January,
the available PV energy is used to provide the necessary temperature-humidity requirements
of the fruit storage.
In this study were also analysed the requirements of the common Bulgarian fruits (apples
and pear) in terms of irrigation and storing parameters. The results showed that, considering
the environment temperatures during the “storing” season, low amounts of energy will be
required to maintain the microclimate in the fruit store. During the days, the solar energy will

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 K. Gabrovska-Evstatieva, B. Evstatiev, D. Trifonov, N. Mihailov

be used to provide the parameters, while for the night there are two options: use natural
ventilation or backup diesel generator. However, it is important to note that the climate
conditions in Ruse during the autumn and winter months are very close to the optimal storing
requirements of apples and pears.
Based on the performed analysis, a conceptual scheme of an autonomous PV powered
system has been presented, which will be responsible for powering the irrigation pumps and
for the providing the refrigeration in the fruit storage. More studies are required in order to
obtain the optimal type of fruit storing technology, for the climate of Ruse, Bulgaria, during
the investigated months.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The study was supported by contract of University of Ruse Angel Kanchev, №
BG05M2OP001-2.009-0011-С01, "Support for the development of human resources for
research and innovation at the University of Ruse Angel Kanchev”. The project is funded with
support from the Operational Program "Science and Education for Smart Growth 2014 - 2020"
financed by the European Social Fund of the European Union.

REFERENCES
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production in Australia. Engineers Australia.
Chinenye, N. M., Manuwa, S. I., Olukunle, O. J., Oluwalana, I. B. (2013). Development of an active
evaporative cooling system for short-term storage of fruits and vegetable in a tropical climate, CIGR
Journal 15(4), 307-313.
El-Bahloul, A.A.M., Ali, A. H. H., Ookawara, S. (2015). Performance and sizing of solar driven dc
motor vapor compression refrigerator with thermal storage in hot arid remote areas. Energy Procedia
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Eltawil, M. A., Azam, M. M., Alghannam, A. O. (2018). Solar PV powered mixed-mode tunnel dryer
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Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL). (2017). SOLAR HYBRID COLD STORAGE,
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Islam, M.P., Morimoto, T., Hatou, K. (2013). Optimization of Watering for Minimizing the Inside
Temperature of Zero Energy Cool Chamber for Storing Fruits and Vegetables. IFAC Proceedings
Volumes, vol 46 (4), 17-22.
Itai, A., Hatanaka, R., Irie, H., Murayama, H. (2015). Effects of Storage Temperature on Fruit Quality
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Horticulture Journal 84(3), 227-232. doi: 10.2503/hortj.MI-047.
Katic, I., Pedersen, P. H., Jacobsen, E.. Standalone cold/freeze cluster driven by solar photovoltaic
energy. Danish Technological Institute, December 2010.
Khorshidi, J., Tabatabaei, M. F., Ahmadi, F. M. (2010). Storage Temperature Effects on the Postharvest
Quality of Apple (Malus domestica Borkh. cv.Red Delicious). New York Science Journal 3(3).
Kireva, R., Markov, E., Petrova-Branicheva, V. (2017a). Irrigation scheduling of apple in drip irrigation.
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Kireva, R., Petrova-Branicheva, V., Markov, E. (2017b). Drip irrigation of apples at a moderate
continental climate. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) 4(09),
642-645.
Kireva, R., Petrova-Branicheva, V. (2018). Irrigation scheduling of berry and fruit crops, cultivated
under drip irrigation in the Sofia plain. Annual of the University of architecture, civil engineering
and geodesy Sofia 51(6), 181-188.
Mitchell, F. G.; Crisosto, C. H. (1995). The use cooling and cold storage to stabilize and preserve fresh
stone fruits. In: VENBRELL, M.; AUDERGON, J. M. (Eds.). Postharvest quality and derived
products in stone-fruits. Leida: IRTA, vol 2, 125-137.
Powell, J. W., Welsh, J. M. (2016a). Grid connected solar: Irrigation case studies. Available at;
http://www.cottoninfo.com.au/sites/default/files/documents/Cotton%20Energy_GRID%20CONNE
CTED%20SOLAR.pdf.
Powell, J. W. & Welsh, J. M. (2016b). The sums add up for solar powered irrigation. The Australian
Cotton Grower, October-November, 22-25.
Salomao, B. C. M., Aragao, G. M. F., Churey, J. J., Padilla-Zakour, O. I., Worobo, R. W. (2009).
Influence of Storage Temperature and Apple Variety on Patulin Production by Penicillium
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Saltveit, M. E. (2003). Is it possible to find an optimal controlled atmosphere? Postharvest Biology and
Technology 27, 3-13.
Stiling, J., Li, S., Stroeve, P., Thompson J., Mjawa, B., Kornbluth K., Barrett, D. M. (2012). Performance
evaluation of an enhanced fruit solar dryer using concentrating panels. Energy for Sustainable
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Sultan, M., Miyazaki, T., Mahmood, M. H., Khan, Z. M. (2018). Solar assisted evaporative cooling
based passive air-conditioning system for agricultural and livestock applications. Journal of
Engineering Science and Technology 13(3), 693 – 703.
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Applications, Refrigeration Orhan Ekren, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.68865. Available
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for-nonhuman-applications.
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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

SOLAR ENERGY POTENTIAL TO POWER THE

IRRIGATION OF ORCHARDS IN BULGARIA
Boris EVSTATIEV1, Katerina GABROVSKA-EVSTATIEVA2, Dimitar TRIFONOV1,
Nikolay MIHAILOV3*
*E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 Department of Theoretical and Measuring Electrical Engineering,
University of Ruse Angel Kanchev, Ruse, Bulgaria
2 Department of Computer Science, University of Ruse Angel Kanchev, Ruse, Bulgaria
3 Department of Electrical Power Engineering, University of Ruse Angel Kanchev, Ruse, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT
In the present study the solar energy potential in the region of Ruse,
Bulgaria, is investigated, in order to be used for powering an irrigation system
in orchards. The climate conditions in Ruse, the water requirements of common
Bulgarian fruit crops as well as the different types of irrigation pumps are
analyzed. Based on the analysis is proposed a concept for irrigation system,
powered by an energy from autonomous photovoltaic sources. Different
number of pumps is turned on, depending on the available power, and the
underground water is pumped into a reservoir. The load profile of the water
pumps is compared with that of solar energy and if their power is significantly
lower than the peak power of the photovoltaic generator, there is a very good
match. The peak of solar energy is in the summer months, which also
corresponds with the requirements for irrigation of the inspected fruit crops.
The stored water is used by a drip irrigation system when additional water is
required for the orchards.
Keywords: PV energy, irrigation, orchards, load profile, pumps

INTRODUCTION
Providing irrigation water for crop growth is crucial for resource-use efficiency. Water is
provided by either rainfall or irrigation, but in both cases the amount of water supplied is
rarely exactly the same as that required (Cammarano et al., 2012). The climate conditions in
Bulgaria are characterized with dry and hot summer, therefore irrigation is a mandatory agro
technical procedure, which will ensure better growth and fertility of the fruits in orchards
(Isperih municipality, 2014).

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 B. Evstatiev, K. Gabrovska-Evstatieva, D. Trifonov, N. Mihailov

A design requirement of irrigation farms is to store the excess water in water storages, in
order to ensure successful management of the irrigation deficit (Powell and Scott, 2011).
Moreover, in case of using solar energy, it can be better utilized by storing water in advance
of the demand period, therefore reducing the reliance on potential small daily extraction limits
during the irrigation season. Previous studies have investigated the use of photovoltaic (PV)
energy in irrigation systems. Chen et al. (2013) studies the applicability of renewable energy
sources for irrigation of cotton crops. The results were unsatisfactory. Later on, Powell et al.
(2016a) and Powell et al. (2016b) stated that there should be a very good match between the
profiles of power generation and irrigation, to have a successful investment. However, there
are no known studies for the climate of Bulgaria, which investigate the applicability of PV
energy for powering the irrigation system in orchards.
Orchards are often located in remote areas, without direct access to water and electrical
energy. Numerous studies have reported that providing irrigation to fruit crops could increase
the yield with up to 64% for apples (Kireva et al. 2017a, Kireva et al. 2017b), while for pears
the increase is significantly higher (Kireva and Petrova-Branicheva, 2018).
The goal of this study is to analyze the possibilities to power the irrigation systems of
orchards with PV energy in the region of Ruse, Bulgaria.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Climate and solar energy potential in the region of Ruse
The climate in the region of Ruse, Bulgaria is characterized with hot summers and cold
winters, with the highest average temperatures being in July and August (Figure 1). The
rainfalls have an average peak in the end of May and the beginning of June, reaching on
average up to 70 mm and 85 mm respectively (Figure 1) (HikersBay website).

Figure 1 Average monthly temperatures and precipitation for the region of Ruse (HikersBay
website).

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 Solar energy potential to power the irrigation of orchards in Bulgaria

The region of Ruse is also characterized with the lowest cloudiness during July and August,
therefore the PV generated solar energy has a peak in these months. In Figure 2 is shown the
cumulative monthly generated photovoltaic energy for each month of the year, provided from
the Zita Ruse PV power plant, which is characterized with 117 kWp installed PV power. The
used information is freely available from the Sunny portal website.

Figure 2 Average cumulative PV energy production in Ruse by month of the year.

From Figure 2 can be seen that the highest amount of energy is available in the months
May, June, July and August (more than 140 kWh per 1 kWp installed power), followed by
April and September with 120 kWh kWp-1.
Water requirements of fruit crops
Multiple studies have investigated the fruit trees irrigation requirements in Bulgaria. In
Water and Rural Institute – Sofia (2012) is stated that irrigation of orchards should be done
when the soil humidity is below (70-75)% of a certain level. In the summer months is
suggested irrigation each 12-15 days, starting from May until September. For apples and pears
is also suggested an irrigation 7-10 years before the harvesting. An average of 6-7 irrigations
are suggested for apples, pears and quince for the climate of Bulgaria, 90-100 l/m2 each (for
4 years trees) (Water and Rural Institute – Sofia, 2012).
Kireva and Petrova-Branicheva (2018) suggested 17 number of irrigations for apples, 22
mm each, for the period from April to September. For pears were used 16 irrigations with 24
mm norm. The study also showed that a 20% (40%) reduction of the irrigation norm reduces
the yield with 25% (39%) for pears and 7% (13%) for apples.
Kireva et al. (2017a) used 17 drip irrigations, 22 mm each, for the period from May to
September. This study also reported that a reduction of the irrigation norm leads to reduced
apple yield. When the irrigation was at 100% the yield was 2087 kg da-1, while for 80% and
60%, the yield was reduced to 1952 kg da-1 and 1808 kg da-1 respectively. Kireva et al. (2017b)
reported similar results.
The above information has been summarized in Table 1. It could also be concluded that
some crops, such as apples aren’t greatly influenced by reduction of the irrigation norm, while
others, such as pears, significantly reduce their yield.

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Table 1 Common drip irrigation norms for different orchard crops.

Irrigation Number of Irrigation norm, Total,
Orchard crop
months irrigations mm mm
Apples, pears, quince
May-
(Water and Rural Institute – 6-7 90-100 540-700
September
Sofia, 2012)
“Florina apples (Kireva and April -
17 22 374
Petrova-Branicheva, 2018) September
“Vilyamova maslovka”
April -
pears (Kireva and Petrova- 16 24 384
September
Branicheva, 2018)
“Florina” apples (Kireva et May -
17 19 323
al., 2017a) September

“Florina apples” (Kireva et May -

17 19 323
al., 2017b) September

The available information about the irrigation periods clearly shows there is a very good
correspondence with the available solar energy in the region.
Irrigation with underground water
Underground waters in the region of Ruse are commonly at depths between 20 and 30 m,
therefore the water pumps should be sized for such depths. Furthermore, in this study we are
investigating small orchards, therefore the installed PV power will be low. Therefore, in order
to optimize the use of the generated PV energy, we are aiming at low-power water pumps.
Considering in this study is investigated an autonomous irrigation system, powered with
PV energy, an obvious solution is to use DC water pumps. On the market are available
different DC pumps, working at 12 V, 24 V and 48 V (Elektronikabg website). The working
voltage should be chosen depending on the required power of one pump, in order to reduce
the current, and therefore to reduce the power losses in the wires, as well as the investment
losses due to the wire width. For example, in small sized orchards a water pump with the
following characteristics could be used: voltage – 48 V, power - 400 W, water flow rate – up
to 3 m3 h-1, water depth – up to 50 m.
A more common solution is to use AC pumps. An example for such pump is the Metabo P
2000 G garden pump: voltage – 230 V, power – 450 W, water flow rate – up to 2 m3 h-1, water
depth – up to 30 m (Metabo website).
It should be noted, that water flow rate is given at 0 m depth, and the increase in the depth
of the pump will reduce it. The dependency is individual for each pump and is generally linear.
For example, the flow rate dependency on depth for different Metabo water pumps is shown
in Figure 3. It can be seen, that at 25 m depth, the flow rate will be reduced from 2 to only 0.5
m3 h-1.
As can be seen, DC power pumps ensure better ratio between power and flow rate. On the
other hand, the price of AC pumps is lower, but they will require an inverter to convert DC to
AC voltage. Obviously, the proper way to choose an irrigation pump is a cost-benefit analysis,
which is out of the scope of this study.

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 Solar energy potential to power the irrigation of orchards in Bulgaria

Figure 3 Dependency of the water flow rate from the water depth for different Metabo
pumps (Metabo website).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the present study we suggest the irrigation system, shown in Figure 4. The energy,
generated by the PV generators, is used to power multiple irrigation pumps. In case of DC
pumps, they are directly powered through the PV controller, which decides which pumps
should be powered, and which should remain turned off. All underground water is pumped
into a reservoir, which stores the water for later usage. When the orchard requires irrigation,
the stored reservoir water is used to provide drip irrigation to the fruit trees.

Figure 4 Conceptual scheme of an irrigation system for orchards, powered by an

autonomous PV system.

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 B. Evstatiev, K. Gabrovska-Evstatieva, D. Trifonov, N. Mihailov

There are two options in terms of powering the pumps with PV energy, depending on the
irrigation pumps used. When DC pumps are used, the generated PV energy is directly used to
power the water pumps. When higher power pumps are required, the generated DC power is
converted to AC one through an inverter (Figure 5).

Figure 5 Powering of the irrigation pump

Sample load profiles of the generated PV power and the used power by 200 W water
pumps, are shown in Figure 6. The number of used pumps depends entirely on the available
PV power and is decided by the Irrigation System Controller. As can be seen from Figure 6,
if the generated peak PV power is significantly lower than the power of a single water pump,
there could be a very good match between the load profile of the generators and the
consumers. Nevertheless, there will always be unused PV energy, as there can be no perfect
match.

Figure 6 Sample profiles of the generated PV power and the load profile of the pumps

The block-scheme of the algorithm of the irrigation system is presented in Figure 7, where
the two subsystems (pumping and irrigation) can be independent of each other. Nevertheless,
considering the irrigation control system will require energy to operate, it could as well be
part of a common control system. Figure 7a shows the algorithm, responsible for storing the
underground water into the reservoir. If PV energy is available (block 1), the number of
required water pumps is estimated in block 2, and they are powered in block 3, in order to
pump the irrigation water into the reservoir. The control algorithm continues until the system
is turned off. Similarly, Figure 7b shows the irrigation algorithm. If irrigation is required, the
irrigation valves are opened (block 2) and the reservoir water is used to provide drip irrigation

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 Solar energy potential to power the irrigation of orchards in Bulgaria

to the orchard (block 3). Upon completion of the irrigation norm, the valve is closed and the
system goes into a wait state.

a) b)
Figure 7 Block-schemes of the algorithms for pumping of underground water (a) and for
using the stored water for drip irrigation (b)

Considering the available monthly solar radiation (Figure 2), and the efficiency of the
referenced DC and AC pumps from section 2, the maximal amount of water which could be
theoretically pumped during the irrigation months with 1 kWp installed PV power, can be
observed in Table 2. If for one tree a surface of 5 m2 is to be irrigated, and an average annual
irrigation norm of 350 mm is used, 1 kWp installed PV power could theoretically provide
water for more than 900 trees with DC pumps and more than 500 trees with AC pumps. In a
real system however, the load profile of pumps will not match exactly the PV generation
profile, therefore the actual amounts of pumped water will be lower. A more precise
calculation requires a system with specific parameters – installed PV power, number of
pumps, their power and efficiency, as well as taking into account the requirements for sizing
pump installations.

Table 2 Irrigation water potential

Irrigation water at 25 m depth, m3 kWp-1
Month of Available energy,
DC pump: AC pumps:
the year kWh kWp-1
Pn=400 W, Q= 0.75 m3 h-1* Pn=450 W, Q= 0.5 m3 h-1
April 129 241.9 143.3
May 149 279.4 165.6
June 152 285.0 168.9
July 155 290.6 172.2
August 155 290.6 172.2
September 126 236.3 140.0

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 B. Evstatiev, K. Gabrovska-Evstatieva, D. Trifonov, N. Mihailov

Total 866 1623.8 962.2

* The reduction in the flow rate of the DC pump is approximate, as this information is not available for
the investigated pump.

CONCLUSIONS
In this study was assessed the solar energy potential for the region of Ruse, Bulgaria, in
terms of powering an autonomous irrigation system in an orchard. The traditional fruit crops,
apple and pear, were investigated and their irrigation norm was analyzed. The results showed
that there is a good correspondence between the available solar energy and the irrigation
requirements, as the months with the highest energy yield correspond with the irrigation
months.
Typical small-scale irrigation pumps were also analyzed in order to assess their
applicability for such systems. Even though DC pumps are more expensive, they have better
efficiency and don’t require a DC to AC converter, therefore seem to be a better choice.
In the study was suggested an autonomous PV powered irrigation system. Its’ general
scheme, as well as the control algorithm have been also presented. In the study is suggested
that the PV system will be used to power numerous pumps and the irrigation control system
will decide the number of pumps that should be turned on, depending on the available
instantaneous PV power.
A preliminary calculation of the solar potential for the region of Ruse, Bulgaria, shows that
1 kWp installed PV power could be enough to provide irrigation water for a significant
number of fruit trees. Further investigations and a cost-benefit analysis are required in order
to obtain more specific results.
The study also shows that there is going to be a significant amount of excess energy during
the non-irrigation months. Some unused PV energy will also remain during the irrigation
months as there can be no perfect match between the pumps and the generator. If the
investment payback is to be optimized, the excess energy should be close to zero. Considering
the climate of Bulgaria, this should only be possible if it is applied in a different type of
process, whose load profiles corresponds with that of the excess energy.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The study was supported by contract of University of Ruse Angel Kanchev, №
BG05M2OP001-2.009-0011-С01, "Support for the development of human resources for
research and innovation at the University of Ruse Angel Kanchev”. The project is funded with
support from the Operational Program "Science and Education for Smart Growth 2014 - 2020"
financed by the European Social Fund of the European Union.

REFERENCES
Cammarano, D., Payero, J., Basso, B., Wilkens, P., Grace, P. (2012). Agronomic and economic
evaluation of irrigation strategies on cotton lint yield in Australia. Crop and Pasture Science 63, 647.
Chen, G., Sandell, G., Yusaf, T., Baillie, C. (2013). Evaluation of alternative energy sources for cotton
production in Australia. Engineers Australia.

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Elektronikabg website: https://elektronikabg.com

HikersBay website: http://hikersbay.com
Metabo website: http://www.metabo.com
Isperih municipality (2014). Research and Analysis of the possibilities for irrigation on the territory of
the Isperih municipality, 70.
Kireva, R., Markov, E., Petrova-Branicheva, V. (2017a). Irrigation scheduling of apple in drip irrigation.
Journal of Mountain Agriculture on the Balkans 20(5), 275-282.
Kireva, R., Petrova-Branicheva, V., Markov, E. (2017b). Drip irrigation of apples at a moderate
continental climate. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) 4(09),
642-645.
Kireva, R., Petrova-Branicheva, V. (2018). Irrigation scheduling of berry and fruit crops, cultivated
under drip irrigation in the Sofia plain. Annual of the University of architecture, civil engineering
and geodesy Sofia 51(6), 181-188.
Powell, J. W., Welsh, J. M. (2016a). Grid connected solar: Irrigation case studies. Available at:
http://www.cottoninfo.com.au/sites/default/files/documents/Cotton%20Energy_GRID%20CONNE
CTED%20SOLAR.pdf.
Powell, J. W. & Welsh, J. M. (2016b). The sums add up for solar powered irrigation. The Australian
Cotton Grower, October-November, 22-25.
Powell, J. W., Scott, J. F. (2011). A Representative Irrigated Farming System in the Lower Namoi Valley
of NSW: An Economic Analysis. Economic Research Report no. 46. Industry & Investment NSW,
Narrabri, NSW, January.
Sunny portal website: https://www.sunnyportal.com
Water and Rural Institute – Sofia (2012). Handbook for exploitation of drip irrigation systems in apple
orchards (In Bulgarian), Sofia.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

UTJECAJ TIPA RASPRŠIVAČA I TEHNIČKIH

ČIMBENIKA RASPRŠIVANJA NA DEPOZIT TEKUĆINE
Davor PETROVIĆ*, Đuro BANAJ, Vjekoslav TADIĆ, Dario KNEŽEVIĆ,
Anamarija BANAJ
*
E-mail dopisnog autora: [email protected]
Fakultet agrobiotehničkih znanosti Osijek, Sveučilište J. J. Strossmayera u Osijeku,
Zavod za poljoprivrednu tehniku i obnovljive izvore energije, Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek

SAŽETAK
U radu su prikazani rezultati istraživanja utjecaja tehničkih čimbenika
raspršivanja na depozit tekućine u krošnji s raspršivačima Agromehanika AGP
200 ENU i Tifone Vento 1500. Istraživanje je provedeno prema ISO normi
22866 (uređaji u zaštiti bilja - metode mjerenja zanesene tekućine u poljskim
uvjetima) u nasadu višnje u vlasništvu rasadnika Karolina (Osijek, Osječko-
baranjska županija, Hrvatska) tijekom svibnja 2017. godine. Koordinate
nasada su 45°31'17,5"N 18°46'39,6"E. Istražen je utjecaj norme raspršivanja
(čimbenik A), tip mlaznica (čimbenik B) i brzina zračne struje ventilatora
(čimbenik C) na depozit tekućine u krošnji. Sa različitim tretmanima tehničkih
čimbenika raspršivanja ostvaren je različit depoziti tekućine u krošnji. Najveća
vrijednost depozita u krošnji izmjerena je tretmanom A1B2C2 u iznosu od 312 g
ha-1, dok je minimalna vrijednost od 274,6 g ha-1 ostvarena tretmanom A2B1C1
raspršivačem Agromehanika. Maksimalni depozit od 314,20 g ha-1 ostvaren je
tretmanom A1B2C2 dok je minimalna vrijednost od 281,10 g ha-1 zabilježena kod
tretmana A2B1C1 eksploatacijom raspršivača Tifone.
Ključne riječi: depozit tekućine, norma raspršivanja, brzina zraka,
mlaznice, raspršivač

UVOD
Glavni cilj aplikacije škropiva je ravnomjerna pokrivenost lisne površine s optimalnim
depozitom. Loša raspodjela škropiva može smanjiti učinkovitost raspršivanja i povećati
opasnost od onečišćenja okoliša (Vercruysse i sur., 1999.). Na pravilnu depoziciju škropiva
utječu razni čimbenici kao što su struktura i oblik krošnje, fizikalno-kemijska svojstva
pesticida, agroklimatski uvjeti i primijenjena tehnika raspršivanja (Jaeken i sur., 2001.;
Nuyttens i sur., 2009.; Catania i sur., 2011.; Rosell i sur., 2012.; Larbi i Salyani 2012.; Dorr i

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 D. Petrović, Đ. Banaj, V. Tadić, D. Knežević, A. Banaj

sur., 2013.; Vallet i Tinet, 2013.). Oblik krošnje izravno utječe na depoziciju škropiva, a na
taj način i uspješnost raspršivanja. Smanjenjem depozita u srednjem dijelu krošnje povećava
se mogućnost ponovne pojave štetočinja (Farooq i Salyani, 2002.; Cross i sur., 2003.; Salyani
i sur., 2006.; Zhu i sur., 2006.; Celen i sur., 2009.).
Barčić (1999.) navodi da je za depoziciju kapi od posebnog značaja gibanje stroja i brzina
zračne struje. Male kapi u laminarnoj struji slijede strujnice zraka i zaobilaze prepreku, što je
važno za pokrivenost površine unutar krošnje.
Velike kapi zbog svoje inercije ne zaobilaze prepreke nego se deponiraju na vanjskim
listovima krošnje. Ova tvrdnja govori u prilog malim kapljicama jer prodiru duboko u krošnju
i ostvaruju dobar depozit i pokrivenost površine unutar krošnje.
Specifičnost promjene agroklimatskih uvjeta u kratkom vremenskom razdoblju i promjena
oblika krošnje tijekom vegetacije dodatno otežavaju istraživanja. Araújo i sur. (2016.)
istražuju utjecaj oborina na depozit unutar krošnje, te navode da kiša nepovoljno utječe na
optimalan depozit u gornjim dijelovima krošnje gdje gubitak škropiva iznosi od 4 do 5,7 %
pri dnevnoj količini oborina od 14,3 do 26,4 mm.
Miranda-Fuentes i sur. (2015) navode da brzina zračne struje utječe na depozit unutar
krošnje. Prevelika brzina zračne struje dovodi do loše pokrivenosti i prekomjernog zanošenja
pesticida izvan ciljanog prostora zaštite bilja, dok nedovoljna količina zračne struje kao
posljedicu ima lošu pokrivenost i depozit u gornjim slojevima krošnje.
Utjecaj vremenskih uvjeta prilikom primjene zaštitnih sredstava proučava Nuyttens i sur.
(2005.) te navodi da su najznačajniji meteorološki uvjeti prilikom aplikacije temperatura zraka
i brzina vjetra te je poštivanjem preporučenih vrijednosti moguće značajno unaprijediti
aplikaciju i smanjiti zanošenje tekućine.
Za evaluaciju neželjeno zanesene tekućine upotrebljavaju se različite metode
vizualizacije: fluorescentne i vidljive boje, vodoosjetljivi papirići. Najraširenija je upotreba
fluorescentnih i vidljivih boja koje nisu opasna za ljudsku uporabu.
Cilj istraživanja je utvrditi utjecaj različito podešenih tehničkih čimbenika raspršivanja na
depozit tekućine u krošnji upotrebom dva različita raspršivača Agromehanika AGP 200 ENU
i Tifone Vento 1500 u trajnom nasadu višnje, te na temelju rezultata doći do saznanja koja
kombinacija tehničkih čimbenika ostvaruje veći depozit.

MATERIJAL I METODE
Istraživanje je obavljeno u nasadu višnje starom četiri godine, uzgojnog oblika
popravljena piramida u vlasništvu rasadnika Karolina (Osijek, Osječko-baranjska županija,
Hrvatska) tijekom svibnja 2017. godine. Koordinate nasada su 45°31'17,5"N 18°46'39,6"E,
prema ISO normi 22866 (uređaji u zaštiti bilja - metode mjerenja zanesene tekućine u poljskim
uvjetima). U istraživanju su korištena dva različita tipa raspršivača Agromehanika ENU 200
i Tifone Vento 1500.
Raspršivač Agromehanika AGP 200 ENU (Slika 1.) opremljen je sa visinskim
usmjerivačima zraka visine 117 cm i širine 11 cm. Promjer ventilatora iznosi 585 mm podesiv
u pet položaja lopatica ventilatora. Maksimalan protok zračne struje iznosi cca. 32000 m³ h-1.
Izlazna brzina zračne struje kreće se u rasponu od 10 do 35 m s-1. Najveća dopuštena brzina
vrtnje ventilatora je 1800 min-¹. Na raspršivač su postavljena dva tipa mlaznica TR 8002 i

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 Utjecaj tipa raspršivača i tehničkih čimbenika raspršivanja na depozit tekućine

ITR 8002 proizvođača Lechler. Raspršivač je opremljen sukladno europskoj normi EN 13790
s tri spremnika tekućine, od kojih je glavni spremnik obujma 200 litara, pomoćnog spremnika
veličine 10 % od volumena glavnog spremnika, te spremnika čiste vode za pranje ruku. Na
raspršivač je instalirana klipno - membranska crpka proizvođača Agromehanika kapaciteta 61
l min-1 (model crpke BM 65/30 s dvije membrane) pri radnom tlaku od 30 bar.
Vučeni raspršivač Tifone Vento 1500 (Slika1.) opremljen je spremnikom tekućine obujma
1500 litara. Mlaznice Lechler TR 8002C i ITR 8002C postavljene su polukružno na obodu
usmjerivača po šest mlaznica sa svake strane. Ventilator se sastoji od 8 lopatica, a promjer
ventilatora iznosi 810 mm. Brzinu zračne struje moguće je podešavati promjenom radnog
položaja lopatica ventilatora. Na raspršivač je instalirana klipno-membranska crpka
proizvođača Tifone kapaciteta 105 l min-1 (model crpke 110 VD s dvije membrane) a najveći
dopušteni radni tlak je 50 bar. Oba raspršivača agregatirani su traktorom Torpedo 6006K
snage motora 42 kW.

Slika 1 Raspršivači Agromehanika AGP 200 ENU i Tifone Vento 1500

Figure 1 Agromehnaika AGP 200 ENU and Tifone Vento orchard sprayers

Standardna mlaznica Lechler TR 8002C formira mlaz s radnim kutom od 80° šuplje
konusne izvedbe i koristi se u zaštiti voćnjaka i vinograda. Protok mlaznice iznosi 0,8 l min-1
pri radnom tlaku od 3 bar. Mlaznica je izrađena od plastičnih polimera s keramičkim uloškom
koji se može izvaditi iz tijela mlaznice radi čišćenja. Ovaj tip mlaznice stvara sitne kapljice
koje ostvaruju dobru pokrivenost tretirane površine, ali su osjetljive na zanošenje.
Zračno - injektorska mlaznica konusnog mlaza proizvođača Lechler ITR 8002C
konstruirana je za smanjeno zanošenje tekućine. Tijelo mlaznice izrađeno je od plastičnih
polimera s keramičkim uloškom koji je promjenjiv. Protok od 0,8 l min-1ostvaruje pri tlaku
od 3 bar, a kut prskanja je 80°. Ovaj tip mlaznica stvara veći promjer kapljica nego što je to
slučaj kod TR mlaznica, što u velikoj mjeri smanjuje pojavu zanošenja tekućine
Norma raspršivanja označena je kao čimbenik A. Korištena je optimalna norma
raspršivanja A₁ (250 l ha-1 - izračunava se prema trenutnom stanju nasada i obujmu lisne
mase), te A₂ norma raspršivanja, koja se smanjuje za 20 % (200 l ha-1).
Drugi tehnički čimbenik obuhvaća utjecaj tipa standardne mlaznice B₁ (Lechler TR 8002
C) i mlaznice sa smanjenim zanošenje tekućine: Lechler ITR 8002 C – čimbenik B2. Treći
čimbenik C označava utjecaj zračne struje na zanošenje tekućine. C₁ označava brzinu zračne

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 D. Petrović, Đ. Banaj, V. Tadić, D. Knežević, A. Banaj

struje ventilatora izračunatu prema obujmu lisne mase i brzinu zračne struje smanjene za 30 %
čimbenik C₂.
Vremenski uvjeti tijekom istraživanja praćeni su pomoću meteorološke stanice tvrtke
Hobo. Najvažniji čimbenici koji imaju izravan utjecaj na tehničke čimbenike zaštite bilja su
brzina vjetra, temperatura zraka i relativna vlažnost zraka. Za raspršivanje koristi se 4 %
otopina organske boje Tartrazine.
Za prikupljanje depozita tekućine u krošnji korišteni su filtar papirići proizvođača
Technofil (površine 35 cm2). Depozit unutar krošnje izmjeren je filtar papirićima koji su
postavljeni na tri razine krošnje: donjoj, srednjoj i gornjoj razini. Na svakoj razini postavljena
su 4 filtar papirića (12 filtar papirića po stablu u četiri ponavljanja).

Slika 2 Filtar papirići u krošnji

Figure 2 Filter papers in treetop

Nakon svakog tretmana filtar papirići su prikupljeni tijekom 15 min i spremljeni u

hermetički zatvorene vrećice koje su odložene na mjesto bez pristupa sunčeve svjetlosti.
Uzorkovani filtar papirići u laboratoriju ispiru se sa 10 ml deionizirane vode, nakon čega se
određuje koncentracija tekućine, pomoću valne duljine očitane na spektrofotometru (Varian
Cary 50 UV-Visible). Za određivanje koncentracije tekućine pri korištenju organske boje
Tartarzin korištena je valna duljina od 425 nm. Brzina zračne struje izmjerena je ručnim
anemometrom (Kestrel 4500BT).

REZULTATI I RASPRAVA
Istraživanje je obavljeno tijekom svibnja 2017. godine, pri preporučenim vremenskim
uvjeti za uspješnu aplikaciju pesticida. Pod preporučenim vremenskim uvjetima
podrazumijeva se temperatura zraka između 15-22 °C, brzina vjetra manja od 3 m s-1 i
relativna vlažnost zraka iznad 60 %. U Tablica 1. prikazani su rezultati mjerenja vremenskih
uvjeta tijekom raspršivanja raspršivačima Agromehanika i Tifone.
Prosječna temperatura zraka tijekom eksploatacije raspršivača Agromehanika iznosila je
21,9 °C, s vrijednostima od 19,8 do 24,3 °C (Tablica 1.). Vrlo slični rezultati zabilježeni su
primjenom raspršivača Tifone s prosječnom temperaturom zraka od 21,8 °C (min. od 19,4 do
max. 24,8 °C).

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 Utjecaj tipa raspršivača i tehničkih čimbenika raspršivanja na depozit tekućine

Tablica 1 Vremenski uvjeti tijekom istraživanja s raspršivačima Agromehanika i Tifone

Table 1 Weather conditions during research with Agromehanika and Tifone orchard sprayers

Raspršivač / Mistblower Agromehanika

Tretman/ K.V.
A₁B₁C₁ A₁B₁C₂ A₁B₂C₁ A₁B₂C₂ A₂B₁C₁ A₂B₁C₂ A₂B₂C₁ A₂B₂C₂ x σ
Treatment (%)
Tz (°C) 22,3 21,3 19,2 23,4 23,1 19,8 24,3 22,2 21,9 1,8 8,0
Rv (%) 60,2 63,8 70,6 58,4 58,5 68,3 54,2 59,3 61,7 5,5 8,9
Min. 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,5 0,2 0,4 0,4 1,1 0,6 0,3 48,6
vv (m s-1)

Max. 1,1 0,8 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,6 0,7 1,4 0,8 0,3 39,5
x 0,8 0,7 0,8 0,6 0,3 0,5 0,6 1,3 0,7 0,3 41,7
Raspršivač / Mistblower Tifone
Tz (°C) 19,4 19,6 19,6 20,1 23,4 23,1 24,8 24,6 21,8 2,4 10,9
Rv (%) 70,6 70,1 69,6 65,5 55,2 55,6 50,4 50,2 60,9 1,0 14,8
Min. 0,6 0,8 0,7 0,5 0,4 0,6 0,4 0,8 0,6 0,2 26,7
vv (m s-1)

Max. 0,9 1,2 0,8 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,9 1,2 1,0 0,2 17,1
x 0,8 1,0 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,9 0,7 1,0 0,8 0,2 19,1
Tz - temperatura zraka (°C); Rv - relativna vlažnost zraka (%); vv - brzina vjetra (m s-1)
Tz - air temperature (°C); Rv - relative air humidity (%); vv wind speed (m s-1)

S obzirom na zabilježene vrijednosti može se utvrditi da je utjecaj temperature zraka na

ispitivana svojstva bio minimalan i u skladu s preporučenim vrijednostima. Ovakve male
razlike u vrijednostima temperature zraka između pojedinog tretmana zabilježene su zbog vrlo
male vremenske razlike u obavljanu tretmana koje je iznosilo oko 15 min. Vrijednosti
depozita u krošnji s različito podešenim tehničkim čimbenicima raspršivanja prikazane su u
Tablici 2.

Tablica 2 Depozit tekućine u krošnji raspršivačima Agromehanika i Tifone

Table 2 Spray deposit in treetop with Agromehanika i Tifone orchard sprayers
Agromehanika Tifone
Tretman/ Nr Tip mlaz./ vz
Treatment (l ha-1) Nozzle type (m s-1) x K.V. x K.V.
σ σ
(g ha-1) (%) (g ha-1) (%)
A1B1C1 250 TR 12,00 295,42 0,70 0,57 301,42 0,82 1,04
A1B1C2 250 TR 18,00 299,17 1,01 0,81 305,71 0,65 0,50
A1B2C1 250 ITR 12,00 297,00 1,29 1,04 305,84 0,76 0,59
A1B2C2 250 ITR 18,00 314,20 2,52 0,39 312,02 1,54 1,18
A2B1C1 200 TR 12,00 281,10 6,48 5,49 274,63 8,24 7,14
A2B1C2 200 TR 18,00 284,00 3,29 2,76 281,72 4,14 3,50
A2B2C1 200 ITR 12,00 285,80 2,14 1,78 278,21 8,35 7,14
A2B2C2 200 ITR 18,00 287,20 6,08 5,04 285,21 4,67 3,90
A - norma raspršivanja (Nr - l ha ); B - tip mlaznice; C - brzina zračne struje (vz - m s-1)
-1

A - spraying norm (Nr - l ha-1), B - nozzle type, C - air flow rate (vz - m s-1)

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 D. Petrović, Đ. Banaj, V. Tadić, D. Knežević, A. Banaj

Prema rezultatima prikazanim u Tablici 2. najveća vrijednost depozita u krošnji ostvarena

je tretmanom A1B2C2 u iznosu od 314,20 g ha-1, dok je minimalna vrijednost od 281,10 g ha-1
ostvarena tretmanom A2B1C1 raspršivačem Agromehanika. Maksimalni depozit od 312,02
g ha-1 ostvaren je tretmanom A1B2C2 dok je minimalna vrijednost od 274,63 g ha-1 zabilježena
kod tretmana A2B1C1 eksploatacijom raspršivača Tifone. Analiza varijance za ispitivano
svojstvo depozita u krošnji prikazana je u Tablici 3.

Tablica 3 Analiza varijance depozita u krošnji

Table 3 Analysis of variance for spray deposit in treetop
Agromehanika Tifone
ANOVA
F-test p F-test p
A 2,81 n.s. 0,11 3,31 n.s. 0,08
B 0,00 n.s. 0,95 0,12 n.s. 0,73
C 2,39 n.s. 0,14 1,37 n.s. 0,25
AB 0,51 n.s. 0,48 0,01 n.s. 0,93
AC 0,90 n.s. 0,77 0,00 n.s. 0,99
BC 0,25 n.s. 0,62 0,02 n.s. 0,90
ABC 0,90 n.s. 0,76 0,02 n.s. 0,90
A - norma raspršivača (l ha ); B - tip mlaznice; C - brzina zračne struje (m s-1)
-1

A - spraying norm (l ha-1), B - nozzle type, C - air flow rate (m s-1)

Na osnovi rezultata dobivenih analizom varijance prikazanih u Tablici 3. uočeno je da

između svih ispitivanih čimbenika i njihovih interakcija nema statistički značajnog utjecaja
na svojstvo depozita tekućine unutar krošnje za oba tipa raspršivača (Agromehanika i Tifone).
LSD0,05 test za depozit u krošnji prikazan je u Tablici 4.

Tablica 4 LSD0,05 test za depozit u krošnji

Table 4 LSD0,05 test for spray deposit in treetop

Čimbenici raspršivanja/ Agromehanika Tifone

Spraying factors x LSD0,05 x LSD0,05
A1 1 268,38 1 238,00
A 32,36 n.s. 17,86 n.s.
A2 1 240,88 1 220,13
B1 1 254,19 1 231,63
B 33,94 n.s. 18,89 n.s.
B2 1 255,06 1 228,75
C1 1 257,31 1 235,93
C 32,60 n.s. 18,47 n.s.
C2 1 241,94 1 224,87
A – norma raspršivanja (A1 – 250 l ha-1; A2 – 200 l ha-1), B – tip mlaznice (B1 – Lechler TR
8002 C; B2 – Lechler ITR 8002 C), C – brzina zračne struje (C1 -18 m s-1; C2 – 12 m s-1)
A – spraying norm (A1 – 250 l ha-1; A2 – 200 l ha-1), B – nozzle type (B1 – Lechler TR 8002
C; B2 – Lechler ITR 8002 C), C – air flow rate (C1 -18 m s-1; C2 – 12 m s-1)

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 Utjecaj tipa raspršivača i tehničkih čimbenika raspršivanja na depozit tekućine

Na osnovu rezultata u Tablici 4. nije utvrđena statistička značajnost između ispitivanih

podčimbenika za oba tipa raspršivača. Pošto nema statističke značajnosti za navedena dva
slučaja ispitana je razlika u depozitu za tipove raspršivača. Tablica 5. prikazuje LSD0,05 test
za vrijednosti depozita u krošnji između ispitivanih raspršivača za sve tretmane.

Tablica 5 LSD0,05 test za depozit u krošnji između tipova raspršivača

Table 5 LSD0,05 test for spray deposit in treetop between sprayer types

Agromehanika Tifone Statističke vrijednosti / Statistical values

Ispitivano svojstvo/
Investigated property Otklon/
x x F-test p LSD0,05
Deviation (%)
Depozit u krošnji/
1 254,62 1 229,40 7,26* 0,01 18,71 2,01
Deposit in treetop

Na temelju dobivenih rezultata prikazanih u Tablici 5. vidljivo da je primjena raspršivača

Agromehanika ostvaruje statistički značajno veći depozit tekućine u krošnji u odnosu na
raspršivač Tifone (LSD0,05 = 18,71). Otklon depozita u krošnji između dva navedena
raspršivača iznosio je 2,01 %.
Grafikon 1. prikazuje raspodjelu prosječnih vrijednosti depozita u krošnji ostvarenih
različito podešenim tehničkim čimbenicima raspršivanja s obzirom na različite raspršivače.

5.00
Depozit/ Deposit (µg cm-2)

4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Položaj filtar papirića/
Filter paper position

Agromehanika Tifone

Grafikon 1 Depozit tekućine u krošnji

Figure 1 Spray deposit in treetop

U Grafikonu 1. uočava se da vrijednosti depozita u krošnji uporabom raspršivača

Agromehanika nisu značajno različite u odnosu na vrijednosti dobivene raspršivačem Tifone.

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 D. Petrović, Đ. Banaj, V. Tadić, D. Knežević, A. Banaj

ZAKLJUČAK
Na osnovu dobivenih rezultata u ovom istraživanju mogu se donijeti sljedeći zaključci:
- Prema rezultatima vremenskih uvjeta tijekom istraživanja utvrđeni su vrlo mali otkloni
od optimalnih vremenskih uvjeta.
- Najveća vrijednost depozita u krošnji dobivena je s tretmanom A1B2C2 u iznosu od
314,20 g ha-1, dok je minimalna vrijednost od 281,10 g ha-1 ostvarena s tretmanom
A2B1C1 raspršivačem Agromehanika.
- Maksimalni depozit od 312,02 g ha-1 ostvaren je tretmanom A1B2C2 dok je minimalna
vrijednost od 274,63 g ha-1 zabilježena kod tretmana A2B1C1 eksploatacijom
raspršivača Tifone.
Optimiziranje glavnih čimbenika raspršivanja (norme raspršivanja, tip mlaznice, brzina
zračne struje) nije značajno utjecalo na depozit tekućine u krošnji s raspršivačima
Agromehanika i Tifone, ali je zabilježena statistička značajnost za tip raspršivača. U
budućnosti je potrebno provesti daljnja istraživanja s ciljem određivanja granice optimizacije
čimbenika raspršivanja, a da se depozit tekućine u krošnji značajno ne promjeni. Svakako
treba naglasiti da se treba provjeriti i biološka učinkovitost optimizacije čimbenika
raspršivanja, tj. do koje granice je moguće optimizirati glavne čimbenike raspršivanje bez
narušavanja biološke učinkovitosti sredstva za zaštitu bilja.

LITERATURA
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Dorr, G. J., Hewitt, A.J., Adkins, S.W., Hanan, J., Zhang, H., Noller, B. (2013.): A comparison of initial
spray characteristics produced by agricultural nozzles. Crop Protection, 53: 109-117.
Farooq, M., Salyani, M. (2002.): Spray Penetration into the Citrus Tree Canopy from Two Air - Carrier
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Jaeken, P., Vandermersch, M., De Moor, A., Langenakens, J. (2001.): Vertical spray distribution and
influence on foliar nutrient distribution in fruit trees. Parasitica, 57: 99-113.
Larbi, P.A., Salyani, M. (2012.): Model to predict spray deposition in citrus airblast sprayer applications:
part 2. Spray deposition. Trans. ASABE, 55: 41-48.
Miranda-Fuentes, A., Gamarra-Diezma, J. L., Blanco-Roldán, G. L., Cuenca, A., Llorens, J., Rodríguez-
Lizana, A., Gil, E., Agüera-Vega, J., Gil-Ribes, J.A. (2015.): Testing the influence of the air flow
rate on spray deposit, coverage and losses to the ground in a super-intensive olive orchard in southern

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Spain. SuproFruit 2015 - 13th Workshop on Spray Application in Fruit Growing, Julius-Kühn-
Archiv, 448: 17-18.
Nuyttens, D., Sonck, B., de Schampheleire, V., Steurbaut, W., Baetens, K., Verboven, P., Nicolaï, B.,
Ramon, H. (2005.): Spray drift as affected by meteorological conditions. In: Communications in
Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences, 70 (4): 947-959.
Nuyttens, D., Taylor, W.A., De Schampheleire, M., Verboven, P., Dekeyser, D. (2009.): Influence of
nozzle type and size on drift potential by means of different wind tunnel evaluation methods. Biosyst.
Eng., 103: 271-280.
Rosell, J.R., Sanz, R. (2012.): A review of methods and applications of the geometric characterization
of tree crops in agricultural activities. Comput. Electron. Agric., 81: 124-141.
Salyani, M., Sweeb, R.D., Farooq, M., (2006.): Comparison of string and ribbon samplers in orchard
spray applications. Transactions of the ASABE, 49: 1705-1710.
Vallet, A., Tinet, C. (2013.): Characteristics of droplets from single and twin jet air induction nozzles: a
preliminary investigation. Crop Protection, 48: 63-68.
Vercruysse, F., Steurbaut, W., Drieghe, S., Dejonckheere, W. (1999.): Off target ground deposits from
spraying a semi-dwarf orchard. Crop Prot., 18: 565-570.
Zhu, H., Brazee, R.D., Derksen, R.C., Fox, R.D., Krause, C.R., Ozkan, H.E., Losely, K. (2006.): A
specially designed air – assisted sprayer to improve spray penetration and air jet velocity distribution
inside dense nursery crops, Transactions of the ASABE, 49 (5): 1285-1294.

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 D. Petrović, Đ. Banaj, V. Tadić, D. Knežević, A. Banaj

IMPACT OF ORCHARD SPRAYER TYPE AND

TECHNICAL SPRAYING FACTORS ON SPRAY
DEPOSIT
Davor PETROVIĆ*, Đuro BANAJ, Vjekoslav TADIĆ, Dario KNEŽEVIĆ,
Anamarija BANAJ
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek,
Vladimira Preloga 1, 31000 Osijek, Croatia

SUMMARY
The paper presents, the results of impact of technical spraying factors on the
spray deposit in treetop are shown by using Agromehanika AGP 200 ENU and
Tifone Vento 1500 orchard sprayers. The research was conducted in Karolina
cherry nursery-garden (Osijek and Baranja County, Croatia) according to ISO
22866 norm (devices and machines in plant protection – methods of measuring
drift in field conditions) in May 2017. Geographical plant position 45° 31' 17.5"
N and 18° 46' 39.6" E. The influence of flow rate is marked as factor A, the type
of nozzle as factor B, and air velocity as factor C. With different treatments of
technical spraying factors, a different values of spray deposit in treetop are
obtained. The highest spray deposit in treetop of Agromehanika sprayer was
achieved with A1B2C2 treatment with 312.00 g ha-1, while the lowest value of
274.60 g ha-1 was achieved with A2B1C1 treatment. The highest spray deposit
in treetop of Tifone sprayer was achieved with A1B2C2 treatment with 314.20 g
ha-1, while the lowest value of 281.10 g ha-1 was achieved with A2B1C1
treatment.
Keywords: spray deposit, spraying norm, air velocity, nozzles, orchard
sprayer

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

INFLUENCE OF WORKING PRESSURE ON SPRAYING

ANGLE FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF AGRICULTURE
NOZZLES
Mihaela NITU*, Augustina PRUTEANU, Mihai MATACHE, Iulia GAGEANU,
Dan CUJBESCU
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
INMA Bucharest, B-dul Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Nr. 6, District 1, Romania

ABSTRACT
Ensuring a maximum efficiency of pesticides treatments in field crops is
possible by producing spraying machines equipped with spraying systems with
superior parameters in the working process.
The spraying angle is an important qualitative index for the quality of
phytosanitary treatments, among the factors influencing it being the working
pressure and the correlation with the nozzle type.
The paper presents comparative experimental researches on the spraying
angle for four pesticides with different physical properties (water, a selective
systemic herbicide – S1, a systemic insecticide for fighting larvae and eggs –
S2 and a total, nonselective systemic herbicide – S3) at five working pressures
(1 - 5 bar) and six types of nozzles (L1 - L6). From the researches it was noticed
that the spraying angle increases when increasing the pressure and when
reducing the nozzle diameter for any type of nozzle and any of the four
pesticides used.
Keywords: nozzle, spraying angle, pressure, pesticides

INTRODUCTION
Over the last years were developed a series of construction solutions for plant protection
machines that are more modern and performant as to minimize the loss of treatment
substances and to conduct high quality works (Stahli et al., 2006).
Our health is indissoluble linked to the health of soil and plants providing us food products.
Agriculture represents a vital human activity since ancient times, being the main source of

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 M. Nitu, A. Pruteanu, M. Matache, I. Gageanu, D. Cujbescu

food for a country's population, advances in agriculture having a beneficial effect throughout
the country's economy (Boja, 2010; Hilz et al., 2013).
Developing and modernizing agriculture is a natural and necessary process. We cannot
imagine raising the quality of life if agriculture is not stimulated to produce as much as
possible and at high quality. Agriculture development is influenced by natural, technical and
socio-economic factors. Technical factors have an important role in increasing production,
through mechanization, use of chemicals, irrigation, etc., phytosanitary protection occupying
a very important place (Bran, 2009; Heidary et al., 2014).
An important factor in continuously increasing the quality of products obtained by
economic agents is constituted by maintaining the conformity of plant protection equipment.
Thus, the purpose of a spraying work is to evenly deposit a maximum quantity of
phytosanitary product at the place of combating, respectively on the spayed surface (Popescu,
2007; Mihăiţă, 2003).
In modern working technologies used in plant crops, phytosanitary protection occupies an
important place, hereby the spraying machines has a significant role in this work. The spraying
nozzles play a very important part in the working process of spraying machines have, by their
working characteristics depending in a great measure both the machine’s performances and
the phytosanitary treatment quality (Niţu, 2018).
One of the main qualitative indices of spraying works is represented by the distribution
uniformity of the droplets of the liquid jet on the working width of the spraying machine’s
ramp on which the nozzles are mounted. Characteristics referring to the nozzle’s shape and
dimensions, spraying jet angle, maintaining at a constant value the working pressure and the
physical properties of phytosanitary substances, represent factors which significantly
influence the quality of spraying treatments (Niţu, 2018).
Shafer et. al. (1954) presented the results of experimental researches on the performance
of the nozzle for continuous liquid spraying with respect to the average diameter of drops,
spraying angle, nozzle size, density, viscosity, superficial tension and liquid pressure.
Barnet et al. (1957) presented an experimental study on the influence of nozzle dimensions
and injection conditions on the outlet coefficient and the spraying angle. Twenty simplex
nozzles with different geometries were experimented, the parameters followed being the
outlet coefficient and the angle of the spraying cone for the pressure swirl nozzles that spray
the heavy oil. The dimensions and quality of the surfaces were checked using a microscope,
the tested liquid being the heavy oil with its physical properties (density, viscosity, superficial
tension) determined depending on temperatures - 100 °, 110 °, 120 ° and 135 °C. 133
experiments were performed with different combinations of variables (the diameter of the
outlet orifice, the total inlet slot area, p - injection pressure and Tfo - oil temperature,
corresponding to 20 sprayer geometries.
Niţu et al. (2018) presented experimental results obtained from measurements achieved
with three different commonly used commercial substances and six types of nozzles used on
current machines. As a result of the research, it has been found that the theoretical model
proposed for estimating the nozzle jet angle, shows its dependence on working pressure,
nozzle diameter and physical properties of the spraying solution.
Also, nozzle manufacturers, based on their own researches on their spraying angle, have
come to similar conclusions, namely that the angle of the nozzle and, implicitly, the degree of

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 Influence of working pressure on spraying angle for different types of agriculture nozzles

spraying with a liquid different from water can be influenced by the following factors: density,
viscosity, superficial tension, temperature, working pressure and the material used in the
nozzle.
From Specifiers Guide - Spray technologies (2018) it results that the spraying angle is
usually measured in the immediate vicinity of the nozzle orifice with a tolerance of 5 ° for the
spray angles tested. As the spraying distance increases, droplets are affected by gravitational
acceleration and by the gas, which reduces the spraying angle. In addition to pressure and
flow rate, the spray angle also affects the magnitude of the impact created by the liquid on the
surface being sprayed. Also, liquids more viscous than water will also form smaller spraying
angles.
In Engineering Information (2018), nozzle flow rate, droplet size, coating degree and
spraying angle were studied. In this case was also found that the angle of the nozzle affects
the actual coverage degree, not being the same as the theoretical coverage and is depending
on the working pressure and on the physical properties of the spraying solutions.
Also, in Spray engineering handbook (2018) was investigated the angle of the spraying jet
in relation to the working pressure and the physical properties of the spraying solutions. It has
been found that this is one of the main parameters for choosing the nozzles, the size of the
spraying angle determining the coverage by spraying and the density of the sprayed liquid in
relation to the coverage area. Researches have shown that the theoretical coverage increases
faster than the actual coverage, when increasing the distance, therefore the efficiency of
coverage and implicitly the quality of phytosanitary treatments decreases.
The paper presents comparative experimental researches on the spraying jet angle for four
solutions with different physical properties (water, a selective systemic herbicide – S1, a
systemic insecticide for fighting larvae and eggs – S2 and a total, nonselective systemic
herbicide – S3) at five working pressures (1 bar, 2 bar, 3 bar, 4 bar, 5 bar) and six types of
nozzles (L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, L6).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Comparative experimental researches on the spraying jet angle were conducted for four
solutions with different physical properties (water, a selective systemic herbicide – S1, a
systemic insecticide for fighting larvae and eggs – S2 and a total, nonselective systemic
herbicide – S3) at five working pressures (1 bar, 2 bar, 3 bar, 4 bar, 5 bar) and six types of
nozzles (L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, L6). From the researches it was noticed that the spraying angle
increases significantly when increasing the pressure (reaching the maximum value for the
pressure of 5 bar) and when reducing the nozzle diameter for any type of nozzle and any of
the four pesticides used.
For conducting the verifications, various nozzles were chosen for administrating
pesticides and growth regulators and for administrating liquid fertilizers (Stahli, 2006). We
chose 6 nozzles with spraying angle of 120°, built from plastic material (POM of PP), with
the pressure working domain of 1-6 bar. The nozzles were numbered L1÷L6, depending on
their dimension (0.1÷0.6) (Figure 1).

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 M. Nitu, A. Pruteanu, M. Matache, I. Gageanu, D. Cujbescu

Figure 1 Nozzles used for experiments

The nozzles were equipped on a test stand that simulates the operation of a machine for
spraying field crops, with the possibility to adjust the working pressure and to change the
nozzles rapidly. The test stand is equipped with manometer, tank, a pump, two nozzle holders
with 5 nozzles and anti-dripping device (Figure 2). Also, for measuring the real angle of
spraying, we used a high-speed recording camera, Phantom V10.0, series V 630, set to record
at 80 frames/ second. The software used for recording and off-line processing of the
measurements was PCC-Phantom Camera Control Application.

Figure 2 Test stand for the nozzles

Video recordings were taken during the operation in the static regime of nozzles, recording
250 frames for each type of nozzle, each working pressure and each type of pesticides and
water. Five measurements were made for each recording, from 50 to 50 frames and after that,
the average measured value of the angle of the spraying jet was reported for each case. Each
video was processed, and the nozzle spray angle was evaluated using the camera’s own
software (Nitu, 2015).
Figure 3 presents the principle of measuring the angle of the spraying jet (left) and the
exemplified result of measurements (right).

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 Influence of working pressure on spraying angle for different types of agriculture nozzles

Figure 3 The angle of the spraying jet for the nozzle L 0.1 at a pressure of 1bar

Physical properties influence the quality of the spraying process, namely the density
influences the norm of substance per hectare depending on the temperature. Viscosity has a
significant effect on the performances of the nozzles, affecting drop forming, the cone’s angle
decreasing along with increasing the viscosity.
Also, viscosity, superficial tension and the specific weight of drops are affected by
temperature, increased temperatures leading to increased liquid flow rate through the nozzle.
Next, we present the water solutions used, solutions that were prepared according the
specification from producers.
SOLUTION S1 is a product formulated as a concentrated oily suspension being a selective
systemic herbicide that is absorbed through the leaves and roots. The solution is applied using
terrestrial spraying machines, fitted with systems for contiguous stirring/ homogenizing the
spraying solution with a concentration of 0.8% (Glăman et al., 2005).
SOLUTION S2 is a systemic insecticide for combating larvae and eggs, having both
systemic action and complementary physical action of asphyxiation due to the oil. It has
lasting effect ensuring better adherence to the plant surface and a superior contact with the
target pests, used with a concentration of 1.5% (Glăman et al., 2005).
SOLUTION S3 is a total, unselective, non-residual herbicide, with action on a wide
spectrum of mono and dicotyledonous, annual and perennial weeds, including species
resistant to rhizomes. The effect of the treatment is noticed in a 4-14 days interval, depending
on local conditions and is used as a concentrated suspension (Glăman et al., 2005).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The stand’s tank was fed with the solutions used, first determining the physical
properties: density, viscosity and superficial tension, the results are shown in Figure 4.

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 M. Nitu, A. Pruteanu, M. Matache, I. Gageanu, D. Cujbescu

Figure 4 Physical properties of the solution used

From figure 4 is observed that numerically, less than 10% of the values have a coefficient
of deviation smaller than 5. This demonstrates the possibility of modelling the angle of the
spraying jet depending on the type of solution used (different physical properties), the type of
nozzles used and the parameters of the working process.
The data from experiments using water and the three solutions regarding the values of the
jet angle at different pressures and the six types of nozzles are synthetically presented in
figures 5÷10.

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 Influence of working pressure on spraying angle for different types of agriculture nozzles

Figure 5 Jet angle for water and S1, S2, S3 depending on pressure, for nozzle L01

Figure 6 Jet angle for water and S1, S2, S3 depending on pressure, for nozzle L02

Figure 7 Jet angle for water and S1, S2, S3 depending on pressure, for nozzle L03

Figure 8 Jet angle for water and S1, S2, S3 depending on pressure, for nozzle L04

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 M. Nitu, A. Pruteanu, M. Matache, I. Gageanu, D. Cujbescu

Figure 9 Jet angle for water and S1, S2, S3 depending on pressure, for nozzle L05

Figure 10 Jet angle for water and S1, S2, S3 depending on pressure, for nozzle L06

The figures present the comparative diagrams for the values of the spraying jet angle
depending on the working pressure for each type of nozzles used for water and the three
solutions experimented.
A dependence of the spraying jet angle depending on the physical properties of the
solutions used is noticed. From the analysis of these data, there is a good approximation
between the values of the jet angles for water and the three solutions, both for all researched
pressures (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 bar) and for the six types of nozzles. The relative deviations of the
values of the three solutions, for all five pressures and the six types of nozzles fall within a ±
10% range, most of them (over 83%) falling within the ± 5,5% range.
On the basis of these data, it can be concluded that, from the point of view of the spraying
jet angle, with an acceptable precision, experiments can be conducted using water for all types
of researched nozzles, the data being very useful in the activity of engineering design and for
an efficient used of the equipment in the field.
The results of experimental researches presented in this paper can be compared with those
found in the literature.
As a result of the experimental research, Shafer et al. (1954) concluded that the
experimental values of nozzle flow capacity for liquids with different physical properties
define a single curve for each nozzle, when are represented graphically in terms of non-
dimensional logical variables. Also, the curves presented to indicate the performance of the
nozzles are specifically applicable only for certain nozzles that have been experimented,
which are used for purposes such as: determining the effects of the individual variables;

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 Influence of working pressure on spraying angle for different types of agriculture nozzles

analysis correlation and experimental interpretation data; anticipation (prediction) of

performance differences due to the use of liquids with different physical properties.
As a result of these researches, it was found that studies according to the theory for non-
viscous fluids produce higher values than those obtained from the published correlations and
from the results of the present work, the proposed expression providing good estimates for
the nozzle spray coefficient K≥ 0.2 at Tfo = 100 °C; for K <0.2, the differences between the
measurements and those of the theory for non-viscous fluids are less important. Differences
observed in the behaviour of small-sized nozzles illustrated in previous studies have been
attributed to the significant role of viscous effects (Barnet et al., 1957).
Also, in Engineering Information (2018) it was found that for a 70-degree angle are used
nozzles with a 200 mm orifice at a working height of 150 mm from the spraying target. For
this case as well was demonstrated that a good quality phytosanitary treatment depends on the
spraying angle.

CONCLUSIONS
A particular importance in the process of spraying the liquid through the nozzle is that of
the jet angle, which contributes to the covering of sprayed surfaces, to the uniformity of the
coverage and the quality of the process.
From the results obtained, the following conclusions can be drawn:
- - tests on the three aqueous solutions reveals that the size of the jet angle is
insignificantly influenced by the physical properties of the solutions when they have
values in the ranges similar to those specified;
- - the shape, sizes of the nozzle orifice and the constant working pressure are
determining factors in achieving the distribution uniformity of drops on the working
width;
- - the modelling of the spray jet angle depending on the type of solutions used (different
physical properties), the type of nozzles used, and the working process parameters is
possible for a coefficient of deviation smaller than 5;
- - distribution deviations during tests on the stand are inherent even for a new nozzle,
but these must fall within limits that do not affect the fragmentation distribution on the
width of the boom, where the nozzle distributions overlap, and the deviation of the
overlapping values do not to exceed ± 20%;
- - the comparative diagrams revealed that there is a good approximation between the
values of the jet angles for water and the three solutions, for all 5 working pressures
used in the research.
Spraying angles are important in spraying applications in order to prevent jets overlapping
on the covered materials.
In the case of spraying machines, the distribution uniformity of droplets on the working
width of the nozzle and implicitly on the working width of the spraying equipment is one of
the most important quality indices for spraying works.
Ensuring maximum efficiency of treatments with phytosanitary substances in agricultural
field crop is possible by building sprayers equipped with spraying systems that have superior
parameters for the working process.

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 M. Nitu, A. Pruteanu, M. Matache, I. Gageanu, D. Cujbescu

REFERENCES
Barnet, H., Hibbard, R. (1957). Basic Considerations in the Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuels with Air,
Propulsion Chemistry Division, Ohio
Boja, F. C. (2010). Research on technological limits for the use of man-made devices in combating pests
in forest nurseries, doctoral thesis abstract, Brasov
Bran M., (2009). Comparative agricultural technologies: guidance for practical works. ASE Bucharest
Publishing House
Glăman, Gh., et al. (2005). User guide for producers (pesticides; chemical fertilizers; foliar fertilizers;
growth regulators, fructification, fruit maturation. HORTINFORM Pub., Bucharest
Heidary, Al M., Douzals, J.P., Sinfort C., Vallet A. (2014). Influence of spray characteristics on potential
spray drift of field crop sprayers: A literature review, Crop Protection 63, pp.120÷130
Hilz, E., Vermeer, A. W.P. (2013). Spray drift review: The extent to which a formulation can contribute
to spray, drift reduction. Crop Protection 44, pp.75-83
Mihǎiţǎ, A. (2003). Efficiency of phytosanitary treatments in fruit-growing agro-systems. Doctoral
thesis., USAMV Bucharest
Niţu (Roşu), M., Căsăndroiu T., Matache, M., Cujbescu, D., Marin, E., Vlăduţ, V., Matei, Gh., Boruz,
S. (2015). Aspects on optimizing the qualitative indices of the work, Scientific Symposium with
International Participation „Sustainable Development in Agriculture and Horticulture- Second
edition” Craiova, 12-13 November 2015, ANNALS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CRAIOVA -
AGRICULTURE, MONTANOLOGY, CADASTRE, Series, Vol. 45, No. 2 / 2015, ISSN 1841-8317,
ISSN CD-ROM 2066-950X, pg. 143-150
Niţu (Roşu), M. (2018). Researches regarding optimization of field crops spraying machines working
process. Doctoral thesis. University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania
Niţu (Roşu), M., Căsăndroiu, T., Matache, M., Vlăduţ, V., Pruteanu A. (2018). Experimental researches
regarding the dispersion angle of the nozzle jet from spraying machines. U.P.B. Scientific Bulletin,
vol. 80. Iss. 1, pag. 207-218
Popescu M. (2007). Researches on optimizing the working qualitative indices for the machines for
spraying field crops, Doctoral thesis, Transylvania University Braşov
Shafer, R. M., Bovery, H. L. (1954). Application of dimensional analysis to spray – nozzle performance
data, Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, vol. 52, no. 3, pg. 141 – 147
Stahli, W., Bungescu S. (2006). Devices, equipment and machines for plant protection. AGROPRINT
USAMVBT Pub., Timisoara
***Specifiers Guide. Spray technologies, https://www.spraytechnologies.co.nz/wp-
content/uploads/2017/05/Total-Control-Catalogue.compressed.pdf, accessed in October 2018
***Engineering Information, https://www.bete.com/BETE/media/Documents/Catalog%
20Datasheets/BETE_EngineeringInformation-metric.pdf, accessed in October 2018
***Spray engineering handbook – CTG SH02 EU http://www.sprayernozzle.com.tw/
download/pnr/Technical.pdf, accessed in October 2018

242
47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Stručni rad
ZADACI Expert paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ANALIZA STROJEVA ZA PRIMJENU PESTICIDA

PREGLEDANIH U 2017. GODINI U SLOVENIJI
Tomaž POJE
E-mail: [email protected]
Kmetijski inštitut Slovenije, Oddelek za kmetijsko tehniko in energetiko
Hacquetova ulica 17, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija

SAŽETAK
Redoviti pregledi strojeva za primjenu pesticida izvode se radi provjere dali
zadovoljavaju određene tehničke uvjete radi postizanja visoke razine zaštite
zdravlja ljudi, životinja i okoliša. U radu analizirani su strojevi za primjenu
pesticida, koji su bili pregledani u 2017. godini u Sloveniji. Analizirani su
proizvođači, starost strojeva, distribucija strojeva po statističkim regijama i
broj ispitanih strojeva po danu za pojedinu ispitnu stanicu. Iz baze podataka
Uprave za sigurnost hrane, veterinarstva i zaštite bilja Republike Slovenije
utvrđeno je da je u 2017. godini ispitano 8.302 stroja za aplikaciju pesticida.
Od toga je bilo 66,2 % prskalica i 33,8 % raspršivača. Prskalice su u prosjeku
starije od raspršivača. Četvrtina prskalica je proizvedeno u razdoblju od 1986
do 1990 godine. Između proizvođača prskalica i raspršivača slovenski
proizvođač Agromehanika ima čak 63,5 % udjela.
Ključne riječi: prskalice, raspršivači, pregled, broj, starost, proizvođač

UVOD
Prema podacima Statističkog ureda Republike Slovenije tijekom 2017. godine u Sloveniji
je prodano 1.087 tona aktivnih tvari sredstava za zaštitu bilja (pesticida), što je za 6 % manje
od prethodne godine 2016. Najviše je bilo prodanih fungicida i herbicida. Prodaja pesticida
rasla je od 2014. do 2016. godine, dok je u 2012. i 2013. padala (Maver, 2018).
Sredstvo za zaštitu bilja toliko je efikasno, koliko je dobra njegova primjena. Najčešće
kod aplikacije pesticida upotrebljavamo prskalice i raspršivače. Zakonski propisi za strojeve
za primjenu pesticida važe za nove proizvode i za strojeve koji su već u upotrebi. Za nove
strojeve za primjenu pesticida do 2012. godine u Sloveniji važio je zakonski propis o
certifikaciji novih strojeva. Tek sa certifikatom, da je novi stroj sukladan tehničkim
zahtjevima, mogao je doći u prodaju (Pravilnik o pridobitvi certifikata o skladnosti za
naprave..., 2001). Od 2012. godine na dalje proizvođač strojeva za primjenu pesticida sa CE

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 T. Poje

oznakom garantira, da je prskalica ili raspršivač izrađen prema svim zakonskim uvjetima koji
važe u Sloveniji (Direktiva 2009/127/ES…, 2009; Pravilnik o spremembah in dopolnitvah
Pravilnika o varnosti strojev. 2010). Ovakav sustav vrijedi i u cijeloj EU.
Za prskalice i raspršivače u upotrebi u Sloveniji provode se redoviti pregledi od 1991.
godine. Ovi pregledi provode se zbog provjere da li ovi strojevi zadovoljavaju tehničke
zahtjeve radi postizanja visoke razine zaštite zdravlja ljudi, životinja i okoliša (Pravilnik o
zahtevah glede pravilnega delovanja naprav…, 2013).
Prema "Popisu poljoprivrede 2010", u Sloveniji je 37.204 strojeva za primjenu pesticida.
Od toga je 20.999 traktorskih prskalica i 5.467 traktorskih raspršivača, a ostalo su leđne
prskalice. Većina strojeva nalazi se na poljoprivrednim gospodarstvima koja imaju 5 do 20
hektara zemlje. Iz baze Uprave za sigurnost hrane, veterinarstva i zaštite bilja Republike
Slovenije utvrđeno je da je 2016. godine pregledano 7.809 strojeva za primjenu pesticida. Kod
toga je ustanovljeno, da su prskalice u prosjeku starije od raspršivača (Poje, 2017a). Poje
analizira i podatke o pregledanim strojevima za primjenu pesticida za niz godina između 2010.
i 2016. U tom razdoblju pregledano je 21.963 strojeva, od toga 68,4% su prskalice, a 31,4%
su raspršivači. U Sloveniji prevladavaju prskalice i raspršivači od Agromehanike sa udjelom
od 65,4% (Poje, 2017b). Bernik i Vučajnk (2017) su ustanovili da je u Sloveniji bilo između
2005. i 2014. godine pregledano 51.931 prskalica i 22.535 raspršivača. Od toga je bilo
tehnički neadekvatno 18,2 % prskalica i 13,4 % raspršivača. Bernik i Kuhar (2017) ustanovili
su da se je između 2004. i 2013. kod pregleda strojeva za primjenu pesticida u jugoistočnoj
Sloveniji broj neadekvatnih prskalica i raspršivača smanjio iz 49,2 % na 1,6 %.
Cilj ovoga rada je analiza strojeva za primjenu pesticida, koji su bili pregledani u 2017.
godini. Analizirani su proizvođači, starost strojeva, distribucija strojeva po statističkim
regijama i broj ispitanih strojeva po danu za pojedinu ispitnu stanicu.

METODIKA
U sastavu Ministarstva za poljoprivredu, šumarstvo i prehranu Republike Slovenije nalazi
se i Uprava Republike Slovenije za sigurnost hrane, veterinarstvo i zaštitu bilja. U njihovom
radnom području su i pesticidi. Na tom području pokrivaju i strojeve za primjenu pesticida i
njihovih redovitih pregleda. Na internetskoj stranici http://spletni2.furs.gov.si/FFS/
FFSNaprave/ nalazi se baza podataka o pregledanim strojevima za primjenu pesticida
sukladno zahtjevima Pravilnika o zahtjevima za pravilno funkcioniranje strojeva za primjenu
pesticida te o uvjetima i načinu obavljanja njihovih pregleda (Pravilnik o zahtevah glede
pravilnega delovanja naprav za nanašanje fitofarmacevtskih sredstev in o pogojih ter načinu
izvajanja njihovih pregledov, 2013). U ovoj podatkovnoj bazi korišteni su podaci o
pregledanim strojevima za primjenu pesticida u 2017. godini. Podaci su statistički analizirani
sa deskriptivnom statistikom.

REZULTATI I RASPRAVA
Iz registra Uprave za sigurnost hrane, veterinarstvo i zaštitu bilja analizirali smo strojeve
za aplikaciju pesticida pregledane u 2017. godini. Analizirano je 8.302 strojeva, od toga bilo
je 5.492 prskalica (66,2 %) i 2.808 raspršivača (33,8 %).

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 Analiza strojeva za primjenu pesticida pregledanih u 2017. godini u Sloveniji

Slika 1 prikazuje udio prskalica i raspršivača pregledanih u 2017. godini prema godini
proizvodnje. Modus (najčešće pojavljivana godina proizvodnje) kod raspršivača je godina
1999., a kod prskalica 1988. I iz toga proizlazi da su prskalice u prosjeku starije od
raspršivača. Najviše prskalica je proizvedemo u razdoblju od 1986. do 1990. godine i to čak
četvrtina svih prskalica pregledanih u analiziranoj godini. Slijede prskalice izrađene između
1981. do 1985. godine sa skoro 20 % udjela. Kod raspršivača imaju najveći udio od 21,7 %
strojevi izrađeni između 1996. i 2000. godine. Slijede raspršivači izrađeni između 2006. i
2010. godine sa 14,2 %. Najstarija prskalica izgrađena je 1967. godine, a najstariji raspršivač
potječe iz 1970. Ukoliko se pogleda starost strojeva od 2011. do 2017. vidljivo je da s u
poljoprviredni proizvođači više nabavljali raspršivače nego prskalice.

30

25
Udio (%) Percentage (%)

20

15

10

Godina proizvodnje - Year of production

Razpršivači - Mistblowers Prskalice - Sprayers

Slika 1 Godina proizvodnje prskalica i raspršivača pregledanih u 2017. godini

Figure 1 Year of production of mistblowers and sprayers, which have been tested in the
year 2017

Slika 2 prikazuje proizvođače strojeva za primjenu pesticida sa najvećim postotkom

strojeva pregledanih u 2017. Godini. Kod pregledanih strojeva u 2017. godini utvrđeno je 109
različitih proizvođača. Od toga 31 proizvođač zastupljen je samo sa jednom prskalicom ili
raspršivačem te 102 proizvođača s udjelom manje od 1 % od svih strojeva pregledanih u 2017.
godini. Najviše strojeva za primjenu pesticida potječe od Slovenskog proizvođača
Agromehanike (kod njih su uključeni i strojevi KŽK, koja je bila prethodnica Agromehanike).
Agromehanika ima 63,5 % ili 5.267 strojeva. Slijedi Metalna Rau Maribor sa 9,6 % i Zupan
sa 7,1 %. Dakle prva tri proizvođača su iz Slovenije i imaju ukupno preko 80 % strojeva. Ove
brojke sukladne su sa rezultatima za 2016. godinu i godine od 2010. do 2016. (Poje, 2017a;
Poje, 2017b)
Slika 3 prikazuje udio prskalica i raspršivača u odnosu na statističke regije u Sloveniji.
Vidljivo je da statističke regije Jugovzhodna Slovenija, Koroška, Notranjsko kraška i
Zasavska ne znače puno u poljoprivredi Slovenije ili je tamo takva poljoprivredna proizvodnja

245
 T. Poje

koja ne treba prskanje. Kod raspršivača vidljivo je gdje je najviše vinograda i drugi trajnih
nasada (Goriška, Podravska, Obalno kraška regija). Najveći dio prskalica je u regijama sa vrlo
razvijenom ratarstvom (Podravska i Pomurska regija).

70,0
63,5
60,0

50,0
Udio (%) - Percentage (%)

40,0

30,0

20,0

9,6
10,0 7,1
1,9 1,3 1,2 1,0 0,9 0,7 0,7
0,0

Proizvođać - Producer

Slika 2 Udio pojedinog proizvođača strojeva za primjenu pesticida (prvih 10) pregledanih u
2017. godini
Figure 2 Share of individual producers (top 10) of pesticide application equipment tested in
the year 2017

Slovenija ima 8 ovlaštenih ispitnih stanica za redovite preglede strojeva za aplikaciju

pesticida. Rade prema teritorijalnom principu. Datum pregleda i lokacija zna se unaprijed i
nalazi se na Internet stranici Uprave Republike Slovenije za sigurnost hrane, veterinarstvo i
zaštitu bilja i na internet stranici ispitne stanice. Vlasnici strojeva dobivaju i pismeni poziv na
pregled strojeva za primjenu pesticida. Prije nekoliko godina poljoprivrednik nije mogao
dobiti subvencije ako nije imao pregledanu prskalicu ili raspršivač. Sustav pregleda je u
Sloveniji dobro postavljen i transparentan. Metodika pregleda je propisana, a rad nadgleda
Uprava Republike Slovenije za sigurnost hrane, veterinarstvo i zaštitu bilja i dva inspektora
za poljoprivredu. Zvanično nema nekih velikih nedostataka kod obavljanja pregleda. Po
drugoj strani interesantan je podatak o broju pregledanih strojeva za primjenu pesticida na
istoj lokaciji na isti dan. Kod analize broja radnih dana i lokacija pregleda utvrđeno je da su
sve ispitne stanice zajedno pregledavale 541 dan. 110 dana bilo je pregledanih do 3 strojeva
na dan. Ako pogledamo preostale preglede razvidno je da je najviše pregledanih strojeva u
jednom danu na jednoj lokaciji bilo 49 strojeva. Modus – (najviše dana sa istim brojem
pregledanih strojeva) je bio 23 stroja pregledanih na dan na jednoj lokaciji.
Na slici 4 prikazan je broj pregledanih strojeva na istoj lokaciji na isti dan. Prikazani su
podaci kada je na isti dan na istoj lokaciji bilo pregledanih 25 ili više strojeva. Ovakvih
lokacija odnosno dana ima 95, što je 17,6 % sa obzirom na sve lokacije i dane pregleda.
Defays i Declercq (2018) ustanovljuju da ispitna stanica u Belgiji kod intenzivnog rada
pregleda u prosjeku 10 do 15 strojeva za primjenu pesticida.

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 Analiza strojeva za primjenu pesticida pregledanih u 2017. godini u Sloveniji

30,0

25,0
Udio (%) - percentage (%)

20,0

15,0

10,0

5,0

0,0

regija - Region

Razpršivači - Mistblowers Prskalice - Sprayers

Slika 3 Udio raspršivača i prskalica pregledanih u 2017. godini prema statističkim regijama
u Sloveniji
Figure 3 Share of mistblowers and sprayers, which have been tested in the year 2017, with
regard to statistical region in Slovenia

50
Broj pregledanih strojeva - Number of tested equipments

45

40

35

30

25

20
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85 88 91 94
Lokacija testiranja - Location of testing

Slika 4 Broj pregledanih strojeva prema lokacijama i danima. Prikazani su podaci gdje je na
istoj lokaciji u istom danu pregledano 25 ili više strojeva.
Figure 4 Number of tested equipment with regard to location and day. Data is displayed
where 25 or more equipment were tested on the same day in the same location.

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 T. Poje

ZAKLJUČAK
Iz podataka Uprave za sigurnost hrane, veterinarstva i zaštitu bilja ustanovili smo, da se je
2017. godine pregledalo 8.302 stroja za aplikaciju pesticida. Više od 80 % prskalica i
raspršivača proizvedeno je u Sloveniji. Prva tri mjesta u udjelu strojeva zauzimaju
Agromehanika, Metalna Rau Maribor i Zupan. Prskalice su u prosjeku starije od raspršivača.
Veliki broj strojeva za aplikaciju pesticida je tehnički zastarjelo, mada još odgovaraju
zahtjevima na pregledima. Zato je još značajnija pravilna upotreba strojeva kod primjene
pesticida.
Strojevi za primjenu pesticida navedeni u bazi pregledanih strojeva za 2017. godinu
ispunjavaju minimalne zakonske zahtjeve. Pravilnom primjenom može se i sa takvim
strojevima dosta dobro izvesti aplikaciju pesticida, no aplikacija je puno lakša ako se izvodi
suvremenim strojevima. Trenutno postoje komercijalno dostupni strojevi i uređaju koji mogu
povećati kvalitetu aplikacije i sigurnost korisnika (dodatni rezervoar za miješnja pesticida,
zatvoreni sustavi za pretakanje pesticida, GPS navođenje prskalice, zatvaranje - otvaranja
pojedine sapnice itd.).
Kod upotrebe strojeva za aplikaciju pesticida ustanovljeno je da vrlo malo korisnika
provodi kalibraciju prskalice ili raspršivača prije sezone prskanja. Ovaj postupak često
miješaju sa redovitim pregledima, koje izvode ovlaštene ispitne stanice, a kalibracija je jedan
od temelja dobre aplikacije pesticida.

LITERATURA
Bernik, R., Vučajnk, F. (2017). Tehnično stanje naprav za nanos FFS. Glas dežele, jul. 2017, št. 7, letn.
11, str. 10-11.
Bernik, R., Kuhar, P. (2017). The analysis of technical suitability of the equipment for application of
plant protection products in Southeastern Slovenia. Acta agriculturae Slovenica, vol. 109, no. 2, str.
337-347
Defays, G., Declercq J. (2018). The Belgian experience with sprayer inspection and future challenges.
7th European Workshop on Plant Protection Equipment Inspections - SPISE 7 Workshop – Athens,
Greece, 26 to 28 September 2018, https://spise.julius-kuehn.de/dokumente/upload/7_spise/
9_Huyghebaert_Session1_2018.pdf (10.10.2018)
Direktiva 2009/127/ES evropskega parlamenta in sveta z dne 21. oktobra 2009 o spremembah Direktive
2006/42/ES glede strojev za nanašanje pesticidov. (2009). http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/SL/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32009L0127&from=SL (10.10.2018)
Maver, D. (2018). Prodaja pesticidov, Slovenija, 2017. https://www.stat.si/StatWeb/news/Index/7617
(10.10.2018)
Poje, T. (2017). Opremljenost slovenskih kmetij z napravami za nanašanje FFS. Zbornik simpozija Novi
izzivi v agronomiji 2017. Laško, 2017. Slovensko agronomsko društvo, str. 245-251
Poje, T. (2017). Analiza naprav za varstvo rastlin v Sloveniji. Zbornik radova 45. Međunarodnog
simpozija iz područja mehanizacije poljoprivrede, Aktualni zadaci mehanizacije poljoprivrede,
Opatija, 21. - 24. veljače 2017, Zagreb: Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Agronomski fakultet, Zavod za
mehanizaciju poljoprivrede. str. 277-284
Pravilnik o pridobitvi certifikata o skladnosti za naprave za nanašanje fitofarmacevtskih sredstev (2001).
Uradni list Republike Slovenije 37/01: 4271 - 4277 http://www.uradni-list.si/1/objava.jsp?sop=2001-
01-2122 (10.10.2018)

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Pravilnik o spremembah in dopolnitvah Pravilnika o varnosti strojev (2010). Uradni list Republike
Slovenije 66/2010: 10058- 10059 https://www.uradni-list.si/_pdf/2010/Ur/u2010066.pdf#!/
u2010066-pdf (10.10.2018)
Pravilnik o zahtevah glede pravilnega delovanja naprav za nanašanje fitofarmacevtskih sredstev in o
pogojih ter načinu izvajanja njihovih pregledov (2013). Uradni list Republike Slovenije 101/2013:
11139 - 11163. http://www.uradni-list.si/_pdf/2013/Ur/u2013101.pdf#!/u2013101-pdf (10.10.2018)

ANALYSIS OF PESTICIDE APPLICATION EQUIPMENT

INSPECTED IN THE YEAR 2017 IN SLOVENIA
Tomaž POJE
E-mail: [email protected]
Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Department of Agricultural Engineering and Energetics
Hacquetova 17, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia

ABSTRACT
Regular inspection of pesticide application equipment is performed to verify
whether they meet certain technical requirements to achieve a high level of
human, animal and environmental health protection. The pesticide application
equipment inspected in 2017 in Slovenia was analysed. Manufacturers,
equipment age, equipment distribution by statistical regions and number of
equipment tested per day for each test station were analysed. In Slovenia 8,302
units of pesticide application equipment were inspected in the year 2017
regarding the database of the Administration of the Republic of Slovenia for
Food Safety, Veterinary and Plant Protection. 66,2 % of them were sprayers
and 33,8 % were mistblowers. Sprayers were older than mistblowers. A quarter
of sprayers were made between the years 1986 and 1990. Between producers
of sprayer and mistblowers the share of Slovene company Agromehanika is
63,5 %.
Keywords: sprayers, mistblowers, inspection, number of units, age,
manufacturer

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Stručni rad
ZADACI Expert paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

TECHNOLOGY FOR A ‘BABY LEAF’ PRODUCTION OF

A CORN SALAD AND RADICCHIO
Damijan KELC*, Peter VINDIŠ, Jurij RAKUN, Denis STAJNKO, Miran LAKOTA
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
University in Mariboru, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Pivola 10, 2311 Hoče, Slovenija

SUMMARY
Production potential of Corn salad (Valerianella locusta) and Radicchio
(Cichorium intybus var. foliosum Radicchio Group) were studied for a 'baby
leaf' young cutting leaves. Research took place in experimental plastic
greenhouses, at the University Agricultural Center in Pivola. That is part of the
Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Maribor. Baby leaf-young leaves are
used in various salads and in the preparation of a wide variety of dishes. In the
good technological conditions young leaves could grow very fast. Experimental
treatments included sowing in a plateau of polystyrene with 160 holes. We
tested 1 or 2 seeds per hole. Half of the experiment was fertilized with water-
soluble fertilizer Rosasol N20:K20:P20, on the other half we used only water.
Two different types of Klasmann substrates, tray substrate and bio potgrund
were used. We weighed (g) the Radicchio yield 21st day after sowing. On the
30th day after sowing we weighed the Corn salad. Crops in the non-fertilized
variant are, as was expected, lower, and the quality of the plants is lower. The
higher yield was detected in a tray substrate. It is necessary to make a
calculation if the additional yield in two seeds per hole covers the costs of the
seeds and the costs of additional work with sowing. High density of the plants
causes the greater possibility of fungal diseases, competition for light and
nutrition. In this work we present the crop yield, technology that was used and
overall conditions.
Keywords: substrate, greenhouse, 'baby leaf', yield

INTRODUCTION
Consumer demand for high-quality, fresh-cut vegetables has increased rapidly in the last
decades. Fresh cut vegetables contain many vitamins and minerals which are very important
in the process of metabolism in the human body. Vegetables are important part of healthy
eating and provide a source of many nutrients, including potassium, fibre, folate (folic acid)

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and vitamins A, E and C. Potassium may help to maintain healthy blood pressure. Dietary
fibre from vegetables helps reduce blood cholesterol levels and may lower risk of heart disease
(Choose my plate, 2018)
Hymans has been cultivating vegetables for a long time in similar ways that we do today
in the hydroponic systems. Plants can grow directly on water or can be precise regulated by
the irrigation. An amount of oxygen in the water and an appropriate level of nutrients in the
growing medium is very important in production process. By 1519, when the first Spanish
conquerors landed in Hernan Cortes in Mexico, the Aztecs controlled the empire in which
five to six million people lived. This meant that the exploitation of land for agricultural
purposes had to be strengthened. This is evident from the use of the ‘chimpas’ system, the so-
called ‘floating gardens’ found on the shallow lakes of the Mexican valley. This is one of the
first known hydroponics systems in the world. (Ancient Origins, 2014). In 1948 the English
agricultural engineers presented hydroponics to the poor Bengals (Kogoj Osvald and Osvald,
2005).
The corn salad and radicchio production for young cut 'baby leaf' leaves in Slovenia is
located in closed, temperature secured rooms on mobile tables or on the ground. The
production could be also on the fields outside. The differences are between the production
technologies. Glass greenhouses and plastic houses are suitable. The usual size of the
production table is 2 m x 10 m. In one greenhouse 20-25 tables are mounted. If the vegetable
is grown on the ground, the work is still demanding, and in this case, it is advisable to use
machinery and machines adapted to sowing, cutting and picking salad, which represents a big
financial contribution. In Slovenia, movable tables are mainly static and can’t be moved and
run across rails to another place where they would be driven across the cutting machine and
cut all the table at the same time. Since this type of technology represents a great deal of time
and a lot of manual work, many other procedures have been invented (figure 1).

Figure 1 Quick cut greens harvester.

There are quite a number of companies involved in the production of cutting machines. It
is also necessary to connect the technology of salad production and salad harvesting to work
quickly and with the lowest possible costs. To start production, it is necessary to test the
growing conditions, harvest and marketing. Investment in machine high technology is very
expensive.

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Both types of chicory can tolerate fall frosts very well, although growth in very cold
weather is slow. Leafier plants and varieties are harder and may be cut even when completely
frozen. After thawing slowly, the damaged outer leaves can be peeled away leaving the head
itself in usable condition, although not necessarily marketable (Radicchio and Sugarloaf,
2016).
Dalla Costa (2011) reported that soil temperature has a crucial impact on physiological
processes and growth of plants with important consequences for plant productivity and food
safety including nitrate accumulation in leaf blades of leaf vegetables. The researches made
temperature modulation which should help in nitrate concentration control in fresh vegetables,
an important trait of product safety. Corn salad plants (Valerianella locusta (L.) Laterr.
Cultivar Gala) were grown at three root temperatures (15, 20, and 25 oC) in a floating system.
This experimental setup allowed to directly evaluate the effect of root temperature on yield
and plant quality excluding the effect on soil processes and properties. Results showed that
growing conditions at 20 oC of the nutrient solution led to the best plant performance in terms
of yield, nitrate content at leaf level, root biomass, leaf area, and greenness with positive
effects on postharvest quality, i.e., less rapid leaf loss of greenness and leaf fresh weight (FW)
loss during conservation at 4 oC. Plants grown at 15 oC showed minor growth, whereas the
nutrient solution at 25 oC caused stress for the plants affecting negatively the quality and yield.
Overall, the results obtained showed that root temperature plays a fundamental role in several
plant processes that affect yield and its quality; for hydroponic system cultivations, a level of
growing-medium temperature close to that of the surrounding air seems suitable.
Petropoulos (2016) reported that there has been a growing trend towards
cultivating leafy vegetables in hydroponic systems. Floating system is an alternative
hydroponic system suitable for the production of baby vegetable products, ready-to eat salads
and minimally processed leafy vegetables. Due to the higher and higher demand of
vegetables, various production techniques are tested. Plants grow without the presence of
earth. Roots can float in water, above them are polystyrene plate with plants. All nutrients are
dissolved in the water and ventilation should be well organized. Often an inert rock wool
medium is also used, offering space for the roots. Salad and other vegetables have been used
as a sedative for centuries. Successfully cleans and regulates blood pH (reduces acidity). It is
highly recommended for heart and kidney patients (Kogoj Osvald and Osvald, 1994). It is also
very useful to add carbon dioxide (CO2) every week. When it is used properly, we can
increase the crop by 25%. (Đubrovka et al., 2006).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An autochthonous Slovenian variety, Radič Tržaški solatnik/Zuccherina di Trieste was
chosen. Seeds sprout for 5-14 days. It is a chopper cutter, whose tasty fine, light green leaves
are cut all year. Very good wintering. If we root the roots, we produce fine, bright yellow
delicious heads. Fresh salad from summer to spring! Light green, smooth and gentle leaves
grow well. After thinning, it develops pointed, green heads. We remember that the leaves
remain gentle and dressed.
As a corn salad we choose a cultivar Motovilec Ljubljanski. It has dark green, long, bright
and very delicious leaves. We maintain a variety in Slovenia. It originates from Ljubljana and
its surroundings.

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Figure 2 Sowing the seeds in a polystyrene plateau, 160 holes, 1 seed per hole.

Treatment included sowing in a plateau of polystyrene with 160 holes per 1 or 2 seeds per
hole (figure 2). After sowing, the plateau was left in the calliper (figure 3) at a temperature of
28 oC, and relative humidity of 96% until the next day. The seeds wait about 20 days for corn
salad in the caliper. We have to be in the last days very careful in the calliper, because young
germs would quickly ‘overgrow’. Half of the plateau was fertilized with water-soluble
fertilizers Rosasol N 20: P 20: K 20, the other half of the plateau was only watered. We used
two different types of Klasmann substrate, namely tray substrate and Bio potgrund. The yield
of the radicchio weight (g) of one hole was weighed on the 21st and 28th day after sowing. At
the Corn salad the weighing took place at 30th and 39th days after sowing. For corn salad we
have weight the mass of 5 holes. With one seed we sown 4 plates in a tray substrate and 4
plates in a bio potgrund substrate. With two seeds, we also sown 4 plates in a tray substrate
and 4 plates in a bio potgrund substrate. Then we split the plateau into half. One half was just
watered, the other half was fertilized with Rosasol N 20: P 20: K 20, at a concentration of 3
grams per litter of water. This is 1 g of fertilizer more as we did last year at the cultivar Lettuce
Ljubljanska ledenka (Kelc et. al., 2018).

Figure 3 Plateaus stacked in calliper at 28 degrees Celsius.

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The first weighing of the Radicchio took place 21 days after sowing and the second 28
days after sowing of Radicchio. At the Corn salad the weighing took place at 30th and 39th
days after sowing.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The experiment shows that Radicchio leaves are not commercial developed enough 21
days after sowing for sale, as their weight (g) is too small compared to day 28 after sowing.
Crops in the non-fertilized variant (especially in the case of two seeds per hole) are expected
to be too low, and the quality of the plants does not reach the market quality. We note that
crops are the highest in the case when fertilizer is used. Which means that the use of fertilizers
is necessary in the case of commercial growing vegetables for the market. The big difference
is in the harvest on the 21st or 28th day after sowing. The two seeds in the fertilized tray
substrate 21 day after sowing yield 1.3 g of the crop. Already on the 28th day the yield is 4.1
g per hole. The difference is more than 3 times.

2 seed TRAY (2ST)

1 seed BIO (1SB)

1 seed TRAY (1ST)

1 seed TRAY fertilized (1STF)

1 seed BIO fertilized (1SBF)

2 seed TRAY fertilized (2STF)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

Figure 4 Radicchio production per hole (g) on the 21st day after sowing

2 seed TRAY (2ST)

1 seed BIO (1SB)

1 seed TRAY(1ST)

1 seed TRAY fertilized (1STF)

1 seed BIO fertilized (1SBF)

2 seed TRAY fertilized (2STF)

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

Figure 5 Radicchio production per hole (g) on the 28st day after sowing

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A very big difference is also when using 2 or 1 seeds per hole. Day 28 in the fertilized tray
substrate and 2 seeds give us 4.1 g of crop to the hole. If we use one seed, the yield is reduced
to 1.9 g. There is a very large difference indicating that in the case of Radicchio, sowing of
two seeds should be used, because only in this way we can expect competitive crops for the
market production. Compared with our previous study on salad (Kelc et. al., 2018), this means
that the price of additional seed represents a cost that would be recovered in the production
process. At the Radicchio production, we recommend the sowing of two seeds into one hole
in a 160-hole polystyrene plate. It is interesting that if the fertilizer is used, the difference in
the higher yield is only 7.3%, which is really small and hardly covers the extra work and
fertilizer costs. It may be better if we can test the effect of fertilizer after the first cut in the
next growing period. The level of fertilizer in the substrate would be significantly smaller and
the additional fertilizer would be very welcome. Due to the higher price of the bio substrate
and smaller crops, we recommend for a Radicchio tray substrate or some comparable
substrate.
Petropoulos (2016) reported that increasing the N application rate resulted in an increase
of fresh weight of the above-ground parts of lettuce. Total yield ranged between 12.0 to 41.9
kg m-2 of fresh ‘baby leaf’ leaves. Richardson and Redgrave (1992), reported that not only
temperature but also nitrogen fertilizer rate may affect head weight and total yield of lettuce
grown in a glasshouse. Kotsiras et al. (2016) find out significantly lower total yields than at
the present study. This was 4.0 to 9.0 kg m-2 of fresh weight. Difference could be attributed
to the different lettuce types (Lollo Rosso and Batavia) and plant densities (20- 30 plants m2),
comparing to further study. There was also a clear indication that harvest practice significantly
affected storage life (SL), relative fresh weight (RFW) and visual appearance rating (VAR)
of all lettuce types.
For corn salad we have 39 days after sowing at least 2 times higher yield than 30 days.
The difference in weight is 101 grams. This is high and it is highly recommended to cultivate
39 days after sowing. A very good results were achieved with bio substrate in growing corn
salad. In the case of fertilizing the bio and tray substrate and using of 1 seed in the bio substrate
and 2 seeds in the tray substrate, the bio-substrate has only 7% smaller yield. Here it is very
important to do another experiment with sowing 2 seeds in a bio substrate. It is assumed that
the yield in this case would be even better than the tray substrate. This suggests that before
starting the production it is advisable to do a search of several different methods of production.
Our sowing plates have a dimension 520 mm x 323 mm. On a table of 20 m2, lay 120
plates. 590 g can be the best result for corn salad on one cultivation plateau. At 1 m2, we had
6 plateaus. This represents 3540 g per 1 m2 of greenhouse surface in 39 days. Price for 1 kg
of a Corn salad is at local market 12 €. This would mean 42 € revenue per square meter. If we
made a big effort, we could have 9 growth cycles throughout the year. 378 € is a hypothetical
profit in one year per 1 m2 of surface. If we have a medium-sized greenhouse of 10 m x 20 m,
we could earn on 180 m2 of 68 040 € in one year on the assumption that we would sell all the
production at the market, or at home for 12 €/kg. Corn salad can’t be grown throughout the
year, but we could earn a profit, because of the combination in the culture where we can expect
the price of 8 € m-2. So, the profits would be reduced by some 30%. For a ‘baby leaf’ lettuce
we can get 8 €/kg and for Radicchio at least 10 € m-2. Earnings would still be very nice, 47,600
€ per year. Of this income, the entire family could live. For young families that are thinking
of having a Farm, this news is very encouraging.

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2 seed TRAY (2ST)

1 seed BIO (1SB)

1 seed TRAY (1ST)

1 seed TRAY fertilized (1STF)

1 seed BIO fertilized (1SBF)

2 seed TRAY fertilized (2STF)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Figure 6 Corn salad production per hole (g) on the 30th day after sowing

2 seed TRAY (2ST)

1 seed BIO (1SB)

1 seed TRAY(1ST)

1 seed TRAY fertilized (1STF)

1 seed BIO fertilized (1SBF)

2 seed TRAY fertilized (2STF)

0 50 100 150 200 250

Figure 7 Corn salad production per hole (g) on the 39th day after sowing

CONCLUSIONS
In the research greenhouses of the University Agricultural Center at the Faculty of
Agriculture and Life Sciences Maribor, we have tested the production potential of Corn salad
(Valerianella locusta) and Radicchio (Cichorium intybus var. foliosum Radicchio Group). We
planted 1 and 2 seeds in a 160-hole plate with polystyrene. Half of the plates were fertilized
with Rosasol N20:P20:K20. We used two Klasmann substrates, a tray substrate and a bio
potgrund. The yield per hole (g) was weighed on the 21st and 28th day after sowing for
Radicchio and at 30th and 39th days after sowing for Corn salad. At the Radicchio production,
we recommend the sowing of two seeds into one hole. Leaves are not developed enough 21
days after sowing for sale, as their weight (g) is too small compared to day 28 after sowing.
The highest yield we achieved at day 28 with 2 seeds and with use of fertilizer. For Corn salad
we have 39 days after sowing 2 times higher yield than 30 days. It is highly recommended to
cultivate till day 39. A very good results were achieved with bio substrate in growing corn
salad, with almost the same quantity of crop as a tray substrate. We also propose fertilization

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at each watering in the amount of 3 g of fertilizer per litter of water. We estimated that an
additional crop with two seeds does cover the cost of additional seeds. The production of
young cutting leaves has potential to be very interesting and a well-accepted strategy on the
competitive market. For farms, it can represent significant income as a basic or additional
activity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The results presented are an integral part of the project CRP V4-1815 entitled "Reducing
of draught stress and increasing of soil fertility by introducing conservation (conservation)
soil tillage into sustainable agriculture", which is financed by the Slovenian Research Agency
and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food of the Republic of Slovenia.

REFERENCES
Dalla Costa, L., Tomasi, N., Gottardi, S., Iacuzzo F., Cortella, G., Manzocco, L., Pinton, R., Mimmo,
T., Cesco S. (2011). The Effect of Growth Medium Temperature on Corn Salad (Valerianella locusta,
(L.) Laterr.). Hort Science, 46(12):1619–1625. 2011.
Đurovka, M., Lazić, B., Bajkin, A., Potkonjak, A., Marković, V., Ilin, Ž., Todorović, V. (2006).
Proizvodnja povrća i cveća u zaštićenom prostoru. Poljoprivredi fakultet, Novi Sad, Poljoprivredni
fakultet, Banja Luka, 501 pages.
Kelc, D., Vindiš, P., Berk, P., Rakun, J., Stajnko, D., Lakota, M. (2018). Testing Lettuce, cultivar
‘ljubljanska’ ledenka, for ‘baby leaf’ production. Proceedings 46th International Symposium: Actual
tasks on agricultural engineering, Opatija, Croatia, 27th February - 1st March, 2018.
Kogoj Osvald, M., Osvald, J. (1994). Pridelovanje zelenjave na vrtu (1994). Ljubljana. Kmečki glas.
Kogoj Osvald, M., Osvald, J. (2005). Hidroponsko gojenje vrtnin (2005). Ljubljana. Univerza v
Ljubljani, Biotehniška fakulteta, oddelek za agronomijo.
Kotsiras, A., Vlachodimitropoulou, A., Gerakaris, A., Bakas, N., Darras, A.I. (2016). Innovative harvest
practices of Butterhead, Lollo rosso and Batavia green lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) types grown in
floating hydroponic system to maintain the quality and improve storability. Scientia Horticulturae
210:1-9.
Petropoulos, S.A., Chatzieustratiou, E., Constantopoulou, E., Kapotis, G. (2016). Yield and Quality
of Lettuce and Rocket Grown in Floating Culture System. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici
Cluj-Napoca, 44(2):603-612.
Radicchio and Sugarloaf Chicory Production (2016). Johnny’s Selected Seeds. Retrieved on 20.
November 2018 at: http://demandware.edgesuite.net/bbbw_prd/on/demandware.static/-/Library-
Sites-JSSSharedLibrary/default/dw3e6f9d67/assets/information/chicory-radicchio-sugarloaf-
production.pdf
Richardson, S.J., Hardgrave, M. (1992). Effect of temperature, carbon dioxide enrichment, nitrogen
form and rate of nitrogen fertiliser on the yield and nitrate content of two varieties of glasshouse
lettuce. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 59(3):345-349.
USDA. (2018). Choose my plate. All about the vegetable group United States department of
Agriculture. Retrieved on 22. November 2018 at: https://www.choosemyplate.gov/vegetables
***Ancient Origins (2014). Chinampas, The Floating Gardens of Mexico. Retrieved on 22. September
2017 at: http://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-americas/ chinampas-floating-gardens-
mexico-001537

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SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

PRELIMINARY RESULTS ON BLOOMING CHARGE

ASSESSMENT IN APPLE ORCHARDS FOR AUTOMATIC
THINNING ACTIVITIES
Gabriele DAGLIO*, Raimondo GALLO, Stefania PETRERA, Fabrizio MAZZETTO
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bozen (FUB),
Piazza Universitá 5, 39100 Bolzano (Italy)

ABSTRACT
The aim of this work is to develop an automatic system able to provide
objective information about the bloom charge in apple orchard to be used as
managing tool for flower thinning activities. Usually, this procedure is carried
out manually, based upon the personal experience of the operator. The paper
presents and discusses the use of a mobile lab (ByeLab) to carry out a site-
specific bloom charge assessment in apple trees using optical sensors. The
Byelab has been equipped with several sensors, such as a GNSS-RTK system,
three optical sensors (OptRx) two LiDAR sensors and an Inertial Measurement
Unit (IMU). While the OptRx and LIDAR have been used in order to provide
Vegetation Index (VI) and to detect the surface profile of the scanned canopy,
the GNSS-RTK unit has been used to georeferencing all the data collected by
the optical sensor and the LIDARs. Finally, the IMU has been used to correct
the acquired dataset filtering noises and distortions due to the vibrations
generated by terrain roughness.
LabView application has been used in order to synchronize data collected
by sensors. Then, all the acquisitions have been processed by specific algorithm
implemented in MatLab.
Three surveys carried on April 2018 in order to cover the whole blooming
period: pre-blooming, full-blooming and post-blooming.
Before running ByeLab field tests, thanks to preliminary investigations on
flower reflectance signature it has been possible to understand that the NDVI
can be the most suitable parameter to be used to discriminate leaves from
flowers. Indeed, the NDVI value has a negative correlation with the bloom
charge since pure flowers shown NDVI values slightly negative, anyhow very
near to 0.

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Despite the homogeneous behavior of the flower NDVI response, the use of
OptRx sensors, since they give back an average assessment of an area, was not
able to highlight significant correlations between the number of flowers and the
NDVI values. In the future, further studies will be conducted in order to assess
if other techniques based on image analyses can give back better and more
sensitive results regarding the bloom charge assessment. Those results can be
used as reference for automating machines to be applied in thinning operations
according to a site-specific approach.
Keywords: Optical sensors, Mobile lab, Precision Farming, Ground based
sensing, Vegetation Index.

INTRODUCTION

The flower thinning is one of the most important agronomical operation in apple orchard
management. It consists in the removal of a quantity of flowers to ensure an appropriate rate
of them as well as of the fruits. This procedure can be done with manually or mechanical
methods or, through the spraying of chemicals products (Xiao et al., 2014). The two last
methods are done in order to reduce the operative cost of the first methods. In order to perform
a correct thinning, it is necessary estimate the density of the blooming charge. Usually, this
procedure is carried out by specialized staff, based upon the experience of the operator with
an important time spending. The ground remote-sensing technologies can be useful to
automate these procedures. Indeed, through the use of optical sensors installed on vehicles
(aerial or terrestrial), they are able to provide punctual information, about the crop, such as:
bloom-charge, canopy volume, distance between plants, number of trees or healthy status of
the monitored crop (Rosell et al., 2009, Ristorto et al., 2017, Gallo et al., 2017). In this paper
is described the use of a mobile laboratory equipped with several sensors, called ByeLab, at
the aim to evaluate its ability provide objective information about the bloom charge in apple
orchard to be used as managing tool for flower thinning activities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The testing-area consists of two rows with plants of Malus domestica variety Kanzi®
located to the “Azienda sperimentale Laimburg”, Bolzano, Italy. The single rows are divided
in several transept trained with alternate system (2D and Spindel).
First of all, the manual count of the flowers has been made in order to know the real
number of flowers per plants. The data obtained were used for data validation of the
assessment performed with those collected by the ByeLab.
Three surveys with the ByeLab, in April 2018, were carried out in order detect the
blooming charge during the whole blooming period: pre, full and post-blooming (Fig. 1).

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Figure 1 From left to right, apple tree in the phases of pre, full and post-blooming.

The experimental design foreseen to carry out three repetitions for each semi-canopy, in
every survey day.
The Byelab (Fig. 2) is a modified tracked bins-carrier (NEO Alpin by Windegger S.r.l.,
Lana, Bolzano, Italy). It is electric-driven and wireless remote-controlled vehicle with
compact dimensions and for this experimentation it has been equipped with:
- GNSS system (GEOMAX Zenith 35);
- three OptRx™ AgLeadear optical sensors able to measure the reflectance and calculate
VI values;
- two LiDAR (SICK LMS111) sensors used to detect the profile of the canopy;
- an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) (LMRK 10 AHRS) able to get data on the mobile
robot orientation (to be used to correct sensor data when influenced by relevant
vibrations generated by terrain roughness).

Figure 2 The ByeLab

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The sensors have different sample acquisition frequency, then, thus collected data are
firstly synchronized by a LabView® software, running on the control unit. Then, the recorded
data has been processed by dedicated algorithms in MatLab®.
In order to better evaluate the features of the flower reflectance signature some preliminary
investigations were performed before running ByeLab field tests. To this aim, a portable
spectrophotometer (Jaz Ocean Optics Spectrometers) was used to analyze the different
reflectance behavior of different plant organs (petals, corolla, flowers, leaves, trunks) in order
to better understand the VI measures got by tools, such as OptRx ™. From the values of the
reflectance at the RED, RedEdge and NIR wavelengths several vegetation indexes have been
calculated.
The information related to the canopy thickness, collected by the LiDARs mounted on the
ByeLab, were validated using a Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) (model CAM2 FARO). The
raw-data collected by TLS were elaborated with FARO Scene 7.1.1 software in order to obtain
a 3D model to compare with that obtained by LiDARs.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

From the analysis of the spectral signature, it is possible to see that for the same plant
organ (flowers and leaves), sampled from different trees, spectrums have similar patterns, but
they present different values for the same wave length (Fig. 3).

Figure 3 Spectral signature of two pairs of flower and apple leaves collected from different
trees.

This issue is overcome through the VI computation, able to confirm the pattern differences
while disregarding absolute values on single wavelengths. In addition to the VIs already well
known in literature (eg. NDVI), new specific VIs has been tested in order to better consider
the specific signature shape of flowers. From the tests done it has been possible to understand
that the NDVI can be the most suitable parameter to be used to discriminate leaves from
flowers. Moreover, it was observed that low and high NDVI values correspond to the flowers
and to the leaves, respectively (Fig. 4).

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Figure 4 NDVI index associated to lower and upper surface of leaves (on the left) and to
flowers and petals (on the right). Pure flowers show NDVI values slightly negative, anyhow
very near to 0.

Considering the values of the NDVI associated to the flowers and leaves, from the
elaboration of the data collected with the ByeLab we expect a negative correlation between
NDVI value and number of flowers: the lower the NDVI value, the higher the charge of
blooming. In figure 5 the expected behavior between amount of flower and NDVI value is
reported.

Figure 5 Expected correlation between NDVI value and amount of flowers.

Comparing the TLS and ByeLab (LiDAR) scans there is an evident stretching of the image
and consequently measures of the latter when the top view scan is considered (Fig. 6). Reason
for that could be a time delay in the communication with LiDAR and GPS, due to a difference
in the acquisition frequency as well as the difference characteristics of the two surveys: the
TLS carries out static measurements while the ByeLab does dynamic assessments. However,
from the images it is possible to get, even if approximatively, important information, such as
the change in training, the thickness of the canopy, identification of small plants, gaps between
plants, poles of irrigation system and of training system.

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 G. Daglio, R. Gallo, S. Petrera, F. Mazzetto

Figure 6 Top-view TLS (above) and ByeLab (below) scan of row. In black the point of
change in training system. It is visible the stretching between the two scans.

Another output of the research is the drawing of descriptive maps (Fig. 7) related to the
amount of flowers for three different heights of the canopy. This remarkable result was
obtained by the merging of LiDAR and OptRx® data providing information about canopy
thickness and NDVI index values. White and yellow colors have been associated with low
NDVI values, then at a high number of flowers, while cyan and green colors are associated to
high NDVI values and then at a low blooming charge. In pre-blooming can be noticed that
the predominant colour is not green, as expected. This could be due to the fact that the leaves
are still small and cannot be clearly percept by the sensors. In full blooming the white and
yellow should increase, instead in the post blooming the cyan and green boxes should be
predominant. These supplicative descriptive maps could be used as reference for automatic
activation of machines (sprayers) and pruning activities. Taking care of these results a
redesign of the system with two-dimensional and multi-parametric scans, which combine
more signals would be necessary.

Figure 7 Descriptive maps of one row divided in equal sections along the longitudinal axle,
showing NDVI classes (withe and yellow represent high and moderate blooming charge,
respectively;while cyan and green represent moderate and high amount of leaves) and
thickness classes for the canopy during the blooming period.

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 Preliminary results on blooming charge assessment in apple orchards for automatic thinning activities

From the results obtained by the processing of the collected data with ByeLab it is evident
that the NDVI trend in full blooming, compared with pre and post blooming, is always lower.
This is due to the higher amount of white provided by the flowers.
However, the variation trend of the NDVI index, between absence of flowers and full
blooming period (0.2-0.3), is really too scarce to set vegetative index threshold to be used as
reference to estimate the density of blooms.
Considering the information obtained by the elaboration of the ByeLab surveys, is
necessary to consider that sensors, such as the OptRx™ was not useful for the focus of the
project. Indeed, these sensors perform mono-dimensional scans obtaining an averaged value
of reflectance of an entire area dependent from the scan characteristics of the sensor. The
obtained value depends by the actual composition (leaves, flowers, and surrounding) of the
surveyed area.
The standard mono-dimensional scans, similar to the one used for the evaluation of the
vegetative status of plants inside the orchards, results being not enough efficient for reaching
the designated aim. This is due to the fact that the regulation gap can be too easily influenced
by the background noise levels (variability of the signal) that are normally present.
Nevertheless, as already demonstrated in other crop monitoring applications, the utility of
these active sensors in Precision Agriculture applications is due to their cheapness, robustness
and quick real time response (Maharlooeic et al., 2014).

CONCLUSION
Despite the homogeneous behavior of the flower NDVI response, the use of OptRx™
sensors was not able to highlight significant correlations between the number of flowers and
the NDVI values. Thus, one-dimensional sensors - such as OptRx™ - do not seem suitable to
be applied to perform an estimation of the flower charge. To increase the reliability of the
system, a higher number of sensors per side (4 or more instead of 3) will be investigated in
next field tests.
However, the combination of LiDAR and OptRx™ data is already able to improve the
quality of the detection. In fact, merging the data collected by the two types of sensors it is
possible to build descriptive maps, which provide information about canopy thickness and
vegetation index values. These can be used as reference for automating machines to be applied
in thinning operations according to a site-specific approach.
To propose future applications of a system, which is able to provide information about the
condition of the crop in real time, it is necessary to evaluate the calculation time-consumption,
for knowing if it is possible to get this system in practice.
It would be useful to evaluate the use of different algorithms, studying the correlations
obtained by setting filters that give greater importance to the lower NDVI values found in the
investigated areas.
To overcome the problem of the one-dimensional scan, two-dimensional scans, for
example a pixel matrix, such as the one provided by multicameras, should be used. In this
case, it could be possible to do a prelaminar classification of the area that should be referred
to each specific vegetative part of the plant (flower, leaves, background).

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REFERENCES
Gallo, R., Ristorto, G., Daglio, G., Massa, N., Berta, G., Lazzari, M., Mazzetto, F. (2017).
New solutions for the automatic early detection of diseases in vineyards through ground
sensing approaches integrating lidar and optical sensors, Chemical Engineering
Transactions, 58, 673-678 DOI: 10.3303/CET1758113.
Maharlooeic, M., Sivarajan, S., Nowatzki, J., Bajwa, S.G., Kandel, H. (2014). Evaluation of
in-field sensors to monitor nitrogen status in soybean crops. 12th International
Conference on Precision Agriculture., At International Society of Precision Agriculture,
Sacramento, California.
Ristorto, G., Gallo, R., Gasparetto, A., Scalera, L., Vidoni, R., Mazzetto, F. (2017). A mobile
laboratory for orchard health status monitoring in precision farming, Chemical
Engineering Transactions, 58, 661-666 DOI: 10.3303/CET1758111.
Rosell, J.R, Llorens, J., Sanz, R., Arnó, J., Ribes-Dasi, M., Masip, J., Escolá A., Camp, F.,
Solanelles, F., Grácia, F, Gil, E., Val, L., Planas, S., Palac, J. (2009). Obtaining the three-
dimensional structure of tree orchards from remote 2D terrestrial LIDAR scanning,
Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, vol. 149, pp. 1505–1515 DOI:10.106/j.agrformet.
2009.04.08
Xiao, C., Zheng, L., Sun, H., Zhang, Y., Li, M. (2014). Estimation of the Apple Flowers Based
on Aerial Multispectral Image. ASABE Paper No. 141912593. St. Joseph, Mich.:
ASABE.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Pregledni rad
ZADACI Review paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

SMALL GREENHOUSE ROBOTIZED SOLUTIONS:

STATE OF THE ART AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Oana Corina GHERGAN, Dumitru ȚUCU*, Anuța IUSCO, Daniela DRĂGHICESCU,
Roxana Mihaela BABANATIS MERCE
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
Department of Mechanical Machines, Equipment and Transportation, Mechanical Engineering
Faculty, POLITEHNICA University, Bd. Mihai Viteazul, No. 1, Timișoara, România

SUMMARY
Nowadays, precision agriculture means also, the application of high
technologies, such as automation, robotics and computing in the agriculture
and, particularly in this case, the greenhouse farming. This paper was focused
on the state-of-the-art analysis of the main robotized solutions available
regarding greenhouse environmental monitoring and control and greenhouse
agricultural works. The analysis aims to transfer solutions from general
agrobots and cobots to greenhouse farming (GF). Since, one of the biggest
encountered problems is the use of low cost robots for small farms greenhouses,
the paper try to select the criteria (costs, technical capability, reliability etc.),
to find the optimum solutions. The practical reasons involve: cost-efficiency of
robotics, use of robots in safe conditions or knowledge transfer problem from
farmers to the computer. The most important conclusions after questionnaire
on 20 specialists (10 in robotics and 10 in greenhouse farming) were:
agricultural tasks could be: transplanting and seeding, plant protection and
weed control, harvesting and packaging; supporting tasks must be: guidance
and navigation, mapping and location, fruit selecting and grasping; robot
structure must include: 4 wheel steering system controlled by ultrasonic
sensors, 2 controllers (ARDUINO OR RASPBERRY), binocular stereo vision,
power supplying system and optional: 5 DoF harvesting system, 2 linear laser
scanner. This work proposes a viable solution given by specialists, which could
be implemented in the specified conditions of using the robots in greenhouses
in the Romanian Banat area.
Keywords: agricultural robotics, small greenhouse farming, optimization

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 O. C. Ghergan, D. Țucu, A. Iusco, D. Drăghicescu, R. M. Babanatis Merce

INTRODUCTION
In the last decades, extensive researches have been conducted in agricultural robotic field.
Modern agriculture was developed constantly, and the applications on this case allowed the
trends in technological advancements.
Increasing of the labor force costs, and decreasing of their disposability, the high volume
of seasonal labor, the high quality agricultural products with respect to security, and reducing
pollution produced by agricultural activities generates needs for automation (Zujevs et al.,
2015; Adamides et al, 2017, Maris et al, 2017; Tucu et al, 2010; Bechar and Vigneault, 2016;
Bechar and Vigneault, 2017; Ampatzidis et al., 2017).
According to Straten et al. (2011), the greenhouse industry will show substantial growth,
especially in upcoming economies, over open air cultivation. Aravind et al. (2017) consider
in their study that agricultural infrastructure is dynamic. Also, complex infrastructure and
facilities with costly machines are required to completely automate an agricultural process
and to integrate it (Mnerie et al, 2008).
In order not to spend considerable money on infrastructure, intelligent mobile robots
(which possess specific task capabilities and that are able to move and adapt in the field) can
be developed to reduce production costs, by involving the necessity of new methods in
investments dimensions, as life cycle costs, fuzzy, or investments feasibility analysis (Tucu,
2012; Tucu et al, 2010; Tucu and Hollerbach, 2011).
Adamides et al. (2017) evaluated the HRI usability in a tele-operated agricultural robotic
sprayer, for an effective and efficient human-robot interaction. They examined the influence
of the output devices, the peripheral vision support mechanisms and the control input devices.
A modular user interface was constructed and field-tested.
One of the most important tasks of the modern technology is the creation of autonomous
machines that do not require constant attention, with small needs of maintenance and
administration (Dokin et al., 2016). There are a lot of technologies, methods and algorithms,
in exponential incretion, utilized and applied in agriculture for automated and robotic farming
that can be transferred (adapted) to small greenhouses. Some of the actual subjects will be
summarized in order to have an overall outlook about this subject.
This paper focused on the state-of-the-art analysis of main robotized solutions available
regarding greenhouse environmental monitoring and control and greenhouse agricultural
works. The object of analysis aimed to transfer solutions from general agrobots and cobots to
greenhouse farming (GF). Because one of the biggest encountered problem was the use of
low cost robots for small farms greenhouses, the paper tried to select the criteria (costs,
technical capability, reliability etc.), to find the optimum solutions. The practical reasons
involved: cost-efficiency of robotics, use of robots in safe conditions and knowledge transfer
problem from farmers to the computer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Initially an overview regarding actual methods used for design and realization of robots in
greenhouse was done. The significant ideas were registered. In second step of documentation
the study was extended to main robotized solutions available regarding greenhouse
environmental monitoring and control and greenhouse agricultural works. Based on such

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 Small greenhouse robotized solutions: State of the art and future perspectives

results a synthesis for comparison of the main robotized solutions given in the last three years
by scientists, which could be used in greenhouses was accomplished.
The identified concepts were distributed in four sections:
1. Agricultural tasks: F1.1-F1.7;
2. Suporting tasks (functionalities): F2.1-F2.5;
3. Cost of the equipment: F3.1-F3.6;
4. Technical characteristics (robot structure): F4.1-F4.13 (see table 1).
Based on selected indicators a questionnaire was drafted and distributed to 20 specialists
(10 in robotics and 10 in greenhouse farming), using the method of correlation of rank
(psychological experiment), (Crisan et al., 2017; Gusetoiu et al., 2013; Gusetoiu et al., 2012).
The results were evaluated by statistical analysis, both Microsoft Excel 2016 and
STATGRAPHICS Centurion, for correct and find the best solutions (in conditions of
differences between specialists’ opinions), maximum values and indicators hierarchy.
The most important conclusions of the work will serve to propose a viable structure
solution given by specialists, which could be implemented in the specified conditions of using
the robots in greenhouses in the Romanian Banat area, according to research cycle presented
in figure 1.

Indicators Specialists'
Market Problems Scientific
opinions Solutions
study Values encountered study
analysis

Figure 1 Research cycle

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The synthesis of the main robotized solutions given in the last three years by scientists,
which could be used in greenhouses is presented in table 1.

Table 1 A comparison of the main robotized solutions given in the last three years by
scientists, which could be used in greenhouses
Objective and Performance /
Method / Algorithm Design and Realization
Destination Experimental results
1 2 3 4
Mobile robot with ● Hector Simultaneous • four wheels drive platform The robot is able to adapt
autonomous Localization and • four motors (max. 285rpm) to the structural changes
navigation inside a Mapping (SLAM) • two 12V 18Ah batteries due to the growth of crops
greenhouse (Harik et algorithm • 168MHz Cortex-M4F while being safe to operate
al., 2018) ● Artificial potential • Industrial grade embedded computer in the presence of humans
field (APF) method (ARK-1123H) with Linux OS
• two GNSS receivers
• an RGB camera
• a LIDAR sensor

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Table 1 cont.
Objective and Performance /
Method / Algorithm •Design and Realization
Destination Experimental results
1 2 •3 4
Transplanting work Dynamic accuracy test • transplanting system (with multiple 90% overall success ratio
cell for greenhouse grippers) 960 plants/h/gripper
seedlings (Han et al., • 2 conveyors
2018) • filling unit
• control system (with PLC)
Water irrigation in 3 axes Cartesian • Bosch motors No statistical difference -
greenhouses for geometry • OEM drivers manual irrigation vs robot
family farming • Goldentec power supply
(Batista et al., 2017) • 2 controllers: ARDUINO Mega and
One
• JNG sensors
Selective spraying Integrated disease- • Industrial PC with CAN interface 85%-100% of the diseased
with pesticide in sensing system • R-G-NIR camera area,
grapevines canopy • Precision-spraying end-effectors 65%-85% reduced
(Oberti et al., 2016) •Robotic arm 9 DoF pesticide area
Weed detection in Fuzzy real time • Motors with power systems 92.9% accuracy over a
sugarcane fields classifier based on •Raspberry Pi microcontroller processing time of 0.02 s
(Sujaritha et al., Image acquisition • Cameras
2017) system • Small light sources
Nitrogen fertilizing Autonomous machine • Robotic-based framework with 2DC Reduction of nitrogen
in hydroponic vision-based robot motor-gearboxes fertilizer consumption -
greenhouses – with algorithm • Computer about 18% without
cucumber crop implemented in • data acquisition kit (Arduino Mega) lowering the fruit yield
(Vakilian and MatLab R2016b • CCD color camera
Massah, 2017) • GPS module
Spraying in ● Dynamic sliding • Motion subsystem: walking support Good stability and precise
greenhouses (Gao et mode control chassis, units for: power energy and tracking capability without
al., 2017) ● D’Alembert’s interface, sensory system, control understeer or oversteer.
principle system and peripheral loading Turning right-angled
• Control system: host comp ThinkPad successfully
X220, single-chip microcomp AT
xmega64A3, DC motors and encoders
Harvesting sweet- • Collision detection • Platform using the heating pipes as a From 63% to 83%
pepper in greenhouse • Selecting the azimuth rail system improved rate of success
(Bac et al., 2016) angle • 9DoF manipulator
• Grasp end-effector
Harvesting tomato in • PID algorithm • 4 wheel steering system 99.3% success rate of ripe
greenhouse (Wang et • Otsu algorithm • Binocular stereo vision tomato recognition
al., 2017) • Elliptic template • 5DoF harvesting system 86% rate of pitching
method
• C-space method
Automated • Spectral reflectance • platform Superdroid 54% success rate of the
harvesting of sugar analysis • four 24V DC motors visual servoing trials on 22
snap peas in • Visual servoing • onboard nCArbotiXRobo controller untouched environments
greenhouse (Tejada method • IR sensor VishayVCNL4000
et al., 2017) • USB3 vision CCD camera (NIR),
Theia SY110M lens
• 5 DoF robotic arm

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 Small greenhouse robotized solutions: State of the art and future perspectives

Table 1 cont.
Objective and Performance /
Method / Algorithm •Design and Realization
Destination Experimental results
1 2 •3 4
Monitoring environ- GNC algorithm based • 4-wheeled sensor platform 8%-23% improved
mental variables in on sensors and ROS controlled with embedded computer performance of the ground
green-houses navigation stack • 2 linear lasers scanners robot
(Roldan et al., 2016) • Pan-tilt-zoom camera
Prototype mobile Model of a skid • 4 in-wheel electric AC brushless Valid design on a realistic
manipulator for steering robot motors agricultural trajectory,
different crops • 12V lead acid deep charge batteries based on motor power and
(Bascetta et al., • STM32F405 microcontroller battery energy
2017) • CrustCrawler robotic arm consumption simulation
Modular agricultural • Ansys computer • re-configurable aluminum frame The robot performs well in
robot used in a wide analysis tests for frame with different interchangeable vastly different
variety of flexibility in the modules environments
environments for agricultural terrains • wheel drive modules (500W
seeding, weeding, • Robotics Operating propulsion motor) and wheel steering
liming, crop scouting System (ROS) modules with passive suspension
(Grimstad et al., • 48VDC Li-I batteries
2017) • on-board computer with Linux
Ubuntu
• VelodyneVPL-16 3D LIDAR
• Xsenns MTi-G-710 GNSS/INS

Other significant elements can be noted. Thereby, Zaidner and Sapiro (2016) developed
an algorithm for vineyard sprayer robot, by state estimation and localization for mobile robots
with a method that can also be adapted to other navigation platforms. Four different sensors
were tested (Global Positioning System, Inertial Navigation System, Visual Odometry and
Wheel Odometry) and were considered suitable for a low cost navigation system. The results
proved the feasibility of the MSPI (Maximum sum of probabilities intersections) algorithm.
Another application using Visual Odometry as a tool for agricultural robotic navigation was
proposed in Arbo, M. (2017), where the Bayesian formulation of fusing delayed displacement
measurements is presented, with a solution based on unscented Kalman filter (UKF). Yin and
Noguchi (2013), developed a target following system for a field robot, using as navigation
sensor a 3D camera. The steering angle was calculated using the pursuit-strategy following
method and the space keeping was realized using a PID controller. Sousa et al. (2013)
presented a methodology for generating and implementing a complex row crop following
behavior for a mobile agricultural robot by the use of Fuzzy rules to compose and coordinate
the simple moves in a specific agricultural context and to perform the path tracking.
In Zaho Y.S. et al. (2016) a method for tomato recognition for robotic harvesting is
proposed by the use of low-cost camera. Another paper is developing a real-time turning
acquisition method based on tri-axial acceleration sensor for an agricultural robot (Zaho S.L.
et al., 2016).
Table 2 contains the results regarding ranking of factors for all four groups: agricultural
tasks, suporting tasks (functionalities), cost of the equipment and technical characteristics
(robot structure).

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 O. C. Ghergan, D. Țucu, A. Iusco, D. Drăghicescu, R. M. Babanatis Merce

Table 2 Results regarding ranking of factors for all four groups

Share, [%]

Deviation

Deviation
Standard
Variance

Absolute
Average

Average
Criteria

Median
Code

Sum
Factors

F1.3 harvesting and packaging 116 5.80 6 20.71 1.432 1.196 0.960
plant protection and weed
F1.2 114 5.70 6 20.36 1.379 1.174 0.960
1. Agricultural tasks

control
F1.1 transplanting and seeding 95 4.75 5 16.96 3.671 1.916 1.600
environmental monitoring
F1.4 80 4.00 4 14.29 3.789 1.947 1.600
and management
F1.5 watering and fertilizing 58 2.90 3 10.36 2.200 1.483 1.210
F1.7 wide-variety of tasks 51 2.55 2 9.11 2.155 1.468 1.205
F1.6 manipulator 46 2.30 2 8.21 1.274 1.129 0.960
F2.1 guidance and navigation 85 4.25 4 28.33 0.408 0.639 0.525
2.Supporting tasks
(functionalities)

F2.3 fruit selecting and grasping 79 3.95 5 26.33 1.629 1.276 1.160
F2.2 mapping and location 59 2.95 3 19.67 1.524 1.234 0.965
F2.5 obstacle avoidance 41 2.05 2 13.67 0.892 0.945 0.765
vehicle dispatching for
F2.4 36 1.80 1.5 12.00 1.011 1.005 0.800
transportation
F3.2 maintenance costs 97 4.85 5 23.10 1.608 1.268 1.010
F3.1 total investment costs 95 4.75 5 22.62 1.355 1.164 0.925
3. Cost of the
equipment

F3.3 availability 85 4.25 4 20.24 1.987 1.410 1.125

F3.4 flexibility 57 2.85 2.5 13.57 2.134 1.461 1.250
F3.5 Up-grade 44 2.20 2 10.48 1.432 1.196 0.960
F3.6 knowledge transfer 42 2.10 2 10.00 1.463 1.210 1.020
F4.1 4 wheel steering system 229 11.05 11 12.58 2.892 1.701 1.455
F4.2 ultrasonic sensors 222 11.10 11.5 12.20 3.147 1.774 1.500
2 controllers (Arduino or
F4.3 221 11.05 11 12.14 2.892 1.701 1.455
Raspberry)
4. Technical characteristics

F4.4 binocular stereo vision 206 10.30 10.5 11.32 3.589 1.895 1.600
F4.5 power supplying system 186 9.30 9.5 10.22 3.379 1.838 1.600
(robot structure)

F4.6 5 DoF harvesting system 176 8.80 9 9.67 2.274 1.508 1.220
F4.7 2 linear laser scanners 148 7.40 7 8.13 1.832 1.353 1.120
F4.8 2/4 motors 116 5.80 6 6.37 2.905 1.704 1.320
F4.9 drivers 87 4.35 4.5 4.78 2.555 1.599 1.350
F4.10 industrial/on-board computer 74 3.70 4.5 4.07 2.958 1.720 1.530
F4.11 camera 66 3.30 4 3.63 2.537 1.593 1.370
F4.12 GNSS receiver 51 2.55 3 2.80 1.103 1.050 0.895
F4.13 end-effector 38 1.90 2 2.09 0.937 0.968 0.810

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 Small greenhouse robotized solutions: State of the art and future perspectives

The analysis of rank and standard deviation (figure 2), demonstrated different perceptions:
the specialists had a concordant opinion regarding the use of robots in greenhouses for
harvesting and packaging and plant protection and weed control, and not for wide-variety of
tasks and manipulator. Regarding supporting tasks all opinions agreed better and consider
more importance to guidance and navigation, fruit selecting and grasping and mapping and
location. Similarly, regarding costs (more for maintenance, investments and availability).
Regarding technical criteria, best concordance is for non-necessity of GNSS receiver.

150 2.000
1.500
100
1.000 Sum
50
0.500 St.Dev
0 0.000
F1.3 F1.2 F1.1 F1.4 F1.5 F1.7 F1.6
1. Agricultural tasks

100 2.000
1.500
50 1.000
Sum
0.500
0 0.000 St.De
F2.1 F2.3 F2.2 F2.5 F2.4
2. Supporting tasks

150 2.000
1.500
100
1.000
50 Sum
0.500
St.Dev
0 0.000
F3.2 F3.1 F3.3 F3.4 F3.5 F3.6
3. Cost of the equipment

250 2.000
200 1.500
150
1.000
100
50 0.500
0 0.000
Sum
F4.1
F4.2
F4.3
F4.4
F4.5
F4.6
F4.7
F4.8
F4.9
F4.10
F4.11
F4.12
F4.13

St.Dev
4. Technical characteristics

Figure 2 Rank of factors and standard deviation

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 O. C. Ghergan, D. Țucu, A. Iusco, D. Drăghicescu, R. M. Babanatis Merce

CONCLUSIONS
Robotic solutions have not yet been successfully implemented for field operations and
only a few developments have been adopted and introduced into practice (Xiang et al., 2014).
But under no circumstances can be a talk about serial production at this moment. Realization
of robots adapted on greenhouses conditions from Romania involve different aspects
depending on more factors (human resources, financial, clime, culture etc.). For Romania the
most interesting fields could be the cultivation of tomatoes in greenhouses for harvesting and
packaging and plant protection and weed control. Based on identified solutions a robot
concept will be designed, specialized in greenhouse works and it will be structured in two
parts: one as tractor (movement and energy resource), and other which will be applied special
for each activity.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

SMALL AGRIBOT FOR MONITORING

ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES IN GREENHOUSE
George IPATE1, Gabriel CONSTANTIN1*, Gheorghe VOICU1, Gabriel MUSUROI1, Elena
Madalina STEFAN1, Mariana Gabriela MUNTEANU1, Lucian DUMITRESCU2
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering
2Institute for Research and Development for Industrialization and Marketing of Horticultural Products
"HORTING"

SUMMARY
Our study presents the design, construction and validation of an agricultural
robot for greenhouse monitoring. The complete system consists of a sensory
system on board a small chassis (i.e., a four-motor small-UGV). The system
was designed based on the Arduino Nano V3 development platform, a NDIR
CO2 sensor, a SHT10 digital air temperature and humidity sensor and open
source software. The sensors have been selected by considering the climate and
plant growth models and the requirements for their integration onboard the
mobile robot. The goals of this system include taking measures of CO2
concentration, air temperature and humidity and plotting maps of these
variables. The tests have shown that the measurements made with the chosen
sensor are suitable for obtaining local data for production monitoring, problem
detection and local climate control. All components of the system have been
developed, integrated and tested through a set of field experiments in a real
greenhouse. The primary contributions of this paper are the validation of the
agribot as a platform for autonomous agricultural monitoring duties.
Keywords: precision agriculture, robots, monitoring systems

INTRODUCTION
More and more modern farms in Europe use high tech solutions such as those that allow
digital control or those using remote controlled machines (without a driver). There are already
fully or partially automated equipment that performs much of the farm work, from grafting to
sowing, planting, harvesting, sorting, packing, etc.
The theoretical foundations of agricultural robots and their role in precision farming have
already been investigated in numerous research papers (Blackmore et al. 2005; Pedersen et al.

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 G. Ipate, G. Constantin, Gh. Voicu, G. Musuroi, E. M. Stefan, M. G. Munteanu, L. Dumitrescu

2008; Yaghoubi et al. 2013; Kushwaha et al. 2016), but the first real tests have been conducted
recently (Gonzalez-de-Santos et al., 2017).
Ruiz-Larrea et al. (2015) studies variables that influence the climate in greenhouses or plant
growth with the help of a mobile platform vehicle. They implement path planning and tracking
algorithms in the Robot Operating System (ROS) to move the robot into a closed and
obstructed space. Roldán et al. (2018), in their study, used an unmanned aerial mini-vehicle
to measure environmental variables in a greenhouse. Validation of the quadrotor as a mobile
platform for monitoring crop growth and determining the optimal position of sensors on a
quadrotor was achieved through practical experiments.
Tokekar et al. (2013) studied the problem of coordinating an Unmanned Ground Vehicle
(UGV) used for estimating nitrogen (N) levels on-demand across a farm in the context of a
precision agriculture application. They demonstrate the utility of the system and concluded
that applying the right amount of fertilizer at the right time can drastically reduce fertilizer
usage. In last years, numerous researches have focused on the use of image sensors to monitor
plant physiology and morphology. LiDAR scanners mounted aboard ground vehicles and
tractors have been used to extract morphological properties such as canopy volume and leaf
area (Das et. al, 2015).
Considering the above, it is obvious that the implementation of the concept of precision
agriculture at a broad level implies a more advanced research on products that allow them to
know exactly what is happening on the farm at any time, as well as investing in innovative
technologies.
The main objective of this paper is to develop an agriculture robot system for obtaining
local data for production monitoring. The system can collect and submit data in a cloud
database, which enables agronomic managers to problem detection and local climate control.
The basic tasks of the prototype are: (i) a rigid mechanical structure; ii) the ability to move in
well-defined directions; iii) optimal energy consumption; (iv) the capability to monitor
environmental factors.

SYSTEM OVERVIEW
The proposed mini-farm robot is intended to be integrated into a greenhouse management
system, and primarily carries out the acquisition of environmental data in the greenhouse.
(Figure1) The system has a centralized architecture based on a microcontroller that receives
data from detection devices, compiles data, makes decisions, and sends commands to drive
devices.
The robot has a mass of 0.9 kg, symmetric weight and form factor, so it can transport the
sensors and the components required for their work. The robot chassis is made of PVC profiles
to get as little weight as possible. The mobile platform components are: base plate and lower
cover, 4 DC drives with reducers and 4 easy wheels with good ground adhesion. The engine
chosen is a 48:1 drive shaft with a diameter of 5.5 mm perpendicular on the wheel. This
brushless DC motor has a low current consumption and provides power and speed comparable
to a servomechanism. Plastic rubber tires have a width of 26.6 mm and a diameter of 66 mm.
Inside the tires there is a sponge insert on the entire circumference that causes superior
behavior during the run.

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 Small agribot for monitoring environmental variables in greenhouse

Figure 1 Views during experimental tests inside the greenhouse

To drive the robot, the motor torque must exceed at least the torque external force of the
friction force acting on the wheel radius. To determine the required torque the following
equation is used:
𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚 = μ ∙ 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 ∙ 𝐷𝐷⁄2 (1)

where: Mm is the motor moment [N∙mm]; μ is the coefficient of friction (depends directly
the wheel material and the contact surface state); FR is the reaction between the surface and
the wheel [N]; D is the diameter of the wheel [mm].
Mobile robots need to generate enough traction to get themselves moving to perform
different tasks (monitoring, inspection, intervention). The tractive force Ft exerted by a drive
wheel of the assembly - depending on the variation of the motor torque - Mm, the speed of the
drive wheel - v and the efficiency of the transmission used - η is determined from the
relationship:
𝑣𝑣
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 ∙ (2)
𝜂𝜂
where: Pe is the power of the motor [W].
The power supply of the robot is made using 2-4 Li-ion batteries, type 18650, 4000 mAh.
The motor is powered by an integrated circuit, commonly known as the "motor driver", of the
type L298 N that supports no more than 2 A. The basic electronic schema for the robot control,
driven by four DC motors, is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Basic electronic schema for robot control

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 G. Ipate, G. Constantin, Gh. Voicu, G. Musuroi, E. M. Stefan, M. G. Munteanu, L. Dumitrescu

The Tinius Olsen mechanical test bench (model H10kS, Hounsfield) is used to measure the
traction force of the robot motor module according to the diagram illustrated in Figure 3. At
a supply voltage of 7.5 V and a current of 1.4 A, a maximum traction force of 4.83 N was
recorded, as can be seen in Figure 4.

Figure 3 Determination of traction Figure 4 Variation of traction force at the

force voltage of 7.5V

The sensors are connected to a controller that reads the signals, computes the values and
stores the information. In this work an ATmega328 microcontroller has been chosen for its
compatibility with the sensors (the air temperature and humidity sensor are connected by two-
wire interface and the CO2 sensor is connected directly) and its ease of use. The sensors
selected in this work are described below.
For monitoring the air quality in the greenhouse, the high-precision sensor for CO2 with
the measuring range from 0 to 5000 ppm is used. This sensor is a non-dispersive infrared
sensor (NDIR) compatible with all types of microcontrollers and supports temperature
compensation. This low-cost in comparison to other sensors available in market is shown in
Figure 5.

Figure 5 Infrared CO2 Sensor

CO2 has a maximum absorption and a minimum interference at the wavelength of 4.3 μm
and therefore this frequency band is generally used for NDIR sensors. Radiation at these
wavelengths is associated with the CO2 concentration by the Law of Beer-Lambert which is
given by the following equation:
𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑
�𝐼𝐼 = 𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼⋅𝑐𝑐⋅𝑙𝑙 (3)
0

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 Small agribot for monitoring environmental variables in greenhouse

where, Id is the radiation intensity at 4.3 μm, I0 is the reference radiation intensity, α is the
CO2 absorption coefficient, c is the CO2 concentration, and l is the distance between the light
source and detector light.
The SHT10 digital humidity sensor provided by Sensirion AG Switzerland is chosen to
measure the air temperature and humidity. The two-wire serial interface and internal voltage
regulation allows to obtain correct measures and avoid potential noises. The sensor includes
a waterproof, sintered metal housing that prevents sensor damage. When calibrated at 25C,
the SHT10 has typically less than 1°C error over a 100°C temperature range.
The UGV is equipped with an ultrasonic sensor to avoiding the obstacles and a Global
Positioning System (GPS) receiver for performing navigation.
The robot will be remotely operated and monitored to perform the tasks for which it was
created. Manual control of the mobile robot using wireless Bluetooth technology is achieved
through a touch screen with a graphical interface (Nadvornik, 2014). By developing the
application to Android operating system, we can monitor the current robot and sensor data
through a Bluetooth device. The main Android app screen shown in Figure 6 shows the values
of the sensors sent through the Arduino board and the Bluetooth device and the robot control
buttons. Android App Mobile App was developed in App Inventor, a visual programming
environment implemented by Google and currently supported by the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (MIT).
To integrate the mobile robot into a cloud-based Smart Farm Management System (Figure
7), a web application has been developed in the Google Fusion Table that allows to record,
store, query and view online measurement data by connecting the Android device to the
internet.

Figure 6 Main screen of Android app Figure 7 Farm Management Information Systems

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 G. Ipate, G. Constantin, Gh. Voicu, G. Musuroi, E. M. Stefan, M. G. Munteanu, L. Dumitrescu

Implementing such a system meets the need for farmers to have access to more
unsophisticated services, and so we can understand how precision farming can lead to
possibility to improve the cost control of farms.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The experimental work has deployed in the rectangular greenhouse (160x64 m) with glass
roof, available in the location of Institute for Research and Development for Industrialization
and Marketing of Horticultural Products "HORTING" Bucharest to monitor the
environmental climate conditions. The height of the greenhouse is 3.5 m. Horting
Greenhouses with an average area of 20,500 m2 have a front entrance with two doors for entry
and exit of agricultural machinery and a set of main corridors with a width of about 2 meters.
In these experiments, a cloud database of carbon dioxide concentration, temperature and
humidity in a greenhouse have been created using the small robot based sensory system. The
monitoring panel can be displayed on any computer connected to internet, indicating the
address of the web page:
https://fusiontables.google.com/DataSource?docid=1I4QjFGFiUKZ9UaJpkER8ntbNYuF
trIMJQ7BQBwgV#rows:id=1.
The agribot followed a pre-planned path of 70 points (Figure 8), following a line and
stopping at intervals of around 10.75 m and measurements were taken from the ground. In
line with those found by Ruiz-Lazarrea et. al. (2015), we have found that there are some
differences between theoretical and real paths. The robot covered the path in around 75
minutes.

Figure 8 Google maps views of the greenhouse location and points of measurements

The results obtained of this experiment are shown in Figure 9 and 10. The maps of carbon
dioxide concentration obtained in the greenhouse are shown in Figure 9. The points show the
measurements of the sensors, and the surfaces show interpolations between these points. As
can be seen, there are variation between the measurements. In accordance with the
observations of Omid and Shafaei (2005), fluctuations in the relative humidity and

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 Small agribot for monitoring environmental variables in greenhouse

temperature profile within the series are caused by natural conditions such as outdoor ambient
temperature and meteorological changes during the experiment. The standard deviation in
temperature (0.7594), humidity (1.5871) and carbon dioxide concentration (161.99) can be
acceptable. Regarding to carbon dioxide data the errors in measurement can be associated
with the response time of the sensors, particularly.
As shown, the temperature growth from the first measurement (30.7 °C), located at (Lat =
44.3749741, Long = 26.1300914), to the last measurement (33.6 °C), located at (Lat =
44.375243, Long = 26.1293852). This event is described by considering the time differential
of these measurements, which began at 12:00 and ended at 13:15; these measurements
corresponded to the overall warming of the greenhouse.

Figure 9 Maps of CO2 evolution during the study period

It can also be seen in Figure 10 that the air temperature at the ground was between 30.71
and 34.91 °C, while the relative humidity with mean 23.68 %, was low but not uniform due
to the season and the absence of irrigation.

Figure 10 Temperature, relative humidity and carbon dioxide profile obtained in experiments

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 G. Ipate, G. Constantin, Gh. Voicu, G. Musuroi, E. M. Stefan, M. G. Munteanu, L. Dumitrescu

In summary, data from accurately characterized and calibrated, instruments can provide
reasonably measurement in real time of relevant environmental variables levels. This makes
them useful for a valuable tool to prevent diseases in greenhouses, like Humidity management
control, as a part of overall Smart Farm Management. The acquisition of data from the NDIR
sensor can be considerably ameliorate; however, the size, weight, and costs of mobile agribot
can provide growers with actionable intelligence and help them interpret the resulting data
products efficiently. Even though the entire system has functioned correctly, there are several
specific features and many improvements that could be mentioned. For example, the current
control system for the robot, sometimes shows smaller lateral oscillations.
Other highly desirable improvements would be related to the battery innovations to
increase the mission time for robot. Depending on the size of the greenhouse, the coverage
time required is small enough to monitor the complete greenhouse and obtain more
homogeneous measurements and build maps more efficiently. Furthermore, the overall
performance of the system proposed is satisfactory.

CONCLUSIONS
This paper proposes a small mobile robot for measuring environmental variables of a
greenhouse at nearly any point in the two-dimensional space. The proposed agricultural robot
has been tested and improved over an extended period but are still designed with a very limited
payload. A set of field experiments was performed in a greenhouse to validate the small-UGV
sensory system. Experimental data were recorded with elemental sensors (analog NDIR CO2,
digital SHT10 air temperature and humidity and GPS location sensors). The flexibility of the
system may allow, if necessary, the inclusion of other sensors for the measurement of other
environmental factors such as atmospheric pressure, light intensity and UV radiation, or the
concentration of CO and CH4. The information collected by the mobile robot and recorded in
a database allows agricultural managers to take the most appropriate decisions to optimize
crop growth.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work has been funded by the Institutional Development Fund of the Ministry of
National Education through the Financial Agreement CNFIS-FDI 2018-0086.

REFERENCES
Blackmore B. S., Stout,W., Wang M., Runov B. (2005). Robotic agriculture – the future of agricultural
mechanisation?, 5th European Conference on Precision Agriculture. ed. J. Stafford, V. The
Netherlands, Wageningen Academic Publishers. pp. 621-628.
Pedersen S. M., Fountas S., Blackmore S. (2008). Agricultural Robots – Applications and Economic
Perspectives, Chapter from the book Service Robot Applications, InTechOpen.
Yaghoubi S., Akbarzadeh N.A., Bazargani Sh.S., Bazargani Sa.S., Bamizan M., Asl M.I. (2013)
Autonomous Robots for Agricultural Tasks and Farm Assignment and Future Trends in Agro Robots,
International Journal of Mechanical & Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol:13 No:03.

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Kushwaha H. L., Sinha J. P., Khura T. K., Kushwaha D. K., Ekka U., Purushottam M., Singh N. (2016)
Status and Scope of Robotics in Agriculture, International Conference on Emerging Technologies in
Agricultural and Food Engineering, 27 – 30th December, IIT Kharagpur.
Gonzalez-de-Santos, P., Ribeiro, A., Fernandez-Quintanilla, C. et al. (2017) Fleets of robots for
environmentally-safe pest control in agriculture Precision Agric., Volume 18, Issue 4, pp 574–614
Ruiz-Larrea A., Roldán J.J., M Garzón, del Cerro J., Barrientos A. (2015). A UGV Approach to Measure
the Ground Properties of Greenhouses. Robot: Second Iberian Robotics Conference, pp.3-13.
Roldán J.J., del Cerro J., Garzón‐Ramos D., Garcia‐Aunon P., Garzón M. (2018). Robots in Agriculture:
State of Art and Practical Experiences, Service Robots Antonio Neves, IntechOpen, DOI:
10.5772/intechopen.69874. Available at: https://www.intechopen.com/books/service-robots/robots-
in-agriculture-state-of-art-and-practical-experiences
Tokekar P., Vander Hook J., Mulla D., Isler V. (2013). Sensor planning for a symbiotic UAV and UGV
system for precision agriculture. International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)
2013 IEEE/RSJ
Das J., Cross G., Qu C., Makineni A., Tokekar P., Mulgaonkar Y., Kumar V. (2015). Devices, Systems,
and Methods for Automated Monitoring enabling Precision Agriculture. IEEE International
Conference on Automation Science and Engineering (CASE) 2015, pp. 462-469.
Nadvornik J., Smutný P. (2014) Remote Control Robot Using Android Mobile Device, Conference
Paper, 15th International Carpathian Control Conference (ICCC), DOI:
10.1109/CarpathianCC.2014.6843630
Omid M., Shafaei A. (2005) Temperature and relative humidity changes inside greenhouse, Int.
Agrophysics, 19, pp. 153-158.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF THE TOMATO AND

LETTUCE GREENHOUSE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Aleksandra DIMITRIJEVIĆ 1*, Carmela SICA2,
Rajko MIODRAGOVIĆ1, Zoran MILEUSNIĆ2
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, Serbia
2University of Basilicata – School of Agricultural Science, Potenza, Italy

ABSTRACT
In this paper the influence of greenhouse construction type on energy
efficiency of tomato and lettuce production was analysed. Influence of
greenhouse construction on energy consumption was estimated for four
different double plastic covered greenhouses. Specific energy input, energy
output-input ratio and energy productivity were estimated in the tomato and
lettuce production. Results show that there are differences in energy efficiency
regarding the production as well as regarding the type of construction. The
average energy input in greenhouse tomato production was 24.13 MJ m-2 while
in lettuce it was 3.19 MJ m-2. Results also showed that the type of greenhouse
construction has a significant influence on the energy efficiency of the
greenhouse tomato and lettuce production. Greenhouses with the higher
specific volume, in both cases had the higher energy output, higher energy
efficiency, higher energy ratios and higher energy productivity.
Keywords: tomato, lettuce, plastic covered greenhouses, specific volume,
energy efficiency

INTRODUCTION
Greenhouse plant production is still among the most energy consuming branches in
agriculture (Pahlavan et al., 2011, Castoldi et al., 2011). In Serbia region, greenhouse energy
consumption is 15 to 20% higher compared with to the countries with the warmer climate.
Apart from the energy and production intensity, greenhouse production involves high
investments and costs (Canakci and Akinci, 2006, Sethi and Sharma, 2007, Singh et al., 2007).
In order to reduce the costs and save the energy, various greenhouse constructions and
different coverings are offered to the farmers (Nelson, 2003, Hanan, 1998). Greenhouse
production can be used to exploit market conditions in periods where supply is limited and

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 A. Dimitrijević, C. Sica, R. Miodragović, Z. Mileusnić

prices are high. Thus, the most important vegetable crops grown in greenhouses are those that
have a strong market throughout the entire year, such as melon, tomato, and salad greens
(Castoldi et al., 2011). One of the biggest problems is in winter production when additional
heating and light are needed (Damjanovic et al., 2005, Sethi and Sharma, 2007). During that
period construction and coverings fully show their qualities.
Tomato is one of the most widely grown and consumed vegetables in many parts of the
world (Cengiz et al., 2018). Global tomato production increased from 27.6 million t in 1960
to 177 million t in 2016, with corresponding increases in production areas of 1.68 million ha
in 1960 to 4.78 million ha in 2016 (Ya-Dan Du et al., 2018). Lettuce World production
accounts for 26.78 Mil ton 1,22 ha surface (FAO statistics).
Most common greenhouse vegetables in Serbia are lettuce (Ilic et al, 2017) and spinach
(winter crops), and tomato and cucumber (summer crops) since, together, they are covering a
year-round production. At the same time, these crops have different demands regarding the
production condition and energy input. Winter crops have lower energy output and are less
energy demanding if additional heating is not used. Summer crops have the higher yields but
in the same time have high demands for nutrients, water and plant protection chemical. The
most common greenhouse structures in Serbia are tunnels covered with the double PE UV
AD folia. However, lately there is a tendency of introducing gutter connected and multi-span
greenhouses. This tendency is motivated by the fact that crop rotation is more viable in these
structures (Djevic and Dimitrijevic, 2009).
The aim of this paper was to estimate greenhouse energy consumption and the energy
efficiency for the lettuce and tomato production in order to see if the different types of
greenhouse construction can influence energy consumption for a given plant production.
paper combines results from the previous research and publications (Dimitrijevic et al., 2015)

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Influence of greenhouse construction on energy consumption in tomato and lettuce
production was analysed for four different double plastic covered greenhouses. For the
research a tunnel type, 5.5 x 24 m covered with 180 µm PE UV IR outside folia (GH1), a
gutter connected plastic covered greenhouse 21 x 250 m and with 50 µm inner folia and 180
µm outside folia (GH2), a multi-span greenhouse 4 x 8 m wide and 51 m long with
50 µm inner folia and 180 µm outside folia (GH3) and a multi-span greenhouse 13 x 12 m
wide and 67.5 m long, with 50 µm inner folia and 180 µm outside folia (GH4) were used. The
parameter needed for the statistical analysis, was covering material /production surface ratio.
For the tunnel structure this value was 1.91, for GH2 structure it was 1.62, for the GH3 type
of construction it was 1.44 and for the GH4 type of construction it was 1.30.
The experiment was carried out at a private property near Novi Sad (Serbia) on 19°51Е
altitude and 45°20N latitude and at a private property near Jagodina (Serbia) on
21°16E altitude and 44°1N latitude.
The method used for the energy efficiency analysis (Djevic and Dimitrijevic, 2009, Hatirli
et al., 2006, Ozkan et al., 2007, Mani et al., 2007, Canakci and Akinci 2006, Pahlavan et al.,
2011, Bajkin et al., 2014) is based on the energy input analysis (definition of direct and
indirect energy inputs), calculation of the energy consumption for a given plant production

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 Energy efficiency of the tomato and lettuce greenhouse production systems

and the energy efficiency. On the basis of tomato and lettuce production output and the energy
input, specific energy input, energy output-input ratio and energy productivity were estimated.
Energy inputs were calculated by multiplying the material input with the referent energy
equivalents. Energy equivalents for different material inputs as well as for the lettuce and
tomato output were obtained from different sources (Badger, 1999, Ozkan et al., 2007,
Pahlavan et al., 2011).
Statistical analysis, used for the greenhouse construction type influence on the energy
efficiency, included the linear regression model. The parameter that was used to describe
differences in constructions was the greenhouse covering / production surface ratio. The
obtained data and the calculated values were imported in Microsoft Excel 2000 for the
statistical analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 shows previous results on how much energy was needed for tomato production in
the selected greenhouse construction types (Dimitrijevic et al., 2015). The lowest value was
calculated for gutter-connected greenhouse, GH2 (21.96 MJ m-2) and the highest for the tunnel
greenhouse (26.87 MJ m-2).

Table 1 Energy consumption for the greenhouse tomato production, MJ

(Dimitrijevic et al., 2015)
Tunnel Gutter-connected Multi-span Multi-span
structure, GH1 structure, GH2 structure, GH3 structure, GH4
Energy consumption, MJ
Diesel, l 189.29 3346.00
Electricity 168.69 8971.50 2788.85 17994.17
Straw 17294.00
Nutrients
Nitrogen 2000.55 49206.00 20251.08 135741.80
Phosphorus 200.97 5702.90
Potassium 411.41 11198.00 8126.84 54010.88
Plant protection
chemicals
Pesticides 5.97 115.42 280.59 1623.84
Fungicides 24.84 299.92 784.76 3269.68
Water 203.67 8104.50 396.00 2223.00
Technical systems 7.84 67.91
Human labor 333.20 10976.00 7389.20 28894.32
Total, MJ 3546.43 115282.00 40017.32 243757.67
Total, MJ m-2 26.87 21.96 24.52 23.15

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Table 2 Energy consumption for the greenhouse lettuce production, MJ

Tunnel Gutter-connected Multi-span Multi-span
structure, GH1 structure, GH2 structure, GH3 structure, GH4
Energy consumption, MJ
Diesel 66.92 3346.00 507.16 2322.12
Electricity 55.08 4485.74 1394.42 8997.08
Nutrients
Nitrogen 10.23 974.31 611.50 3976.71
Phosphorus 2.26 65.25 272.48 1758.62
Potassium 3.56 334.01 378.81 2447.23
Plant protection
chemicals
Pesticides 0.39 1661.65
Fungicides 138.00 184.00 22.08 142.60
Water 18.09 810.00 48.42 312.39
Technical systems 6.53 50.54 44.14 281.44
Human labor 102.25 3221.99 1442.56 11540.48
Lettuce crates 18.00 1180.20 420.60 2926.50
Total, MJ 421.33 16313.68 5142.17 34705.18
Total, MJ m-2 3.19 3.11 3.15 3.30

Care should be taken when selecting the greenhouse construction type also in the lettuce
production since different energy consumption was measured for different greenhouse
structures (Table 2, Figure 1). The lowest amount of energy was needed in gutter-connected
greenhouse, GH2 (3.11 MJ m-2) and the highest amount was needed for the multi-span
greenhouse with 13 bays, GH4 (3.30 MJ m-2).

Figure 1 Specific energy consumption in lettuce and tomato production

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 Energy efficiency of the tomato and lettuce greenhouse production systems

Energy output was calculated based on the energy value for tomato and lettuce and their
yield (Tab. 3). In case of tomato (Dimitrijevic et al., 2015) the highest yield was calculated
for multi-span greenhouse GH4 (35.81 kg m-2) and the lowest for the tunnel structure GH1
(17.00 kg m-2). It can be seen that there is a tendency of having higher yield with the lower
covering material / production surface ratio. In the case of lettuce (Tab. 3) the highest yield
was obtained in the multi-span greenhouse GH4 (6.08 kg m-2) while the lowest yield of 3.30
kg m-2 obtained in the tunnel structure GH1. As in the case of tomato production there is a
clear tendency of having higher yield with the lower covering material / production surface
ratio.
Table 3 Lettuce and tomato yield and energy output
Specific yield, kg m-2 Specific energy output, MJ m-2
Lettuce Tomato Lettuce Tomato
Tunnel structure, GH1 3.30 17.36 1.52 13.89
Gutter-connected structure, GH2 4.94 24.76 2.27 19.81
Multi-span structure, GH3 5.44 31.39 2.50 25.11
Multi-span structure, GH4 6.08 35.81 2.80 28.65

Based on the measured energy inputs and the energy output, parameters for energy analysis
were calculated (Tab. 4). It can be seen that different values were obtained for tomato and
lettuce regarding the basic energy parameters.
Lower values of the specific energy inputs and higher values of energy ratio and energy
productivity were obtained for the multi-span greenhouses.
In the case of lettuce, the highest amount of energy per kg of product is needed in the tunnel
structure greenhouse, GH1 (0.97 MJ kg-1). The lowest specific energy input was measured for
the multi-span greenhouse GH4, 0.54 MJ kg-1. In tomato production (Dimitrijevic et al., 2015)
the highest amount of energy was needed in the tunnel greenhouse structure, GH1 (1.54 M
kg-1) and the lowest specific energy input was needed in the multi-span greenhouse GH4 (0.65
MJ kg-1). If the values are compared, it can be seen that lettuce production is less energy
demanding, having the 17–37% lower specific energy input. It can also be seen (Tab. 4) that
the differences in the specific energy input for tomato and lettuce production, are smaller as
the specific volume of the greenhouse is growing and the covering material / production
surface ratio is decreasing. In some point these differences in specific energy consumption in
tomato and in lettuce will not be significant.
Values of the energy ratio are also showing the differences regarding the greenhouse
construction type and also the plant production type (Tab. 4). In case of lettuce production,
the highest energy ratio was calculated for multi-span greenhouse GH4, 0.85, while the lowest
value was obtained for the tunnel structure GH1, 0.47. In case of tomato production similar
tendencies were observed (Dimitrijevic et al., 2015). The lowest energy ratio was calculated
for the tunnel greenhouse structure GH1, 0.52 and the highest value was calculated for multi-
span greenhouse GH4, 1.23. It can be seen that in tomato production 9% to 31% higher energy
ratio can be expected compared to the lettuce production. In both cases there is a tendency of
having higher energy ratio in the greenhouse structures with the lower covering material /
production surface ratio.

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Table 4 Energy analysis for the lettuce and tomato greenhouse production
Specific energy input, Energy productivity,
Energy ratio
MJ kg-1 kg MJ-1
Lettuce Tomato Lettuce Tomato Lettuce Tomato
Tunnel, GH1 0.97 1.55 0.47 0.52 1.03 0.65
Gutter connected
0.63 0.89 0.73 0.90 1.59 1.13
structure, GH2
Multi-span
0.58 0.78 0.79 1.02 1.73 1.28
structure, GH3
Multi-span
0.54 0.65 0.85 1.23 1.85 1.55
structure, GH4

Energy productivity in both cases (lettuce and tomato) showed different values for the
different greenhouse structures. In the lettuce production, the lowest value of the energy
productivity was determined for the tunnel structure greenhouse, GH1 (1.03 kg MJ-1) while
the highest value was measured for the multi-span greenhouse, GH4 (1.85 kg MJ-1). Similar
tendency was observed in the tomato production when the lowest energy productivity was
calculated for the tunnel greenhouse structure, GH1 (0.65 kg MJ-1) while the highest value
was calculated for the multi-span greenhouse, GH4 (1.55 kg MJ-1). It can be concluded that
16-37% better energy utilisation can be expected in the case of lettuce production, if compared
to tomato production. These differences have a tendency to be smaller when greenhouses with
the higher specific volume are used.
In order to see if the previously showed differences in energy parameters, in case of
greenhouse production, are influenced by the greenhouse construction, statistical regression
analysis was used. The covering material surface / production surface ratio was used as a
parameter for describing the greenhouse construction (Hanan, 1998). After importing these
data in Microsoft Excel data analysis tool pack, Eqs. 1-3 were obtained that are describing
relations between the calculated energy parameters for lettuce production and the specific
volume of the selected greenhouses.
In case of lettuce, linear regression model showed a strong correlation between specific
energy input and greenhouse construction type (92.4%). Equation 1 gives the relation between
these two parameters leading to the same conclusion as in the case of tomato production.

y = –0.35 + 0.65 EI (1)

In case of tomato (Dimitrijevic et al., 2015) a strong correlation between specific energy
input and greenhouse construction type was observed.
Energy ratio analysis showed that there is a strong correlation between energy ratio in
lettuce production and the greenhouse construction type (97%). Equation 2 shows that higher
values of energy ratio can be achieved with the use of gutter-connected greenhouse structures.

y = 1.67 – 0.57 ER (2)

Similar results were obtained for the tomato production energy ratio (Dimitrijevic et al.,
2015).

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When energy productivity was analysed it can be seen that there is a tendency of having
higher productivity within the gutter connected greenhouses with the lower covering material
/ production surface ratio. Linear regression showed that there is a strong correlation between
energy productivity of lettuce and type of greenhouse construction (97%). Regression
equation (3) shows that better energy productivity can be expected when using the gutter
connected greenhouse structures.

y = 3.5 – 1.23 EP (3)

Similar results were presented for the tomato production energy productivity (Dimitrijevic
et al., 2015)
Presented results lead to the conclusion that in the sense of lowering specific energy input
and having energy productivity higher, greenhouse structures with lower covering material
surface / production surface ration should be used. The reason for this kind of tendencies can
be searched in the more uniform microclimatic conditions in the gutter connected and the
multi-span greenhouse. Also, the tunnels in this area were more susceptible to wind and there
were more damaged lettuce heads in the tunnels near the side walls.
The obtained results can be helpful in suggesting producers what kind of greenhouse
structures should they use in order to have a better energy efficiency, energy productivity and
lower energy input per kg of product.

CONCLUSIONS
In this study, the energy input and output for different production technologies and
different greenhouse construction in the tomato production was analyzed. The specific energy
consumption showed different values for different greenhouse constructions and in the open
filed. Lowest value was obtained for the gutter-connected greenhouse and the highest for the
multi-span greenhouse with the thirteen bays. Higher yields were obtained in the gutter and
multi-span greenhouses compared to tunnel structures, due to better climatic conditions and
better utilization of the fertilizer. The multi-span greenhouses also showed lower energy input
per kg of product compared to the tunnel structure and the open field production.
The linear regression models were estimated as significant and had shown that the
greenhouse structure has a significant influence on energy input, energy efficiency and
productivity. The results show that lower covering material surface / production surface ratio
can influence a lower energy input per kg of product, higher energy ratio and better energy
productivity. Additionally, it can be concluded that the energy efficiency can also be higher
with gutter-connected and multi-span greenhouses.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper presents results from national Project “The improvement and Preservation of
the Biotechnology Procedures for Rational Energy Use and Improvement of Agricultural
Production Quality“. Project is financed by Ministry of Education, science and technology
development, Republic of Serbia, project number TR 031051.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

SHADING METHODS FOR CROP PROTECTION UNDER

GREENHOUSE IN MEDITERRANEAN AREAS
Dina STATUTO1*, Pietro PICUNO1, Ahmed M. ABDEL-GHANY2
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Universityof Basilicata - SAFE School, via dell’Ateneo Lucano n.10, 85100 Potenza, Italy.
2Department of Agricultural Engineering, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences,
King Saud University - KSU, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia.

ABSTRACT
Mediterranean areas are characterized by hot summers, which can
determine unfavorable environment for the growth and quality of the crops
which are cultivated inside a greenhouse. In order to control the greenhouse
air temperature raise, one of the most common traditional solutions utilized by
growers is the shading of the greenhouse against excessive solar radiation
through the use of calcium hydroxide (i.e., slaked lime) or other paints applied
on the greenhouse cover (so-called, whitening) with the aim to reduce the
incoming solar radiation and limit the inside air temperature. More recently,
the use of plastic shading nets is progressively affirming due to their cheaper
price and photo-selective properties, as a way to effectively control the micro-
climatic conditions inside greenhouses and tunnels. Thanks to a specific
formulation of their chemical and physical properties, plastic nets may indeed
combine the shading effect with some specific features useful for creating more
favorable microclimatic conditions for the crop growth. With the aim to analyze
the efficacy of the shading effect of plastic nets in different climates, two
experimental trials have been carried out by comparing five identical small-
scale tunnels; two installed in Southern Italy, and three in an arid climate
(Saudi Arabia), in which the inside air and soil temperatures have been
measured. The two tunnels were covered with EVAC plastic film, one of them
also covered with plastic net, in contact with the external side the film. The
three tunnels were covered with PE film; two of them were covered with two
different plastic nets, fixed at 20-cm apart from the film cover. The
radiometrical characteristics of the plastic films and nets were determined. The
results obtained through these experimental trails enabled to start a
comparative analysis of the performances of the tested net, highlighting the role
that a selective filtering of solar radiation may play on crop protection from
high temperatures and quality of light arriving to the crops.

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 D. Statuto, P. Picuno, A. M. Abdel-Ghany

Keywords: plastic film, plastic nets, crop shading, radiometric

characteristics, micro-climatic effect.

INTRODUCTION
Agricultural production is progressively influenced by extreme meteorological
phenomena, accompanied by big changes on a global scale, such as the increasingly sudden
and frequent appearance of new types of insects, the transformation of food habits (e.g.,
"smart/super foods"), etc. Thus, the concept of crop protection under a greenhouse, intended
as a mere passive defense (from hail, sun, insects, wind, birds, etc.), is gradually being
overcome: no longer an "against" or "defending" shelter, but rather a "for" or "proactive"
smart structure. This building would be suitable to create ideal cultivation conditions thanks
to a favourable microclimate, together with a greater diffusion of light, thanks to a more
effective exploitation of solar radiation, as well as a better control of the general
environmental conditions, enabling a reduction in use of pesticides as well. The plant and/or
the fruits thus become healthier, more vigorous and characterized by higher concentrations of
elements beneficial for human health (e.g., antioxidants) thanks to a greater efficiency in the
valorisation of natural resources and energy deriving from the sun.
Cladding materials employed for covering a greenhouse destined to protect crops may
play a crucial role on the quality of light arriving to the crops, reducing in different ways the
radiation, mostly within the Photosynthetically Active Radiation - PAR (400–700 nm)
wavebands. Combination of wavebands in the incident light mixture may affect indeed plant
growth, development, metabolism and morphology. This aspect may be at the base of the
observed different agronomic results and antioxidant activity of the plant, since different
cladding materials may influence the crop performance through a selective filtering which
modifies the incoming radiation (Schettini et al. 2011; Vox et al., 2016). Mostly the UV-B
component of the solar radiation may play a crucial role, as well as the green wavelength.
This last component of the sun radiation in several cases may work against plant development,
promoted conversely by the red and blue components (Folta and Maruhnich 2007).
Cladding materials and shading strategies may be proactively selected and implemented
in many Mediterranean areas, as well as in other hot regions (e.g., arid regions) in which the
solar radiation levels arriving during spring/summer season are often too high for a correct
management of the greenhouse, even to avoid undesirable effect on the crop, e.g., sunburn.
Sunlight can affect indeed more than the opening and closing of plant stomata. While some
plants have specialized proteins that protect them from sunburn, others do not, and intense
solar radiation can damage their leaves. Plants that are not adapted to full or intense sunlight
can develop heat stress. Many plants are susceptible to leaf scorch, where parts of the plant
die due to excessive water loss through transpiration. In addition to slowing or halting
photosynthesis, heat stress and leaf scorch can make plants more susceptible to disease or
insect infestations. Most of these negative effects may be avoided, mostly in the case of crop
protection under greenhouse, when some suitable shading devices are properly employed
(Castronuovo et al., 2015; Dehbi et al., 2017). In order to control air temperature inside
greenhouse, one of the most common traditional solution utilized by growers in Southern
Europe is the shading of the greenhouse against excessive solar radiation through the
application of calcium hydroxide (i.e., slaked lime) or other chemicals on the cover of the

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 Shading methods for crop protection under greenhouse in Mediterranean areas

greenhouse (so-called, whitening) to create some shade and then limit the raising of the air
temperature (Castellano et al., 2008).
More recently, the use of plastic shading nets is progressively affirming, thanks to a
cheaper price and improved photo-selective properties, as a way to more effectively control
the late spring and summer micro-climatic conditions inside close greenhouse and tunnel
(Picuno et al., 2008). Plastic nets are usually characterized by a shading factor, ranging from
10% to 90%, which represents the capacity of the net to reduce the incoming solar radiation,
related to the average value of the transmissivity of the net in the solar wavelength band from
200 nm to 2500 nm (Schettini et al., 2012). A plastic net performs indirect effects as well,
when it is employed to cover close greenhouse and tunnel. Due to its influence on the values
of the main microclimatic parameters (temperature, relative humidity, carbon dioxide
concentration, solar radiation, etc.), it could play, if used as standalone cover or even in
synergy with a cladding plastic film, a fundamental role on creating more favourable
microclimatic conditions during the crop growth (Picuno & Abdel-Ghany, 2016; Dehbi et al.,
2018). Thanks to a specific formulation of their chemical and physical properties, plastic nets
may indeed combine the shade effect with some specific features useful for creating suitable
conditions for the crop growth and to guarantee healthy conditions for workers. Each plastic
net modifies the solar radiation that arrives on the crop, by reducing the light flow and varying
the available radiant spectrum. Apart from the net structure, the spectrum of the transmitted
radiation is also influenced by the diameter of the thread, color and thickness of the net, and
the radiometric properties (absorbance, transmittance and reflectance) of the plastic material
(Sica & Picuno, 2008). Plastic covers play a critical role not only towards the internal
environment, influencing the crop growth, but also towards the external surrounding
landscape, strongly influencing the visual aspect of the rural land (Tortora et al., 2015). From
this point of view, a suitable landscape planning approach appears necessary, in order to
consider in a holistic way all aspects connected to the use of plastic nets in agricultural
application (Statuto et al., 2016). Despite their widespread use, however, neither growers nor
net producers have clear ideas about the relationship between the net typology optimization
for a specific application and the technical characteristics of the net. The choice often depends
on empirical or economic criteria, not on scientific considerations (Castellano et al., 2008;
Shahak, 2008).
The analysis of different shading strategies was performed by Abdel-Ghany et al. (2015),
who showed through experimental tests that the internal position of the shading net drastically
increases the generated thermal radiation within the greenhouse and the internal air
temperature during the day, so the outside position for the shading net should anyway be
preferred from a general thermodynamic point of view (Abdel-Ghany et al., 2016). Despite
the importance of the spectral radiative properties during the lifetime of a plastic material used
to crop protection, very few studies have been performed so far to analyse the degradation
behaviour of these materials, in terms of their spectro-radiometrical characteristics (Emekli et
al., 2016). Particularly Abdel-Ghany et al. (2018) have investigated the degradation behaviour
of spectral transmittance and reflectance in the solar spectrum range of a 200 µm thick, PE-
LD film-covered greenhouse model, resulting that the 1-year exposure drastically reduced the
spectral and total transmittance of the cover film to global and PAR solar radiation by about
32% and increased the spectral and total reflectance by about 19% compared to new film.
Degradation of the radiative properties of the film did not affect the light quality or the
transmission ratios of light into the greenhouse.

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 D. Statuto, P. Picuno, A. M. Abdel-Ghany

In this paper, the results of an experimental trial carried out on the basis of some previous
experimental tests (Statuto & Picuno, 2017) are reported. This new analysis was performed
in order to start a systematic approach aimed to analyze the effect of a shading net on the
internal microclimate of a greenhouse depending on its radiometrical properties, as well as to
analyze different shading strategies on a selective filtering effect of the solar radiation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two identical small tunnels (Fig. 1) were realized in the experimental area of an
agricultural farm located in the municipality of Acerenza (Southern Italy - 40° 82′ N latitude;
15° 96′ E longitude). These small-scale tunnels, both covered with an EVAC plastic film,
were left without any cultivation inside. One of them was covered with a plastic shading net
overlapped on the external side, in contact with the plastic film. The tested plastic net was a
BIORETE 50 MESH, 100% PE-HD monofilament net produced by the Italian industry
Sachim-Arrigoni. It was a semi-transparent milky-white colour woven net, with a hole
dimension of 0.27-mm × 0.83-mm and a weight equal to 130g/m2. The producer declares a
shading effect for this net of 13%. Both the shading plastic net and the EVAC plastic film
were analyzed in the UV-VIS-NIR wavelength ranges by using a Jasco V-570 spectro-
radiometer, at the Laboratory of Material Tests of the SAFE School of the University of
Basilicata, Italy.
The temperature of the external and internal air and soil were recorded by CS500-L probes
(modified version of Vaisala's 50Y Humitter, Campbell Scientific Inc, Utah, USA). The
relevant data were recorded by a CR10X data-logger (Campbell Scientific Inc, Utah, USA).

Figure1 Small-scale tunnels covered with plastic film (left) and plastic film+net (right).

In parallel, another experiment was conducted in an arid climate (at King Saud University
campus, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia - 24° 39′ N latitude; 46° 47′ E longitude) using three identical
small tunnels, having the same dimensions as those two in Figure 1. These three tunnels were
covered with a PE-LD plastic film, 200-µm thick. One tunnel as a control and the other two

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 Shading methods for crop protection under greenhouse in Mediterranean areas

include an additional frame used to fix a plastic net cover at a distance of 20 cm apart from
the film cover. The nets colors were white and black, each one of 50% nominal shading factor,
as they were provided by the supplier. The radiometric properties of the PE-LD plastic film
and of the white and black nets used in Riyadh experiment have been reported by Abdel-
Ghany et al., (2018) and Abdel-Ghany & Al-Helal (2012).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of the spectro-radiometrical analysis of the materials used in the experimental
trials performed in Acerenza are reported in Tables 1 and 2, in terms of the main
characteristics measured in different significant ranges within the solar spectrum, both for the
plastic film and for the joint combination (coupling) plastic net + EVAC film. From the results
of this spectro-radiometric analysis performed in the solar range, it could be deduced that the
shading effect that was detected (i.e., the complement to 1 of the transmissivity coefficient)
into the different wavelength ranges (UVB, UVA, PAR, etc.) may give further information
about the effective capability of the net to protect the crop from excessive solar radiation. The
overlapping of the plastic net in contact with the cladding film has indeed increased the
shading effect in the solar range of around 11% (from 33,86% to 44,8%) that is, somewhat,
lower than the shading effect of the net alone (13%), as it is reported by the net producer.

Table 1 Results of the spectro-radiometrical analysis on the plastic EVAC film.

Wavelength Transmittance Reflectance Absorptivity Shading effect
Range
nm % % % %
Solar 200 - 2500 66,14 8,75 25,11 33,86
PAR 400 - 700 67,14 12,19 20,67 32,86
Solar IR 700 - 2500 72,06 8,53 19,41 27,94
UV 280 - 380 10,45 4,86 84,69 89,55
UVA 320 - 380 16,78 5,26 77,96 83,22
UVB 280 - 320 0,64 4,24 95,12 99,36

Table 2 Results of the spectro-radiometrical analysis on the coupling plastic net + EVAC
film used in the Acerenza experimental trials.
Wavelength Transmittance Reflectance Absorptivity Shading effect
Range
nm % % % %
Solar 200 - 2500 55,20 15,72 29,08 44,80
PAR 400 - 700 57,54 20,33 22,13 42,46
Solar IR 700 - 2500 60,03 15,98 23,99 39,97
UV 280 - 380 7,01 5,87 87,12 92,99
UVA 320 - 380 11,34 6,91 81,75 88,66
UVB 280 - 320 0,30 4,25 95,45 99,70

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 D. Statuto, P. Picuno, A. M. Abdel-Ghany

In figures 2 and 3, the diagrams of the solar transmittance and reflectance respectively of
the plastic EVAC film and the joint combination (coupling) plastic EVAC film and the
shading plastic net along the whole UV-VIS-NIR wavelength [200–2500 nm] are illustrated.
The difference did not seem to have significant influence on the air and soil temperature within
the two different small-scale tunnels located in Acerenza during the testing period. As shown
in figure 4, in fact, temperatures within these close small structures were almost the same, but
it is possible to notice a lower air temperature (difference about 1°C) in the tunnel shaded with
the plastic net.

Figure 2 Transmittance in the UV-VIS-NIR of plastic film and coupling film + net.

Figure 3 Reflectance in the UV-VIS-NIR of plastic film and coupling film + net.

In the case of the experimental trials performed in an arid climate on the identical
experimental tunnels, however, a reduction of around 5-7oC was observed when the shading
nets installed apart from the film cover (Fig. 5). Despite of the nominal shading factor is the
same (50%), the black net showed higher shading effect than the white net because the white
colour increases the forward scattering of solar beam and consequently enhances the
transmitted solar radiation into the tunnel.

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 Shading methods for crop protection under greenhouse in Mediterranean areas

Film
1 October 2018
Film+net
40
35
Air Temperature°C

30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Figure 4 Air temperature detected in the trial tunnels installed in Southern Italy.

Figure 5 Air temperature detected in the trial tunnels installed in the arid climate.

In the Acerenza experiment, the same situation appears when considering the soil
temperature at the centre of each tunnel, at a depth of 10 cm. Also, in this case the temperature
recorded in the case of film with net is slightly lower, during the day, than in case of plastic
film only (Fig.6). This observation is mainly attributed to the low shading power of the net
(≅11%) and its colour which enhances the transmitted radiation into the tunnel and reduces
the shading effect.
Under arid climatic conditions and existing a sandy soil below the three tested tunnels,
however, the effect of shading reduced the in-depth (at 10-cm) soil temperature by about 3oC
lower than that under the un-shaded tunnel (Fig. 7). The maximum reduction in Figure 7 was
shifted from solar noon to 4:00 PM due to the thermal inertia of soil, which delayed the
response of soil to the environment over the soil surface. During night time, shading is
expected to warm up the microclimate and the soil below the tunnels; however, this effect is
not clearly recognized in the present study because the size of the tested tunnels was small.
Significant effects are expected with full scale and commercial greenhouses.

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 D. Statuto, P. Picuno, A. M. Abdel-Ghany

10 cm depth Film
Film+Net
35
External Temperature
30
Temperature (°C)

25
20
15
10
5
0

Figure 6 Soil temperature detected in the trial tunnels at 10 cm depth (Acerenza).

Figure 7 Soil temperature detected in the trial tunnels at 10 cm depth (arid climate).

From the results of these first trials, it can be concluded that an accurate evaluation of
shading effects of a plastic net for different wavelength ranges (e.g., UVA, UVB, PAR, etc.)
may give useful hints for the evaluation of the technical performance, in terms of real efficacy
in protecting the crops from excessive sun radiation and possible consequent damages to the
crop, e.g., sunburn, scorch, etc. Transmittance coefficients, detailed at the different
wavelength ranges playing a role in the crop growth, appear as an indispensable tool, able to
classify the covering material in relation to the micro-climatic parameters of the protected
environment, the quality of the radiation, the temperature and the air flow.

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 Shading methods for crop protection under greenhouse in Mediterranean areas

CONCLUSIONS
Nets are currently often employed as covering elements without any proper design, only
basing on the knowledge of some technical characteristics. The lack of a specific Standard for
determining the spectro-radiometrical characteristics of agricultural nets - with the
consequence that laboratory test may be conducted on the basis of Standards applicable to
different materials (e.g. glass, or transparent film) - still asks further investigations aimed to
support an improvement of the technical properties of the plastic nets, in order to make them
more finalized to the biological necessities of the crop.
From the present research, it can be concluded that nets should be accompanied by
technical information about the shading factor along the whole solar range even when they
have a different function than the shading. This specific information about the shading factor
in the principal wavelength ranges - mostly in the Phosynthetically Active Radiation and
UVA/UVB bands - seems very meaningful, taking into account the different effects on the
crop as well as on the protected environment. More research is anyway needed to characterize
different types of nets for specific purposes, as well as to quantify the effects of the shading
effect on the greenhouse internal climate and crop response. Also, the duration of a plastic
net, depending on the site and condition of application still needs further investigations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Authors wish to thank the net producer SACHIM-ARRIGONI for the kind supply of
the plastic net that was tested in this experimental trial.
Many thanks to Mr. Cosimo Marano - technical staff at the SAFE School of the University
of Basilicata - for his support into performing the spectro-radiometrical laboratory analysis
and field tests.

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Abdel-Ghany, A.M., Al-Helal, I.M., Kumar, A., Alsadon, A.A., Shady, M.R., Ibrahim, A.A. (2018).
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Dehbi, A., Youssef, B., Chappey, C., Mourad, A.-H. I., Picuno, P., Statuto, D. (2017). Multilayers
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Dehbi, A., Youssef, B., Chappey, C., Mourad, A.-H. I., Picuno, P., Statuto, D. (2018). “Physical and gas
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films during the service life for greenhouse application. Journal of Building Engineering 6: 126-132.
Folta, K.M., Maruhnich, S.A. (2007). Green light: a signal to slow down or stop. Journal of Experimental
Botany 58(12): 3099-3111.
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Picuno, P., Abdel-Ghany, A. (2016). Spectro-Radiometrical Analysis of plastic nets for greenhouse
shading under arid conditions. Proceedings of the 44th Symposium on: “Actual Tasks on Agricultural
Engineering – ATAE 2016, Opatija (Croatia), 23-26 February 2016. UDC 631.234:728.98, pp. 469-
477.
Schettini, E., De Salvador, F.R., Scarascia-Mugnozza, G., Vox, G. (2011). Radiometric properties of
photoselective and photoluminescent greenhouse plastic films and their effect on peach and cherry
tree growth. Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology, 86 (1): 79-83.
Schettini, E., De Salvador, F.R., Scarascia-Mugnozza, G., Vox, G. (2012). Coloured Covering Materials
for Peach Protected Cultivation. Acta Horticulturae, Vol. 952, pp.201-208.
Sica, C., Picuno, P. (2008). Spectro-radiometrical characterization of plastic nets for protected
cultivation. Acta Horticulturae, Vol. 801, pp. 245-252.
Shahak, Y. (2008). Photo-selective netting for improved performance of horticultural crops. A review
of ornamental and vegetable studies carried out in Israel. Acta Horticulturae, Vol. 770, pp. 161-168.
Statuto, D., Picuno, P. (2017). Micro-climatic effect of shading nets for crop protection in Mediterranean
areas. Proceedings of the 45th Symposium on: “Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering – ATAE
2017, Opatija (Croatia), 21-24 February 2017. UDC 502.7:631.95, pp. 613 – 622.
Statuto, D., Cillis, G., Picuno, P. (2016). Analysis of the effect of agricultural land use change on rural
environment and landscape through historical cartography and GIS tools. Journal of Agricultural
Engineering, XLVII:468, pp. 28-39.
Tortora, A., Statuto, D., Picuno, P. (2015). Rural landscape planning through spatial modelling and
image processing of historical maps. Land Use Policy, 46: 71-82.
Vox, G., Maneta, A., Schettini, E. (2016). Evaluation of the radiometric properties of roofing materials
for livestock buildings and their effect on the surface temperature. Biosystems Engineering 144: 26-
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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

UTJECAJ ROKA BERBE I NAČINA SUŠENJA NA

KVALITATIVNA SVOJSTVA RUŽMARINA
Ana MATIN, Tajana KRIČKA, Tugomir MAJDAK, Mateja GRUBOR*, Eva PARIS,
Vanja JURIŠIĆ
*
E-mail dopisnog autora: [email protected]
Sveučilište u Zagrebu Agronomski fakultet, Zavod za poljoprivrednu tehnologiju, skladištenje i
transport, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia

SAŽETAK
Ružmarin (Rosmarinus officinalis) je grmolika višegodišnja vazdazelena
biljka, koja se zbog atraktivnog mirisa i okusa koristi u farmaceutskoj,
prehrambenoj i prerađivačkoj industriji. Osim u svježem stanju, ružmarin se
može termički doraditi kako bi mu se očuvala kvalitativna svojstva. Upravo
zbog toga, od velike je važnosti prilikom postupka termičke dorade odrediti
optimalnu kombinaciju temperature i vremena sušenja kako bi se očuvala
kvaliteta.
Za potrebe ovog istraživanja korišten je ružmarin ubran u zimskoj i
proljetnoj berbi. Navedeni biljni materijal sakupljen je na području Istre gdje
ružmarin u divljini raste kao samoniklo bilje. Ružmarin je sušen zagrijanim
zrakom u konvekcijskoj sušari (dehidratoru) na dvije različite temperature (40
°C i 50 °C) te zrakom okoline. Utvrđena su kvalitativna svojstva ružmarina
prije te nakon tretmana sušenja u svrhu bolje iskoristivosti ružmarina kao
sirovine u prehrambenoj industriji.
Provedenim istraživanjem zabilježeno je brže otpuštanje vode kod ružmarina
ubranog u zimskoj berbi u odnosu na proljetnu. Najbrže se sušio ružmarin (bez
obzira na godišnje doba) pomoću temperature od 50 °C. Bolji sadržaj
kvalitativnih svojstava zabilježen je kod konvekcijskog sušenja bez obzira na
rok berbe.
Ključne riječi: ružmarin, sušenje, kvalitativna svojstva

UVOD
Ružmarin je višegodišnja biljka koja tvori kruti grm, vrlo razgranatog i gustog oblika s
karakterističnim aromatičnim mirisom (Ghrabi, 2005). Uzgaja se uglavnom u mediteranskim
zemljama: Španjolska, Maroko, Tunis, Francuska i Italija (Szumny i sur., 2010).

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 A. Matin, T. Krička, T. Majdak, M. Grubor, E. Paris, V. Jurišić

Svakim danom u Svijetu postoji sve veći interes za očuvanje prehrambenih tvari u
prirodnim antioksidansima, u koje se ubraja i ružmarin (Bruni i sur., 2004; Hras i sur., 2000;
Williamsi sur., 2004; Frutos i Hernandez-Herrero, 2005; Erkan i sur., 2008; Ribeiro-Santos i
sur., 2015) koji se koristi u fitoterapiji i ima veliki potencijal zahvaljujući različitim
aktivnostima sekundarnih biomolekula, posebno eteričnih ulja (Bozin i sur., 2007). Eterično
ulje i ekstrakt ružmarina prepoznati su i opće prihvaćeni zbog njihovih antimikrobnih i
antioksidativnih svojstava (Ribeiro-Santos i sur., 2015). Međutim, mnoga istraživanja ukazala
su na varijabilnost te kvalitativni i kvantitativni sastav i prinos eteričnog ulja zbog unutarnjih
(genetike i biljne dobi) ili vanjskih čimbenika kao što su uvjeti klime i uzgoja ili metode
izolacije (Flamini i sur., 2002).
Trenutno je ružmarin široko istražen kao dodatak jelima koji se može dodati izravno ili
ugraditi u pakiranje hrane. Koristi u prehrambenim proizvodima i bezalkoholnim pićima, a
haidrolat ružmarina prodaje se kao osvježavajuće piće.
Kako bi se produljilo vrijeme korištenja začinskog bilja, pa tako i ružmarina, najbolji način
konzerviranja je sušenje zrakom okoline ili zagrijanim zrakom.
Svrha sušenja je omogućiti dulje razdoblje skladištenja za očuvanje i stavljanje na
raspolaganje potrošačima tijekom cijele godine (Maroulis i Saravacos, 2003). Sušenje zrakom
okoline je najstarija i najjednostavnija metoda sušenja. Sirovina se izlaže toplom i suhom
zraku na tamnom mjestu, a voda evaporira iz njih (Raghupathy i sur., 2000). Da bi se neka
tvar sušila mora se zagrijati do temperature pri kojoj će parcijalni tlak vodene pare na površini
sušene tvari biti veći od parcijalnog tlaka vodene pare u plinu. Ako je taj tlak manji, vlaga iz
plina će se apsorbirati u tvari (Krička i sur., 2009). Sušenje ljekovitog bilja može se izvesti
različitim metodama koje će utjecati na kvalitativni sastav, a najpoznatija metoda je
konvekcijsko sušenje (Jałoszyński i sur., 2008). Međutim, ova metoda ima nekoliko
nedostataka i ograničenja (učinci razine vakuuma i mikrovalne snage na volatilni sastav
ružmarina tijekom sušenja) (Calín-Sánchez i sur., 2011). Temperatura je najvažniji čimbenik
u kontroli gubitka kvalitete jer utječe na fiziološke procese razvoja i starenje, kao i na fizičke
procese zbog kojih dolazi do gubitka kvalitete.
Stoga je cilj ovog rada je utvrditi utjecaj roka berbe (zima i proljeće) i načina sušenja na
kvalitativna svojstva listova ružmarina u svrhu bolje iskoristivosti ružmarina kao sirovine u
prehrambenoj industriji.

MATERIJALI I METODE
Istraživanje je provedeno u laboratoriju Zavoda za poljoprivrednu tehnologiju,
skladištenje i transport na Sveučilištu u Zagrebu Agronomski fakultet na ružmarinu ručno
ubranom u zimskoj i proljetnoj berbi na području Istre. Sve provedene analize rađene su na
svježim, a zatim na sušenim uzorcima. Konvekcijsko sušenje provedeno je u dehidratoru
Exalibur dehydrator 4926T, USA s dvije temperature zraka (40 i 50 °C) te sušenje zrakom
okoline. Uzorci su vagani svakih 15 minuta, te se pratila promjena gubitka mase, odnosno
otpuštanja vlage do 12%.
Od kvalitativnih svojstava prema standardnim metodama određen je sadržaj vode u
laboratorijskoj sušnici (HRN ISO 6540:2002), pepela u mufolnoj peći (HRN ISO 2171:1999),
ulja na ekstraktoru Soxhlet (HRN ISO 6492:2001), te ugljika (C), vodika (H), dušika (N) i

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 Utjecaj roka berbe i načina sušenja na kvalitativna svojstva ružmarina

sumpora (S) prema metodi za C, H, N (HRN EN 15104:2011) i S (HRN EN 15289:2011)

metodom suhog spaljivanja pomoću Vario CHNS analizatora.

REZULTATI I RASPRAVA
Rezultati otpuštanja vode iz ružmarina, odnosno eksponencijalne jednadžbe otpuštanja
vode prikazane su u tablici 1.

Tablica 1 Eksponencijalne jednadžbe otpuštanja vode iz ružmarina

Table 1 Exponential equations of water release from rosemary

Rok berbe Početna vlaga Temperatura sušenja Eksponencijalna Koef. korelacije

Initial moisture Drying temperature jednadžba Correlation
Harvest time
(%) (˚C) Exponential equation coefficient
40°C w = 62,025e-0,01τ 0,996
Zima 50°C w = 61,953e-0,011τ 0,983
66,06
Winter Sušenje zrakom okoline
w = 64,305e-0,002 τ 0,917
Ambient air drying
40°C w = 53,157e-0,005τ 0,955
Proljeće 50°C w = 51,739e-0,006τ 0,944
55,28
Spring Sušenje zrakom okoline w = 54,144e-0,004 τ 0,817
Ambient air drying
Legenda: w – količina vode (%), τ – vrijeme (min)
Legend: w - water quantity (%), τ - time (min)

Analizom dobivenih rezultata istraživanih rokova berbe te načina i temperatura sušenja

prikazanih u tablici 1. uočava se da postoje razlike u brzini otpuštanja vode.
Prema dobivenim podacima može se utvrditi da je ružmarin zimske berbe brže otpuštao
vodu u odnosu na proljetnu berbu. Najbrže se sušio ružmarin bez obzira na rok berbe na
temperaturi od 50 °C. To se potvrđuje kraćim vremenom koje je bilo potrebno za otpuštanje
vode do vlažnosti od 12% te većom vrijednošću eksponenata. Kod svih istraživanih
eksponencijalnih jednadžbi utvrđen je koeficijent determinacije između 0,817 do 0,996 koji
potvrđuje da su istraživanja otpuštanja vode iz ružmarina vođena precizno te da su dobiveni
rezultati međusobno usporedivi.
Nadalje, u svrhu odrađivanja kvalitativnih svojstava ružmarina u tablici 2. prikazan sadržaj
pepela i ulja, dok je u tablici 3 prikazan sadržaj ugljika (C), vodika (H), sumpora (S) i dušika
(N), izraženih na suhu tvar, u prirodnom uzorku te nakon termičke dorade.
U svrhu što bolje iskoristivosti ružmarina za prehrambenu industriju određen je sadržaj
pepela koji je u namirnicama važan kao mjerilo biološke vrijednosti (makro i mikroelementi
u pravilnoj prehrani), ali i kao mjerilo kakvoće i higijenske ispravnosti namirnica. Ulja ili
masti su važne i nužne u ljudskoj prehrani, a s prehrambenog stajališta, ulja u odnosu na druge
hranjive sastojke predstavljaju bolji izvor energije sagorijevanjem. Sadržaj pepela i ulja
povisio se nakon termičkih tretmana bez obzira na rok berbe što znači da je ružmarin dobra
sirovina za daljnju preradu bez gubitka najvažnijih komponenata sastava. Rezultati su u

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 A. Matin, T. Krička, T. Majdak, M. Grubor, E. Paris, V. Jurišić

suglasju s USDA National Nutrient Food Composition Databases (2015) prema kojem
ružmarin u svježem stanju sadrži 5,8% ulja, a nakon sušenja oko 15%.

Tablica 2 Sadržaj pepela i ulja u prirodnom uzorku te nakon termičke dorade

Table 2 Content of ash and oil in natural sample and after thermal processing
Temperatura sušenja Pepeo Ulje
Rok berbe
Drying temperature Ash Oil
Harvest time
(˚C) (%) (%)
Zima/Winter Prirodni uzorak 4,48 4,76
Proljeće/Spring Raw material 6,63 6,42
Zima/Winter 8,04 14,85
40°C
Proljeće/Spring 7,64 15,99
Zima/Winter 7,83 15,21
50°C
Proljeće/Spring 6,74 17,13
Zima/Winter Sušenje zrakom okoline 7,91 5,77
Proljeće/Spring Ambiant air drying 6,65 14,47

Ljudskom organizmu je za njegovo normalno funkcioniranje neophodan čitav spektar

raznih hranjivih elemenata, a neki od najvažniji su analizirani u tablici 3. Ugljik (C) je važan
za fotosintezu i stanično disanje, a obzirom da ljudski organizam izgrađuje oko 60-70 % vode,
vodik (H) je element koji je važan dio molekule vode u ljudskom organizmu. Sumpor (S) u
prehrani nije samo dio aromatičnih spojeva ugodna ili neugodna mirisa, već važan
prehrambeni esencijalni faktor za organizam, a u metabolizmu čovjeka igra vrlo važnu, dok
je sadržaj dušika (N) vezan uz sadržaj proteina koji je važan za sve procese rasta i razvoja te
je stoga vrlo poželjna komponenta u prehrambenoj industriji.

Tablica 3 Sadržaj ugljika, vodika, sumpor i dušik u prirodnom uzorku te termički

dorađenim uzorcima
Table 3 Carbon, hydrogen, sulphur and nitrogen content in the natural sample and thermaly
processed samples
Temperatura sušenja Ugljik Vodik Sumpor Dušik
Rok berbe
Drying temperature Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur Nitrogen
Harvest time
(˚C) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Zima/Winter Prirodni zorak 38,58 4,48 0,37 1,69
Proljeće/Spring Raw material 41,92 4,37 0,21 1,79
Zima/Winter 52,18 5,96 0,42 2,03
40°C
Proljeće/Spring 49,98 5,86 0,40 1,99
Zima/Winter 51,32 6,00 0,24 1,86
50°C
Proljeće/Spring 50,49 5,99 0,20 1,91
Zima/Winter Sušenje zrakom okoline 47,86 5,90 0,47 1,73
Proljeće/Spring Ambiant air drying 48,75 4,83 0,47 1,74

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Analizom podataka iz tablice 3 vidljivo je da nakon obje termičke dorade bez obzira na
temperaturu sušenja i vrijeme berbe vrijednost istraživanih hranjivih elemenata raste. S
obzirom da navedeni elementi predstavljaju važnu komponentu svakog organizma, sukladno
tome važna su komponenta i za prehrambenu industriju. Istraživanje slično ovome na
mineralnom sastavu ružmarina proveli su Ożcan i sur., 2008 te su u svoj istraživanju dobili
slične rezultate.

ZAKLJUČAK
Usporedbom načina sušenja ružmarina različitom termičkom doradom zabilježeno je brže
otpuštanje vode kod ružmarina ubranog u zimskoj berbi u odnosu na proljetnu. Najbrže se
sušio ružmarin (bez obzira na godišnje doba) pomoću temperature od 50 °C.
Praćenjem promjena kvalitativnih svojstava, odnosno sadržaja vode, pepela i ulja te
ugljika, vodika, sumpora i dušika tijekom upotrebe različite termičke dorade utvrđeno je da
proces sušenja utječe na povećanje nutritivnih svojstava ružmarina bez obzira na visinu
temperature.

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HRN EN 15289:2011 (2011). Određivanje ukupnog udjela sumpora i klora

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Jałoszyński, K., Figiel, A., Wojdyło, A. (2008). Drying kinetics and antioxidant activity of oregano. Acta
Agrophysica, 11 (1), 81-90.
Krička, T., Tomić, F., Voća, N., Brlek Savić, T., Jurišić, V., Bilandžija, N., Matin, A. (2009). Physical
and chemical properties of rapeseed after different treatments of drying temperature and storage,
Journal on Processing and Energy in Agriculture, 13 (3): 210-215.
Maroulis Z.B., Saravacos G.D. (2003). Food Process Design, Inc., New York.
Özcan, M. M., Ünver, A., Uçar, T., Arslan, D. (2008). Mineral content of some herbs and herbal teas by
infusion and decoction. Food Chemistry, 106(3), 1120-1127.
Raghupathy R., Amuthan G., Kailappan R. (2000). Dried flowers: Significance. Kisan World, 28-39.
Ribeiro-Santos, R., Carvalho-Costa, D., Cavaleiro, C., Costa, H.S., Albuquerque, T.G., Castilho, M.C.,
Sanches-Silva, A. (2015). A novel insight on an ancient aromatic plant: The rosemary (Rosmarinus
officinalis L.). Trends in Food Science & Technology, 45(2), 355-368.
Szumny A., Figiel A., Gutiérrez-Ortíz A., Carbonell-Barrachina A. A. (2010). Composition of rosemary
essential oil (Rosmarinus officinalis) as affected by drying method. Journal of food engineering 97:
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molecules. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 36(7), 838–849.

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 Utjecaj roka berbe i načina sušenja na kvalitativna svojstva ružmarina

INFLUENCE OF HARVEST TIME AND DRYING

METHOD ON THE QUALITATIVE PROPERTIES OF
ROSEMARY
Ana MATIN, Tajana KRIČKA, Tugomir MAJDAK, Mateja GRUBOR*, Eva PARIS,
Vanja JURIŠIĆ
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Technology,
Storage and Transport, Svetosimunska c. 25, Zagreb, HR-10000

SUMMARY
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is a perennial herbaceous plant, which is
used in the pharmaceutical, food and processing industry due to its attractive
smell and taste. Except in the fresh state, rosemary can be thermally processed
to preserve its qualitative properties. For this reason, it is essential in the
process of thermal processing to determine the optimal combination of
temperature and drying time in order to preserve quality.
For the purpose of this study rosemary harvested in the winter and spring
was used. The mentioned herbal material was collected in the Istria area where
rosemary grows in the wild as self-propagating herbs. The rosemary was dried
with heated air in a convection dryer (dehydrator) at two different temperatures
(40 ° C and 50 ° C) as well as with ambient air (natural drying). The qualitative
properties of rosemary were determined before and after drying for the purpose
of better rosemary utilization as feedstock in the food industry.
This research observed faster release of water in the winter harvested
rosemary compared to the spring harvested rosemary. The fastest rosemary
drying is observed (regardless of season) with a temperature of 50 °C.
A more favorable content of qualitative properties was observed after
convection drying irrespective of the harvest period.
Keywords: rosemary, drying, qualitative properties

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

HARVEST AND QUALITY OF HYSSOP

(HYSSOPUS OFFICINALIS L.)
Cătălina STAN (TUDORA)1,2*, Laurențiu VLĂDUȚOIU2, Valentin Nicolae VLĂDUȚ2,
Adriana MUSCALU2
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, Romania
2 National Institute of Research - Development for Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture
and Food Industry - INMA Bucharest, Romania

SUMMARY
Countries in the elite of European medicinal plants growers, use
technologies that involve a high degree of mechanization/automation of
operations based on modern machines in order to increase productivity and
obtain quality vegetable material. Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L., fam.
Lamiaceae) is a perennial Mediterranean plant, well acclimatized in Romania.
The quality of the hyssop vegetal production obtained is influenced by a series
of pedoclimatic factors, the quality of the material used for the establishment
of a crop (seedlings, cuttings, etc.), the varieties and the chemical used, etc. In
addition, agricultural practices such as spacing and harvesting have a critical
effect on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of this species,
resulting in plant growth and development as well as yields.
This paper presents, on the one hand, the experimental researches carried
out within INMA Bucharest regarding the mechanized harvesting technology
of hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L., fam. Lamiaceae), using low-capacity
equipment for small plots. On the other hand, it is presented the technology of
processing the obtained raw material, to evaluate the possibilities of use, to
find new directions of application and exploitation (e.g.: ecological
agriculture, plant protection, etc.).
The proposed method of efficiency for the exploitation of hyssop is based on
the application of a process based on pressure water to produce essential oil
and hydrosol (floral water), products with high market value.
Preliminary tests on oil and hydrosol (floral water) obtained from hyssop
have shown their antimicrobial capacity on phytopathogenic bacteria and/or
fungi.

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 C. Stan (Tudora), L. Vlăduțoiu, V. N. Vlăduț, A. Muscalu

The results obtained allow the evaluation of the working performances of

the hyssop harvesting equipment and also the premises for the obtaining of new
products, which can be applied for the protection of vegetable crops in
greenhouses and solariums.
Keywords: hyssop, harvest, essential oil, quality.

INTRODUCTION
Hyssop - Hyssopus officinalis L., fam. Lamiaceae, originates in the Mediterranean and
Caspian Sea regions, naturally growing in southern Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia,
North Africa and North America. The plant cultivated for medicinal and culinary purposes is
used in many countries around the world (Judžentienė A., 2016).
Hyssop is a perennial herbaceous plant, which has a pleasant smell. The plant grows like
a shrub, with the height of the bush up to 0.6-0.7 m. The stems are straight, woody, branched
at the base. The leaves are lanceolate, 2-4 cm long, covered with thin bristles bearing on their
surface the glands producing volatile oil. The colour of the flowers can be blue, pink, violet
and (more rarely) white or purple. They are scented and appear grouped in the axil at the base
of the upper leaves, forming a spike at the top. The flowers are hermaphrodite; they are
pollinated by insects (mainly bees). The flowering period ranges from mid-May to June (crop
of the 2nd year of vegetation), until October-November (when frosts fall). It propagates
generative or vegetative. The plant prefers sunny and warm climate and well-drained soils
(clays, sands, etc.). Fields cultivated by Hyssop can be exploited 8-10 years, 2 harvest per
year are obtained: spring (May) and early autumn. The plants are harvested at flowering stage.
The production of Hyssop volatile oil and hydrosol (flower water) is obtained by distillation
with water vapour under pressure, with extraction yields of about 0.5-1%. Under average
climatic conditions, yields range from 8.0-15.0 t/ha of fresh plant, what results with one
quarter of dried.
The volatile oil obtained from Hyssop is a clear yellow liquid with herbaceous odour, like
camphor with warm and spicy tones. The chemical composition of this type of volatile oil
comprises a long list of compounds, the most important of which are: izopinocamphone (sin.
cis-, (3)-pinanone), pinocamphone (syn- trans-, (3) -pinanone) and their precursor β-pinene.
Other important compounds include pinocarvone, sabinene, germacrene, α-, β-phellandrene,
4-carvomenthenol, thymol, carvacrol, camphor, linalool, 1,8-cineole, α-terpinene, myrtenol,
eugenol and other compounds (Fathiazad et Hamedeyazdan, 2011; Ogunwande et al., 2011).
This paper presents the experimental research carried out within INMA Bucharest on
Hyssop crop and mechanized harvesting technology, using low-capacity equipment for small
areas. Following the processing of plant raw material, high value added products were
obtained (Grigore et al., 2016), such as volatile oil and hydrosol (flower water), the
antimicrobial activity of which was tested on a bacterium with phytopathogenic potential.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In order to obtain the plant material necessary for the extraction of volatile oil and hydrosol
(flower water), on the experimental plots of INMA Bucharest, under the climatic conditions
of 2017 (the extremely dry summer, with temepratures over 33ºC) on a reddish-brown forest

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soil, the experimental lots were set up. Hyssop harvesting was performed special inflorescence
collection appliance. The field of use of the harvesting equipment comprises the majority of
medicinal and aromatic plants which are harvested as herbs.

Figure 1 Equipment for medicinal plant harvesting in a Hyssop culture

Experimentation of the medicinal plant harvesting equipment (figure 1) was carried out
on a culture of Hyssop (Table 1), which was in the second year of exploitation on the
experimental plots of INMA Bucharest. The main subassemblies of the equipment are:
mower; rolling chassis; collecting bag; collecting bag support. As the harvesting of the aerial
parts of medicinal and aromatic plants is achieved by cutting, at a certain height from the
ground, determined by species, the equipment was tested in the previous season in a culture
of Tagetes (Tagetes patula L.). During the work, an operator directs the rolling chassis in the
culture, while another executes the repeated commands necessary to start/stop the heat engine
that drives the mower. The collected material is directed by a blower into the collecting bag.
(Muscalu et al., 2018).

Table 1 Agrotechnical parameters of field trials

Culture HYSOP (Line 1)

Area of the experimental plot approx. 200 m2
Row spacing 80 cm
Plant spacing/row 50 cm
Bush height 60-70 cm
Bush diameter 60 cm
Number of branches 10-12
Inflorescence shape spiciform inflorescence
Harvesting time May-June – until frosts fall
Degree of weed encroachment approx. 5%
State of the surface plane

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Testing the antimicrobial activity of volatile oil and Hyssop hydrosol was evaluated “in
vitro” on Pseudomonas marginalis phytopathogenic bacterium. The study was performed in
sterile Petri dishes in which agarose medium was distributed. After solidification, the medium
was seeded in the turf by flooding with bacterial suspension from a 24h culture obtained in
liquid LB medium. Subsequently, four spots of essential oil were placed equidistant at 2 cm
from the dish centre. The oil was used both undiluted and diluted in proportion of 3/4, 2/4 (or
½) and 1/4 respectively, using as a solvent a mixture of 10% DMSO and 0.5% Tween 80
(Prabuseenivasan et al., 2006). Also, control dishes were prepared, in which no essential oil
spots were placed. Samples were incubated at 28°C, and due to the cultural features of the
bacterium, biometric determinations were performed only 24 hours after seeding, respectively
after 7 days. Antibacterial activity was determined by measuring mycelial growth in the test
dishes.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The plant material used in these experiments comes from a Hyssop culture (second year
of exploitation), set up under the climatic conditions of 2017, on the land belonging to INMA
Bucharest - Baneasa area. The culture was established by planting seedlings in mid-May
following the scheme: 80 cm between rows/50 cm between plants in a row, resulting in a
planted area of approx. 200 m2. This scheme was preferred to mechanize the maintenance
works necessary for this culture.
The maintenance works that were applied to the culture consisted of: a manual hoeing,
superficial, for crust destruction and then mechanical hoeing for the destruction of weeds
between the rows. Avoid covering the plants with earth. In the first year and the next ones,
hoeing is done as often as necessary to keep the land clean of weeds and free of crust.
Watering (dripping) was also applied during the summer when there is a danger of drought
at soil level. In order to stimulate the inflorescence production, it is recommended, in spring,
before the start of the vegetation, to cut the bushes.
Harvesting was performed during blooming, in sunny weather, mechanically, using
equipment for harvesting medicinal plants, created by INMA Testing Department. The
qualitative working and energy indices determined in the tests and the results obtained are
presented in table 2.

Table 2 Qualitative working indices of Hyssop harvesting

Name of qualitative working and energy indices U. M. Average value

Number of rows harvested pc. 2
Cutting height (working) mm 300
Working speed km h-1 1.43
The efficiency of the cutting process % 94.7
Losses (uncut plants) % 5.3
Efficiency of collecting process % 95.1
Losses (uncollected cut plants) % 4.9
Fuel consumption lh-1 1.5

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In the climatic conditions, 2 crops were obtained, the first in May and the second in
September, with a total production of approximately 125 kg green plant / 200 m2 (6t/ha).
The harvested plant material was used to obtain essential oil and hydrosol (flower water),
from inflorescences and top parts of the upper branches, by the method of hydrodistillation -
water vapour distillation under pressure, using a medium capacity installation of French
origin.
The principle of this method is based on the fact that highly volatile substances are
entrained by water vapour, even if they have high boiling points. But before, there is a process
of diffusion of the volatile oil from the plant cells depending on the location in the plant or on
its chemical composition. When oil diffusion becomes more difficult, or when components
have high viscosity and remain on the vessel walls, organic solvents (2-3%) such as benzene,
hexane, etc. are also used. Clevenger type apparatus is used in the laboratory, where the water
recirculates, the plant being in constant contact with water. In industrial distillation plants
there are fixed boilers installed on special platforms or mobile boilers so that plant loading
can be made directly from the harvesting site. After condensation, the volatile oil is collected
in the Florentine vessels, where decanting and separation of the oil is done. (Stan Tudora et
al., 2018) The volatile oil and hydrosol (flower water) obtained were subsequently used for a
series of tests regarding antioxidant and antimicrobial activity.
Antimicrobial activity of Hyssop volatile oil and hydrosol on Pseudomonas marginalis
bacterium
This is a Gram negative bacterium with phytopathogenic potential for leguminous (Kůdela
et al., 2010) and floriculture (Krejzer et al., 2008) plants. It can cause damage both in culture
and during harvest storage (Li et al., 2007). In the case of vegetables, during storage,
Pseudomonas marginalis infections manifest as wet rot, and in culture, the attack is manifested
by burns on the edges of the leaves.
In the previously clear area (no bacterial growth one day after treatment) after a week of
incubation, the appearance of small isolated colonies of bacteria, more or less abundant
depending on the dilution tested, was observed. The more diluted the oil tested, the higher the
bacterial colony weight. As seen in Figure 2, in experimental variants where the oil and
hydrosol were tested undiluted (after 7 days of incubation), the bacteria completely or nearly
completely covered the agar in the previously clear areas, suggesting that they present rather
bacteriostatic activity, not bactericidal.
By measuring areas of bacterial growth inhibition after one day, respectively 7 days of
incubation, we can say that bacterial growth inhibition zones were slightly diminished,
predominantly by 0.7÷0.8 mm and rarely by 1.2 mm, suggesting the bacteriostatic effect of
Hyssop oil and hydrosol.
After 24h of incubation, there was a better inhibitory efficacy as the Hyssop essential oil
concentration increased.
After 7 days of incubation, it was observed that in variants where the solvent was used,
colony density was lower in the previously clear areas. Colonies developed in that area were
rarer compared to dishes in which the oil was tested undiluted. The more diluted the tested
oil, the higher the bacterial colony weight.
The results obtained in this test confirm a series of experimental results. Hyssop
antimicrobial activity was evaluated “in vitro” by the method of volatile discs (Nedorostova

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 C. Stan (Tudora), L. Vlăduțoiu, V. N. Vlăduț, A. Muscalu

et al., 2009) against 5 bacteria (2 Gram-positive: Listeria monocytogenes and S. aureus, 3

Gram-negative bacteria: Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enteritidis).
Also, tests carried out by Mazzanti et al. (1998) showed that Hyssop volatile oil was almost
inactive against Gram-negative bacteria, including P. aeruginosa, E. coli, Salmonella typhi.
Despite all its advantages, a number of toxic properties of Hyssop oil must be discussed.
Its chemical composition is regulated at global level by ISO (9841: 1991 Hyssop oil -
Hyssopus officialnalis L. ssp. officinalis). In this document, 13 compounds are recognized as
standards; pinocamphone, izopinocamphone and β-pinene are declared as the most abundant
(40-90%) constituents identified in Hyssop volatile oil. Several published papers have shown
that high dose of Hyssop oil has convulsive, epileptogenic and neurological effects in animals
undergoing experiments. These properties of volatile oil are related to the highly reactive
monoterpene ketone (e.g., izopinocamphone, pinocamphone and 1,8-cineole). Carcinogenic
properties may be due to the presence of methyl eugenol, but the Hyssop oils rich in this
constituent are quite rare (Judžentienė A., 2016).

Figure 2 Pseudomonas marginalis culture on agarose LB medium in the presence

of Hyssop oil and hydrosol (observations after 1 day of incubation)

CONCLUSIONS
By the qualitative working indices and energy ones obtained, the equipment for harvesting
medicinal plants has also demonstrated its effectiveness in a Hyssop culture cultivated on
small areas, from which the inflorescences have been collected. The equipment is a
prerequisite both for obtaining quality crops and for developing a specialized machinery
system for small surface medicinal and aromatic plant cultures.
The tests showed the bacteriostatic rather than bactericidal activity of Hyssop volatile oil
and less of hydrosol (flower water) (Hyssopus officinalis L., fam. Lamiaceae) on the
phytopathogenic bacterium - Pseudomonas marginalis.
The use of volatile oils (such as Hyssop oil) for disease control in organic farming can be
promising, but these natural oils act quickly and their effectiveness is limited by the fact that
they volatilize relatively quickly.
The strategy for sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic plants aims to promote the
cultivation of these plants to meet demand and provide new income opportunities for farmers.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by one founding source the NUCLEU Program, carried out with
the support of ANCSI, Project PN 18 30 02 03 "Technology for the establishment and superior
utilization of herbal raw material obtained from medicinal plants".
This work was supported by one founding source the NUCLEU Program, carried out with
the support of ANCSI, Project PN 5N/07.02.2019 "Research on the superior valorization of
some new plants species cultivated in Romania”.

REFERENCES
Fathiazad, F., Hamedeyazdan, S. (2011). A review on Hyssopus officinalis L.: composition and
biological activities. African Journal Pharm. Pharmacol. 5 (17):1959–1966.
Grigore, A., Pirvu, L., Bubueanu, C., Colceru-Mihul, S., Ionita, C., Ionita, L. (2016). Medicinal plant
crops-important source of high value-added products. In Scientific Papers. Series A. Agronomy LIX.
Judžentienė, A. (2016). Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L.) Oils (chapter 53, part II – Named essential
oils). In: Essential Oils in Food Preservation, Flavour and Safety (Preedy V.R., eds.), Academic
Press, Elsevier Inc. All, 471-479)
Krejzar, V., Mertelík, J., Pánková, I. (2008). Pseudomonas marginalis associated with soft rot of
Zantedeschia spp. Plant Prot Sci. 44 (3):85-90 (10.17221/16/2008-PPS).
Kůdela, V., Krejzar, V., Pánková, I. (2010). Pseudomonas corrugata and Pseudomonas marginalis
associated with the collapse of tomato plants in Rockwool slab hydroponic culture. Plant Protection
Science. 46:1-11 (10.17221/44/2009-PPS).
Li, J., Chai, Z., Yang, H., Li, G., Wang, Di. (2007). First report of Pseudomonas marginalis pv.
marginalis as a cause of soft rot of potato in China. Australasian Plant Disease Notes, 2:71–73
(10.1071/DN07029.1833-928X/07/010071)
Mazzanti, G., Battinelli, L., Salvatore, G. (1998). Antimicrobial properties of the linalol-rich essential
oil of Hyssopus officinalis L. var decumbens (Lamiaceae). Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 13:289-
294.
Muscalu, A., David, L., Birsan, M., Grigore, I., Fatu, A. C., Tudora, C. (2018). Harvesting and
processing of French Marigold to obtain products with new uses. Proceedings of the 46th International
Symposium Actual tasks on Agricultural Engineering (239:244), 27th febuary-1th march 2018,
Opatija, Croatia.
Nedorostova, L., Kloucek, P., Kokoska, L., Stolcova, M., Pulkrabek, J. (2009). Antimicrobial properties
of selected essential oils in vapour phase against foodborne bacteria. Food Control 20:157-160.
Ogunwande, I.A., Flamini, G., Alese, O.O., Cioni, P.L., Ogundajo, A.L., Setzer, W.N. (2011). A new
chemical form of essential oil of Hyssopus officinalis L. (Lamiaceae) from Nigeria. Int. J. Biol. Chem.
Sci. 5(1):46-55.
Prabuseenivasan, S., Jayakumar, M., Ignacimuthu, S. (2006). In vitro antibacterial activity of some plant
essential oils. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 6(39). http://doi.org/10.1186/1472-
6882-6-39
Stan (Tudora), C., Muscalu, A., Vlăduț, N. V., Israel-Roming, F. (2018). Allelopathic potential of
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SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

UTJECAJ FAO GRUPE HIBRIDA KUKURUZA NA

BRZINU OTPUŠTANJA VODE SUŠENJEM I
HRANIDBENU VRIJEDNOST ZRNA
Tajana KRIČKA, Mateja GRUBOR*, Ana MATIN
*
E-mail dopisnog autora: [email protected]
Sveučilište u Zagrebu Agronomski fakultet, Zavod za poljoprivrednu tehnologiju,
skladištenje i transport, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia

SAŽETAK

Najvažnije energetsko krmivo u Republici Hrvatskoj je zrno kukuruza, a kao

posljedica velikog broja hibrida upravo se kod njega javljaju najveće varijacije
u pogledu kemijskog sastava. Zrno kukuruza mora se sačuvati od jedne berbe
do druge. U vrijeme ubiranja ono ima veću vlažnost od ravnotežne te se, kako
bi se moglo skladištiti, mora konzervirati. Jedan od načina konzerviranja je
konvekcijsko sušenje. S obzirom da se prilikom sušenja u sušari istodobno suše
različiti hibridi zrna s različitom početnom vlažnošću, morfološkom građom i
veličinom, dolazi do različitog ponašanja zrna u procesu sušenja. Otpuštanje
suvišne vode do ravnotežne vlažnosti (14%) različito je za svaki hibrid, stoga
je cilj rada odrediti brzinu otpuštanja vode iz zrna prezentiranih pomoću
eksponencijalnih jednadžbi za 4 različite FAO grupe kukuruza 300, 400, 500 i
600. Također, odrediti će se lom zrna nakon procesa sušenja, koji predstavlja
simulaciju pada zrna u silosnu ćeliju, te hranidbena vrijednost zrna istraživanih
hibrida kukuruza nakon procesa sušenja, kao i nakon godinu dana skladištenja
u pothlađenim uvjetima (5 °C). Najsporiju tendenciju sušenja imao je hibrid
FAO grupe 500, dok je najbržu imao hibrid FAO grupe 400. Brzina sušenja
utjecala je na lom zrna te je najsporije osušen hibrid FAO grupe 500 ostvario
najmanji postotak loma (24,0%), dok je najbrže osušeni hibrid FAO grupe 400
ostvario najveći postotak loma (48,4%). Hibridi su imali slične hranidbene
vrijednosti te se skladištenjem one nisu značajno promijenile, što konvekcijsko
sušenje i skladištenje u pothlađenom prostoru čini kvalitetnom metodom
čuvanja zrna kukuruza.
Ključne riječi: zrno kukuruza, sušenje, lom, nutritivne vrijednosti,
skladištenje

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 T. Krička, M. Grubor, A. Matin

UVOD
Kukuruz je jedan od najraširenijih žitarica u svijetu i jedan je od najvažnijih
poljoprivrednih proizvoda u Republici Hrvatskoj. Neizbježan je i najvažniji sastojak krmnih
smjesa u hranidbi životinja te se osim za potrebe skladištenja, zrno dorađuje i s ciljem
povećanja njegove probavljivosti u hranidbi životinja (Voća i sur., 2008). Kukuruz je bogat
vitaminima, posebice A i E, i ima veliku nutritivnu vrijednost (Tuncel i sur., 2010).
Kukuruzno zrno sadrži veliku količinu škroba i donosi više od 85% škroba proizvedenog u
Svijetu (Eckhoff, 2004; Malumba i sur., 2009). Globalno doprinosi sa 42 Mt bjelančevina
godišnje, što odgovara približno 15% svjetske godišnje proizvodnje proteina iz hrane (Li i
Vassal, 2004; Malumba i sur., 2009).
Većina hibrida kukuruza trenutno se bere s 22 do 30% vlažnosti kako bi se olakšalo
korištenje kombinacijskog skladišta (Wall i sur., 1975). U koliko se brzo ne osuši, visoko
vlažni kukuruz podložan je brzom propadanju, i iz tog razloga kukuruz mora biti osušen ispod
kritične razine, odnosno između 13% i 14% (Wilcke i Hellevang, 2002; Tuncel i sur., 2010;
Krička i sur., 2018).
Sušenje kukuruza je složen proces koji tradicionalno ovisi o iskustvu korisnika i hibridima
te postoji mogućnost za poboljšanje procesa u smislu očuvanja kvalitete, smanjenja troškova
i/ili optimizacije procesa (Islam i sur., 2004). Prilikom prirodnog sušenja kukuruza na zrnu
mogu se razviti plijesni te je zrno kontaminirano aflatoksinima, štetnim mikotoksinima za
životinje, ali i za ljudsko zdravlje (Doymaz i Pala, 2003). Dakle, kako bi se osigurao higijenski
i kvalitetni proizvod koristi se sušenje vrućim zrakom, koje je brzo i osigurava ujednačeno
osušen proizvod (Doymaz i Pala, 2003).
Da bi se postigli najbolji mogući rezultati procesa sušenja, bitno je prikupiti veliki broj
informacija o različitim hibridima i utjecaju njihovih fizičkih i kemijskih svojstava na kinetiku
sušenja (Gely i Santalla, 2000). Brzina i kvaliteta sušenja poljoprivrednih proizvoda ovise o
fizikalnim svojstvima okoline sušenja, fizikalnim svojstvima materijala koji se suši i debljini
sloja kroz koji se voda ispušta u sušenju (Krička i sur., 2007).
Sušenje osigurava proizvodu određeno vrijeme čuvanja bez promjene i mogućnost
njegovog korištenja tijekom cijele godine (Krička i Pliestić, 1994; Krička i sur., 2001; Krička
i sur., 2003; Matin i sur., 2013). Sušenje je jedan od najvažnijih procesa nakon žetve, što ne
samo da povećava rok trajanja proizvoda već i povećava njegovu vrijednost kao hrane
(Mohapatra i Rao, 2005; Krička i sur., 2018). Kod kukuruza se zagrijavanjem zrna povećava
udio želatiniziranog škroba i glutena (Krička i sur., 2001).
Sušenje vrućim zrakom obično se primjenjuje za očuvanje kukuruznog zrna smanjujući
njihovu dostupnost vode (Krička, 1993; Malumba i sur., 2010). Tijekom tog procesa zrno se
podvrgava različitim promjenama. Važno je uzeti u obzir proces zagrijavanja zraka,
temperaturu sušenja koja ovisi o specifičnoj upotrebi zrna i predloženom vremenu
zadržavanja zrna u sušari (Jayas i White, 2003; Malumba i sur., 2010).
Sušenje može započeti tek onda kada je razlika parcijalnih tlakova vodene pare između
zrna i zraka tolika da voda prelazi iz zrna u zrak. Za postupak sušenja mora postojati
mogućnost kretanja vode i vodene pare unutar zrna. Kretanje vode u kapilarama uvjetuju
osmotski tlak i površinska napetost meniskusa vode u kapilari. U procesu sušenja vlaga se
kreće iz unutrašnjosti zrna prema površini i zatim s površina zrna prelazi na zrak kojim se suši
(Katić, 1997; Mujumdar, 2000).

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Međutim, da bi se u potpunosti opisala kinetika sušenja, potrebno je poznavati velik broj

parametara. Osim tipa sušare, njegove geometrije i načina zagrijavanja, tu su u prvom redu
svojstva materijala koji se suši. Važno je poznavanje geometrijskih čestica materijala kao što
su veličina čestica i raspodjela veličina čestica, raspodjela veličina pora, oblik čestica.
Tijekom procesa sušenja određeni broj kvalitetnih značajki može se značajno promijeniti
(Kocsis et al., 2011). Povećana temperatura zraka za sušenje smanjuje razinu vlage u zrnu, pa
povećana razlika u parcijalnim tlakovima između zrna i zraka poboljšava sušenje (Krička i
sur., 2003). Visoke temperature korištene tijekom sušenja mogu utjecati na fizikalno-kemijska
svojstva zrna (Altay i Gunasekaran, 2006; Hardacre i Clark, 2006; Chung i sur., 2009;).
Sušenje zrna na povišenim temperaturama uzrokuje pukotine usred napora i lomljivost
(Wall i sur., 1975), a isto tako i sušenje pri niskim temperaturama obično ima utjecaj na
čimbenike kakvoće kukuruza, kao što su pukotine uslijed otpornosti na stres, gustoća,
osjetljivost lomova ili klijavost (Peplinski i sur., 1994).
Budući da povećano zagrijavanje zrna tijekom sušenja omogućuje veći kapacitet sušenja
s istom količinom zraka, svakodnevno se nastoji postići veće temperature sušenja zraka.
Previše zagrijavanja smanjuje kvalitetu zrna jer postaje krhko i prekida se s lagano povećanim
opterećenjem (Krička i sur., 2003) te je takvo zrno podložnije lomovima (Martins, 1988).
Sušenje u sušari se istodobno odvija s različitim hibridima zrna kukuruza različit početne
vlažnosti, različitom morfološkom građom i veličinom te zbog toga dolazi do različitog
ponašanja zrna u procesu sušenja. Otpuštanje suvišne vode do ravnotežne vlažnosti (14%)
različito je za svaki hibrid, stoga je cilj rada odrediti otpuštanje vode iz 4 različite FAO grupe
zrna kukuruza pomoću eksponencijalnih jednadžbi. Također, će se odrediti hranidbena
vrijednost zrna istraživanih hibrida kukuruza nakon procesa sušenja te nakon godinu dana
skladištenja u pothlađenim uvjetima (5°C). Uz navedeno istražiti će se utjecaj sušenja na lom
zrna hibrida različitih FAO grupa.

MATERIJALI I METODE
Istraživanje je provedeno na 4 različite FAO grupe kukuruza 300, 400, 500 i 600. Hibrid
FAO grupe 300 po svojim karakteristikama bio je dvolinijski, rani hibrid kukuruza, po
podvrsti zuban, svjetložute boje zrna. Hibrid FAO grupe 400 bio je dvolinijski, srednje rani
hibrid kukuruza, po podvrsti zuban, svjetložute boje zrna. Hibrid FAO grupe 500 bio je
dvolinijski, kasni hibrid kukuruza, po podvrsti zuban, krupnog zrna zlatnožute boje. Hibrid
FAO grupe 600 bio je dvolinijski, kasni hibrid kukuruza, po podvrsti zuban, krupnog žutog
zrna. Neposredno prije sušenja pomoću pomičnog mjerila izmjerene su dimenzije zrna
(dužina, širina i debljina).
Za eksperimentalno sušenje kukuruznog zrna upotrijebljena je laboratorijska konvekcijska
sušara izrađena na Zavodu za poljoprivrednu tehnologiju, skladištenje i transport, Sveučilište
u Zagrebu Agronomski fakultet. Zrno svih hibrida sušeno je na temperaturi od 130 °C te je
brzina strujanja zraka iznosila oko 2 m/s. Uzorak se suši u stacionarnom sloju i njegova masa,
tj. gubitak vlage, mjerio se svakih 5 minuta na vagi smještenoj u neposrednoj blizini sušare.
U tablici 1 prikazane su srednje vrijednosti faktora sušenja 4 različitih hibrida kukuruza.
Vrijednosti temperature i relativne vlage zraka mjerene su pomoću psihrometra i higrometra,
a ostali parametri (x0, h0, h1) računski h-x diagramom. Brzina zraka na izlazu iz sušare mjerena
je pomoću anemometra.

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Tablica 1 Srednje vrijednosti zraka pri sušenju zrna

Table 1 Average values of air during grain drying

Hibrid/Hybrid t0 (°C) φ0 (%) x0 (g kg-1) h0 (kJ kg-1) t1 (°C) h1 (kJ kg-1) v2 (m s-1)

FAO 300 23,9 41,5 0,007800 43,74 130,6 151,97 1,93

FAO 400 22,0 65,6 0,010880 49,64 130,0 159,80 2,10
FAO 500 23,4 62,3 0,011276 52,08 131,2 162,11 2,10
FAO 600 24,9 58,9 0,011662 54,59 130,9 162,86 2,10

Legenda: t0- temperatura zraka okoline; φ0- relativna vlaga zraka; x0- apsolutna vlaga
zraka okoline; h0- specifična entalpija zraka; t1- temperatura vrućeg zraka; h1- specifična
entalpija vrućeg zraka; v2- brzina zraka na izlazu iz sušare
Legend: t0- ambient air temperature; φ0- relative air humidity; x0 - absolute ambient air
humidity; h0- specific air enthalpy; t1- hot air temperature; h1- specific hot air enthalpy; v2- air
velocity at the dryer exit
Kako bi se simulirao pad zrna u silosnu ćeliju određen je lom zrna u centerifugalnom
bubnju pri 1000 okretaja u minuti. Uzorci zrna su bili izbrojani i izvagani te propušteni kroz
bubanj. Po prestanku djelovanja opterećenja u centrifugalnom bubnju cijela i polomljena zrna
su skupljena u posudicu i nakon toga opet izbrojana i izvagana. Iz dobivenih rezultata dobiven
je odnos cijelih i izlomljenih zrna. Ujedno na osnovu mase 250 zrna dobivena je i apsolutna
masa 1000 zrna.
Određivanje početne vlage zrna kukuruza određena je prema protokolu HRN ISO
6540:2002. Sadržaj proteina, masti, pepela i vlakana u kukuruznom zrnu, nakon sušenja te
skladištenja u trajanju od godinu dana u pothlađenim uvjetima (5 °C), određen je prema
Weende metodi. Slijedeći prijedloge Ensminger i Olentine (1978) dobivene vrijednosti su
zatim pretvorene u vlagu od 14% i suhe tvari.

REZULTATI I RASPRAVA
Prije početka sušenja izmjerene su dimenzije zrna (tablica 2). Obzirom na približno
jednake veličine zrna istraživanih kultura proces sušenja odvijao se u ujednačenim uvjetima
te je usporedba sušenja između hibrida pravilnija.

Tablica 2 Fizikalne karakteristike zrna

Table 2 Physical characteristics of grain

Hibrid/Hybrid Dužina/Length (mm) Širina/Width (mm) Debljina/Thickness (mm)

FAO 300 11,370 8,520 5,580

FAO 400 11,695 8,725 5,385
FAO 500 11,980 8,820 5,914
FAO 600 11,820 9,285 5,570

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Na osnovu izmjerenih podataka o gubitku mase svakih 5 minuta izračunate su

eksponencijalne jednadžbe kod zahtijevanih vrijednosti temperatura za svaki istraživani
hibrid do ravnotežne vlažnosti kukuruza (tablica 3).

Tablica 3 Eksponencijalne jednadžbe istraživanih zrna hibrida kukuruza

Table 3 Exponential equations of investigated maize grain hybrids
Hibrid Početna vlaga Eksponencijalna jednadžba Koeficijent korelacije
Hybrid Initial moisture (%) Exponential equation Correlation coefficient
FAO 300 32,04 w=29,606956*e-0,014460τ 0,993575
FAO 400 29,46 w=28,781169*e-0,015772τ 0,997203
FAO 500 33,82 w=30,708216*e-0,010366τ 0,986599
FAO 600 30,75 w=29,054187*e-0,013269τ 0,993646

Da bi se moglo usporediti krivulje sušenja istraživanih hibrida korišteno je matematičko

modeliranje jednadžbi brzine otpuštanja vode iz zrna (Krička, 1993). Kod svih istraživanih
eksponencijalnih jednadžbi utvrđen je koeficijent korelacije između 0,98 i 0,99 koji pokazuju
da su istraživanja otpuštanja vode iz zrna vođena precizno te da su dobiveni rezultati
međusobno usporedivi. Analizirajući općenito jednadžbe sušenja uočava se, da
eksponencijalni koeficijent varijabli ima negativan predznak, što znači da krivulja pada tj.
pokazuje tendenciju brzine sušenja. Što eksponent ima veću apsolutnu vrijednost, sušenje je
brže. Temeljem navedenog najbrže je otpuštao vodu hibrid FAO grupe 400, dok je najsporije
otpuštao vodu hibrid FAO grupe 500.
Nakon što je zrno hibrida bilo sušeno na temperaturi zraka od 130 °C, njegova dinamička
čvrstoća ispitana je u centrifugalnom bubnju (tablica 4) što može simulirati uvjete kojima je
zrno izloženo tijekom mehaničkog prikupljanja, transporta, skladištenja, itd.

Tablica 4 Mehaničko-dinamička oštećenja zrna istraživanih hibrida

Table 4 Mechanical-dynamic grain damage of investigated maize grain hybrids
Hibrid Vlaga nakon sušenja Masa 1000 zrna Lom zrna Cijelo zrno
Hybrid Moisture after drying (%) 1000 grain weight (g) Grain fracture (%) Whole grain (%)
FAO 300 13,77 338,8 38,0 62,0
FAO 400 13,31 346,8 48,4 51,6
FAO 500 13,76 392,4 24,0 76,0
FAO 600 13,53 301,2 26,0 74,0

Kao što je već dokazano, dinamička snaga zrna izravno ovisi o njegovom sadržaju vlage
(Pliestić, 1989). Kako bi se usporedili rezultati lomova između zrna različitih hibrida, bitno
je dokazati da se istraživanje provodi na otprilike istoj vlažnosti zrna, u ovom slučaju oko
14%. Iz rezultata vidljivo je da brzina sušenja utječe na lom zrna te je najsporije osušen hibrid
FAO grupe 500 ostvario najmanji postotak loma (24,0%), dok je najbrže osušeni hibrid FAO
grupe 400 ostvario najveći postotak loma (48,4%) u odnosu na ostale istraživane hibride.

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U tablici 5 prikazani su udjeli proteina, masti, pepela i vlakna u osušenom zrnu istraživanih
hibrida kao pokazatelji hranidbene vrijednosti zrna kukuruza, dok su u tablici 6. prikazane
iste vrijednosti nakon godinu dana skladištenja u pothlađenim uvjetima (5 °C).

Tablica 5 Hranidbena vrijednost osušenih zrna istraživanih hibrida

Table 5 Nutritional value of dried investigated grains
Hibrid Proteini/Proteins (%) Masti/Fat (%) Pepeo/Ash (%) Vlakna/Fiber (%)
Hybrid 14% S.T. 14% S.T. 14% S.T. 14% S.T.
FAO 300 7,84 9,12 2,06 2,39 1,27 1,48 2,84 3,31
FAO 400 8,92 10,40 2,81 3,28 1,16 1,36 2,52 2,94
FAO 500 8,25 9,61 2,33 2,71 1,16 1,36 2,33 2,71
FAO 600 8,34 9,72 2,81 3,28 1,07 1,24 1,94 2,26

Tablica 6 Hranidbena vrijednost osušenih zrna istraživanih kultura nakon jednogodišnjeg

skladištenja
Table 6 Nutritional value of dried investigated grains after one year storage
Hibrid Proteini/Proteins (%) Masti/Fat (%) Pepeo/Ash (%) Vlakna/Fiber (%)
Hybrid 14% S.T. 14% S.T. 14% S.T. 14% S.T.
FAO 300 6,68 7,76 3,29 3,82 1,06 1,24 2,81 2,36
FAO 400 9,47 11,01 2,87 3,34 1,24 1,45 2,77 3,26
FAO 500 8,44 9,82 2,56 2,98 - - 3,41 3,97
FAO 600 9,87 11,48 2,72 3,20 1,04 1,21 2,82 3,31

Rezultati u tablicama prikazuju da su hibridi različitih FAO grupa imali slične hranidbene
vrijednosti nakon procesa konvekcijskog sušenja. Nakon godinu dana skladištenja u
pothlađenim uvjetima uočene su određene razlike u nutritivnom sastavu zrna istraživanih
hibrida, no kvaliteta zrna nije značajno promijenjena, što skladištenje u ovakvim uvjetima čini
povoljnim i preporučljivim.

ZAKLJUČAK
Zrno 4 različite FAO grupe kukuruza 300, 400, 500 i 600 sušeno je u podjednakim
uvjetima. Koeficijent korelacije pokazao je da je sušenje provedeno kvalitetno te su rezultati
usporedivi. Preko eksponencijalnih jednadžbi može se utvrditi da je najbrže otpuštao vodu
hibrid FAO grupe 400, dok je najsporije otpuštao vodu hibrid FAO grupe 500. Također je
utvrđeno da brzina sušenja utječe na lom zrna te je najsporije osušen hibrid ostvario najmanji
postotak loma, dok je najbrže osušeni hibrid ostvario najveći postotak loma. Hibridi su imali
slične hranidbene vrijednosti te se skladištenjem one nisu značajno promijenile, što
konvekcijsko sušenje i skladištenje u pothlađenom prostoru čini kvalitetnom metodom
čuvanja zrna kukuruza.

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IMPACT OF THE MAIZE HYBRIDS FAO GROUP ON

THE WATER RELEASE RATE BY DRYING AND
GRAIN NUTRITIONAL VALUE
Tajana KRIČKA, Mateja GRUBOR*, Ana MATIN
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Technology,
Storage and Transport, Svetosimunska c. 25, Zagreb, HR-10000

ABSTRACT
The most important energy feed in the Republic of Croatia is maize grain,
and as a consequence of a large number of hybrids, the largest variations in
the chemical composition are present. Maize grain must be preserved from one
harvest to another. At harvest time, it has higher moisture content than the
equilibrium and, in order to be stored, must be conserved. One way of
conservation is convection drying. Since different grain hybrids with different
initial humidity, morphological structure and the size of the grain are dried
simultaneously in the drying process, different grain behavior occurs in the
drying process. The release of surplus water to the equilibrium humidity (14%)
is different for each hybrid, therefore the aim of the paper is to determine the
water release rate through exponential equations for 4 different FAO maize
groups 300, 400, 500 and 600. Also, the grain fracture after drying, which
represents the simulation of the grain fall in the silage cell, as well as
nutritional value of investigated maize hybrids after the drying process and
after a year of storage under the cooled conditions (5 °C) will be determined.
The slowest trend of drying had the FAO group 500 hybrid, while the fastest
had the FAO group 400 hybrid. The drying speed affected the grain fracture,
and the slowest-dried FAO group 500 hybrid achieved the lowest percentage
of fracture (24.0%), while the fastest-dried FAO group 400 hybrid achieved the
highest percentage of fracture (48.4%). Hybrids had similar nutritional values,
and they did not change significantly during the storage period, what makes
convection drying and cooled storage a good method of maize grain storage.
Keywords: maize grain, drying, grain fracture, nutritional values, storage

331
47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

DRYING PROCESS MODELING WITH EFFECTS OF

PHYSICAL PARAMETERS ON DEHYDRATED SEEDS
Vlad Nicolae ARSENOAIA1*, Nicolae Valentin VLĂDUȚ2, Ioan ȚENU1, Iulian VOICEA2,
Petru Marian CÂRLESCU1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 Department of Pedotechnics, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi,
Sadoveanu 3, Iaşi 700490, Romania.
2 National institute of research – development for machines and installations designed to agriculture

and food industry - INMA, Ion Ionescu de la Brad Blv. No. 6, Sector 1, Bucharest, Romania

SUMMARY
Dehydration of agricultural products is part of the research regarding the
conservation and preservation of the quality of agricultural and food products.
The paper aims to determine the optimal drying regime by analyzing the
kinetics of the corn seed drying process and the qualitative indices of the
obtained samples.
The mathematical modeling of the seed drying process used experimental
data measured using the drying system. If the grain is applied to a non-uniform
air distribution with too high drying temperatures in some points, it cracks in
one or more places and becomes very brittle.
In order to overcome the drying uniformity problem, a device was conceived,
built and constitutes a proposal for a patent. It is equipped with tronconic plates
based on the Coandă effect, which allows uniform distribution of warm air in
the mass of product to be dried.
Because moisture influences the internal friction coefficient of grain, the
porosity of the seed samples was determined using a 3D scanner. Validation of
the mathematical model for the porous seed medium was achieved by
measuring the seed temperature at several positions in the dryer. By applying
a heat and mass transfer model in a porous seed layer, the temperature field
was simulated in three consecutive layers with a total thickness of 150 mm.
The results obtained by simulation and experiment gave the optimum
parameters to have a uniform temperature gradient without harming the corn
seed.
Keywords: simulation, seed drying, porosity, heat transfer

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

333
 V. N. Arsenoaia, N. V. Vlăduț, I. Țenu, I. Voicea, P. M. Cârlescu

INTRODUCTION
Heat transfer is a complex phenomenon whereby thermal energy is exchanged between
two independent regions or between two fluids based on a temperature difference (thermal
potential) between them. Due to the existence of a thermal potential, the transfer of energy
from the higher temperature region or fluid to the one with lower temperature is performed
spontaneously. Heat transfer deals with the study of dynamic processes where the thermal
energy at certain parameters is also converted to thermal energy, but to other parameters.
Thermal transfer laws underlie the design and exploitation of a large number of unit
operations, work processes, apparatuses and installations, characteristic of process industries.
In the food industry, heat transmission is a phenomenon that underlies many specific
operations such as: heating, cooling, evaporation, condensation, drying, distillation etc. (Țenu
et al., 2014)
In the case of drying cereal grains intended for food consumption, the artificial drying
operation is carried out in order to ensure good storage and preservation without depreciating
their food value.
At the same time, for cereal seeds and other plants, it is intended that the artificial drying
operation does not destroy their quality parameters.
Therefore, the process of artificial drying of the seeds is complex and requires a great deal
of attention in determining the heat regime of the drying agent, depending on the initial seed
moisture and the physical condition.
Seeds have thermosensitive components and may undergo some changes during the drying
process: decreased protein content, germination deterioration, color changes, volume changes,
non-specific flavors, reduced nutrients, etc.
Depending on how it is done, seed drying can influence the quality both positive and
negative.
Due to the corn root layer, drying of water is slower. Sudden drying at high temperatures
of high moisture seeds causes instantaneous dehydration of the bean shell, welding of the
outer ends of the capillary vessels, closing of the pores on the surface and preventing the
outflow of the water from the grain. In such cases, by the accumulation of vapors in the
capillary vessels and the formation of an overpressure inside them, the seeds crack and break
and some of them descend and break into cotyledons. This can be seen in the resulted
reconstructed images after scanning the dried grain with a 3D scanner. In general, the drying
process depends on certain basic factors, namely the heating temperature of the material, the
moisture content of the material and the velocity of the drying agent.
In order to efficiently use the drying process of agricultural products, to properly guide it
and calculate the drying facilities, studies and research are needed. Numerous researches have
been carried out over the years to ensure optimal conditions for the conservation of cereal
seed and technical plants without impairing their quality.
At present, worldwide, for the drying of agricultural plants seed are used vertical and
horizontal dryers, with continuous and discontinuous function, and the principle is based on
dehydration by convection, in which heat is transferred from the drying agent to the product
through convection.

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 Drying process modeling with effects of physical parameters on dehydrated seeds

Numerical simulations of a plug-flow fluidized bed dryer were done both under steady-
state conditions (Khanali et al., 2013) and under dynamic conditions (Khanali et al., 2014).
Khanali et al. (2018) developed a model for shelled corn drying in a plug flow fluidized
bed dryer and discovered that, as a result of axial dispersion, the simulated solid moisture
content profile showed a discontinuity at the solid inlet boundary of the bed and then
decreased continuously across the dryer length. A non-equilibrium model of the grain fixed
deep-bed drying for rough rice has also been developed (Naghavia et al., 2010).
Over time, several mathematical models have been made for heat and mass transfer in
porous media such as agricultural seed layers. Many models were obtained at low
temperatures and low humidity of grain.
Baker et al. (2006) created a model which was based on analytical equations previously
derived to simulate well-mixed fluidized bed dryers, combined with axial dispersion theory.
A 3-D numerical model was established to study the temperature variation within a small
grain steel silo under quasi-steady state (Zhang et al., 2016).
A sequential method was developed to model a continuous plug flow fluidized bed dryer.
The method is based on dividing the dryer into sections in series with ideal mixing for both
solid and gas phases in each section (Bizmark et al., 2010).
Janasa et al. (2010) describes the evolutions of maize moisture and salt-soluble protein
content during fluidized-bed drying with a constant drying air temperature between 50 °C and
100 °C.
The aims of this paper are to present a comprehensive method of CFD simulation in the
heat recovery dryer, where the mathematical model of heat transfer, the distribution of the
temperature of the drying agent and the temperature in the seed layer are presented
simultaneously in two or three dimensions and to determine the optimum parameters in order
to have a uniform temperature gradient without harming the corn seed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experimental researches took place in the Agricultural Mechanization Laboratory of
the "Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine
from Iasi.
The raw material used, namely maize seed of the hybrid DKC 4717, was harvested in all
cases at four stages of maturity.
In order to analyze the influence of the constructive and functional parameters of the drying
plant on the quality of the finished product, four velocities and five drying agent temperatures
were used.
Experimentally, a three-layer concentric seed dryer (Fig. 1) was designed and developed
to study the temperature and the moisture content distribution in order to improve the
qualitative indices of corn seeds subject to preservation.
Mathematical modelling was used in design, in the operational and optimization work. The
mathematical model of the convective drying process is based on the theory of fluid dynamics,
mass balance and energy.

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 V. N. Arsenoaia, N. V. Vlăduț, I. Țenu, I. Voicea, P. M. Cârlescu

The experiments were conducted by varying and monitoring the operating parameters of
velocity and temperature of the warm air.
The temperature and humidity of the product were determined with sensors located in each
of the three layers.
Additionally, the moisture and temperature of the hot air prior to penetration into the corn
seed layer and after, were monitored by means of some moisture and temperature sensors.

Figure 1 Vertical dryer with heat recovery (Cârlescu et al., 2018)

1 seed feed device; 2 pipe; 3 seed-air separator, 4 air lock, 5 vertical drier, 6 wireless sensor;
7 wireless sensor; 8 temperature sensor inside the dryer; 9 velocity sensor; 10 air heater
battery, 11 fan; 12 wireless sensor; 13 pneumatic fan; 14 wireless device; 15 PC;
I wet seeds; II dried seeds; III air; IV mixed air seeds; V air.

Determination of porosity in the seed layers was performed with the 3D SKYSCAN 1172
micro CT scanner and related software. The hot air velocity at the inlet and outlet of the dryer
was monitored using the TROTEC TA 300 hot wire anemometer. Information obtained by
the sensors is numerically transferred and graphically represented on a computer. The research
method has been developed by mathematical modeling of mass and heat transfer phenomena
in corn seed layers based on a series of data obtained by experiment on the vertical dryer
model with heat recovery.
Numerical meshing techniques are the main means of approximation by meshing the
continuous environments.
Discretization consists of the decomposition of a continuous analysis domain (2D and 3D
geometry) into a finite number of discrete elements and the approximation of the whole by
the assembly of the component elements.
By integrating the partial derivative equations on the finite control volume V
(V=∆x⋅∆y⋅∆z), the first and second order integrals appear, which will take a discretized form
respecting the values of the function in the neighboring volumes. The areas of separation
between the adjacent control volumes are in this case discontinuous surfaces. The values of
the function u on these surfaces are considered equal to the arithmetic mean of the values
corresponding to the volumes placed on one side of each other.

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 Drying process modeling with effects of physical parameters on dehydrated seeds

Integrating first-order derivatives has a discreet overall form:

 ∂u 
1
i+  ∂u   
∫∆V  ∂x 
  dxdydz = dydz ∫i−  ∂x dx =  ui+ 21,j,k − ui− 21,j.k ∆y∆z
2
1
(1)
2

where: i, j, k as the index represents the natural number.

Second-order integration by a direction will be:

 ∂ 2u  1
i+  ∂ u 
2  
 ∂u   ∂u 
∫∆V  ∂x 2 
  dxdydz = dydz ∫i− 1  ∂x 2   ∂x  i+ 1. j.k  ∂x  i− 1,j,k  ∆y∆z
2 dx =   −   (2)
2
 2 2 

Derivatives at the edge of the control volume can be expressed as a ratio between the
difference in values of the corresponding function of two neighboring nodes and the distance
between them:

 ∂u  u i + 1, j, k + u i, j, k  ∂u  ui, j,k + ui−1, j,k

  = ;   = (3)
 ∂x  i + 1 , j, k ∆x  ∂x  i− 1, j,k ∆x
2 2

Entering the relation (3) in (2) results:

 ∂ 2u  u − 2u i, j,k + u i−1, j,k
∫  2 dxdydz = i+1, j,k
∆V ∂x
  ∆x 2
⋅ ∆V (4)

Similar for the other two directions:

 ∂ 2u  u i, j+1,k − 2u i, j,k + u i, j−1,k
∫∆V  ∂y 2 dxdydz = ∆y 2
⋅ ∆V (5)

 ∂ 2u  u − 2u i, j,k + u i, j,k −1
∫  2 dxdydz = i, j,k +1
∆V ∂z
  ∆z 2
⋅ ∆V (6)

The expressions of the integrals of the mixed derivatives can be obtained using the
integration of second-order mixed derivatives:
 ∂ 2u  u i+1, j+1,k − u i+1, j−1,k + u i−1. j−1,k − u i−1, j+1,k
∫∆V  ∂x∂y dxdydz = 4∆x ⋅ ∆y
(7)

Finite volume discretization involves an analysis of the working range that is volumetric
represented by the cylindrical unit. It has the form of a cylinder that has three slots where the
cereal seeds are introduced for drying. The hot air enters this cylindrical box through the
central region, being guided by a cylindrical tubing that connects to the dryer. The mesh
geometry of the three-layer cylindrical unit is shown in fig. 2.

337
 V. N. Arsenoaia, N. V. Vlăduț, I. Țenu, I. Voicea, P. M. Cârlescu

Figure 2 Cylindrical dryer meshing

In the CFD simulation process, the boundary conditions required to achieve the
determination of the system of equations are imposed: at each node in the analysis domain,
the calculation of the equation system is performed by the Gauss-Seidel iterative method.
With the help of the presented method, using the imposed limit conditions, which are
presented in Table 1 and Table 2, several solutions can be found. The convergence of solutions
depends on the quality of the mesh, the contour conditions and the chosen mathematical
model.

Table 1 Initial conditions imposed for corn seed processing

/ kg dry product)
X (kg water vap.

Product volumic

Product specific

Product thermal
absolute values

Porosity Index
Initial product

conductivity
Drying time

humidity in

k (W/m K)
cp (J/kg K)
ρ (kg/m3)
τ (min)
Layers

mass

heat

ε (-)
65 min; 0,345…
I, II, III 0,156 615 1679 0,158
27 min 0,385

Table 2 Processing imposed conditions for the drying agent

Temperature Presure
Parameters

Air volumic mass

T (K) p (Pa)
Xa (kg vapors/kg
Air humidity
Air velocity

ρa (kg/m3)

(W/m K)
dried air)

(J/kg K)
ɳ *10--5
v (m/s)

Exit surface
Entering

cp
=0

K
surface

walls
Variants

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

T = 313 K T = 313 K
I 2,0 p=0 Xa=0,008 1,225 1,72 1011 0,0454
= 40oC = 40oC

T = 343 K T= 343 K
II 2,0 p=0 Xa=0,020 1,325 1,72 1001 0,0244
= 70oC = 70oC

where: η – dynamic viscosity; cp – specific heat; k – conductivity.

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 Drying process modeling with effects of physical parameters on dehydrated seeds

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The porosity index is determined experimentally by scanning a determined volume (68.7
cm3) of 78 maize seeds with a mass of 42.3 grams at a relative humidity of 25% and an
absolute humidity of 0.156 (kg of water vapor / kg dry product) with a 3D SKYSCAN 1172
micro CT scanner at a resolution of 27.224 μm resulting in a porosity index of 34.5%.
Experimentally, at the end of the drying process, the moisture in the three layers of corn
seeds decreases unevenly in the radial direction as follows: layer I - 11.5%, layer II - 11.7%
and layer III - 14% and the porosity index varies on the three layers with seeds as follows:
layer I - 38.5%, layer II - 38.0% and layer III - 37%. The porosity index was determined at
the beginning of drying (corn seed humidity of 25%) and at the end of the drying process
(maize seed humidity of 11.5%) (Fig. 3).

a b

Figure 3 Scanned corn seed at the resolution of 27,224 μm with 3D SKYSCAN 1172
micro CT scanner:
a – seeds with 25% initial humidity; b – seeds with 11.5% initial humidity.

The porosity index is introduced into the mathematical model with subunit values ranging
from 0.345 to 0.385. In the CFD simulation with the FLUENT program, the porosity index of
a layer of material is between 0 and 1, where at 0 the layer is completely closed, and at 1 layer
it is completely open (Ansys Fluent, 2012). Corn seed humidity varies depending on the
relative humidity of the air (Table 3).

Table 3 Seed balance moisture depending on air relative humidity

Air relative humidity (%)

Corn 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
seed Corn seed humidity (%)

8,2 9,4 10,7 11,9 13,2 14,9 16,9 19,2

339
 V. N. Arsenoaia, N. V. Vlăduț, I. Țenu, I. Voicea, P. M. Cârlescu

The maize seed moisture balance taken into account was 11.5% and the initial humidity
was 25%. In this humidity range the absolute humidity is calculated according to Table 4.

Table 4 Relative and absolute humidity of corn seeds

Relative humidity
25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11,8 11,6 11,5
(%)

Absolute humidity
(kg water vapor / 0,156 0,129 0,104 0,081 0,058 0,036 0,015 0,003 0,001 0
kg dry product)

The temperatures for the two simulated variants were 313 K (40 °C) and 343 K (70 °C). In
variant I, with a thermal agent at 313 K (40 ° C) on the cross section of the cylindrical dryer
and three layers of corn seeds, the average temperature of the thermal agent decreases
progressively from the layer I, which first contacts the agent at the second layer with 305 K
(32 °C), reaching the third layer at an average temperature of 301 K (28 °C) until the end of
the drying process. In order to observe the degree of uniformity of the temperature distribution
in the three layers of corn seeds, a cross section was made through the cylindrical unit (Fig.
4a). On the inside of the red box is the temperature of the drying agent with the value of 313
K (40 °C). The results of the CFD simulation on the absolute humidity distribution of maize
seed in the three layers of the cylindrical unit seed are shown in a cross section (Fig. 4b) with
a lower mean value in the first layer of 0.001 (kg of water vapor / kg of dry product). Inside
the unit, a red color of 0.156 (kg of water vapor / kg of dry product) is an initial seed moisture
of maize seed, which in the present case has no physical significance because the drying agent
is circulating inside.

a. b.
Figure 4 The cross section representations for the first simulation version
(v = 2 m/s; T = 313 K = 40oC)
a. temperature field (K); b. absolute humidity field (kg water vapors/kg dry product).

The cross section representations for the second simulation version for both the
temperature field and the absolute humidity field are presented in fig. 5a and fig. 5b. In this
case the higher value in seed layer II is 0.005 (kg water vapor / kg dry product) and the highest
value in layer III is 0.11 (kg of water vapor / kg dry product).

340
 Drying process modeling with effects of physical parameters on dehydrated seeds

a. b.
Figure 5 The cross section representations for the second simulation version
(v = 2 m/s; T = 343 K = 70oC)
a. temperature field (K); b. absolute humidity field (kg water vapors/kg dry product).

The effects of an agressive drying process using high temperatures and low air velocities
can be seen in fig. 6.

a. b.
Figure 6 Dehydrated corn seed longitudinal scanned sections
a. T = 40oC; v = 2,5 m/s; b. T = 80oC; v = 1 m/s.

After drying in each variant, corn seed were scanned using a 3D scanner in order to see to
what extent the grains were affected. In this consideration, it has been found that the
temperatures in the drying process can greatly influence the proportion and nature of the
substances that are involved in the seed composition. For temperatures lower than 60 oC
regardless the fan velocity, nothing happens to the structure of the seed. When the grain mass
is heated at temperatures above 60 °C, 70 °C, the chemical components of the seeds undergo
transformations that reduce the qualities of the grains and fractures appear whose width
increases with the increase of temperature.
Regarding the qualitative changes to the products that dry out in the post-maturation period,
it was found that the low temperatures at the beginning of the seed drying process, which
gradually increase as the humidity decreases, accelerate their post-maturation, improve the
physical, biochemical and technological characteristics of the seeds.
Analyzing the results of the physical parameters obtained throughout the experiments, one
can conclude that the best results concerning the drying time, the energy consumption, the
protein content and the germination power of corn seeds have been recorded for the variants
in which the drying process was done using low temperatures and high fan velocities.

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 V. N. Arsenoaia, N. V. Vlăduț, I. Țenu, I. Voicea, P. M. Cârlescu

CONCLUSIONS
In comparison, the corn seed humidity experimental values obtained at the end of the
drying process were 11.5% in the first layer, 11.70% in the second layer, reaching 14% in the
third layer. Larger differences in humidity between experiment and simulation are observed
in the last seed layer, 8%. One possible explanation could be the excessive accumulation of
moisture in the last layer, brought from the first two layers and which could not be removed
during the drying time. From the point of view of the uniform drying of corn seeds the final
humidity values in the seed layers were closer at the maximum velocity used of the drying
agent and at low working temperatures. At temperatures higher than 50 ºC, for the germination
power of the seeds the values obtained vary inversely proportional to the temperature, but at
the same time, vary directly proportional to the thermal agent velocity.

REFERENCES
Baker, G. J., Khan, A. R., Ali, Y. I., Damyar, K. (2006). Simulation of plug flow fluidized bed dryers.
Chemical Engineering and Processing, 45, 641-651.
Bizmark, N., Mostoufi, N., Sotudeh-Gharebagh, R., Ehsani, H. (2010). Sequential modeling of fluidized
bed paddy dryer. Journal of Food Engineering, 101, 303-308.
Cârlescu, P.M., Arsenoaia, V. N., Țenu, I., Muscalu, A. T., Bârsan, M. S. (2018). Researches of mass
and heat transfer of an innovative vertical dryer. In: Bilandžija N. (eds) Proceedings of the 46th
International symposium “Actual tasks on Agricultural Engineering”, Opatija, Croatia, 407-418.
Janasa, S., Boutry, S., Malumba, P., Vander Elst, L., Béraa, F. (2010). Modelling dehydration and
quality degradation of maize during fluidized-bed drying. Journal of Food Engineering, 100, 527-
534.
Khanali, M., Giglou, A. K., Rafiee, S. (2018). Model development for shelled corn drying in a plug flow
fluidized bed dryer. Eng. in Agriculture, Environment and Food, 11, 1-8.
Khanali, M., Rafiee, S., Jafari, A. (2014). Numerical simulation and experimental investigation of plug-
flow fluidized bed drying under dynamic conditions. Journal of Food Engineering, 137, 64-75.
Khanali, M., Rafiee, S., Jafari, A., Hashemabadi, S. H. (2013). Experimental investigation and modeling
of plug-flow fluidized bed drying under steady-state conditions. Dry. Technol., 31(4), 414-432.
Naghavia, Z., Moheba, A., Ziaei, S. (2010). Numerical simulation of rough rice drying in a deep-bed
dryer using non-equilibrium model. Energy Conversion and Management, 51(2), 258-264.
Țenu, I., Roșca, R., Cârlescu, P., Veleșcu, I. D. (2014). Researches for the Optimization of the
Dehydration Process for Plums and Apricots. Advanced Materials Research, 837, 212-217.
Zhang, L., Chen, X., Liu, H., Peng, W., Zhang, Z., Ren, G. (2016). Experiment and simulation research
of storage for small grain steel silo. J. Agric & Biol. Eng., 9, 170-178.
*** Ansys-Fluent. User Guide. 2012.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ENSILING ALFALFA LEAVES AS A HIGH PROTEIN

FEED FOR MONOGASTRIC ANIMALS
Peter LIEBHARDT1,3 *, Peter WEINDL2, Jan MAXA1, Gerhard BELLOF2,
Heinz BERNHARDT3, Stefan THURNER1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]; ORCID ID: 0000-0002-6850-9124
1 Bavarian State Research Centre for Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Animal
Husbandry, Voettinger Strasse 36, 85354 Freising, Germany
2 University of Applied Sciences Weihenstephan-Triesdorf, Am Staudengarten 1, 85354 Freising,

Germany
3 Technical University of Munich, Agricultural System Engineering, Am Staudengarten 2, 85354

Freising, Germany

ABSTRACT
Legume leaves have a big potential as feed protein due to their high protein
and therein high essential amino acid content. Especially in organic feeding of
monogastric animals like pigs and poultry, essential amino acids are needed,
and feeding of roughage could generate aditional animal welfare benefits.
Hence, the aim of the study was to consider the interaction of the technique in
relation to the protein content of the silage. During the ensiling process
antinutritive saponins in the alfalfa leaves will be reduced, which is not possible
with other conservation options like drying. Therefore a silage trial was
conducted in 2018 in order to investigate the ensilability of alfalfa leaves using
vacuum plastic bags. The plastic bag method was used for ensiling to guarantee
a maximal detrainment of the silage material. The harvested material was
ensiled without and with admitxures in different concentrations related to fresh
mass. The admixtures were molasses (1.8 % and 3.8 %), dried pulp from sugar
beet (7.5 % and 15 %) and cereal meal (7.5 % and 15 %). Crude protein
content (XP) of starting material was 32.3 % of total dry matter (DM). Further
analyses of ensilaged alfalfa leaves without admixtures showed a XP content of
28.5 % of total DM. If cereal meal was added with the concentration of 7.5 %
and 15.0 %, the silage had a XP content of 24.9 % and 23.1 % of total DM,
respectively. Addition of dried pulp from sugar beet with the concentration of
7.5 % and 15.0 %, revealed a XP content of 26.5 % and 23.2 % of total DM,
respectively. Higher XP was achieved by addition of molasses. Its
concentration of 1.9 % and 3.8 %, revealed a XP content of 29.7 % and 28.5 %
of total DM, respectively. Regarding the lactic acid content (LAC), the

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

343
 P. Liebhardt, P. Weindl, J. Maxa, G. Bellof, H. Bernhardt, S. Thurner

fermented alfalfa leaves without admixtures had a LAC of 8.7 % of total DM.
With the addition of cereal meal (7.5 % resp. 15.0 %) resulted in LAC after 21
days of silaging of 8.3 % and 6.8 % of total DM, respectively. The LAC of
alfalfa leaves with 7.5 % and 15.0 % dried pulp sugar beet was 5.5 % and
6.3 % of total DM, respectively. Alfalfa leaves ensiled in combination with
molasses, showed LAC of 8.9 % of total DM (1.8 % molasses) and 11.4 % of
total DM (3.8 % molasses). To conclude, silage of alfalfa leaves with its high
protein content could be ensilied resulting in a good quality silage using
appropriate admixtures and has therefore a potential as a major protein source
in organic feed mixtures for monogastric animals because of its above average
XP in the silage.
Keywords: silage admixtures, alfalfa leaves, vaccum plastic bags

INTRODUCTION
Legume forage crops become more and more important as a protein source in agricultural
production. So they could solve the challenge in organic pig and poultry production to reduce
the lack of certain amino acids in so far available feed stuffs. High-quality legume leaf protein,
rich in essential amino acids like lysin or methinonin, can be harvested by separating the leaf
and stem biomass of alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Since alfalfa leaves, harvested at BBCH 60 or
earlier, have a higher protein content (more than 30 % crude protein (XP)) than stems
(Hoischen-Taubner et al., 2017). Therefore, Sommer and Sundrum (2015) also advised a
separation of leaves and stems of legumes in order to achieve a high protein concentration.
Also alfalfa which is cut at a very early stage (BBCH 50) has a XP content of more than 30
%. Additionally the concentration of methionin is high for both: 100 gram crude protein
contain 1.8 gram methionin (DLG, 2014). Therefore, the amount of methionin in very young
alfalfa plants or alfalfa leaves is comparable to soy and much higher than in peas (DLG, 2014).
Legume forage crops like alfalfa or alfalfa-ray grass mixtures are common crops in organic
farming because of their ability of nitrogen fixation (Pommer et al., 2009). Hence, the aim is
to use this material as a protein feed for monogastric animals and to realize a roughage supply
that is obligatory in organic poultry production (EU, 2008), at the same time. Especially in
organic feeding of monogastric animals like pigs and poultry, essential amino acids are often
limited within the diet, and feeding of roughage could generate aditional animal welfare
benefits. Therefore, the aim of this study was to ensile alfalfa leaves with different admixtures
in order to guarantee for an efficient fermentation during ensiling and a sufficient pH value
reduction for a stable silage also during removal. Common admixtures (like molasses, dried
pulp sugar beet, and mixed cereal meal) in two different concentrations were used to
investigate the effect of ensiling in combination with alfalfa leaves. Additionally the effect of
chopping the alfalfa leaves was considered.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Harvest of alfalfa leaves
The alfalfa variety Plato was sown on an organic field near Freising, Germany, in autum
2016, where one topping was realised. The harvest of the silage raw material was at the first
cut in the second year, on 3rd May 2018. The plant maturity was in primary growth (early bud
and early flowering, BBCH 55). In the early afternoon after leaves dried up, the alfalfa leaves

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were harvested from the same field by a special prototype separating the leaves from the stems
of the alfalfa plants. The special prototype had a stripper in the shape of a transverese roller
with metal bars actuated by a tractor to separate the leaves from the plant stems. The leaves
were stripped from stems by the metal bars and then thrown on a conveyer belt. The conveyer
belt handed over the leaves to a second conveyer belt that transported them to an accelerator
blowing the harvested leaves on a loader wagon. The stems were cut and harvested in a second
step. The harvested leaves were transported to a dumpsite for weighing. There the starting
material for ensiling was taken and dry matter (DM) was determined. The DM content of the
alfalfa leaves was on average 19.2 % (n = 3 samples). To analyse the effect of chopping on
the silaged variants, one part of the raw material was chopped with a theoretical chopping
length of 4 mm by a chopper (Claas Jaguar 900 Speedstar) on the trial field. The DM content
of the chopped alfalfa leaves was on average 20.2 % (n = 3 samples).
Ensiling the raw material and different variants
After harvesting the four material types, ensiling was realized in Freising within four hours
after harvesting in reference to DLG e.V. guidelines (DLG, 2018). Three different admixtures
were used for ensiling: molasses, dried pulp from sugar beet, and mixed cereal meal. The
mixed cereal meal consisted of one third of each: winter wheat, winter barley and triticale.
The results of the Weender analyses of the admixtures are shown in the following table 1.

Table 1 Overview of ingredients of all admixtures in gram referred to 1.000 grams of dry
matter
Dried pulp from
Molasses Mixed cereal meal
sugar beet
Dry matter 66.2 % 90.1 % 88.2 %
Crude protein (XP) 26 88 107
Crude fat (XL) --- 7 22
Crude fiber (XF) --- 219 45
Raw ash (XA) 62 97 26
Starch (XS) --- --- 662
Sugar (XZ) --- 4 19
Metabolic energy ruminants (ME) 13.06 10.47 12.96
Netto energy lactation (NEL) 8.52 6.39 8.20
Metabolic energy pig (ME) --- --- 14.44

The ensiling trial was modified according to the Rostock Model Silages (ROMOS)
(Hoedtke and Zeyner, 2011). Therefore, the ensiling trail was conducted with polyethylene
bags with a thickness of 90 µm, a length of 600 mm and a width of 400 mm. For vacuuming
a vaccuming machine (Boss, Max-F46) was used. About 1 kg of fresh matter was filled into
each plastic bag to have enough material for laboratory analyses. Five repetitions were
prepared for each variant. Two bags were analysed after each week to determine pH. The
futher three bags of each variant were mixed together in a pooled sample and analysed
according to the Weender analyses. Due to gas development, some bags were punctured by a

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needle and immediately closed again by a special silage tape to aviod external gas entry.
According to ROMOS, bags were wrapped with an adhesive tape around the sealed puncture.
Thereby, care had to be taken that the shape was stabilized without the packing density being
increased.
An overwiew of the different variant combinations is shown in the following table 2.

Table 2 Overview of the different variants with admixtures.

Admixture (with its different concentrations related to fresh mass)
dried pulp from mixed cereal
Alfalafa leaves no admixture molasses
sugar beet meal
unchopped - 1.8 % 3.8 % 7.5 % 15.0 % 7.5 % 15.0 %
chopped - 1.8 % 3.8 % 7.5 % 15.0 % 7.5 % 15.0 %

The starting material of unchoppend and chopped alfalfa leaves had the following
ingredients before ensiling.

Table 3 Overview of the ingredients of unchopped and chopped alfalfa leaves before
ensiling related to 1.000 gram of dry matter.
Alfalfa leaves
Alfalfa leaves unchopped
chopped
Dry matter 17.9 % 18.6 %
Raw ash (XA) 115 121
Crude protein (XP) 323 311
Crude fiber (XF) 112 127
Crude fat (XL) 35 35
Sugar (XZ) 65 75
Metabolic energy ruminants (ME) 11.74 11.45
Netto energy lactation (NEL) 7.21 7.01
Metabolic energy pig (ME) 9.55 9.44

Storing and analysis

The ensilied bags were stored in a climatic chamber without light at the LfL located in
Grub near Munich. The steady temperature was kept at 25 degree Celsius. After 21 days three
bags of every variant were weighed and brought to the laboratory. Three repetitions were put
together in a pooled sample for analysis and frosted at minus 20 degree Celsius until
analysation. The material was analysed according to the follwing paramters “Weender
Analyse” (dry mater, raw ash, crude protein, crude fiber), sugar, starch, alcohol, fermenation
parameters (lactic acid content, acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid) and ammonia.
Therefore the analysis directives of VDLUFA methode manual were applied (VDLUFA,
1976). Losses, e.g. of volatile substances, were not considered further because so far no
correction term for ensiled alfalfa leaves is available.

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 Ensiling alfalfa leaves as a high protein feed for monogastric animals

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

While harvesting, the starting material alfalfa leaves and chopped alfalfa leaves had a DM
content before ensiling of 19.2 % and 20.2 %, respectivley. After 21 days ensiling alfalfa
leaves and chopped alfafla leaves had a DM content of 16.5 % and 18.5 %. Additionally the
four important fermentation acids (lactic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid) in
all variants were analysed. Theses acids support the decrease of the pH value in the silage,
resulting in the conservation of the feed. The acid values and pH of the pooled sample are
shown in the following figure 1. No propionic acid was detected in all variants.

12% 6

10% 5

8% 4
% of DM

pH value
6% 3

4% 2

2% 1

0% 0
ALUE

ALCE with 15 % cereal meal

ALCE with 15 % DP

ALUE with 1.9 % molasses

ALUE with 3.8 % molasses

ALCE with 7.5 % DP
ALCE with 7.5 % cereal meal
ALCE

ALUE with 15 % DP
ALUE with 15 % cereal meal

ALCE with 1.9 % molasses

ALCE with 3.8 % molasses

ALUE with 7.5 % DP
ALUE with 7.5 % cereal meal

lactic acid acetic acid propionic acid butyric acid pH

Figure 1 Lactic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid contents and pH value in all
silage variants at day 21 after ensiling. ALCE = alfalfa leaves chopped and ensiled, ALUE =
alfalfa leaves unchopped and ensiled, DP = dried pulp from sugar beet

The pH value varied among all variants from 4.2 to 5.2. Spiekers (2012) advises a pH
value from 4.0 to 5.0 in gras silages. All variants except the alfalfa variants with dried pulp
from sugar beet showed that chopping reduced the development of lactic acid. For dried pulp
from sugar beet, the development of lactic acid for chopped and unchopped alfalfa leaves was
nearly similar on a low level. One reason for the reduced development of lactic acid was the
destruction of the cell walls which increased the loss of cell sap. Therefore, with less acid a
lower pH value resulted for the chopped variants. All ensiled alfalfa variants ranged between

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 P. Liebhardt, P. Weindl, J. Maxa, G. Bellof, H. Bernhardt, S. Thurner

5.5 % and 11.4 % lactic acid as % of DM. According to Santos et al. (2016), who investigated
effects of dry matter and length of storage on the composition and nutritive value of alfalfa
silage demonstrated in their study that the maximal lactic acid contend was about 3.5 % of
DM. So, alfalfa leaves tend to generate more lactic acid while ensiling in comparison to alfalfa
because of a higher sugar content in the leaves compared to the whole plant. The content of
acetic acid in alfalfa leaves varied from about 0.9 % to 3.0 % of DM. In the alfalfa trials of
Santos et al. (2016), the acetic acid varied from about 0.4 % to 1.5 % of DM depending on
DM and storage time. Only alfalfa leaves ensilaged with 7.5 % dried pulp from sugar beet
showed 1.7 % of butyric acid which indicates a misfermentation (Spiekers, 2012).
After 21 days of ensiling, the XP contents of alfalfa leaves and chopped alfalfa leaves with
its different variants were also analysed and are listed in table 4.

Table 4 Crude protein content per 1.000 grams of DM of the feed mixtures after 21 days of
ensiling (without further corrections of volatile substances for DM calculation due to lack
correction term for alfalfa leaves)
Crude proteins [% XP per DM]
Starting material (calculated) Ensiled material day 21
* = analysed by laboratory (analysed)
Alfalfa leaves 32.3 %* 28.5 %

Alfalfa leaves, chopped 31.1 %* 28.9 %

Alfalfa leaves with 7.5 % cereal meal 26.5 % 24.9 %

Alfalfa leaves, chopped with 7.5 %
25.7 % 24.8 %
cereal meal
Alfalfa leaves with 15 % cereal meal 22.8 % 23.1 %
Alfalfa leaves, chopped with 15 %
22.1 % 21.9 %
cereal meal
Alfalfa leaves with 7.5 % dried pulp
25.5 % 26.5 %
from sugar beet
Alfalfa leaves, chopped with 7.5 %
24.6 % 25.4 %
dried pulp from sugar beet
Alfalfa leaves with 15 % dried pulp
21.1 % 23.2 %
from sugar beet
Alfalfa leaves, chopped with 15 %
20.4 % 21.7 %
dried pulp from sugar beet
Alfalfa leaves with 1.9 % molasses 29.9 % 29.7 %
Alfalfa leaves chopped with 1.9 %
28.8 % 28.3 %
molasses
Alfalfa leaves with 3.8 % molasses 27.8 % 28.5 %
Alfalfa leaves, chopped with 3.8 %
26.8 % 28.2 %
molasses

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 Ensiling alfalfa leaves as a high protein feed for monogastric animals

The starting material alfalfa leaves and chopped alfalfa leaves had a XP content of 32.3 %
and 31.1 %, respectively.These were higher XP contents compared to Hoischen-Taubner et
al. (2017), who investigated a XP content of 28.3 % in alfalfa leaves which were not chopped.
In seven variants, the crude protein content in the ensilaged variant was higher than the crude
protein in the starting material ranged from plus 0.3 % to maximal plus 2.1 % of DM. But it
has to be considered that the measurement error of the analytic method was 1 % (absolute)
for XP values from 20.0 % - 25.0 % and 1 % (relative) for XP values from 25.0 % - 52.0 %
(VDLUFA, 1976). Together with the sampling error, it is rather expected that the XP values
are similar to the starting material or lower. According to Köhler et al. (2018) grass silages
had a XP decrease of 0.8 % from 17.1 % of DM in starting material to 16.3 % of DM in the
silage. Muck et al. (2015) investigated an increase of crude protein from 0.1 % to 0.7 % in a
silo type conservation trail for alfalfa using a bunker silo (4.9 × 21.3 × 3.5 m), bag silo (2.4
m dia. × 52 m), and oxygen-limiting tower (4.3 m dia. × 15.2 m) caused by DM losses in the
silos. The highest XP value with 29.7 % XP of DM belonged to alfalfa leaves with 1.9 %
molasses. The XP contents of differents feeds can be 17.7 % of DM in silages, 18.3 % of DM
in cobs, or 15.0 % of DM in hay (Meusburger, 2013). All variants of alfalfa leaves had a
minimum XP content of 21.7 % XP of DM which is higher compared to the results of
Meusburger (2013). To sum up, the results showed that harvesting and ensiling leaves
produces a high protein feed.
Regularly there will be a decrease of the protein content during fermentation in a silo. All
chopped variants except alfalfa leaves, chopped with 3.8 % molasses had a lower crude
protein content than the variants which had not been chopped. So, chopping tends to reduce
the crude protein content.

CONCLUSIONS
Various admixtures, like molasses, dried pulp from sugar beet, and mixed cereal meal, in
two different concentrations were used in this silage trail to investigate their effect on ensiling
in combination with alfalfa leaves. To sum up, the highest XP contents in alfalfa silages after
21 days were achieved by alfalfa leaves ensiled in combination with an adequate amount of
molasses because of a small XP reduction during the fermentation process. The variants
without admixtures showed in contrary a noticeable XP reduction. The addition of cereal meal
as well as dried pulp from sugar beet caused lower XP contents in comparison to the variants
without admixtures because of the amount of addition. Therefore, molasses with lower
amounts of addition is considered to be the optimum in reduction of XP content and
fermentation losses. The separation of leafs and stems in alfalfa leads to a high quality feed
for monogastric animals because of a high XP content in the silage. Chopping of harvested
leaf material tends to reduce XP content in the silage.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The project was supported by funds of the Federal Organic Farming Programme (BÖLN)
based on a decision of the Parliament of the Federal Republic of Germany via the Federal
Office for Agriculture and Food (BLE) under the innovation support program (grant
2815OE077).

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

POTROŠNJA ENERGIJE ZA SPREMANJE SIJENA

Viktor JEJČIČ*, Tomaž POJE
*
E-mail dopisnog autora: [email protected]
Kmetijski inštitut Slovenije, Oddelek za kmetijsko tehniko in energetiko
Hacquetova ulica 17, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija

SAŽETAK

Analiza potrošnje energije izvršena je kod dva načina spremanja sijena u

polju – sušenjem na tlu, na jedanaest obiteljskih gospodarstava na različitim
lokacijama u Sloveniji. Potrošnja energije u spremanju sijena sušenjem u polju
na tlu, određena je iz utrošenog mineralnog dizelskog goriva, kod izvođenja
različitih radnih operacija s traktorskim agregatom u jednom cjelokupnom
procesu spremanja sijena (košnja, rastresanje i okretanje, prigrtanje,
sakupljanje sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom ili sakupljanje sijena i
baliranje s prešom za izradu valjkastih bala). Zbroj potrošnji energije za sve
radne operacije daje nam podatke o konačnoj potrošnji energije za spremanje
sijena sušenjem na tlu na dva različita načina (korištenje samoutovarnih
prikolica ili baliranje sjena u valjkaste bale). Prosječna potrošnja cjelokupne
energije (od košnje do baliranja sijena) na hektar površine (MJ·ha-1) prilikom
spremanja sijena s baliranjem sijena u valjkaste bale je viša za 27,6 % od
prosječne potrošnje cjelokupne energije (MJ·ha-1) kod spremanja sijena, kada
se spremanje obavlja sa samoutovarnom prikolicom (energija utrošena od
košnje do utovara sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom). Kod transporta sijena
je prosječna satna potrošnja energije (MJ·h-1) za transport valjkastih bala
sijena prilikom spremanja sijena s baliranjem sijena u valjkaste bale, viša za
24,1 % od satne potrošnje energije za transport sijena sa samoutovarnom
prikolicom. Prosječna satna potrošnja energije (MJ·h-1) za manipulaciju s
balama viša je za 6,5 % u usporedbi s radnim procesom pražnjenja
samoutovarne prikolice i transporta sijena iz samoutovarne prikolice pomoću
puhala u skladište za sijeno.
Ključne riječi: spremanje sijena, sušenje sijena na tlu, strojevi za spremanje
sijena, potrošnja energije

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 V. Jejčič, T. Poje

UVOD
U slučaju da se travna krma konzervira kao sijeno, mora se sušiti do razine na kojoj ne
postoji opasnost od kvarenja u skladištu. Svježa travnata krma koja je pogodno za košnju
sadrži 80 do 85 % vode. U sijenu, koje se skladišti količina vode ne smije biti viša od 20 %.
Sušenje na tlu traje tri do četiri dana, ovisno o godišnjem dobu - vremenu košnje, prinosu na
hektar, botaničkom sastavu, intenzitetu mehaničkih zahvata u krmi i vremenskim uvjetima
(Mrhar, 1993). Energetska analiza s ekonomskom analizom i analizom okoliša važan su alat
za određivanje funkcioniranja poljoprivrednih sustava. Ekonomija, energija i okoliš su tri E
(izvedena iz tri engleske riječi, skraćeno - Energy, Economics i Environment), koje se moraju
uzeti u obzir u svim poljoprivrednim aktivnostima. Energetska analiza, kao važan objekt
poljoprivredne proizvodnje, počela se proučavati sedamdesetih godina kao posljedica rasta
cijena naftnih derivata (Ortiz Canavate i Hernanz, 1999). Uspostava metodologija za
identifikaciju i procjenu različitih tokova energije uključenih u poljoprivrednu proizvodnju
temelj je energetske analize. Cilj energetske analize je jasan: smanjiti unos energije ili
potražiti druge obnovljive energije u poljoprivrednim procesima, uz uvođenje učinkovitijih
metoda rada. Ovaj cilj je i kombiniran, ako je moguće, smanjenjem troškova proizvodnje i
ekološki prihvatljivim proizvodnim metodama kao dijelom boljeg sustava upravljanja (Ortiz
Canavate i Hernanz, 1999). Korištenje energije definira se kao neto energija koja se koristi za
proizvodnju poljoprivrednih proizvoda dok se proizvod ne proda ili napusti farmu ili koristi
kao hrana za uzgoj životinja (Dalgaard i sur., 2001). Korištenje energije može se podijeliti na
izravnu i neizravnu energiju. Izravna energija (Edirektna) predstavlja unos energije u samu
poljoprivrednu proizvodnju. Kada se navedeni unos energije može izravno pretvoriti u
energetske jedinice (mineralni dizel, maziva, LPG ili energija zemnog plina za opskrbu
energijom, električna energija za naknadnu obradu uroda, itd.). Indirektna energija (Eindirektna)
je energija koja se koristi u proizvodnji inputa korištenih u proizvodnji poljoprivrednih
proizvoda, a ti se inputi ne mogu izravno pretvoriti u energetske jedinice (strojevi, gnojiva,
fitofarmaceutska sredstva, itd.). Ukupna energija za poljoprivrednu proizvodnju (Dalgaard i
sur., 2001) može se predstaviti jednadžbom (1).
Eusjeva = Edirektna + Eindirektna
Eusjeva = (Edizel gorivo + Eostala) + Eindirektna (1)

Kod spremanja sijena, za pogon traktora agregiranih strojevima za spremanje sijena koristi
se mineralni dizel, što znači da je EUdirektna (1) utrošena zbog izgaranja spomenutog goriva u
motoru traktora, kod obavljanja različitih radnih operacija. Različiti autori navode da se
prosječne vrijednosti potrošnje mineralnog dizela za različite poljoprivredne operacije
uzimaju kao varijable koje se mjere za potrošnju goriva u l·ha-1 ili kg·ha-1 (Handler i
Nadlinger, 2012). Mjerenje potrošnje goriva i pripadajućih emisija stakleničkih plinova u
obavljanju raznih operacija za sakupljanje sijena sušenjem na tlu (krajnji proizvod spremanja
sijena bile su male kvadarne bale) pokazao je najveću potrošnju goriva i pripadajuće emisije
stakleničkih plinova (izračunato za suhu tvar) u radnim operacijama košnje i baliranja sijena.
Manja potrošnja goriva ustanovljena je za radne operacije mehaničkog tretiranja krme,
okretanja i prigrtanje sijena, a vrlo niska potrošnja goriva za transport i baliranje bala sijena
(Morissette i Savoie 2014).
Cilj rada je odrediti potrošnju energije kod spremanja sijena u polju – na tlu na dva različita
načina (korištenje samo utovarnih prikolica ili baliranje sjena u valjkaste bale).

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METODIKA
Za određivanje potrošnje energije napravljen je energetski model, koji koriste podatke
mjerenja potrošnje energije na obiteljskim gospodarstvima kod spremanja sijena. U
energetskoj analizi unose se energija (izravna energija), koja se u potpunosti potroši tijekom
razdoblja spremanja sijena. Inputi energije tijekom dužeg vremenskog razdoblja odnosno
indirektne energije (za proizvodnju traktora, priključnih strojeva, opreme, itd. te energije za
proizvodnju goriva) nisu uključeni u analizu. Za određivanje potrošnje energije odabrano je
jedanaest obiteljskih gospodarstava na kojima spremaju sijeno sušenjem na tlu. Potrošnja
energije definirana je kao energija fosilnog goriva (mineralni dizel), koja se koristi u provedbi
raznih mehaniziranih radnih operacija. Ukupna utrošena energija za spremanje sijena u polju
s tehnologijom sušenja sijena na tlu na površini od jednog hektara, određuje se dodavanjem
pojedinačnih potrošnji energije za različite radne operacije (košnja, rastresanje i okretanje
sijena, prigrtanje sijena, baliranje sijena, sakupljanje sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom ili
prešama, itd.). Ukupni unos energije Ec (2) određuje se iz utrošenog mineralnog dizela koji se
koristi u različitim metodama spremanja sijena na površini od jednog hektara. Potrošnja
energije određuje se u MJ·ha-1 i MJ·t-1 ST. Za definiranje cjelokupne potrošnje energije, kod
spremanja sijena, definirana je jednadžba (2) koja se sastoji od potrošnje energije za svaku
radnu operaciju u procesu spremanju sijena.

Ec = Ek + Eo + Ez + Esp + Et (2)

gdje je:
Ec = ukupna energija korištena u procesu spremanja sijena (MJ)
Ek = energija za košnju
Eo = energija za rastresanje i okretanje sijena
Ez = energija za prigrtanje sijena
Esp = energija za sakupljanje sijena (prikolica ili balirka)
Et = energija za prijevoz sijena (od parcele do obiteljskog gospodarstva-mjesta
skladištenja)

Mjerenje potrošnje energije izvršeno je kod dva načina spremanja sijena u polju sa
sušenjem na tlu na jedanaest obiteljskih gospodarstava na različitim lokacijama u Sloveniji sa
traktorima i priključnim strojevima za spremanje sijena sa kojima raspolažu pojedina
gospodarstava. Potrošnja energije u spremanju sijena sušenjem na tlu određena je iz utrošenog
mineralnog dizelskog goriva, kod izvođenja različitih mehaniziranih radnih operacija u
jednom cjelokupnom procesu spremanja sijena (košnja, rastresanje i okretanje, prigrtanje,
sakupljanje sa samo utovarnom prikolicom ili sakupljanje sijena i baliranje s prešom za
valjkaste bale, transport sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom ili s prikolicom za valjkaste
bale). Ukupna potrošnja energije za spremanje sijena na površini od jednog hektara određuje
se zbrajanjem potrošnje energije svakog pojedinog unosa energije.
Potrošnja energije u spremanju sijena u polju sa sušenjem na tlu određena je mjerenjem
potrošnje goriva (volumenska metoda) pri obavljanju radnih operacija s različitim traktorskim
priključnim strojevima za spremanje sijena. Potrošnja goriva izražena je u litrama po satu (l·h-
1
) za strojeve gdje se ne mogu dati informacije o potrošnji goriva u litrama po hektaru, npr.
upotreba traktora za manipulaciju s valjkastim balama na dvorištu obiteljskog gospodarstva
ili prijevoz valjkastih bala s prikolicom od lokacije spremanja sijena do obiteljskog

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 V. Jejčič, T. Poje

gospodarstva. Potrošnje goriva izražene u litrama po hektaru (l·ha-1) uzete su za košnju,

rastresanje i okretanje, prigrtanje sijena, sakupljanje i prešanje sijena s prešom za valjaste bale
te sakupljanje sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom. Podaci o potrošnji goriva za različite
radne operacije preračunati su u energiju potrošenu za svaku radnu operaciju izraženu u MJ·h-
1
ili MJ·ha-1. Zbroj potrošnji energije za sve radne operacije daje nam informacije o konačnoj
potrošnji energije za spremanje sijena u polju sa sušenjem na polju i skupljanjem sa
samoutovarnim prikolicama ili s prešama za valjkaste bale. Potrošnja energije izražena je i u
MJ energije/količina suhe tvari (MJ·t-1 ST) iz prinosa sijena na površini od jednog hektara
(konačni sadržaj suhe tvari u sijenu iznosi 85%).
Potrošnja energije određena je pri obavljanju radnih operacija s različitim traktorima sa
snagom motora od 60 do 90 kW i priključnim traktorskim strojevima (svi su dobivali pogon
preko priključnog vratila traktora), koji su namijenjeni za košnju, rastresanje i okretanje,
prigrtanje, sakupljanje i prešanje u valjkaste bale, itd.

REZULTATI I RASPRAVA
Modelski izračuni se temelje na prosječnoj potrošnji goriva za pojedine radne operacije.
Rezultati mjerenja potrošnje energije za spremanje sijena s jedanaest obiteljskih
gospodarstava prikazani su u tablicama 1, 2 i 3. U radu je predstavljena prosječna potrošnja
energije s kojom najbolje možemo predstaviti potrošnju energije za različite radne operacije
prilikom spremanja sijena na različitim lokacijama.
Izmjerena je količina mineralnog dizel goriva potrošenog za obavljanje navedenih radnih
operacija. Osim toga mjerena je i potrošnja energije za prijevoz (prijevoz sijena ili valjkastih
bala) od površina za spremanje sijena do obiteljskih gospodarstava gdje se skladišti sijeno ili
valjkaste bale. Neke radne operacije izvode se samo jednom, na primjer košnja, a radne
operacije kao što je rastresanje i okretanje te prigrtanje sijena nekoliko puta.

Tablica 1 Prosječna potrošnja energije za spremanje sijena na površini jednog hektara

(MJ·ha-1), scenarij 1: sakupljanje i prijevoz sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom
Table 1 Average energy consumption for haymaking on one hectare surface (MJ·ha-1),
scenario 1, collection and transport of hay with self-loading wagon
Prosječna potrošnja energije
Radna operacija
Average energy consumption
Working operation
(MJ·ha-1)
Košnja (rotacijska – disk kosilica)
182,28
Mowing (rotary disk mower)
Okretanje i rastresanje (rotacijski okretač – rastresač)
453,60
Tedding and spreading (rotary tedder – spreader)
Prigrtanje sijena u zbojeve (rotacijske grablje)
567,00
Windrowing of hay (rotary rakes)
Sakupljanje sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom
202,44
Collection of hay with self-loading wagon

∑ 1.130,22

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Ukupna potrošnja energije uzima u obzir broj svih radnih operacija za spremanje sijena s
površine od jednog hektara. Za mjerenje potrošnje energije, kod rastresanja, okretanja i
prigrtanja sijena, uzeti su strojevi koji izvrše dva zadatka, npr. rastresanje i okretanje sjena te
prigrtanje sijena (prigrtanje provenule mase trave, ostavljeno u zbojevima preko noći ili
prigrtanje sijena u konačne zbojeve za sakupljanje sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom ili
prešom za valjkaste bale). Za sakupljanje i prijevoz sijena osušenog na polju koristi se
samoutovarna prikolica za utovar i prijevoz sijena prosječnog volumena od 22 m3, scenarij 1.
U scenariju 2 koristi se preša za valjkaste bale s tlačnom komorom stalnog oblika (promjer
valjkastih bala 1,35 m), koja omogućava smanjenje volumena sijena i povećanje njegove
gustoće, čime se smanjuje broj transportnih aktivnosti i prostor potreban za skladištenje.

Tablica 2 Prosječna potrošnja energije za spremanje sijena na površini jednog hektara

(MJ·ha-1), scenarij 2: sakupljanje i prešanje sijena s prešom za valjkaste bale
Table 2 Average energy consumption for storage of hay on one hectare surface (MJ·ha-1),
scenario 2, collection and balling of hay with round baler
Prosječna potrošnja energije
Radna operacija
Average energy consumption
Working operation
(MJ·ha-1)
Košnja (rotacijska – disk kosilica)
182,28
Mowing (rotary disk mower)
Okretanje i rastresanje (rotacijski okretač – rastresač)
453,60
Tedding and spreading (rotary tedder – spreader)
Prigrtanje sijena u zbojeve (rotacijske grablje)
567,00
Windrowing of hay (rotary rakes)
Sakupljanje i prešanje sijena (preša za valjkaste bale)
359,52
Collection and balling of hay with round baler

∑ 1.562,50

Ukupna prosječna potrošnja energije prilikom spremanja sijena u polju sa sušenjem na tlu
sa radnim operacijama od košnje do sakupljanja sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom za
utovar i transport sijena, iznosi 179,4 MJ·t-1 ST, a kada se sijeno sakuplja te preša u valjkaste
bale s prešom za valjkaste bale, potrošnja energije iznosi 248 MJ·t-1 ST. Prosječna potrošnja
cjelokupne energije (od košnje do sakupljanja i prešanja sijena u valjkaste bale) na hektar
površine (MJ·ha-1) prilikom spremanja sijena sa sakupljanjem i prešanjem sijena u valjkaste
bale, viša je za 27, 6 % od prosječne potrošnje cjelokupne energije (MJ·ha-1) kod spremanja
sijena, kada se spremanje obavlja sa samoutovarnom prikolicom (energija utrošena od košnje
do utovara sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom). Sakupljanje sjena i njegovo prešanje u
valjkaste bale te transport valjkastih bala u našem primjeru najveći su potrošači energije u
usporedbi s drugim radnim operacijama u spremanju sijena. Kod drugih radnih operacija
moramo uzeti u obzir i to da je prikazana kumulativna potrošnja energije jer se neke radne
operacije ponavljaju nekoliko puta u procesu spremanja sijena u polju sa sušenjem na tlu, na
primjer, tri puta rastresanje i okretanje sijena, tri puta prigrtanje zbojeva (dva puta za noćne

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 V. Jejčič, T. Poje

zbojeve iz prigrnute provenute mase i jedanput za konačne zbojeve za sakupljanje sijena sa

samoutovarnom prikolicom ili prešom za valjkaste bale).
U transportu sijena je prosječna satna potrošnja energije (MJ·h-1) za transport valjkastih
bala sijena prilikom spremanja sijena sa sakupljanjem i prešanjem sijena u valjkaste bale, viša
za 24,1 % od satne potrošnje energije za transport sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom.

Tablica 3 Prosječna satna potrošnja energije (MJ·h-1) za utovar, transport i manipulaciju s

valjkastim balama te transport sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom za sijeno i transport
sijena iz samoutovarne prikolice s puhalom za sijeno u skladište
Table 3 Average hourly energy consumption (MJ·h-1) for loading, transporting and
manipulating with round bales and transporting hay with self-loaded wagon and hay
transport from a self-loaded wagon with a hay blower to the hay storage

Prosječna potrošnja energije

Radna operacija
Average energy consumption
Working operation
(MJ·h-1)
Utovar i transport valjkastih bala (traktor sa prednjim
utovarivačem i prikolica za bale)
400,68
Loading and transport of round bales (tractor with front
loader and wagon for round bales)
Manipulacija sa valjkastim balama (traktor sa prednjim
utovarivačem na skladišnom prostoru)
91,14
Manipulation with round bales (tractor with front loader on
storage area)
Transport sijena samoutovarnom prikolicom za sijeno
304,08
Transport of hay with self-loaded wagon
Pražnjenje sijena iz samoutovarne prikolice i transport
sijena u prostor za skladištenje sijena (samoutovarna
prikolica i puhalo za sijeno) 85,2 MJ
Unloading of hay from self-loaded wagon on storage area
and transport of hay with blower to the hay storage

Nakon transporta valjkastih bala s prikolicom za valjkaste bale slijedi još manipulacija s
valjkastim balama, istovarom bala s prikolice te njihovim spremanjem u prostor za
skladištenje bala. Ta radna operacija se izvodi pomoću traktora agregatiranog s prednjim
utovarivačem za valjkaste bale. U uporabi su i specijalne izvedbe traktora – teleskopski
utovarivači, koji se mogu koristiti i za manipulaciju s balama, no nabava cijena im je visoka
pa se rjeđe koriste na obiteljskim gospodarstvima.
U slučaju da se sijeno dovozi samoutovarnom prikolicom, izvrši se njeno pražnjenje i
istovremeno punjenje s puhalom za sijeno (elektromotorni pogon) u skladišni prostor.
Prosječna potrošnja energije za manipulaciju s balama viša je za 6,5 % u usporedbi s radnim
procesom pražnjenja samoutovarne prikolice i transporta sijena iz samoutovarne prikolice
pomoću puhala u skladište za sijeno.

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 Potrošnja energije za spremanje sijena

ZAKLJUČAK
Izmjereni podaci o potrošnji energije tijekom spremanja sijena u polju sušenjem na tlu na
dva načina omogućuju nam određivanje ukupne energije, koja je potrebna za spremanje sijena
od košnje do transporta sijena na skladištenje. Na temelju izmjerenih podataka može se
odrediti kako možemo uspješno smanjiti potrošnju energije i utjecati na ekonomičnost
proizvodnje te posljedično i niži ugljični otisak procesa te konačnog produkta - sijena.
Rezultati mjerenja pokazali su da je potrošnja energije kod spremanja sijena u polju sušenjem
na tlu, gdje se vrši radna operacija sakupljanja i prešanja sijena u valjkaste bale i njihov
transport prikolicom za bale, veća u odnosu na spremanje sijena sušenjem na tlu, gdje se za
sakupljanje i transport sijena koristi samoutovarna prikolica za sijeno. Ukupna prosječna
potrošnja energije prilikom spremanja sijena u polju sa sušenjem na tlu s radnim operacijama
od košnje do sakupljanja sijena sa samoutovarnom prikolicom za utovar i transport sijena,
iznosi 179,4 MJ·t-1 ST, a kada se sijeno sakuplja te preša u valjkaste bale s prešom za valjkaste
bale, potrošnja energije iznosi 248 MJ·t-1ST. Prosječna potrošnja cjelokupne energije (od
košnje do sakupljanja i prešanja sijena u valjkaste bale) na hektar površine (MJ·ha-1) prilikom
spremanja sijena sa sakupljanjem i prešanjem sijena u valjkaste bale, viša je za 27,6 % od
prosječne potrošnje cjelokupne energije (MJ·ha-1) kod spremanja sijena, kada se spremanje
obavlja sa samoutovarnom prikolicom (energija utrošena od košnje do utovara sijena sa
samoutovarnom prikolicom). Kod transporta sijena je prosječna satna potrošnja energije
(MJ·h-1) za transport valjkastih bala prilikom spremanja sijena sa sakupljanjem i prešanjem u
valjkaste bale, viša za 24,1 % od satne potrošnje energije za transport sijena sa
samoutovarnom prikolicom. Prosječna potrošnja energije za manipulaciju s balama viša je za
6,5 % u usporedbi s radnim procesom pražnjenja samoutovarne prikolice i transporta sijena u
skladišni prostor pomoću električnog puhala.

ZAHVALA
Rad je nastao u okviru Ciljnog istraživačkog projekta V4-1610 Tehnološka rješenja za
proizvodnju kvalitetnog sijena, koji su sufinancirali slovenska istraživačka agencija i
Ministarstvo poljoprivrede, šumarstva i prehrane.

LITERATURA
Dalgaard, T., Halberg, N., Porter, J.R. (2001) A model for fossil energy use in Danish agriculture used
to compare organic and conventional farming, Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 87,
Elsevier
Jejčič, V., Al. Mansour, F. (2014) Ogljični odtis konvencionalne in ekološke poljedelske pridelave,
Zbornik mednarodne konference, Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering, Organizator, Fakultet
agronomskih znanosti – Zagreb, Opatija
Handler, F., Nadlinger, M. (2012) Trainer handbook, D 3.8 Strategies for saving fuel with tractors, EU
projekt Intelligent Energy Europe, Efficient 20, IEE/09/764/SI2.558250
Morissette, R., Savoie, P. (2014) Field Capacity, Energy Consumption, and GHG Emissions during
Small Square Hay Bale Harvesting, ASABE – CSBE/SCGAB Annual International Meeting,
Montreal, Quebec Canada
Mrhar, M. (1993) Tehnika priprave in spravila sena, Knjižnica za pospeševanje kmetijstva, ČZP,
Kmečki glas, Ljubljana

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Ortiz-Canavate, J., Hernanz, J.L. (1999) Energy for Biological Systems, 2, CIGR Handbook of
Agricultural Engineering, Volume V, Energy and Biomass Engineering, Edited by CIGR, Volume
editor: Osamu Kitani, ASAE, St. Joseph, USA, 1999

ENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR HAYMAKING

Viktor JEJČIČ*, Tomaž POJE
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Department of Agricultural Engineering and Energetics
Hacquetova 17, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia

ABSTRACT
Energy consumption analysis was carried out in two ways of haymaking with
in field drying hay on eleven family farms at different locations in Slovenia.
Energy consumption of haymaking is determined from used mineral diesel fuel
when performing various working operations with the tractor aggregate in one
complete haymaking process (mowing, spreading, tedding, side raking, hay
collection with self-loading wagon or collecting hay and baling with round
baler). Total energy consumption for all working operations provides us with
data on final energy consumption for haymaking in two different ways (hay
collection with self-loading wagon or collecting hay and hay baling with round
baler). The average total energy consumption (from mowing to hay baling) per
hectare area (MJ ha-1) during hay making with hay baling in round bales is
higher by 27.6 % than the average total energy consumption (MJ·ha-1) in hay
making, when hay is loaded with a self-loaded wagon (energy from mowing to
loading hay with self-loaded wagon). In hay transport, average hourly energy
consumption (MJ·h-1) used to transport round bales is 24.1 % higher than
hourly energy consumption for hay transport with self-loaded wagon. The
average hourly energy consumption (MJ·h-1) for manipulation with round bales
is 6.5 % higher, compared with the working operation of unloading of self-
loading wagon and the transport of hay from a self-loading wagon with the hay
blower in the hay storage
Keywords: hay making, hay drying in field, machines for hay making, energy
consumption

358
47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

POTENTIALS OF CROP RESIDUES AS ENERGY

SOURCES AND FEEDSTOCK
Milan MARTINOV*, Djordje DJATKOV, Miodrag VISKOVIC
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia

ABSTRACT
Crop residues are frequently targeted as energy sources and feedstock for
diverse products.
It was performed six year lasting investigation aimed to consider potentials
of mostly grown field crops, wheat, soybean and corn, crop residues in
Province Vojvodina. Three potentials were distinguished: theoretical (whole
aboveground residual biomass), technical (harvestable) and sustainable. It was
distinguished weather conditions, common and dry, and analyzed impact on
yield. The yields are expressed as absolute, and relative to grain yield (while
the grain yield is almost always measured and is available in statistic
documents).
During common seasons, technical potentials are, about 56 % for wheat, 45
% for soybean and 51/41 % for two considered corn stover collection
procedures. During dry seasons technical potential is reduced between 30 and
50 %. It was defined on field remained aboveground residual biomass, and its
relative (to grain) amount is between 43 and 60 %.
It was concluded that the defining of sustainable potentials is very complex.
Nearby measures aimed to preserve soil fertility some overlooked issues are
listed and commented.
Keywords: crop residues, bioeconomy, potentials, sustainability.

INTRODUCTION
Crop residues were, in the past, commonly used as feedstock for many products and as a
fuel, primarily for heating. Re-application of crop residues started, in modern times, after oil
crises, in the seventies of previous century. As global warming was identified, and defined as
one of the most significant problems, their use is supported due to greenhouse gas emissions
reduction effect. This is declared by many European documents, and the most significant is

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

359
 M. Martinov, Dj. Djatkov, M. Viskovic

Renewable Energy Directive (2009/28/EC). Recently, was, on European Union level,

declared and supported bioeconomy (Anonymous, 2012b). This includes utilization of bio
recourses as food, feed, fuel and feedstock for many products, to replace utilization of fossil
ones, first of all oil. In this regard, crop residues, beside others, play important role. However,
it is important to know about potentials of these materials.
The term potentials should be clearly defined. First is theoretical potential, whole
aboveground biomass minus grain. This one has no importance for potential users, but can be
used for calculation of on-field remained residual biomass. Second is technical (or
harvestable) potential, and presents the mass that can be collected, and potentially used.
Removal of crop residues has impact on soil fertility, its use causes additional costs, and has
other reflections on environment and society. First after considering many complex impacts
can be defined sustainable potential.
The best solution is to express potentials of crop residues relatively to grain yields. That is
because the grain yield is almost always measured, and data on its production available in
national or regional statistic documents.
One important, and frequently omitted impact on yield, i.e. potential, are seasonal weather
conditions. Almost everywhere are farmers faced with droughts, followed by considerable
reduction of main products, grain, but residual biomass as well. This fact should be considered
by defining sustainable potential and supply security.
Some of issues related to sustainability of crop residues harvest and utilization were
tackled, but one general approach does not exist. Typical positive example is analysis of wheat
straw sustainable potential done in Germany (Zeller et al., 2012), but the authors were faced
with many problems that need locally specific approaches. Another example presents
consideration of impact on soil fertility (Sekulic et al., 2010), where was stated that crop
residues removal should be evaluated based on existing humus percentage in soil. Blum et al.
(2010) considered impact of residues removal on soil, whereby some measures to overcome
it, like crop rotation, were considered. Powlson (2006) analyzed the same for utilization of
big amounts of wheat straw as energy source for electricity power plant.
There are different statements on the percentage of the corn residues that can be removed
without depleting soil fertility. Radhakrishna et al. (2012), suggested value of up to 33 %,
Brechbill et al. (2011) 53.5 %, while Scechinger and Hettenhaus (1999) proposed range 40 to
50 %. The highest share of 58 % was mentioned by Wyman and Hinman (1990). In Scarlat et
al. (2010) were presented potentials of crop residues in European Union and same
considerations relate to impact on soil fertility.
Main objective of here presented investigation performed in Autonomous Province
Vojvodina, aimed to define technical potentials of significant field crops. Further objective
was to identify common and some overlooked impacts on sustainable potentials assessment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Measurements were performed for wheat, soybean and corn, in the period 2011 to 2016.
The samples of aboveground mass were taken from advanced farms that practiced common
up-to-date technology, at three to five locations in Vojvodina, agricultural part of Serbia. At
least four to eight mostly used varieties or hybrids of each species were treated. From the

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 Potentials of crop residues as energy sources and feedstock

selected plots were taken five samples, for wheat and soybean from 1 m2, and for corn from
1.4 m2.
As a common seasons were considered those with average precipitations during vegetation
periods, and dry with their reduction more than 20 %. There were three dry seasons for wheat
and two for soybean and corn.

Wheat and soybean

Each sample was randomly taken from the field, avoiding taking at these from outskirts.
Samples consisted of total above ground mass. The samples were elaborated in the laboratory
as follows. Wheat was divided into: grain, chaff and stalks+leaves. Soybean was divided into:
grain, stalks, branches+leaves and husks. Furthermore, stalks of both wheat and soybean straw
were split into segments, Figure 1, to create dry mass distribution in stems height.

Figure 1 Wheat and soybean straw stalks segments

The amount of harvestable wheat straw, technical potential, includes harvested stalks, or
mass, which is obtained by subtracting the amount that remains in the stubble and 30 % of the
leaves are harvested (other remained on the field).
The amount of harvestable soybean straw includes stalk, without those which, as in the
previous case, remains in the stubble and 30 % branches/leaves (it is assumed that 70 % of
the leaves or branches/leaves are collectable). It is assumed that the overall baler losses
(pickup device), for both crops, are about 10 %.
The mass of each plant part was measured using the balance with an accuracy of 0.1 g. For
the determination of moisture content, grains were dried using the procedure defined by
Anonymous (2008) and crop residue fractions according to the procedure defined by
Anonymous (2012a).
Based on the measured values of moisture content for each fraction, yields expressed to
dry matter were determined. For the stalks fraction diagrams of cumulative mass were made,
starting from the ground. They are used to determine the remaining mass of the stubble on
field, depending on the height of cutting bar.

Corn
Every single corn plant was divided into: grain, cob, husk, the lowest 0.2 m of stalk and
other stalk with leaves and tassels, Figure 2. Lowest 0.2 m of stalks is treated as unusable (not
harvested).
The amount of harvested stover was calculated based on following harvest procedures data:

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 M. Martinov, Dj. Djatkov, M. Viskovic

Two-pass harvest. Grain harvest by combine with snapper–head and integrated shredder-
cornrower described in Straeter (2011) and Shinners et al. (2012). The stover is picked up
from windrow by a round or big rectangular baler. Cutting height is 0.2 m. Percentages of
harvested fractions are 70, 90 and 90 %, for stalks+leaves, cobs and husks respectively,
with additional baling losses of 20 %.
Multi-pass harvest. This is the conventional stover harvest procedure. As previous, but the
combine harvester is equipped with an integrated stover shredder. It is followed by raking,
forming windrow and baling. The cutting height is 0.2 m. Percentages of harvested
fractions are 70 % for stalks+leaves and 40 % for cobs and husks combined, with
additional baling losses of 20 % (Straeter, 2011).

Figure 2 Fraction of corn plant, above ground

Sustainability issues
Common and overlooked impact on defining of sustainable potentials of crop residues
removal are identified, based on own experiences and practice, and statements of other
researchers.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Wheat
Figure 3 shows the cumulative mass of wheat stalks depending on height, for years 2011
and 2012, as examples for representative for common and dry season. Based on this, the
amount of stalks which remained on the field, i.e. stubble, depending on the cutting height,
can be determined. Examples of cutting heights 10, 15 and 20 cm are indicated. On stubble
remained mass of stalks was in 2011 about 16 and 26 %, and in 2012 about 22 and 33 %, for
cutting heights 10 and 15 cm respectively.

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 Potentials of crop residues as energy sources and feedstock

The relevant data, average values for all samples, are given in Table 1.
The average grain yields were 6.85 and 5.11 Mg ha–1, with a harvest index (HI) of 0.48 and
0.49, the total average yield of aboveground crop residues were 7.60 and 5.19 Mg ha–1,
respectively for selected representative seasons.

Figure 3 Cumulative mass of wheat stalks by height

Table 1 Obtained data for wheat (all data for dry matter, cutting bar height 15 cm), average
for common and dry seasons
Parameter Common Dry
Grain yield, Mg ha–1 6.9 5.1
Harvest index 0.48 0.49
Mass of aboveground residues, Mg ha–1 7.6 5.2
Mass of harvestable straw, Mg ha–1 3.8 2.1
Percentage of harvestable mass in comparison with mass of grain, % 55.5 40.0
Percentage of harvestable mass in aboveground residues, % 50.0 39.3
On field remained mass, Mg ha–1 3.8 3.1
Percentage of on field remained mass in aboveground residues, % 50.0 60.7

Harvestable mass, technical potential, in dry seasons was, compared to common ones,
reduced for 45 %, and on field remained mass 18 %, in average for five seasons
measurements.

Soybean
The cumulative mass of soybean stalks, average for all samples, is given in Figure 4, and
on stubble remained mass for cutting bar heights 7.5 and 10 cm, here presented examples for
common and dry season, 2011 and 2012, respectively.
On stubble remained mass of stalks was in 2011 about 19 % and 24 %, and in 2012 about
25 % and 32 % for cutting heights 7.5 and 10 cm, respectively.

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 M. Martinov, Dj. Djatkov, M. Viskovic

Figure 4 Cumulative mass of soybean stalks by height

The all relevant data, average values for all measurements, are given in Table 2.

Table 2 Obtained data for soybean (all data for dry matter and cutting bar height 7.5 cm),
averages for seasons with common and dry weather
Parameter Common Dry
Grain yield, Mg ha–1 4.7 2.7
Harvest index 0.47 0.41
Mass of aboveground residues, Mg ha–1 5.3 3.8
Harvestable mass*, Mg ha–1 2.1 1.3
Percentage of harvestable mass in comparison to mass of grain, % 44.7 48.1
Percentage of harvestable mass in aboveground harvest residues, % 39.6 34.2
On field remained mass, Mg ha–1 3.2 2.5
Percentage of on field remained mass in aboveground residues, % 60.4 65.8

The inconvenient weather conditions, drought, cause the reduction of harvestable mass of
38 %, and on field remained 22 %, in average for five seasons measurements.

Corn
The obtained data on fraction yield are also calculated as relative, related to grain yield,
and are presented in Figure 5 for selected representative seasons. Usable aboveground
residues (6 in Figure 5) make about 85 % of grain in 2011, and about 132 % in 2012, common
and dry seasons.
This significant change is the consequence of drought impact on grain yield. In the same
time the yield of aboveground mass is considerably reduced.
The results are presented in Table 3. In all common seasons harvest index was slightly
lower than 0.5, but for dry ones about 0.57. Average grain yield in common seasons was
10.3 Mg ha–1, and 5.3 Mg ha–1 dry one. For both seasons, the percentage of harvestable mass
related to total for the harvest procedures 1 and 2 was same, 53 and 43 % respectively, but
harvestable mass considerably lower, 5.5/3.8 and 4.5/3.1 Mg ha–1.

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 Potentials of crop residues as energy sources and feedstock

2011

2012

Figure 5 Range and average of relative yields of stover fractions, 1– lowest 0.2 m of stalks,
2– stalk+leaves, 3– cobs, 4– husks, 5– total aboveground residues, 6– sum of 2, 3 and 4,
examples for common season 2011, and dry 2012

Table 3 Harvestable and remaining corn residues for defined harvest procedures (average
values for dry matter), average for all common and dry seasons

Harvest Harvestable mass Remained mass,

Season HI
procedure RY, % Mg ha–1 PTM, % Mg ha–1
1 51 5.5 53 4.6
Common 0.49
2 41 4.5 43 5.6
1 72 3.8 53 3.3
Dry 0.43
2 59 3.1 43 4.0
RY– relative yield (to grain); PTM– percentage of total above ground mass

Harvestable residual mass, technical potential, was in dry seasons, compared to common
ones, reduced for 31 %, and on field remained mass 30 %, in average.

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 M. Martinov, Dj. Djatkov, M. Viskovic

Sustainable potential
Impact of crop residues removal on soil fertility has been investigated and reported
frequently. However, it is still missing clear approach for its evaluation and quantification.
Here are identified some not or slightly elaborated impacts.
− Impact of erosion, primarily wind erosion. This issue was partly elaborated related to
assessment of land surface coverage, ASABE standard (Anonymous, 2012). Instruction
for evaluation given by extension service in USA (Hickman and Schoenberger, 1989).
Some evaluations have been performed for wheat and soybean (Golub et al., 2013) and
corn (Golub et al., 2016). Of course, the result depends on applied soil tillage. This
issue has environmental implications.
− For the users of big straw or stover amounts are used almost only big bales. Collection
of crop residues with them is profitable only on bigger plots. Example, for round bales
over 5 ha, and big rectangular over 10 ha. Examples given in Martinov (2015, 2016).
This has impact on realistic potentials. This issue has economic implication.
− By collection of crop residues are removed also some nutrients, not only organic matter.
This issue, with economic implication, has been frequently reported, but very often with
wrong interpretation. Mostly was calculated with contents of elements, not compounds
usable for crops. Typical is calculation of nitrogen lost, and less than 10 % of it is in
mineral forms.
− For almost each case should be performed energy and greenhouse gas analyses of crop
residues collection and utilization. It is present voluntarist approach. This issue has
economic and environmental implication.
− Impact of crop residues collection and utilization has impact on society, especially rural
areas. It is frequently mentioned, but not quantified by utilization of scientific approach.
This issue has economic and social implication.
Technical potential of crop residues fluctuates, depending on weather conditions, and other
impacts (e.g. diseases, insect infestations). This means some reserves of biomass should be
planned and this has impact on overall costs of feedstock.
All mentioned makes defining of sustainable potential complex, but not impossible.
Summarized results of the investigation are presented in Table 4.

Table 4 Summarized results of the investigation expressed as relative harvestable, technical,

potentials and on field remained biomass
Harvestable relative to grain, % Remained relative to grain, %
Crop
Common Dry Red. D to C Common Dry Red. D to C
Wheat 55 40 45 50 60 18
Soybean 45 48 38 60 66 22
1 51 72 31 47 47 28
Corn
2 41 59 31 43 43 29
Red. D to C – reduction of mass in dry season compared to common

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CONCLUSIONS
In most of cases harvestable mass is about one half of grain yield, and on-field remained
biomass approximately the same as collected. This should be taken into consideration by
elaborating soil fertility preservation.
There are, nearby preservation of soil fertility, many, and some of them overlooked, issues
having impact on defining sustainable potential of crop residues. Some quantification of them
is possible, but detailed assessment should be performed for specific cases and sites.

REFERENCES
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Boltenstern, S., Zehetner, F. (2010). Ecological consequences of biofuels. In: Lal R and Stewart BA:
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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

USE OF INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES TREE OF HEAVEN

(AILANTHUS ALTISSIMA MILL.) BIOMASS IN ENERGY
PRODUCTION
Anamarija PETER*, Mateja GRUBOR, Dubravka DUJMOVIĆ PURGAR, Ana BUDIMIR,
Neven VOĆA
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
University of Zagreb Faculty of Agriculture, Svetosimunska 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia

ABSTRACT

Spreading of invasive plant species threatens habitats, ecosystems and

indigenous species in areas where they would not come naturally. One of them
is a plant species called Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima, Mill), which is
one of the most dangerous invasive woody plants in the world as well as in
Croatia. Tree of heaven occupies space to the detriment of other plant species;
it produces allelochemicals and shows the tendency of intense spreading and
suppression of other domestic species. It reverses the landscape´s appearance
and does invaluable damage to the ecosystem, by generating enormous
quantities of potentially usable biomass. Biomass has a significant potential for
further development. The use of biomass which remains after the removal of
invasive species has many advantages, both regarding of increasing share of
renewable energy production and environmental protection, as well as in
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which adversely affect human health and
the environment.
The research aimed to determine the possibility of using invasive plant
species Tree of heaven remainings after its removal from nature as a raw
material and determine its energy potential and the possibility of using it for
energy purposes, by direct combustion and pyrolysis.
According to the analysis results it can be concluded that the Tree of heaven
has a possibility of its utilization for energy purposes. It is justified to assume
that this invasive species has potential as raw material for direct combustion,
as well as in the process of pyrolysis, i.e., production of bio-oil and biochar.
Keywords: biomass, energy, invasive species

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 A. Peter, M. Grubor, D. Dujmović Purgar, A. Budimir, N. Voća

INTRODUCTION
The problem of alien invasive species has become more interesting in recent decades. The
control of the introduction and spreading of invasive species, as well as the reduction of their
influence on native species and the overall ecosystems, is today one of the most significant
challenges of nature protection in Europe. The alien invasive species under The Convention
on Biological Diversity, and the Bern Convention as well as in the opinion of numerous
authors and institutions, are recognized as the second major threat to biodiversity, right after
the direct destruction of natural habitats. In areas where they would never come naturally,
alien invasive species endanger habitats, ecosystems and autochthonous species, resulting in
numerous negative environmental and economic consequences (Novak and Kravarščan,
2014) by aggressive spreading. For the last decades, their spread has increased by trade,
tourism, and travel (Novak and Kravarščan, 2014).
The Tree of heaven is an exotic and invasive deciduous tree that can grow in different
environmental conditions, regardless of soil condition and location. This deciduous,
extremely opportunistic, aggressive and adaptable species, due to it´s rapid growth,
propagation by seeds and by root sprouts, and allelopathic chemical compounds (which
suppress autochthonous vegetation) (Kovačić et al., 2008), today is considered to be one of
the most invasive tree species in the world and also in Croatia (Novak and Novak, 2017). Tree
of heaven was first introduced to Europe in 1740. from central Asia (China). During the 60s
of the last century, it was planted in Croatia, as a target species that stabilize the soil and
prevent landslides or as an ornamental species (Novak and Novak, 2017). It is known for its
use in honey production, herbal medicine, furniture manufacturing, while in China it is used
as a construction and tool wood and for the production of cellulose and silk. Most often it
could be found at neglected fields, along the road, wild garbage dumps, agricultural areas, and
near buildings, houses and other construction objects (Vukojević et al., 2012). According to
Novak and Novak (2017), the Tree of heaven is widespread in all counties of Croatia. Its
control is challenging and demanding, mainly because of its high regeneration ability, and it
is best to use a combination of mechanical and chemical measures of suppression (Novak and
Kravaršćan, 2014). Uncontrolled production of large quantities of biomass has aroused testing
of its potential for energy production. This study aimed to determine the possibility of using
biomass of Tree of heaven, which has remained after its mechanical removal from nature and
to identify the differences between locations.
There are numerous possibilities for energy utilization of biomass. The most commonly
used is a direct combustion process where biomass, without previous conversion into other
forms, serves as a fuel (Trkmić and Janješ, 2012) for obtaining electrical and thermal energy.
Apart from combustion, for further energy production or biomass conversion into various
types of solid, liquid or gaseous fuels and products, other biochemical and thermochemical
processes are used. Pyrolysis is a process which involves heating of organic materials
(biomass) to temperatures from 300 to 1.400 °C in the absence of oxygen. At such high
temperatures, organic materials thermally decompose releasing a vapor phase and a residual
solid phase (biochar). On cooling the pyrolysis vapor, polar and high molecular-weight
compounds condense out as a liquid (bio-oil) while low-molecular-weight volatile
compounds remain in the gas phase (synthetic gas) (Laird et al., 2009). By this processes,
instead of just burning biomass, valued products can be obtained. Energy characteristics and
the possibility of using the Tree of heaven biomass, through the direct combustion and

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 Use of invasive plant species Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima, Mill.) biomass in energy production

pyrolysis for energy purposes were examined, as well as the production of bio-oil as an energy
source and biochar as a value-added product.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research was conducted at the Department of Agricultural Technology, Storage and
Transport at University of Zagreb Faculty of Agriculture. Samples of the invasive plant
species biomass were collected in five different locations in the area of Split-Dalmatia County
(Klis, 43° 33'34.6 "N 16° 31'18.8" E, Lokvičići, 43° 27'56.3 "N 17° 05'25.4 "E, Gornji Muć,
43° 40'46.5" N 16° 29'38.9 "E, Gornji Muć, 43° 40'31.7" N 16° 29'41.9 "E, Žrnovnica, 43°
31'09.4" N 16 ° 32'54.9 "E) in April 2017. The analyzes were preceded by grounding of
samples in the laboratory mill (IKA, Germany), followed by standard methods for
determining the water content (HRN EN 18134-2:2015), ash (HRN EN ISO 18122:2015),
coke (CEN / TS 15148: 2009), fixed carbon and volatile matter (CEN / TS 15148: 2009), and
in the calorimeter IKA C200 (IKA, Germany) the higher heating values in the samples were
determined (HRN EN 14918: 2010). Determination of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin
content of raw materials was conducted by the modified standard method ISO 5351-1: 2002.
After the analysis of raw materials, i.e., the biomass of Tree of heaven, pyrolysis of samples
was conducted in laboratory conditions at a temperature of about 400 °C. The proportion of
obtained biochar and bio-oil was calculated, and the biochar was analyzed by the above-
mentioned standard methods. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed of results
obtained by biomass and biochar analyzes, while the differences between the mean values
were tested by t-test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Suitability of the raw material for the production of energy by direct combustion can be
assessed by determination of its physicochemical, structural and energy properties. Therefore,
Table 1 shows the mean value of the water content in the fresh sample, ash content, coke,
volatile matter, fixed carbon as well as the higher and lower heating value of dry matter of the
Tree of heaven biomass.

Table 1 The characteristics of the Tree of heaven biomass samples (dry matter)
Location
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5
*Moisture (%) 25,88BC 40,67A 28,89B 19,30C 34,81B
Ash (%) 5,43B 6,60A 5,37B 5,83B 5,65B
Coke (%) 15,59A 14,35A 15,99A 13,97A 16,47A
Volatile matter (%) 81,11B 82,36A 79,38C 81,39B 78,88C
Fixed carbon (%) 6,63C 11,60B 14,14A 12,12B 14,62A
**LHV (MJ kg -1) 14,68C 15,71A 15,01B 14,48BC 15,98A
***HHV (MJ kg -1) 15,96C 17,03A 16,35B 16,15C 17,29A
*Moisture content analysis is done on raw biomass; **LHV = lower heating value,
***HHV = higher heating value

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 A. Peter, M. Grubor, D. Dujmović Purgar, A. Budimir, N. Voća

The premise for the quality production of biochar is its higher contribution in pyrolysis
process (Jurišić et al., 2017). Also, in this study, analyzes of biochar composition were made
by standard methods for solid biofuels (Table 2). The water (moisture) in the fuel is found to
be a non-combustible ingredient which has a negative impact on the biomass heating values.
Part of the energy released during the combustion process is spent on evaporation of water
(Francescato et al., 2008). Expected values for water content in biomass vary by about 10%
for dried biomass, while for raw biomass they reach up to 50% (Yao et al., 2005). Water
content is one of the most important parameters when it comes to fuels properties of biomass
because it depends on it how will the biomass be transferred to energy (Ross et al., 2008).
Biomass with the low and moderate water content of less than 50% is efficiently used in
combustion processes, while alternatively it can be used for thermochemical conversion by
gasification and pyrolysis (Permchart and Kouprianov, 2004). Freshly collected biomass
typically has a water content of 40 to 65%, while residues of agricultural crops (maize, straw,
etc.) that have been exposed to air-drying have about 15% or less (Ross et al., 2008). The
water content in the analyzed samples ranged from the lowest value of 19.30% (location 4)
up to 40.67% (location 2). A significant difference between the water content of the samples
between different locations was determined, as shown in Table 1. The water content in the
analyzed biomass samples from most locations is within the expected values. Deviations are
only visible at location 2, with slightly elevated values compared to other results (wetland).
Ash is an incombustible mineral residue after the biomass was combusted. The variability
of the ash content is affected by the different composition and availability of nutrients in the
soil, climatic conditions, type of plant species, part of the plant itself, soil quality as well as
fertilization (Vassilev et al., 2010). Vassilev et al. (2010) state that ash content, depending on
the type and parts of biomass crops, usually ranges from 0.5% to 3% although they can range
from 0.1% to 46%. Francescato et al. (2008) stated that the ash content in agricultural biomass
ranges from 2 to 25%. It is desirable that ash content in the raw biomass is not high, given
that the ash content and the content of combustible matter are inversely proportional, and by
increasing of ash, the content of combustible matter reduces. The ash content in the analyzed
samples is significantly different at some locations and differences were noted among the
locations, as shown in Table 1. The minimum ash content was 5.37% at location 3, while the
highest values were found at location 2 reaching the amount of 6.60%. The results can be
compared with the study of grain straw (Grubor et al., 2015) where ash values are ranged from
2.54 to 9.04%. The average amount of ash in biomass of major energy crops in Croatia was
3.14% (Jurišić et al., 2017). Biochar is very heterogeneous and consists of stable and reactive
components (Jurišić et al., 2016). Variations in the ash content in biochar depend on the same
conditions as in case of biomass. The average value of ash content in biochar samples from
all five locations is 22.14%, which is higher than the ash content of biomass. Table 2 shows
statistically significant differences in the ash content of biochar between locations. Jurišić et
al. (2017) indicate that the average content of ash in the biochar of important energy crops in
Croatia was 5.60%, while in the biochar of grain straw; Grubor et al. (2015) indicate ash
content values of 9.15 to 16.53%, which are closer to the results obtained in this research.
Considering that larger content of ash, cause soot formation and corrosion in biomass
combustion systems (Grubor et al., 2015); this biochar does not match the quality of other
types of biochar when viewed from the aspect of ash content.
Higher content of coke is a desirable feature of biomass (Boboulos, 2010) and increases
the quality of fuel. Coke remains because of the combustion process of flammable or volatile

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 Use of invasive plant species Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima, Mill.) biomass in energy production

substances at very high temperatures (Voća et al., 2018). The average coke content obtained
in analyzed samples of biomass ranges from a minimum of 13.97% at location 4 to 16.47%
at location 5, and there are no statistically significant differences in the content of coke
between the results. Grubor et al. (2015) obtained similar results for coke content from 16.20
to 34.76% in grain straw biomass. Jurišić et al. (2017) obtained the average content of coke
in biomass of major energy crops in Croatia around 14.9%. From the aspect of coke content
concerning other types of biomass, it can be concluded that it is a suitable material for energy
production. According to the results shown in Table 2, it can be concluded that there are no
significant differences between the locations in the coke content of biochar. Jurišić et al.
(2017) stated the average content of coke in the biochar of important energy crops in Croatia
at about 60.10%, while Grubor et al. (2015) did obtain values from 49.69 to 62.89% in grain
straw biomass. Considering that the higher value of coke is preferable in biochar, it can be
concluded that the Tree of heaven biomass is an excellent raw material for the pyrolysis
process.

Table 2 The characteristics of the Tree of heaven biochar samples (dry matter)
Location
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5
Ash (%) 17,91D 24,98A 19,30C 23,91B 24,61AB
Coke (%) 63,57A 63,10A 63,34A 67,64A 68,21A
Volatile matter (%) 33,14 A 33,61A 32,01B 27,71C 27,14C
Fixed carbon (%) 54,60D 60,34C 61,49B 65,79A 66,37A
**LHV (MJ kg -1) 23,51B 22,12D 22,58C 23,86A 23,82A
***HHV. (MJ kg -1) 24,26A 22,79B 23,12B 24,40A 24,49A

Fixed carbon content (Cfix) represents a solid residue after combustion, i.e., after releasing
volatile substances without ash (Garcia et al., 2012). Increase of fixed carbon content the
increases heating value, thus improving the quality of biomass as fuel. According to Jarihul
et al. (2012), the higher content of fixed carbon in biomass contributes to obtaining a higher
amount of biochar regarding bio-oil and synthetic gas. Results of the fixed carbon content
obtained from biomass range from 6.63% (location 1) to 14.62% (location 5). There were
statistically significant differences between samples from different locations as shown in
Table 1. The values of fixed carbon in grain straw biomass are in the range from about 5%
(oat straw) to 13% (other straw) (Grubor et al., 2015). Jurišić et al. (2017) indicate that average
values of fixed carbon biomass of major energy crops in Croatia are around 11.40%. Tree of
heaven biomass has acceptable fixed carbon values, and obtained results were expected since
values of the fixed carbon in the biomass of different cultures are similar. According to the
results shown in Table 2, it can be concluded that there are significant differences between
the locations in the content of fixed carbon in the Tree of heaven biochar. The content of fixed
carbon in biochar samples ranges from 54.60 to 66.37%. In the case of grain straw biochar,
fixed carbon values range from 33.15 to 50.25% (Grubor et al., 2015). Jurišić et al. (2017)
obtained most similar results in the biochar, which also indicate that Tree of heaven is a
suitable material for pyrolysis processes, with the 54.50% of fixed carbon in major energy
crops biochar in Croatia.

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 A. Peter, M. Grubor, D. Dujmović Purgar, A. Budimir, N. Voća

During the combustion process, biomass decomposes on volatile gases and the solid
residue. The term volatiles refer to the components such as light hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, moisture, and tars released when the fuel is heated at a
high temperature. Biomass generally has a very high content of volatile matter, with values
that typically range around 75%, but can even increase up to 90%, which of course depends
on the type of sample (Khan et al., 2009). In case of high concentrations of volatile matter,
biomass is extremely flammable at lower temperatures, unlike fossil fuels. This is an
undesirable feature due to the sudden release of energy at lower temperatures, causing that
such fuels have lower energy value (Garcia et al., 2012, Quaak et al. al., 1999). Table 1 shows
the significant differences between locations of volatile matter analysis of the analyzed
biomass. Tree of heaven biomass analyzes shows the results for volatile matter from a
minimum value of 78.88% (location 5) to a maximum value of 82.36% (location 2), and while
the biochar values were ranged from 27.14 to 33.06%. According to Grubor et al. (2015),
volatile matter in grain straw biomass were ranged from 34.62 to 79.66%, while in the case
of biochar from 37.11 to 50.31%. Jurišić et al. (2017) stated average values of volatile matter
of major energy crops biomass in Croatia were around 77.58%. Comparison of results shown
that biomass, as well as biochar, have similar, even lower percent of volatiles compared to
other biomass or biochars, which is positive for Tree of heaven as a material with energy
potential.
The most important feature of each fuel is the heating value, also called calorific value.
The heating value is a parameter that represents the amount of energy that can be obtained by
combusting a certain amount of biomass (Garcia et al., 2012). It is an indicator of the
chemical-related energy in the fuel, which turns into heat through the combustion process
(Krička et al., 2010). The heating value of the biomass can be defined by its higher heating
value (HHV), which is the energy content on a dry basis. The lower heating value (LHV) is
calculated by subtracting the energy needed to evaporate the moisture content of the fuel
(Khan et al., 2009). By analyzing the Tree of heaven biomass and biochar, average results of
the HHV and LHV were obtained. Lowest HHV was ranged from the minimum value of 15.96
MJ kg-1at location 1, to the maximum HHV at location 5 of 17.29 MJ kg-1. The LHV was
ranged from the minimum value of 14.68 MJ kg-1 at location 1 to the 15.98 MJ kg-1 at location
5. Table 1 shows the heating values of the analyzed biomass, while Table 2 shows data of the
heating values for biochar, with statistically significant differences between the locations. In
the grain straw biomass, Grubor et al. (2015) obtained an HHV from 16,41 to 18.24 MJ kg-1,
while Jurišić et al. (2017) recorded the average HHV of major energy crops biomass in Croatia
of 17.69 MJ kg-1. In case of biochar, obtained HHV of Tree of heaven were ranged from 22.79
to 24.49 MJ kg-1 and LHV from 22.12 to 23.86 MJ kg-1. Grubor et al. (2015) recorded the
HHV of biochar from 24.72 to 25.70 MJ kg-1, while Jurišić et al. (2017) recorded an average
HHV of biochar 30.67 MJ kg-1. By comparing those values, it is evident that higher heating
values of biomasses as well as of the biochar are similar to other results.
Biomass is a complex heterogeneous mixture consisting of key structural components
such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Voća et al., (2018) stated that most of the
agricultural lignocellulose biomass consists of lignin (10-25%), hemicellulose (20-30%), and
cellulose (40-50%). Lignin provides structures strength, and biomass with higher lignin
content is more suitable for producing electricity and/or heat by direct combustion (Grubor et
al., 2015). According to the results shown in Figure 1, it can be concluded that the highest
content of cellulose was found in samples of location 5, highest content of lignin was found

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 Use of invasive plant species Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima, Mill.) biomass in energy production

in samples of location 3, and highest content of hemicellulose was found in samples from
location 1. According to Grubor et al. (2015), the content of cellulose in the biomass of grain
straw was ranged from 30.64 to 45.66%, the lignin content was ranged from 22.28 to 29.27%,
and the hemicellulose was ranged from 17.56 to 39.67%. By comparing the obtained values
with the literature data and the expected values for biomass, it is apparent that the lignin
content is higher than expected, and it can be concluded that the biomass is suitable for direct
combustion.

49.12 49.64 48.46 49.75

50 45.5
Yield of cellulose, lignin and

40
hemicellulose %

25.85 25.37 27.79 25.94

30 25.33
20.01 18.21 17.94 18.64
20 16.54

10
0
1 2 3 4 5
Cellulose (%) Lignin (%) Hemicellulose (%)

Figure 1 Cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose yield in Tree of heaven biomass

Table 3 Content of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen in biomass and biochar
(dry matter)
Biomass Biochar
%
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5
C 37,73D 44,71B 46,46A 42,9C 43,55BC 66,02A 61,19C 66,85A 64,26B 66,31A
H 5,85A 6,03A 6,14A 5,99A 6,01A 3,45A 3,07A 2,49B 2,48B 3,06A
N 2,97A 2,91A 2,56A 1,63B 2,38A 3,99A 2,98BC 3,10B 2,62C 3,95A
S 0,38 A
0,36 A
0,35 A
0,30 A
0,35 A
0,45 A
0,35 A
0,39 A
0,53 A
0,52A
O 53,07A 45,99CD 44,5D 49,18B 47,72BC 26,09D 32,41A 27,18C 30,11B 26,17D

From the obtained values of the Tree of heaven biomass and biochar (Table 3), it can be
noted that the highest, most desirable amount of carbon and hydrogen, as well as the lowest
amount of sulfur and oxygen content, have locations 2 and 4, although the differences between
locations are minimal. The analyzed biomass contains oxygen ranging from 47.20 to 47.71%,
carbon in the range of 42.48 to 43.39%, hydrogen ranging from 6.14 to 6.29%, nitrogen
ranging from 2.76 - 3.40% and sulfur 0.35-0.40%.
In Figure 2, the mean value of the obtained bio-oil and biochar after the pyrolysis is shown
graphically. The pyrolysis process of organic matter is very complex, and this process
generates three important products – biochar and volatile and non-volatile gases (bio-oil)
(Jurišić et al., 2017). Depending on the conditions of the process (such as the particle size in

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 A. Peter, M. Grubor, D. Dujmović Purgar, A. Budimir, N. Voća

the biomass material and the temperature of the process itself), carbon-rich biochar was
obtained (yield: 10-35%), volatile gases (yield: 30-70%) and non-volatile gases manifested as
bio-oil: 15-35%). Furthermore, the content of biochar after pyrolysis is proportional to the
lignin and hemicellulose content in biomass (Jahirul et al., 2012). The highest amount of
biochar (39.52%) was obtained by analyzing the samples of location 2 and the lowest amount
of biomass (28.30%) by analyzing samples from site 4. It is also evident that the most
significant amount of bio-oil (59.60%) was obtained by analyzing samples of location 4, and
the smallest amount of bio-oil (40.39%) by analyzing samples of location 2. The biochar
yields in grain straw range from about 55 to 75% (Grubor et al., 2015). Jurišić et al. (2017)
indicate slightly lower amounts of biochar (23.93%) and bio-oil (33.13%) in major energy
crops in Croatia. There is an excellent potential for biochar and bio-oil production compared
to the comparative literature approximate values.

80
Yield of biochar and bio-oil %

57.97 59,60
60
40.39 41.21 42.45
39.52 37.16 37,20
40 34.63
28,30

20

0
1 2 3 4 5
Biochar Bio-oil

Figure 2 Pyrolysis products in Tree of heaven biomass samples yield

CONCLUSIONS
Based on this research of the invasive species Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima)
biomass, its potential as a raw material for direct combustion, as well as in the process of
pyrolysis, i.e., the production of bio-oil as an energy source and biochar as a value-added
product was confirmed.
There is a significant difference in Tree of heaven biomass between sites in the content of
water, ash, fixed carbon, volatile substances, and heating values. There is a significant
difference in the biochar of the Tree of heaven between the sites for ash and heating values.
Tree of heaven biomass contains water ranging from 19.3 to 40.67%, indicating that the
results fit into the literature values. Water content from site 2 makes an exception with its
elevated value (which is acceptable, given that unlike others, location 2 it is a wetland area).
Analysis of the ash content in biomass (5.37 - 6.60%) and biochar (17.91 - 24.98%)
showed higher ash content compared to the literature, which is not a desirable feature of
biomass. Expected results of volatile substances stated in the literature, were lower than in
biomass what indicates that Tree of heaven is not desirable raw material for direct combustion,
but low values of volatile substances in biochar shows that biochar is a desirable raw material

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 Use of invasive plant species Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima, Mill.) biomass in energy production

for pyrolysis processes. From the perspective of coke, fixed carbon and heating values in
biomass and biochar, biomass represent a potential raw material for energy production.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by the Croatian Science Foundation (HRZZ) within the project
“Young Researchers' Career Development Project – Training of Doctoral Students”, co-
financed by the European Union, under the OP “Efficient Human Resources 2014-2020” from
the ESF funds.

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KORIŠTENJE BIOMASE INVAZIVNE BILJNE VRSTE

PAJASEN U PROIZVODNJI ENERGIJE
Anamarija PETER*, Mateja GRUBOR, Dubravka DUJMOVIĆ PURGAR, Ana BUDIMIR,
Neven VOĆA
*
E-mail dopisnog autora: [email protected]
Sveučilište u Zagrebu Agronomski fakultet, Svetošimunska c. 25, 10000 Zagreb

SUMMARY
Strane invazivne vrste agresivnim širenjem ugrožavaju staništa, ekosustave
i autohtone vrste na područjima gdje prirodnim putem ne bi dospjele. Biljna
vrsta pajasen (Ailanthus altissima), jedna je od najopasnijih invazivnih
drvenastih biljaka kako u svijetu, tako i u Hrvatskoj. Preuzima prostor na štetu
ostalog bilja, luči alelokemikalije te pokazuje tendenciju intenzivnog širenja i
potiskivanja ostalih autohtonih vrsta. Nepovratno mijenja izgled krajolika te
nanosi neprocjenjivu štetu na ekosustav stvarajući ogromne količine
potencijalno iskoristive biomase. Biomasa ima značajan potencijal za daljnji
razvoj. Primjena biomase, preostale nakon uklanjanja invazivnih vrsta ima
nebrojne prednosti, kako u povećanju udjela proizvodnje obnovljive energije,
tako i u pogledu smanjenja emisije stakleničkih plinova te štetnog utjecaja na
zdravlje ljudi i okoliš. Cilj ovog rada bio je istražiti mogućnosti korištenja
ostataka invazivne vrste pajasen, nakon njegovog uklanjanja iz prirode te
procesom izgaranja i pirolizom biomase ispitati njegov energetski potencijal i
mogućnost korištenja u energetske svrhe. Sukladno dobivenim rezultatima
analiza, može se zaključiti da pajasen nudi mogućnost iskorištenja u energetske
svrhe. Opravdana je pretpostavka da ova invazivna vrsta, ima potencijal kao
sirovina za izravno izgaranje, kao i u procesu pirolize, odnosno proizvodnje
bioulja i biougljena.
Ključne riječi: biomasa, energija, invazivne vrste, pajasen

378
47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

INVESTIGATION AND COMPARISON OF INDICATORS

OF FODDER BEAN WASTE AND WOOD PELLETS
Aleksandra MINAJEVA1,2, Algirdas JASINSKAS1*, Egidijus ŠARAUSKIS1,
Kęstutis ROMANECKAS3, Andres ANNUK4
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 Vytautas Magnus University, Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Safety,
Studentu 15A, LT-53362, Akademija, Kaunas distr., Lithuania
2 Vilnius College of Technologies and Design, Antakalnio 54, LT-10303, Vilnius, Lithuania
3 Vytautas Magnus University, Institute of Agroecosystems and Soil Sciences,

Studentu 11, Akademija, LT-53361, Kaunas distr., Lithuania

4 Energy Engineering Department, Institute of Technology, Estonian University of Life Sciences,

Kreutzwaldi str. 56, 51014 Tartu, Estonia

ABSTRACT
Biomass resources can be found in many countries of the world and can
become a renewable local source of energy that will replace fossil fuels. The
presented paper provides research results of widely used in Lithuania fodder
beans growing, harvesting and waste utilization for energy purposes. Fodder
bean waste and wood waste (sawdust) pellets were comparatively investigated,
and physical-mechanical and thermal properties were determined when plant
pellets were burned. Investigations were carried out in the fields and
laboratories of the Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Safety,
Aleksandras Stulginskis University (ASU) and in the Lithuanian Energy
Institute (LEI). Moisture content of fodder bean waste pellets reached 8.67 ±
0.26 %, and pellet density was very high and reached 1311.40±64.67 kg m-3
DM (dry matter). The determined average calorific value was also sufficiently
high and reached 17.0±0.3 MJ kg-1. Also, emissions of harmful gases when
these fodder bean waste and wood pellets were burned were investigated. All
these results are in accordance with the requirements of standard EN 14961-1
normative properties.
Keywords: fodder bean, waste, wood, solid biofuel, pellets, properties

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

379
 A. Minajeva, A. Jasinskas, E. Šarauskis, K. Romaneckas, A. Annuk

INTRODUCTION
Wood is generally the most common choice of fuels for coal-fired boilers. Use of biomass
for energy production incorporates benefits, such as reduced CO2 emissions, reduced SO2 and
NOx formation through a reduction of bound nitrogen in fuel (Verma et al., 2012).
Use of natural state biomass (chips, sawdust and straw) is unattractive, and potential
consumers generally become disheartened from using this kind of fuel permanently. Also,
because of high moisture content, irregular shape and sizes, and low bulk density, natural state
biomass is very difficult to handle, transport, store and utilize in its original form. When these
biomass types or their mixes are made into the pellets or briquettes, they are easier to store,
distribute and use for energy generation (Kaliyan and Vance Morey, 2009), (Mariusz et al.,
2013). Densification of biomass materials into pellets or briquettes could reduce costs of
transportation, handling, and storage (Mani et al., 2006). However, the competitive raw
material market has increased the price of wood material.
In the recent years, various biomass materials have been used for production of pellets, e.g.
waste paper, wheat straw mixtures, corn stover, tea waste, bamboo, and other agricultural
waste (Longbo et al., 2016). Availability of agricultural waste for energy use strongly depends
on variables like consumption pattern, economic development and fraction of biomass
material in all waste production (Grammelis, 2011).
CO emissions from several agricultural fuels (not pellets) are to fourteen times higher than
from wood pellets (Carvalho et al., 2013). Pelletization of agricultural waste and use of pellets
can contribute to optimisation of combustion process and subsequently reduce emissions
(Vicente et al., 2015).
Fodder bean is grown worldwide in cropping systems as grain and green-manure legume.
Fodder bean contributes to sustainability of cropping systems via its ability to contribute
nitrogen to the system via biological N2 fixation, diversification of systems leading to
decreased disease, weed and pest build-up and potentially increased biodiversity, reduced
fossil energy consumption in plant production, and providing food and feed rich in protein.
The limited resources of fossil energy, the emissions of CO2 as a result of production,
distribution and application of fertilizer N, and health and environmental implications of
losses of large amounts of N from fertilized soils, as a consequence of in efficiencies in plant
use of fertilizer has recently increased sowing of fodder bean seed, as the role of source N for
future growing systems (Jensen et al., 2010).
Large amounts of fodder bean biomass residues are left on the fields concentrated in one
place. According to the amounts of by-products of agricultural crops grown in Lithuania, it is
noticeable that the main by-products of beans are waste after thrashing, which make up about
half of the total production. These residues can be employed for alternative uses – for thermo-
chemical conversion (Minajeva et al., 2018). This biofuel can be used in households for small
household boilers with the capacity of 10-50 kW and centralized boiler houses. However,
physical-chemical and thermal properties of biomass fuel, such as volumetric and energy
density, heat value, chemical composition, moisture and ash content, are important for their
use in residential devices (Olsson and Kjällstrand, 2006).
In this study, two kinds of raw materials (fodder bean waste and sawdust for comparison)
were applied for pelletization. These pellets were investigated to compare energy

380
 Investigation and comparison of indicators of fodder bean waste and wood pellets

consumption and pellet properties, including, pellet density, hardness, higher heating value
and combustion characteristics and harmful emissions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Solid biomass can be characterized by various physical-mechanical and thermal properties:
moisture content, density, compression strength, ash, heat content and harmful emissions
caused by combustion of pellets. In the course of experimental research, samples of vegetable
waste from thrashed fodder beans were chopped and prepared for pelleting. Granulating
process consist of a few basic sub-processes: chopping of raw material, milling, drying,
pelleting and cooling.
These pellets were produced without additional binding materials with stand a pressure of
up to 22.5 N·mm-2. Laboratory tests are carried out to determine resistance of granules, while
crushing strength is evaluated by force acting upon destruction of a pellet (Pastre, 2002),
(Jasinskas and Scholz, 2008).
First of all, stem chopping a drum chopper of forage harvester was used (Jasinskas et al.,
2014). Retsch SM 200 mill was used for the produced chaff milling. Milling quality was
determined using standard methodology. After mill making, dry bean waste (10-12%
moisture) is moved by conveyor to a pellet mill. For pellet production, the plant mill was
granulated by a small capacity (80-120 kg h-1) granulator with a horizontal granulator matrix;
the diameter of pellets was 6 mm (Streikus et al., 2016). After extrusion, pellets temperature
was 90-100°C, and it was immediately reduced down to 25°C.
Fodder bean waste pellet and wood pellet calorific value, ash content and harmful
emissions were determined at the Lithuanian Energy Institute, Thermal equipment research
and testing laboratory in accordance with the valid in Lithuania and EU countries standard
methodology (Šiaudinis et al., 2015). Calorific value (KJ kg-1) of investigated pellets was
determined by a IKA C 5000 calorimeter (IKA, Germany) by the standard methodology (BS
EN 14918:2009), ash content – according to LST EN 14775:2010 standard and was
assimilated with each other.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The obtained pellets tend to a cylindrical form with an average diameter of 5.99±0.08 mm
and 24.32±1.96 mm length for pellet samples. It is very important to determine moisture
content since numerous studies show that it affects properties such as thermal conductivity,
specific heat capacity, density and deformation force characteristics. According to research
by Dafnomilis et al. (2018), determined moisture of wood pellets was about 8-11 %. The
results of the performed studies show that moisture of fodder bean waste pellets is equal to
8.67 ± 0.26 %, and all these results are in accordance with the requirements of normative
properties of standard (EN 14961-1).
Determined density of produced granules in dry matter (DM) reaches as much as 1,311.40
± 64.67 kg·m-3. Depending on the type of wood, wood pellets density can to reach 1,200–
1,900 kg·m-3. Similarity between most of the physical properties of fodder bean waste and
wood pellets means that the fundamental design of equipment and infrastructure between the
two bulk materials would remain the same.

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 A. Minajeva, A. Jasinskas, E. Šarauskis, K. Romaneckas, A. Annuk

The maximum (critical) determined pressure force F of fodder bean waste pellet was
586.16 ± 137.7 N. This force is sufficiently high, and we can conclude that produced pellets
are resistant to external forces.
Fodder bean waste pellet elemental composition, ash content and heat indexes are
presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Fodder bean waste pellet elemental composition, ash content and calorific value
Parameter Value
C (%) 46.22±1.10
H (%) 5.69±0.44
N (%) 1.27±0.31
S (%) <0.01
O (%) 42.89±1.56
Cl (%) 0.32±0.08
Ash (%) 3.93±0.11
Net calorific value (MJ kg-1) 17.0±0.3

The authors of the paper "Wood pellet quality with respect to EN 14961-2 standard and
certifications" have assessed quality of wood pellet. The determined net calorific value of
wood pellets (130 examples) was 16.9-17.4 MJ kg-1 (Duca et al., 2014). The determined
average calorific value of fodder bean waste pellet was sufficiently high and reached 17.0±0.3
MJ kg-1.
Also, emissions of harmful gases (CO2, CO, NO, SO2, NH3, HCl, O2, CxHy) when these
fodder been (FB) waste and wood pellets were burned were investigated. The results are
presented in the Fig. 1–8 below.

CO2
10
8
6
% 4
2
0

Time, s

Bean pellets Wood pellets

Figure 1 CO2 emissions during combustion of pellets under standard laboratory conditions

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 Investigation and comparison of indicators of fodder bean waste and wood pellets

The average CO2 emissions of FB pellet are 4.1 % and wood pellet – 5.6 %. According to
studies by Venturini et al. (2018), CO2 emission of wood pellet varied from 3.6 % to 8.0 %.

CO
2500
2000
1500
ppm

1000
500
0

Time, s

Bean pellets Wood pellets

Figure 2 CO emissions during combustion of pellets under standard laboratory conditions

The average of CO emissions of FB pellet is 1072.5 ppm and wood pellet – 172 ppm. The
concentration of CO depends on the quality of pellets.

NO
250
200
150
ppm

100
50
0
0.0
0.7
1.5
2.2
3.0
3.7
4.5
5.2
5.9
6.7
7.4
8.2
8.9
9.6
10.4
11.1
11.9

Time, s

Bean pellets Wood pellets

Figure 3 NO emissions during combustion of pellets under standard laboratory conditions

The average of NO emissions of FB pellet is 151 ppm and wood pellet – 55 ppm. By the
different standards, NO emissions of the wood pellets are 32-102 ppm.

383
 A. Minajeva, A. Jasinskas, E. Šarauskis, K. Romaneckas, A. Annuk

SO2
20
18
16
14
12
ppm

10
8
6
4
2
0

Time, s

Bean pellets Wood pellets

Figure 4 SO2 emissions during combustion of pellets under standard laboratory conditions

The average of SO2 emissions of FB pellet is 2 ppm and wood pellet – 0 ppm.

NH3
6
5
4
ppm

3
2
1
0

Time, s

Bean pellets Wood pellets

Figure 5 NH3 emissions during combustion of pellets under standard laboratory conditions

The average of NH3 emissions of FB pellet is 3.3 ppm and wood pellet – 1.1 ppm.

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 Investigation and comparison of indicators of fodder bean waste and wood pellets

HCl
6
5
4
ppm

3
2
1
0
0 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 10 11 12
Time, s

Bean pellets Wood pellets

Figure 6 HCl emissions during combustion of pellets under standard laboratory conditions

The average of HCl emissions of FB pellet is 0.7 ppm and wood pellet – 3.7 ppm.

O2
19
17
15
%

13
11
9

Time, s

Bean pellets Wood pellets

Figure 7 O2 emissions during combustion of pellets under standard laboratory conditions

The average of O2 emissions of FB pellet is 15.2 % and wood pellet – 13.4 %.

385
 A. Minajeva, A. Jasinskas, E. Šarauskis, K. Romaneckas, A. Annuk

CxHy
140
120
100
80
ppm

60
40
20
0

Time, s

Bean pellets Wood pellets

Figure 8 CxHy emissions during combustion of pellets under standard laboratory conditions

The average of CxHy emissions of FB pellet is 56.1 ppm and wood pellet – 26.7 ppm.
All the determined harmful gases emissions when burning the fodder bean waste pellets
were in the allowed values. So, this biofuel can be used together with wood and other plant
pellets for heat production in the boilers of low and average capacity.

CONCLUSIONS
Differences between the results of the present study and the data of other researchers can
be associated with pellet quality, raw material and burning devices.
Determined density of the produced granules of fodder bean waste in dry matter (DM) was
sufficiently high and reached 1,311.40 ± 64.67 kg·m-3. The wood pellet density, depending
on the type of wood, varied from 1,200 till 1,900 kg·m-3.
Investigated thermal properties of the produced biofuel show that average calorific value
of fodder bean waste pellets was sufficiently high and reached 17.0±0.3 MJ kg-1, and, for
comparison, the determined net calorific value of wood pellets was very similar and reached
16.9-17.4 MJ kg-1.
After evaluation of harmful gases emission when burning of fodder bean waste pellets, it
was determined that NO formation in the pellet boiler is mainly due to the oxidation of a
portion of biomass nitrogen. For this reason, NO emissions when burning the fodder bean
pellets is higher than burning of wood pellets.
Determined average value of CO emissions when burning the fodder bean pellets was
sufficiently high and reached 1072.5 ppm; when burning wood pellets harmful, emissions
were 6 times less and reached 172 ppm.
After investigation of fodder bean waste pellets properties and harmful gases emissions, it
can be stated that they meet the requirements for high-quality biofuel.

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 Investigation and comparison of indicators of fodder bean waste and wood pellets

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

PIROLIZA OSTATAKA NAKON PROIZVODNJE PIVA

S CILJEM DOBIVANJA ENERGIJE I PROIZVODA
DODANE VRIJEDNOSTI
Vanja JURIŠIĆ*, Domagoj ŠKORIĆ, Ana MATIN, Tajana KRIČKA,
Mateja GRUBOR
*
E-mail dopisnog autora: [email protected]
Sveučilište u Zagrebu Agronomski fakultet, Zavod za poljoprivrednu tehnologiju,
skladištenje i transport, Svetošimunska c. 25, 10000 Zagreb

SAŽETAK
Proces proizvodnje piva je energetski zahtjevan postupak, a sukladno
smjernicama Europske unije, nusproizvodi procesa proizvodnje moraju se
zadovoljavajuće zbrinuti. Pivski trop predstavlja glavni nusproizvod u
proizvodnji piva. Postoji veliki potencijal u iskorištenju pivskog tropa s ciljem
proizvodnje energije. Trenutno je najčešći oblik zbrinjavanja anaerobna
fermentacija i proizvodnja bioplina, međutim, zbog velikih količina
nusproizvoda koji nastaju tijekom proizvodnje piva, potrebno je istražiti i druge
oblike dobivanja energije iz ove sirovine.
Cilj ovog rada bio je istražiti mogućnost iskorištenja nusproizvoda
proizvodnje piva procesom pirolize, a s ciljem proizvodnje energije i proizvoda
dodane vrijednosti.
Analiza kemijskog sastava triju različitih uzoraka pivskog tropa
(Staropramen, Ožujskog te Tomislav piva) pokazala je određene različitosti u
sastavu vode, pepela, koksa, hlapljivih tvari, fiksiranog ugljika te u sastavu
organskih kemijskih spojeva (dušika, vodika, ugljika, kisika i sumpora). Osim
toga, nakon provedenog procesa pirolize, analizirana su i svojstva dobivenog
biougljena.
Nakon provedenih analiza utvrđeno je da je pivski trop, kao najzastupljeniji
nusproizvod pivske industrije, vrlo dobra sirovina za proizvodnju energije
procesom pirolize.
Ključne riječi: pivski trop, piroliza, biougljen, proizvodnja energije

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 V. Jurišić, D. Škorić, A. Matin, T. Krička, M. Grubor

UVOD
Poljoprivrednu biomasu i ostatke iz prerađivačke industrije je moguće pretvoriti u razne
oblike energije koristeći različite tehnologije pretvorbe (Krička i sur., 2016.). Najčešće
korištena je termokemijska pretvorba biomase i to neposrednim spaljivanjem, uplinjavanjem,
ukapljivanjem ili pirolizom (Akhtar i Amin, 2012). Iskorištenje poljoprivrednih ostataka i
ostataka iz prerađivačke industrije za proizvodnju energije i proizvoda dodane vrijednosti
termokemijskim postupcima moglo bi djelomično zamijeniti konvencionalna goriva (Jurišić
i sur., 2016).
Piroliza je termokemijski postupak koji se provodi u odsutnosti kisika i koji rezultira s tri
različita proizvoda: biouljem, biougljenom i sintetski plinom (Krička i sur., 2017.) Pirolitička
proizvodnja energenata još uvijek je u ranoj fazi razvoja te treba prevladati brojne tehnološke
i ekonomske barijere kako bi ušla u kompeticiju s tradicionalnim fosilnim oblicima energenata
(Jahirul i sur., 2012). Relativna količina svakog produkta ovisi o uvjetima procesa, svojstvima
biomase i vrsti postupka pirolize (Krička i sur., 2017).
Biougljen je visokovrijedna sirovina koja ima potencijal u smislu poboljšivača tla, ali i
energenta za su-spaljivanje u elektranama (Anderson i sur., 2013). Budući da ugljik potječe
od atmosferskog ugljičnog dioksida, primjena biougljena na tlu može doprinijeti smanjenju
koncentracije CO2. Osim uklanjanja ugljika, biougljen u tlu smanjuje emisije drugih glavnih
stakleničkih plinova, kao što su N2O i CH4 (van Zweiten i sur., 2009). Glavninu sastava
biougljena čine ugljik uz kisik te različiti anorganski spojevi (Jahirul i sur., 2012). Biougljen
je moguće upotrijebiti na različite načine, a prema Lairdu i sur. (2009), biougljen može biti
zamjenski izvor energije u postojećim elektranama na praškasti ugljen.
Proces proizvodnje piva je energetski zahtjevan postupak, a sukladno smjernicama EU,
nusproizvodi procesa proizvodnje moraju se zadovoljavajuće zbrinuti. Nusproizvodi koji
nastaju prilikom proizvodnje piva su voda, pivski trop, kvasac, ugljikov dioksid i korjenčići
ječmenog slada (Šakić, 2008).
Nusproizvodi pivske industrije zbog ekonomskih i ekoloških pogodnosti nastoje se
reciklirati te ponovno upotrijebiti kao sirovina ili energent. Postoji veliki potencijal u
iskorištenju nusproizvoda iz proizvodnje piva s ciljem proizvodnje energije. Trenutno je
najčešći oblik zbrinjavanja anaerobna fermentacija i proizvodnja bioplina. Međutim, zbog
velikih količina nusproizvoda koji nastaju tijekom same proizvodnje, potrebno je istražiti i
druge oblike dobivanja energije iz ove sirovine.
Kao tri najznačajnija nusproizvoda proizvodnje piva mogu se izdvojiti otpadna voda,
pivski kvasac te pivski trop. Pivski trop može se koristiti kao stočna hrana, dodatak
proizvodima namijenjenim za ljudsku prehranu, sirovina u biotehnologiji, sirovina za
proizvodnju građevinskog materijala, proizvodnju ugljena, papira, energije kao i adsorbens
(Silva i sur., 2004). Po svojem sastavu, pivski trop je lignocelulozni materijal s oko 20 %
celuloze, 30 % neceluloznih polisaharida (većina arabinoksilan) i 30 % lignina u suhoj tvari
(Jozinović i sur., 2014). Pivski trop se dobije na kraju procesa hidrolize, a predstavlja
mješavinu razgrađenih i nerazgrađenih sastojaka slada u vodi (Pejin i sur., 2013). Kemijski
sastav pivskog tropa može jako varirati, ovisno o sorti ječma, uvjetima sladovanja i komljenja,
kao i vrsti i kvaliteti nesladovanih sirovina koje se koriste u proizvodnji piva (Pejin i sur.,
2013).

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Pivski trop se u Hrvatskoj prvenstveno koristi kao stočna hrana, a u razvijenijim državama
sve se više upotrebljava kao sirovina za proizvodnju bioplina, bioetanola te biougljena.
Temeljem svega navedenog, cilj ovog istraživanja bio je utvrditi mogućnost iskorištenja
nusproizvoda proizvodnje piva – pivskog tropa, procesom termičke anaerobne razgradnje pri
visokim temperaturama - pirolizom, a s ciljem proizvodnje energije i proizvoda dodane
vrijednosti.

MATERIJALI I METODE
U istraživanju su korišteni ostaci proizvodnje piva iz tri različita uzorka i to: uzorak
pivskog tropa dobivenog nakon proizvodnje piva Staropramen, uzorak pivskog tropa
dobivenog nakon proizvodnje piva Ožujsko, uzorak pivskog tropa dobivenog nakon
proizvodnje piva Tomislav. Pivski trop preuzet je netom nakon završetka proizvodnje piva, u
svježem stanju iz proizvodnog procesa Zagrebačke pivovare. Nakon preuzimanja, utvrđen je
početni sadržaj vode u uzorcima te su uzorci osušeni prirodnim putem za potrebe daljnjih
analiza sastava ulazne sirovine.
Analizi ulazne sirovine prethodilo je usitnjavanje uzoraka u laboratorijskom mlinu, nakon
čega su standardnim metodama utvrđeni sadržaji vode (HRN EN 18134-2:2015), pepela
(HRN EN 18122:2015), koksa (HRN EN 18123:2015), fiksiranog ugljika (računski) i hlapive
tvari (HRN EN 18123:2015). Određivanje ukupnog ugljika, vodika, dušika i sumpora,
provedeno je metodom suhog spaljivanja na Vario, Macro CHNS analizatoru (Elementar
Analysensysteme GmbH, Njemačka) prema protokolima za ugljik, vodik, i dušik (HRN EN
16948:2015) te sumpor (HRN EN 15289:2011). Sadržaj kisika utvrđen je računski.
Određivanje udjela celuloze, hemiceluloze i lignina provedeno je modificiranom standardnom
metodom ISO 5351-1:2002. Gornja ogrjevna vrijednost određena je korištenjem IKA C200
adijabatskog kalorimetra (HRN EN 14918:2010), dok je donja ogrjevna vrijednost dobivena
računski.
Nakon analiza ulaznih sirovina, pripremljeni uzorci su prosijani u situ tresilici (EN 15149-
2:2010) te su uzorci veličine čestica 630 µm izdvojeni za proces pirolize. Proces pirolize
uzoraka proveden je na količini od 20 g uzorka, pri temperaturi od 300 °C – 500 °C, pri čemu
su utvrđeni udjeli proizvedenog biougljena i bioulja (računski). Sastav biougljena potom je
analiziran gore navedenim standardnim metodama za čvrstu biomasu, kako bi se utvrdila
njegova kvaliteta za korištenje u procesima suspaljivanja.

REZULTATI I RASPRAVA
U ovom radu istražene su nove mogućnosti dobivanja energije iz pivskog tropa nakon
proizvodnje triju najznačajnijih piva Zagrebačke pivovare (Staropramen, Ožujsko i
Tomislav). Procesu pirolize prethodila je analiza odabranih sirovina s ciljem uvida u
mogućnost njihova neposrednog spaljivanja za dobivanje energije. U Tablici 1 prikazan je
sadržaj vode te goriva svojstva triju ulaznih sirovina.
Voda se u gorivu nalazi kao nesagorivi sastojak i ima izravan učinak na ogrjevnu
vrijednost biomase zbog količine topline koja se troši na njeno isparavanje (Francescato i sur.,
2008). Sadržaj vode u svježem pivskom tropu iznosio je prosječno 74,52 % za uzorak od

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 V. Jurišić, D. Škorić, A. Matin, T. Krička, M. Grubor

Staropramen piva, 71,84 % za uzorak od Ožujskog piva te 72,61 % za uzorak od Tomislav

piva (Tablica 1).

Tablica 1 Sadržaj vode i goriva svojstva ulazne sirovine

Table 1 Moisture content and fuel properties of raw material
Uzorak Voda, % Pepeo*, % Koks, % Cfix, % Hlapiva tvar, %
Sample Moisture, % Ash*, % Coke, % Cfix, % Volatile matter, %
Staropramen 74,52 5,71 19,80 14,08 76,30
Ožujsko 71,84 5,39 19,41 14,02 77,37
Tomislav 72,61 3,82 18,13 14,31 77,90
Legenda: * - izraženo na suhu tvar; Legend: * dry matter based

Sadržaj pepela ima katalitički utjecaj na termičku razgradnju, odnosno više koncentracije
pepela rezultiraju većim koncentracijama ugljena i plinova (McKendry, 2002). Goriva s nižim
udjelom pepela bolja su za termičko iskorištenje jer manje količine pepela olakšavaju njegovo
uklanjanje, transport i skladištenje, kao i iskorištenje i odlaganje (Krička, 2017). Prosječni
sadržaj pepela u analiziranim uzorcima pivskog tropa iznosio je 5,71 % za uzorak od
Staropramen piva, 5,39 % za uzorak od Ožujskog piva te 3,82% za uzorak od Tomislav piva
(Tablica 1). Staropramen i Ožujsko pivo su svijetla piva, dok je Tomislav tamno pivo koje se
dobiva od karameliziranog ječmenog slada, ima veći sadržaj alkohola od svijetlih piva te zbog
toga ima veća odstupanja u sadržaju pepela. Sperandio i sur. (2017) u svojem istraživanju
navode sadržaj pepela u analiziranom pivskom tropu od 5,3 % uz standardnu devijaciju od
2,4 % pa se može zaključiti da je pivski trop poželjna sirovina za neposredno izgaranje. Koks
je sekundarni ugljen koji nastaje pri višim temperaturama (Mohan i sur., 2006) te predstavlja
poželjno svojstvo sirovine (Boboulos, 2010). Prosječni sadržaj koksa u analiziranim uzorcima
iznosio je 19,80 % za uzorak od Staropramen piva, 19,41 % za uzorak od Ožujskog piva te
18,13 % za uzorak pivskog tropa dobivenog od Tomislav piva. Krička i sur. (2017) istraživali
su sadržaj koksa na različitim tipovima biomase te dobili vrijednosti sadržaja koksa od 16,03
% za rezidbene ostatke od voćarskih kultura, 19,09 % za ratarske ostatke, 22,23 % za kominu
maslina i grožđa te 30 % za stabljiku kukuruza. S obzirom na visoki sadržaj koksa u svim
uzorcima analiziranog pivskog tropa, može se zaključiti kako pivski trop predstavlja dobru
sirovinu za proizvodnju energije. Sadržaj fiksiranog ugljika, uz pepeo, predstavlja kruti
ostatak nakon gorenja odnosno ispuštanja hlapljivih tvari (Jurišić i sur., 2016). Vrijednost
sadržaja fiksiranog ugljika dobivena je računski iz prethodno provedenih analiza. Prosječni
sadržaj fiksiranog ugljika za uzorak pivskog tropa dobivenog od Staropramen piva iznosio je
14,08 %, za uzorak od Ožujskog piva 14,02 % te za uzorak od Tomislav piva 14,31 % (Tablica
1). Fiksirani ugljik tijekom gorenja prelazi u ugljen te gori kao kruto gorivo u sustavu
izgaranja biomase (Garcia i sur., 2012). Povećanjem vrijednosti sadržaja fiksiranog ugljika
povećava se i ogrjevna vrijednost, a time i kvaliteta pivskog tropa kao sirovine za energetsku
iskoristivost. Tijekom procesa izgaranja, pivski trop se razgrađuje na hlapive tvari te kruti
ostatak. Za biomasu je tipično da ima visok sadržaj hlapivih tvari, do 80 %, a goriva koja
imaju visoki sadržaj hlapivih tvari imaju manju energetsku vrijednost. Hlapive tvari se sastoje
od zapaljivih ugljikovodika, ugljikovog monoksida ili vodika, nezapaljivog ugljikovog i
sumpornog dioksida te dušikovih oksida (Khan i sur., 2009). Analizom pivskog tropa, utvrđen

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je sadržaj hlapivih tvari u uzorku Staropramen piva od 76,30 %, u uzorku Ožujskog piva od
77,37 % te u uzorku Tomislav piva od 77,90 % (Tablica 1).
U Tablici 2 prikazane su ogrjevne vrijednosti istraživane biomase.

Tablica 2 Ogrjevna vrijednost ulazne sirovine

Table 2 Calorific value of raw material
Gornja ogrjevna Donja ogrjevna
Uzorak
vrijednost, MJ kg-1 vrijednost, MJ kg-1
Sample
HHV, MJ kg-1 LHV, MJ kg-1
Staropramen 19,31 17,90
Ožujsko 19,77 18,31
Tomislav 19,44 17,99

Ogrjevna vrijednost je mjera za određivanje sadržaja energije u gorivu. Ogrjevne

vrijednosti najvažniji su parametar u ovakvim istraživanjima jer predstavljaju količinu
energije koja se može dobiti izgaranjem određene količine biomase (Garcia i sur., 2012). U
Tablici 2 prikazane su gornje i donje ogrjevne vrijednosti uzoraka pivskog tropa dobivenog
nakon proizvodnje Staropramen, Ožujsko i Tomislav piva te je vidljivo da su dobiveni
približno jednaki rezultati za sva tri analizirana uzorka. Varijacije u ogrjevnoj vrijednosti
biomase uglavnom proizlaze iz razlike u staničnoj kompoziciji te koncentraciji vlage i pepela
(Lewandowski i sur., 2003). Jurišić i sur. (2014) navode u svojem istraživanju provedenom
na biomasi trave Miscanthus x giganteus donju ogrjevnu vrijednost koja se kretala u rasponu
od 16,14 MJ kg-1 do 17,20 MJ kg-1. S obzirom na usporedbu dobivenih vrijednosti, može se
utvrditi da je pivski trop s ovog aspekta vrlo kvalitetna sirovina za dobivanje energije.
U Tablici 3 prikazan je lignocelulozni sastav ulazne sirovine.

Tablica 3 Lignocelulozni sastav ulazne sirovine

Table 3 Lignocellulosic structure of raw material
Uzorak Celuloza*, % Lignin, % Hemiceluloza, %
Sample Cellulose*, % Lignin, % Hemicellulose, %
Staropramen 29,77 30,26 22,26
Ožujsko 30,35 30,36 19,84
Tomislav 26,51 37,65 18,46
Legenda: * - izraženo na suhu tvar; Legend: * dry matter based

Pivski trop je lignocelulozni materijal bogat vlaknima, koja čine 70 % njegova sastava
(Pejin i sur., 2013). Glavne komponente vlakana pivskog tropa su hemiceluloza, lignin i
celuloza (Santos i sur., 2003). U Tablici 3 prikazan je sadržaj celuloze, lignina i hemiceluloze
u istraživanim uzorcima pivskog tropa. Za uzorak Staropramen piva dobiveni su rezultati od
29,77 % celuloze, 30,26 % lignina i 22,26 % hemiceluloze, za uzorak od Ožujskog piva
utvrđeno je prisustvo 30,35 % celuloze, 30,36 % lignina i 19,84 % hemiceluloze, a u uzorku
od Tomislav piva 26,51 % celuloze, 37,56 % lignina te 18,46 % hemiceluloze. Mussatto i
Roberto (2005) u svome istraživanju kemijskog sastava pivskog tropa dobili su vrijednosti od

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16,8 % celuloze, 27,8 % lignina, 28,4 % hemiceluloze, dok su Bogar i sur. (2002) dobili
vrijednosti od 15 % celuloze, 22 % lignina te 23 % hemiceluloze. S obzirom na navedene
lieraturne podatke, može se zaključiti da lignocelulozni sastav pivskog tropa jako oscilira, a
ovisi o vrsti i kvaliteti sirovina za proizvodnju piva te uvjetima sladovanja i komljenja.
U Tablici 4 prikazan je elementarni sastav istraživanih sirovina.

Tablica 4 Elementarni sastav ulazne sirovine

Table 4 Elemental analysis of raw material
Uzorak
N* (%) C (%) S (%) H (%) O (%)
Sample
Staropramen 3,48 46,84 0,54 6,43 42,70
Ožujsko 4,04 49,20 0,32 6,69 39,75
Tomislav 4,12 50,71 0,28 6,67 38,22
Legenda: * - izraženo na suhu tvar; Legend: * dry matter based

Visoki sadržaj ugljika poželjno je svojstvo u biomasi, jer goriva s većim sadržajem ugljika
imaju bolje ogrjevne vrijednosti. Ugljik se u biomasi nalazi u složenim spojevima koji
prilikom izgaranja oksidira uz oslobađanje energije (Brown, 2011). U ovom istraživanju
dobiveni su rezultati od 46,84 % ugljika za uzorak od Staropramena, 49,20 % ugljika za
uzorak od Ožujskog piva te 50,71 % ugljika za uzorak od Tomislav piva (Tablica 4).
Sperandio i sur. (2017) u svojem istraživanju na pivskom tropu dobili su vrijednosti od 45,7
% ugljika. S obzirom na dobivene rezultate prema sadržaju ukupnog ugljika, uzorak pivskog
tropa od Tomislav piva bio bi najpoželjniji uzorak pivskog tropa za dobivanje energije. Vodik,
kao element, povećava ogrjevnu vrijednost goriva te stvara plamen i najzaslužniji je za
razvijanje plinova (Jurišić i sur., 2014). Vodik predstavlja drugi najvažniji gorivi element u
gorivu i od posebne je važnosti da se analiza vodika odvija u suhom uzorku jer se u suprotnom
prilikom analize detektira i vodik vezan u vodi koja se po prirodi nalazi u uzorcima (Brown,
2011). U ovom istraživanju dobiveni su rezultati od 6,43 % vodika u uzorku od Staropramena,
6,69 % vodika u uzorku od Ožujskog piva te 6,67 % vodika u uzorku od Tomislav piva
(Tablica 5). Sperandio i sur. (2017) analizirajući pivski trop dobiven u malim pivovarama,
dobili su rezultate od 9,0 % vodika u uzorku. Visok sadržaj sumpora i dušika nepoželjno je
svojstvo biomase, jer njegov sadržaj utječe na emisije nepoželjnih plinova (NOx i SO2) pri
izgaranju biomasa (Gracia i sur., 2012). Dušik predstavlja negorivi dio goriva, odnosno
predstavlja balast jer i sam ne gori i zauzima mjesto u gorivu nekim drugim korisnim
elementima, odnosno tvarima (Voća, 2015). U ovom istraživanju dobiveni su rezultati od 3,48
% dušika u uzorku od Staropramen piva, 4,04 % dušika u uzorku od Ožujskog piva te 4,12 %
u uzorku od Tomislav piva. U istraživanju koje su proveli Sperandio i sur. (2017) udio dušika
u uzorku pivskog tropa iznosi je 4,2% uz standardnu devijaciju od 0,2 %. Sadržaj sumpora u
ovom istraživanju iznosio je 0,54 % u uzorku Staropramen piva, 0,32 % u uzorku od Ožujskog
piva te 0,28 % u uzorku od Tomislav piva (Tablica 4). Sadržaj kisika ima snažan utjecaj na
ogrjevnu vrijednost koja se linearno smanjuje s povećanjem koncentracije kisika (Hodgson i
sur., 2010). Iako je kisik goriva tvar, njegova prisutnost u gorivu je nepoželjna jer on može
uzeti udio u izgaranju zamjenjujući dio kisika iz zraka, neophodnog za izgaranje (Vasillev i
sur., 2010). U ovom istraživanju, računski su dobiveni rezultati od 42,70 % kisika u uzorku

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od Staropramen piva, 39,75 % kisika u uzorku od Ožujskog piva te 38,22 % u uzorku od

Tomislav piva (Tablica 4).
Nakon analize pivskog tropa može se zaključiti da su sva tri uzorka pogodna za daljnje
energetsko iskorištenje neposrednim izgaranjem.
U Tablici 5 prikazan je udio biougljena nakon procesa pirolize, kao i njegova ogrjevna
vrijednost ovisno o tipu uzorka.

Tablica 5 Udio i ogrjevna vrijednost biougljena nakon pirolize biomase

Table 5 Share and calorific value of biochar after the biomass pyrolysis
Udio nakon pirolize, % Gornja ogrjevna Donja ogrjevna
Uzorak
Share after pyrolysis, vrijednost, MJ kg-1 vrijednost, MJ kg-1
Sample
% HHV, MJ kg-1 LHV, MJ kg-1
Staropramen 50,15 27,06 25,85
Ožujsko 46,65 28,98 27,95
Tomislav 39,65 29,01 28,12

Procesom pirolize, prethodno analizirani pivski trop razdvojen je na tri produkta (bioulje,
biougljen te rezidualne plinove). U radu je istražena frakcija biougljena, kao potencijalna
sirovina u procesu neposrednog izgaranja. Dobiveni udjeli biougljena prikazani su u Tablici
5, gdje je vidljivo da je najveći udio biougljena dobiveno nakon pirolize pivskog tropa od
Staropramen piva.
Iz Tablice 5 vidljivo je da je prosječna donja ogrjevna vrijednost iznosila 25,85 MJ kg-1
za uzorak od Staropramen piva, 27,95 MJ kg-1 za uzorak od Ožujskog piva te 27,12 MJ kg-1
za uzorak od Tomislav piva. Razlike između ogrjevnih vrijednosti biougljena dobivenog
pirolizom pivskog tropa mogu se objasniti razlikama u sastavu izvornih sirovina. Ogrjevna
vrijednost fosilnog ugljena veća je od ogrjevne vrijednosti biougljena, i uglavnom iznosi oko
28-40 MJ kg-1 (Jurišić i sur., 2016). Jurišić i sur. (2016) navode gornju ogrjevnu vrijednost
kod analiziranog biougljena dobivenog od koštice trešnje od 25,68 MJ kg-1 te 25,21 MJ kg-1
kod analiziranog biougljena dobivenog od koštice višnje. S obzirom na navedene rezultate
istraživanja, može se zaključiti da biougljen dobiven pirolizom pivskog tropa, kao
agroindustrijskog ostatka, predstavlja kvalitetniji izvor energije od biougljena dobivenog od
koštica trešnje i višnje.
U Tablici 6 prikazana su goriva svojstva dobivenog biougljena.

Tablica 6 Goriva svojstva biougljena nakon pirolize biomase

Table 6 Fuel properties of biochar after the biomass pyrolysis
Uzorak Pepeo*, % Koks, % Cfix, % Hlapiva tvar, %
Sample Ash, % Coke, % Cfix, % Volatile matter, %
Staropramen 10,21 52,12 41,91 47,88
Ožujsko 9,33 61,99 52,66 38,01
Tomislav 9,11 63,93 54,82 36,07
Legenda: * - izraženo na suhu tvar; Legend: * dry matter based

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Prosječni udio pepela u biougljenu pivskog tropa iznosio je 10,21 % za uzorak od

Staropramena, 9,33 % za uzorak od Ožujskog piva, te 9,11 % za uzorak od Tomislav piva
(Tablica 6). Jurišić i sur. (2016) navode kako je sadržaj pepela u biougljenu dobivenom nakon
pirolize koštica trešnje iznosio 2,79 % te 3,67% nakon pirolize koštica višnje. S obzirom na
navedene rezultate, a budući da je visok sadržaj pepela nepoželjna komponenta u biougljenu,
može se utvrditi da, s aspekta udjela pepela, biougljen dobiven pirolizom pivskog tropa nema
zadovoljavajuće kriterije za visoku energetsku iskoristivost.
Prosječni sadržaj koksa u biougljenu pivskog tropa iznosio je 52,12 % za uzorak od
Staropramen piva, 61,99 % za uzorak od Ožujskog piva te 63,93 % za uzorak od Tomislav
piva (Tablica 6). Visoki udio koksa u biougljenu predstavlja dobru osobinu kod izgaranja te
se može utvrditi da pivski trop ima zadovoljavajući sadržaj koksa u biougljenu.
Sadržaj fiksiranog ugljika u biougljenu pivskog tropa prosječno je iznosio 41,91 % za
uzorak od Staropramen piva, 52,66 % za uzorak od Ožujskog piva te 54,82 % za uzorak od
Tomislav piva (Tablica 6). S obzirom da je za energetsku iskoristivost biougljena poželjna
niska vrijednost fiksiranog ugljika, može se zaključiti da, s aspekta sadržaja fiksiranog ugljika,
biougljen dobiven od pivskog tropa Staropramen piva predstavlja najkvalitetniji biougljen od
svih istraživanih sirovina. Sadržaj hlapivih tvari u biougljenu pivskog tropa iznosio je
prosječno 47,88 % za uzorak od Staropramen piva, 38,01 % za uzorak od Ožujskog piva, te
36,07 % za uzorak od Tomislav piva (Tablica 6). U prethodno navedenom radu, Jurišić i sur.
(2016) navode slične vrijednosti hlapivih tvari od 47,09 % u biougljenu dobivenom pirolizom
koštice trešnje i 39,87 % u biougljenu dobivenom pirolizom koštice višnje.

ZAKLJUČAK
Na temelju provedenih analiza pivskog tropa, dobivenog nakon proizvodnje tri različite
vrste piva, njegovog pirolitičkog izgaranja te analize dobivenog biougljena može se zaključiti
da je analiza kemijskog sastava triju različitih uzoraka pivskog tropa (od Staropramen,
Ožujskog te Tomislav piva) pokazala određene različitosti u sastavu vode, pepela, koksa,
hlapivih tvari, fiksiranog ugljika te u elementarnom sastavu (dušika, vodika, ugljika, kisika i
sumpora). Ogrjevne vrijednosti sva tri uzorka bile su gotovo identične, a najveću donju
ogrjevnu vrijednost imao je uzorak pivskog tropa od Ožujskog piva (18,31 MJ kg-1). Nakon
provedene pirolize uzoraka, utvrđeno je da je najveći udio biougljena dobiven nakon pirolize
ostataka proizvodnje Staropramen piva (50,15 %). Osim toga se pokazalo da je biougljen od
pivskog tropa dobivenog od tamnog Tomislav piva imao bolje ogrjevne vrijednosti od
biougljena dobivenog od pivskog tropa svijetlih piva (Staropramen i Ožujsko).
Ovim istraživanjem je utvrđeno da je, uzevši u obzir najvažnije parametre, pivski trop od
Ožujskog piva najbolja sirovina za proces neposrednog izgaranja, a pivski trop od Tomislav
piva najbolja sirovina za dobivanje visokovrijednog biougljena kao energenta procesom
pirolize te se nakon svih provedenih analiza može utvrditi da je pivski trop, kao
najzastupljeniji nusproizvod pivske industrije, vrlo dobra sirovina za proizvodnju energije
procesom pirolize.

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PYROLYSIS OF BSG WITH THE AIM OF GAINING

ENERGY AND ADDED-VALUE PRODUCTS
Vanja JURIŠIĆ*, Domagoj ŠKORIĆ, Ana MATIN, Tajana KRIČKA,
Mateja GRUBOR
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
University of Zagreb Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Technology,
Storage and Transport, Svetosimunska c. 25, Zagreb, HR-10000

ABSTRACT
Beer production process is a very demanding process and its byproducts
need to be efficiently disposed, according to the EU directives. The Brewers’
spent grain (BSG) represents the main byproduct in beer production. There is
a vast potential of using BSG for energy production. Nowadays, the most
common method of disposal is anaerobic digestion and biogas production.
However, exploring other energy generating processes for this raw material is
necessary, considering the great amount of byproducts generated during the
beer production process.
The aim of this study was to explore the possibility of generating energy and
added-value products by converting BSG via process of thermal decomposition
at high temperatures –pyrolysis. The chemical composition analysis of three
different samples of BSG (from beers Staropramen, Ožujsko and Tomislav) has
shown a certain diversity in the composition of moisture, ash, coke, volatile
matter, fixed carbon, and in the elemental composition (nitrogen, hydrogen,
carbon, oxygen and sulphur). Moreover, after the pyrolysis, biochar properties
were also analyzed. After all analyses have been conducted, it can be concluded
that BSG, as the most common byproduct in beer production process, is a very
good raw material for energy production through pyrolysis.
Keywords: Brewers’ spent grain (BSG), pyrolysis, biochar, energy production

398
47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

RELATIONSHIPS ANALYSIS BETWEEN THE

GRINDING PARAMETERS OF MISCANTHUS
GIGANTEUS STALKS USING A HAMMER MILL
Georgiana MOICEANU1, Gheorghe VOICU1*, Gigel PARASCHIV1, Valentin VLADUT2,
Petru CARDEI2, Mirela DINCA1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1)University "POLITEHNICA" Bucharest, Spl. Independentei nr 313, District 6, Romania;
2)INMA Bucharest, B-dul Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Nr. 6, District 1, Romania

SUMMARY
In order to better demonstrate the link between main parameters of the
grinding process, in this paper we present the values of these parameters,
experimentally determined by grinding miscanthus stalks using a hammer mill,
equipped successive with four different sives, respectively four types of
hammers (one, two and three step edge and a triangle edge). Each time the
grinding energy was determined for five rotor frequency of the hammer mill.
Also, there were statistically analyzed the sets energy – feeding flow, energy –
rotor rotation frequency, energy – sieve orifice diameter, in order to establish
the statistic correlation according to each analyzed group using Excel MS
Office. If we consider the connection between sieve orifice diameter and energy,
for one step hammer according to statistical analysis the relation is weak and
for step two hammer according to statistical analysis the relation is moderate.
Another correlation that resulted in being weak after experimental results
statistical interpretation for the relation between consumed energy and rotor
frequency. Also, the values the energy consumption for hammer with one step
and a sieve with orifices of ϕ25 mm were between 53.55 kJ·kg-1 and 92.21 kJ·kg-
1
while the feeding rate had values between 0.129 kg·s-1 and 0.214 kg·s-1.
Keywords: miscanthus grinding, energy consumption, rotor frequency,
feeding rate, statistical analysis

INTRODUCTION
Due to renewable energies importance given in the last years or so, the study of biomass
is revealing aspects and parameters that should be taken into consideration when analyzing

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

399
 G. Moiceanu, Gh. Voicu, G. Paraschiv, V. Vladut, P. Cardei, M. Dinca

the material preparation process starting with the material behavior and continuing with the
equipment used for all processes involved.
Knowledge of size reduction of biomass would help in the future in making the decision
of which equipment type is better for material grinding and also contributing to reducing
biomass loses but most importantly reducing operating costs. When analyzing size reduction,
researched mainly analyzed the energy consumption obtained through subjecting biomass to
shredding, cutting or grinding.
If we take into consideration the influence on a hammer mill production rate of the
constructive and functional parameters we can name: the shape and the dimension of the
hammer, rotors dimensions, the form and dimension of the sieve orifices, rotor speed, feeding
flow, etc.
An important parameter for hammer mill experimental data analysis is the specific
grinding energy. Kayode and Koya (2013) showed that there is a linear correlation between
grinding energy and machine-material parameters, shaft speed, the feed rate and material bio-
stiffness (in experimentation process were Palm kernel and coconut shells). Experimental
verification showed that the used models adequately predicted comminution energy and was
in accordance with Rittinger’s classical theory.
The energy consumption variation was analyzed by researchers (Macmanus et al., 2016)
using a laboratory hammer mill equipped with a 4.75 mm sieve and using as raw material for
grinding palm kernel shell and groundnut shell. The study’s conclusions revealed that the
material type and hammer mill screen aperture significantly influenced the energy
requirement for grinding the two materials (Macmanus et al., 2016).
In paper (Shastri et al.2014) the goal was to determine the optimal levels of size reduction
through a combination of modelling and experimental studies using for testing miscanthus
and switchgrass. The experimental results had shown that specific energy consumption
decreased according to a power law with increasing particle size. The study concluded that
the optimal miscanthus particle size range was 4–6 mm is order not to increase costs.
The study of energy consumption while using for grinding process a hammer mill was
also the purpose of researchers in paper (Ghorbani et al., 2013) which correlated the energy
consumption to sieve orifices dimensions and mechanical properties of the biomass (alfalfa).
The results were analyzed by applying regression analysis thus concluding that the energy
consumption increases once with the decrease of sieve orifices dimensions.
The correlation between rotor frequency and grinding energy consumption, while using
hammer mills, was also confirmed by researches in paper (Colton, 1974; Ghorbani et al.,
2011).
In order to better confirm this dependency, the authors (Bitra et al., 2009; Ghorbani et al.,
2010; Ghorbani et al., 2013; Shastri et al., 2014; Dorcas et al., 2014; Cafferty et al., 2014,)
analyzed the energy consumption on the work flow considering the sieve orifices dimensions,
biomass humidity content or rotor frequency. They reached similar conclusions this being that
there is an inverse dependency of energy consumption with sieve orifices dimensions, each
time the sieve orifices became smaller the energy consumption increased thus outlining a rise
in production capacity along with a rise in sieve orifices dimensions. Some other conclusion
had shown a rise of energy consumption with a rise of material humidity (Cafferty et al. 2014)
and a rise of the rotor rotation speed (rise of frequency) (Bitra et al. 2009).

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 Relationships analysis between the grinding parameters of Miscanthus giganteus stalks using a hammer mill

The purpose of this paper is to present in an original manner the correlation between the
fundamental parameters of Miscanthus giganteus stalk grinding process by using one of the
most known relations in mathematical statistics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to obtain data regarding the energy consumption of a hammer mill, experimental
research was conducted by using a MC-22 hammer mill and as feedstock Miscanthus
giganteus stalks. The hammer mill had a 0.33-0.50 kg⋅s-1productivity on grinding corn stalks,
respectively 0.22-0.42 kg⋅s-1 on grinding packaged hay, using a sieve with ∅4 mm orifice size.
MC-22 hammer mill is equipped with a 22kW electrical engine, it has a 220 mm hammer
rotor diameter and a rotor length of 500 mm. All 24 hammers are set up in a parallel
distribution and have a length of 135 mm.

A C

B D

a. b. c.

Figure1 a. Hammer mill MC 22 (hammer mill; 2. exhauster; 3. cyclone with support and
dust collector bag; 4. grinding material evacuation vent; 5. electrical engine; 6. grinded
material.), b. hammer mill rotor, c. four types of hammer (A – one step hammer; B – two
steps hammer; C- three steps hammer; D – triangle hammer)

The biomass used for testing, Miscanthus stems, was harvested with a special harvester
that fragmented the stalks at an average size of 125 mm. Also, the medium moisture content
for miscanthus biomass was about 10.3%. The grinding process took place after about 3
months, when the average humidity for miscanthus biomass was between 8.89 – 11.99%.
Grinding energy consumption was calculated by taking into consideration all the rotor
frequencies applied (50 Hz, 47.5 Hz, 45 Hz, 42.5 Hz, 40 Hz), four diameters mill sieve orifices
for four types of hammers (one, two and three step edge hammer, triangle edge hammer) and
the material feeding flow values.
The hammer mill feeding flow (loading the hammer mill) was different from one
experiment to another, even when the hammer mill was equipped with the same type of sieve.
The grinding energy consumed throughout the entire experiment was calculated based electric

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 G. Moiceanu, Gh. Voicu, G. Paraschiv, V. Vladut, P. Cardei, M. Dinca

current voltage and intensity (triphase) determined during hammer mill operation process by
using specific equipment, inclusively with a data acquisition system for each phase of the
voltage networks.
Thus, for the main grinding quality parameters a statistical analysis represents the solution
for a better description of the connection between them in order to better identify which is the
optimal working process of the hammer mill. This analysis was chosen mostly because of the
hammer mills undifferentiated working process character.
The statistically analyze was applied for correlation between the energy and the feeding
flow, the energy consumption and the rotor frequency, the energy consumption and the sieve
orifice diameter.
The statistically determined parameters were correlation (corr) between each pair, R2
coefficient, linear regression line b, covariance (cov) and Kurtosis coefficient (Kurt). All
parameters were obtained by using Excel MS Office and using the relations:

∑𝑖𝑖 (𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥̅ ) (𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 − 𝑦𝑦�)

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = (1)
�∑𝑖𝑖(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥̅ )2 (𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 − 𝑦𝑦�)2
∑𝑖𝑖(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦�)2 − ∑𝑖𝑖 (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦�)2
R2 = (2)
∑𝑖𝑖(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦�)2

∑𝑖𝑖 (𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥̅ ) (𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 − 𝑦𝑦�)

𝑏𝑏 = (3)
∑𝑖𝑖 (𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥̅ )2
1
cov𝑝𝑝 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = � (𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥̅ )(𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 − 𝑦𝑦�) (4)
𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖

1
cov𝑠𝑠 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = � (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥̅ )(𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 − 𝑦𝑦�) (5)
𝑛𝑛 − 1 𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖

𝑛𝑛 (𝑛𝑛 + 1) 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥̅ 4 3 (𝑛𝑛 − 1)2

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥 ) = � �� � �− (6)
(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2)(𝑛𝑛 − 3) 𝑠𝑠 (𝑛𝑛 − 2)(𝑛𝑛 − 3)

where:
i = 1 … n – number of experiments;
xi, yi – sets of values obtained in experiments;
𝑥𝑥̅ , 𝑦𝑦� – value average xi respectively yi;
s – standard deviation;
b – linear regression slope.

The statistical correlation analysis of the experiment pair parameters (as they have been
defined in the paper summary), which is the papers main objective, is based on the data
presented in table 1.

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 Relationships analysis between the grinding parameters of Miscanthus giganteus stalks using a hammer mill

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results obtained are presented in table 1. Data presented in table 2 shows a negative
correlation (-0.349) between energy consumption E [kJ·kg-1] and sieve orifices diameter ds
[mm], thus proving that there is a relation between these parameters, an inversely proportional
relation.

Table 1 Hammer mill parameters and grinding energy variation

Biomass of miscanthus giganteus
Hammer with Hammer with Hammer with Hammer with
one-step corners two-step corners three-step corners triangle corners
Rotor frequency
diameter mm

Feeding rate

Feeding rate

Feeding rate

Feeding rate
Sieve holes

Energy

Energy

Energy

Energy
kJ·kg-1

kJ·kg-1

kJ·kg-1

kJ·kg-1
kg·s-1

kg·s-1

kg·s-1

kg·s-1
Hz

25 50 0.144 92.213 0.250 114.28 0,294 59,636 0,263 51,772

25 47.5 0.185 71.113 0.250 102.13 0,357 41,129 0,167 73,047
25 45 0.214 54.561 0.208 76.845 0,313 30,528 0,161 65,963
25 42.5 0.150 53.558 0.147 80.857 0,278 35,063 0,167 86,871
25 40 0.129 58.156 0.200 48.449 0,294 37,694 0,179 72,909
16 50 0.225 42.934 0.172 94.961 0,250 64,312 0,313 44,745
16 47.5 0.227 40.811 0.192 72.357 0,152 93,624 0,238 52,377
16 45 0.135 48.437 0.167 88.193 0,208 59,486 0,294 38,161
16 42.5 0.121 42.956 0.143 67.108 0,217 56,017 0,208 68,958
16 40 0.129 55.320 0.167 96.524 0,167 67,810 0,125 70,510
10 50 0.217 59.631 0.185 169.17 0,161 102,83 0,192 71,965
10 47.5 0.192 51.797 0.143 126.36 0,147 99,599 0,152 91,567
10 45 0.167 47.738 0.192 78.992 0,143 96,243 0,139 114,21
10 42.5 0.167 64.424 0.167 105.10 0,156 69,587 0,111 100,31
10 40 0.116 65.717 0.116 176.30 0,125 97,646 0,109 88,458
7 50 0.139 102.09 0.119 169.17 0,122 96,636 0,135 119,28
7 47.5 0.156 125.13 0.143 126.36 0,125 102,68 0,132 107,19
7 45 0.128 108.60 0.139 78.993 0,139 90,463 0,135 99,043
7 42.5 0.135 76.676 0.116 105.10 0,104 88,936 0,114 111,00

This conclusion is with no doubt in accordance to literature that studied this correlation
on hammer mills (Scholtz et al., 2002; Yu et al., 2006; Dilts, 2007; Bitra et al., 2009; Bitra et
al., 2009; Bitra et al., 2009; Miao et al., 2011; Ghorbani et al., 2011; Ghorbani et al., 2013;
Caffery et al., 2014; Paun et al., 2014; Shastrim et al., 2014; Drocas et al., 2014; Dabbour et.
al., 2015; Liu et al., 2016,). A similar phenomenon, a negative correlation, occurs for the pair

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 G. Moiceanu, Gh. Voicu, G. Paraschiv, V. Vladut, P. Cardei, M. Dinca

parameters energy consumption E [kJ·kg-1] – feeding rate q [kg·s-1] of the material subjected
to grinding, the relation being also, inversely proportional (or the one step hammer mill the
correlation is -0.329, for two step hammer the correlation is -0.635, for three step hammer the
correlation in -0.845, respectively for the oblique edge hammer the correlation in -0.838).
In this case the conclusion is less exact than before because is in agreement with some
papers (Montgomery, 2001), but in disagreement with others, (Liu et al., 2016). Thus, it is
necessary to take into consideration each authors definition for the specific energy
consumption.

Table 2 Statistical characteristics regarding the correlation between energy consumption

and same parameters of the hammer mill used for grinding miscanthus
Biomass of miscanthus giganteus
Determination
coefficient, R2

Covariance P
linear slope
Correlation

Regression
Parameter pair

Kurtosis
(rel.1)

(rel.2)

(rel.3)

(rel.4)

(rel.6)
Hammer with one-step corners (A)
Energy – Sieve holes diameter -0.349 0.122 -1.164 -54.999 -0.603
Energy – Rotor frequency 0.232 0.054 1.504 18.798 4.122
Energy – Feeding rate -0.329 0.109 -199.03 -0.286 0.177
Hammer with two-step corners (B)
Energy – Sieve holes diameter -0.627 0.393 -2.969 -140.279 -0.571
Energy – Rotor frequency 0.153 0.024 1.691 21.134 0.591
Energy – Feeding rate -0.635 0.404 -398.64 -0.659 -0.900
Hammer with three-step corners (C)
Energy – Sieve holes diameter -0.847 0.717 -2.950 -139.382 -1.270
Energy – Rotor frequency 0.285 0.081 1.934 24.161 -0.618
Energy – Feeding rate -0.845 0.713 -266.34 -1.536 -1.485
Hammer with triangle step corners (D)
Energy – Sieve holes diameter -0.629 0.396 -2.602 -122.937 -0.516
Energy – Rotor frequency -0.305 0.093 -2.454 -30.6795 1.445
Energy – Feeding rate -0.838 0.702 -385.43 -1.4706 -0.958

Regarding the correlation between rotors frequency υ [Hz] and energy consumption E
[kJ·kg-1], results have shown a positive correlation for hammer mills equipped with hammers
with a step edge (one, two or three) and a negative correlation when the hammers have an
oblique edge.
Statistically in 75% cases the direct proportional dependence can be tested.
Rotor frequency it is underlined in paper (Moiceanu et al., 2015), mainly regarding the
grinded material dimensions. According to paper (Colton, 1974) for one step edge hammer
the relationship between the energy consumption and sieve orifices diameter is weak, for two

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 Relationships analysis between the grinding parameters of Miscanthus giganteus stalks using a hammer mill

step edge hammer and oblique edge hammer the correlation in moderate while for a three-
step edge hammer the correlation in strong. Regarding the correlation between the energy
consumption E [kJ·kg-1] and rotors frequency ν [Hz], it can be said that for one and two step
edge hammer there is no relation while for three and oblique edge hammer the relation is
weak.
Considering the correlation between the energy consumption and material flow according
to (Colton, 1974) it can be said that there is a weak connection between parameters in that
case of one step edge hammer, a moderate connection for two step edge hammer and strong
correlation for three and oblique edge hammers. If the determination coefficient is analyzed
it can be seen that its values show the influence of the feeding rate on the energy consumption
for three step and oblique edge hammers explained through 70% of the situations.
The statistical parameters negative values (correlation, covariance, regression linear slope
and kurtosis) show an inversely proportional dependence between the analyzed couple, while
the positive values show a direct proportional dependence of the grinding parameters, for the
pairs proposed for analysis. Closer the value of the statistical parameters (indicated through
relations 1 – 6) is to zero, smaller the dependence between the two analyzed parameters, while
as further from the zero are the values, the dependence in more pronounced (either direct,
either inversely).
For example, the linear regression curve between energy and the three variables shows, in
certain limits, that the data are in direct dependency (positive curve) or in reverse dependency
(negative curve). Since 1989 (Thyn, 1989) and until now (Shi et. al., 2003; Nakach et al.,
2004; Toneva and Peukert, 2007; Shashidhar et al., 2013; Kwon et. al., 2014; Yancey et al.,
2013; Moiceanu et al., 2015) scientists have been developing a model for hammer mills that
also include a statistical component.

CONCLUSIONS
Knowing that scientists are still in plain process of understanding and optimizing the
grinding process it must be said that hammer mills need to be further analyzed and improved.
Our experiments targeted miscanthus biomass grinding by using hammer mill MC22 with a
22 kW engine and four types of hammers, at different revolution speeds.
In this paper the data presented show the correlation between pairs of parameters from
which it can be concluded:
- the positive values of covariation show a direct link of energy with the hammer rotor
frequency (one step hammer 18.798, two step hammer 21.134, three step hammer
24.161), but its negative values show a reverse link of energy with the size of the sieve
orifices (values between -54.99 to -140.279), respectively with the feeding rate (values
between -0.286 and -1.536);
- the correlation between the energy consumption and sieve orifices diameter is mainly
a reversed dependency (mostly negative values under -0.847), thus it can be said that
this hypothesis can be applied in 87.5% of the cases;
- the correlation coefficient R2 show the connection between paired parameters, thus the
highest values recorded was for energy consumption – sieve holes diameter 0.717, and
the lowest values was registered for energy consumption – rotor frequency 0.024;

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 G. Moiceanu, Gh. Voicu, G. Paraschiv, V. Vladut, P. Cardei, M. Dinca

- a positive linear regression slope demonstrates a positive correlation between the

energy consumption and the rotor frequency while for the other paired parameters the
regression linear slope is negative which expresses a negative correlation.
Our results can contribute to biomass grinding users and designer’s knowledge of the
correlations between energy and tuning and command parameters, for grinding energetically
plants. Future experiments should be done in order to evaluate and propose better hammers
for hammer mills, with edges that positively influence the grinding process (a smaller figure
in energy consumption for a better grinding degree).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work has been funded by National Grants GNaC 2018 ARUT, Internal Research
Grant, through the Financial Agreement 06/15.10.2018.

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selection and hammer design. Biofuels, vol. 4, Issue 1.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

INFLUENCE OF MOTION TYPE ON GRANULOMETRIC

DISTRIBUTION OF GRIST OBTAINED FROM SOME
VARIETIES OF WHEAT AND CORN
Gabriel-Alexandru CONSTANTIN*, Gheorghe VOICU, George IPATE,
Gabriel MUSUROI, Elena Madalina STEFAN, Mariana Gabriela MUNTEANU,
Dorel STOICA
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering

ABSTRACT
Granulometric analysis of granular materials is carried out in the milling
plants laboratories with devices that have overlapping sieves. The constructive
variety of the devices makes the results of granulometric analyses not always
be the same, if different classification devices are used, whether the sample time
is the same. This thing is happening, especially, due to the parameters of the
oscillation movement, respectively the vibration amplitude and frequency.
This study highlights the type of movement as a parameter that influences
granulometric distribution of the grist obtained from the Romanian wheat
varieties Glosa and Rapsodia, respectively Romanian corn of the varieties
Favorit and Olt. The wheat and corn samples were harvested in the South-East
of Romania in 2017. At the time of the experiment they were grinded with a
laboratory mill, and then subjected to granulometric analysis with two
classifiers with overlapping sieves which imparts different movements to the set
of sieves used in analyses (one prints a vibratory motion, and the other a
circular translation motion).
The experimental results were tested by regression analysis with multiple
distribution laws known in the granulometric analysis technique and they
showed that the type of movement of sieve block that performs the sifting
operation, influence the efficiency of this operation, for the same sample time.
The study may be useful in particular to users of granulometric analysis
equipment, respectively to the labourers which work in specialized laboratories
of panification and milling plants
Keywords: grist sieving, vibratory movement, circular translation motion,
granulometric distribution, distribution laws

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 G-A. Constantin, Gh. Voicu, G. Ipate, G. Musuroi, E. M. Stefan, M. G. Munteanu, D. Stoica

INTRODUCTION
In industrial milling plants, grinding and sifting operations are complementary (being made
in the same technological passage) and repetitive, both in breakage phase, as well as in the
detachment and milling phases. The grinding operation of cereals is most often done in mills
with fluted or smooth rollers, while the sifting operation is most often done in a flat sieve
compartment. The efficiency of both operations is influenced by a multitude of physical or
technological factors such as (Constantin et al., 2014, KeShun Liu, 2009, Campbell et al.,
2012, Karimi et al. 2009, Dal-Pastro et al., 2016): the hardness and size of the seeds, the
characteristics of the grinding machines, the kinematic regime of the screening machines, the
size and the shape of the particles, the relative movement of the particles on the separation
surfaces, the characteristics of the screening surface, the amount of material feeding the screen
surface, etc. These factors, if are not properly analysed, can influence negatively the
effectiveness of the above mentioned operations.
Moreover, all these factors must be taken into account in the laboratory analyses of the
processing plant, because the results of these analyses should impose the working regime of
the equipment from process streams. Thus, in recent years, the screening operation, in
particular, was in the attention of researchers in the country and abroad.
It is very good to know that the main analysis from which the dimensional characteristics
of the screening surfaces can be accurately determined is particle size analysis. Thus, it can
be said that this analysis is not only done in the food industry, as well as in the pharmaceutical
industry (Hickey and Giovagnoli, 2018), cement industry (Siler et al., 2016) and in all
industries involving granular and powdery materials. Therefore, it can be said that the particle
size analysis is an important analysis. The way it is done influences the final results and
therefore the conclusions drawn from the analysis of the results. The paper presents
comparatively the results of several particle size analyses performed with two sieves
classifiers with different operating regime.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The samples analysed were two varieties of Romanian wheat (Glosa and Rapsodia) and
two varieties of Romanian corn (Olt and Favorit) harvested in 2017 year.
The GLOSA wheat variety was obtained by a complex hybrid combination. The average
height of the plant is 85-95 cm, being similar or slightly superior to that of the Flamura 85
and Fundulea 4 wheat varieties.
Wheatear is white, arista, of cylindrical shape and has a medium density. The seeds are of
medium size, of elongated shape, have reddish colour and, under normal conditions of culture,
have a mass of 1000 grains of 42-43 g and a hectolitric mass of 76-79 kg/hl (according to
Fundulea INCDA). The Glosa variety is a precocious variety and has good resistance to fall,
is resistant to wintering, drought and heat, and has a good resistance to sprouting. The Glosa
variety has medium resistance to brown rust and is resistant to mildew and present yellow rust
breeds. Production growth was mainly due to its ability to form more frequent wheat fields.
Glosa variety quality is characterized by strong gluten, with a sedimentation index similar to
Dropia varieties.

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 Influence of motion type on granulometric distribution of grist obtained from some varieties of wheat and corn

The Rhapsody variety has the bush in oblique position to a tilt angle with a horizontal close
to 0o, in the twinning phase. The flag leaf has the semi-applied position after the blossoming
phase. The leaves are medium in length and width and are covered with a waxy layer not to
intense, in the second part of the grain filling period. The average plant height is between 95
and 105 cm, being the same height as the Dropia and Flamura 85 control varieties. The
wheatear is white, semi-dense, arista, of pyramid shape. The seeds are of medium size, of
elongated form, red in color and have a mass of 1.000 grains of 42-45 g and a hectoliter mass
of 77-79 kg/hl under normal conditions of culture (according to Fundulea INCDA). The
Rapsodia variety is an early variety, having a vegetation period similar to the Dropia and
Flamura 85 witnesses, with good resistance to fall, wintering, drought and heat. The Rapsodia
variety is an early variety, having a vegetation period similar to the Dropia and Flamura 85
witnesses, with good resistance to fall, wintering, drought and heat. It is resistant to rust brown
and medium resistant to current yellow rust and mildew races. It has a medium level of
fusariosis resistance and a medium level of resistance to sprouting.
The Favorit corn variety is a medium-sized to high variety: 226-257 cm, middle corn cob
insert: 66-87cm and total leaf / plant: 13. The corn cob is cylindrical, the average length of
18-19 cm, 18-20 rows of seeds/ corn cob; the seed is of dentate type, yellow-yellow light
colour. It has good resistance to falling and breaking, at low temperatures during the first part
of the vegetation period and to the occurrence and medium resistance to drought (according
to Fundulea INCDA).
The Olt corn variety is a semi-late maize hybrid, very popular in Romania, especially in
the south-east and west of the country, from the 4AGRO range, with the FAO 430 group
(matured in 135-138 days), presenting a vigorous plant with big corn cob and dentate. The
total height is about 245 cm, it does not sprout and forms a single ear. The corn cob has about
16 rows of yellow seeds. Grain production is about 13,000 kg/ha in non-irrigated and about
15,000 kg/ha in irrigated. Resistant to drought, heat, fusariosis of the cob and stalk,
helmitosporiosis, fall and breakage of the strains at maturity (according to INCDA Fundulea).
Samples were grinded using a laboratory mill model Sadkiewicz. After grinding, the
samples were homogenized and divided into 100 gram samples. They were sifted on a set of
5 overlapped sieves with different apertures (Table 1) mounted on two classifiers:
ANALYSETTE 3 SPARTAN, trained in a vibratory motion at a 2 mm amplitude for 3
minutes and VIPO, trained in a motion of circular translation at a speed of 120 rpm for 3
minutes. Pankratov in 2016 and Constantin in 2014, presents in detail the working
methodology for particle size analysis, also used in this paper. It is noted that the same sample
analysed was used the same set of sieves, mounted on the two classifiers.
Based on the results obtained in the particle size analyses performed with the sieves
classifier, have been tested by non-linear regression analysis in Microcal Origin vers. 7.0,
correlation of experimental data with Rosin-Rammler, Schuhman, Gauss, and log-normal
distribution laws for the cumulative percentage of material separated through the openings of
the sieve’s classifier.
The four types of particle size distribution laws applied in the regression analysis are based
on the mathematical statistical method of small particles for grinded biological materials,
(Pruteanu et al., 2018).

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 G-A. Constantin, Gh. Voicu, G. Ipate, G. Musuroi, E. M. Stefan, M. G. Munteanu, D. Stoica

Schuhman distribution law is defined by the relation:

𝑥𝑥 𝛽𝛽
𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥 ) = 100 ∙ � � (1)
𝛼𝛼
where T(x) – is the percent mass of fraction with particles smaller than x (passed through
the sieve of x size); x – is the size of the sieve holes through which particles have passed; α
– particle size module of the product (the size of the sieve holes through which all the sample
particles, theoretically, pass 100%); β – the distribution module.
Rosin – Rammler distribution law is defined by the relation:
𝛽𝛽
𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥 ) = 100 ∙ (1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝛼𝛼∙𝑥𝑥 ) (2)
where T(x) and x have the meaning of relation (1), and α and β are the own coefficients of
the grinded material. The relation (2) as well as the relation (1), represents the cumulative
distribution law of the percentage fraction of the fraction separated by the x sized holes of the
sieves, depending on x.
Gauss distribution law (normal) is defined by the relation:
(𝑥𝑥−𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐 )2
𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑦𝑦0 + 𝐴𝐴 ∙ 𝑒𝑒 2∙𝑤𝑤2 (3)
where T(x) and x have the meaning of relation (1), xc, y0, A and w are the own coefficients
of material.
Log-normal distribution is defined by the relation:
𝛼𝛼 𝛽𝛽
𝑇𝑇(𝑥𝑥 ) = ∙ 𝑒𝑒 −𝛽𝛽∙(𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙−𝛾𝛾) (4)
𝑥𝑥
where T(x) and x have the meaning of relation (1) and, α, β and γ are the own coefficients
of the grinded material.
According to the specialty literature, the fineness of grist is appreciated by the mean
diameter dm of the grinded particles. This was determinate by the particle size analysis of the
mass of the grinded material, calculated as the weighted average of the mean sizes of the
material fractions obtained by sieving with classification devices:
∑ 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 ∙𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚 = ∑ 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖
, [mm] (5)

where: pi is the percentage of material on the i classifier sieve (i = 0, 1, 2,…, 5); Σpi = 100
– the percentage of material on the sieves; di – the mean particle size of each intermediate
fraction, considered as the arithmetic mean of the size of the hole sieve corresponding to the
fraction di = (li+li+1)/2. For the upper sieve of the classifier it is theoretically assumed that
there would still be a sieve with the sides of the holes of (√2⋅l5).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The dimensions of the sieves used for the experiments and the weight of the material
fractions on each sieve for the separated material are presented for the wheat samples in Table
1 and for the corn samples in Table 2.
The correlation with the experimental data for the previously proposed distribution
functions is given by the correlation coefficient R2, presented in Table 3 together with the

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 Influence of motion type on granulometric distribution of grist obtained from some varieties of wheat and corn

equation coefficients, which depend on the grinding conditions, that is to say they depend on
the grist fineness and the differential speed of the milling rolls.

Table 1 Values of the weight pi (%) of the grist refused by the classifier sieves, of the
percentage weights T (%) of the fraction with smaller particles than the classifier sieves, x
(mm) side of the sieve holes used for the particle size analysis and the average diameter
values for the wheat samples analysed
RAPSODIA Wheat RAPSODIA Wheat => GLOSA Wheat => GLOSA Wheat =>
x [mm] => VIPO Analysette VIPO Analysette
p [%] T [%] p [%] T [%] p [%] T [%] p [%] T [%]
0.00 15.0 0.0 32.0 0.0 4.5 0.0 27.0 0.0
0.25 18.0 15.0 19.3 32.0 19.4 4.5 18.0 27.0
0.35 18.7 33.0 19.3 51.3 32.2 23.9 27.8 45.0
0.50 14.5 51.7 8.9 70.6 16.9 56.1 7.0 72.8
0.63 21.1 66.2 12.1 79.5 17.0 73.0 10.7 79.8
1.00 12.7 87.3 8.4 91.6 10.0 90.0 9.5 90.5
Mean diameter = Mean diameter = Mean diameter = Mean diameter = 0.45
0.56 mm 0.43 mm 0.56 mm mm

Highlighting the differences between size distribution of grinded particles was done using
the same sieve on the sieve shaker for all the materials used in the experiment, the same for
the two types of sieve shakers. It should be noted, still, that on the upper sieve of sieve shaker
different percentages of material were obtained, which means that not all the materials have
been grinded the same way, especially because of their different physical and mechanical
characteristics.

Table 2 Values of the weight pi (%) of the grist refused by the classifier sieves, of the
percentage weights T (%) of the fraction with smaller particles than the classifier sieves, x
(mm) side of the sieve holes used for the particle size analysis and the average diameter
values for the corn samples analysed
FAVORIT FAVORIT Corn => OLT Corn OLT Corn =>
x Corn => VIPO x ANALYSETTE => VIPO x ANALYSETTE
x [mm]
[mm] T [mm] T [mm]
p [%] p [%] T [%] p [%] p [%] T [%]
[%] [%]
0.00 18.3 0.0 0.00 33.7 0.0 0.00 11.3 0.0 0.00 19.7 0.0
1.00 20.9 18.3 1.00 20.7 33.7 0.80 14.0 11.3 0.80 6.7 19.7
1.40 26.7 39.2 1.40 14.9 54.4 1.00 31.5 25.3 1.00 33.4 26.4
2.00 14.2 65.9 2.00 10.6 69.3 1.60 34.0 56.8 1.60 24.5 59.8
2.50 12.3 80.1 2.50 11.6 79.9 2.50 6.0 90.8 2.50 8.8 84.3
4.00 7.6 92.4 4.00 8.5 91.5 3.15 3.2 96.8 3.15 6.9 93.1
Mean diameter Mean diameter Mean diameter Mean diameter
1.88 1.70 1.57 1.59
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]

Table 3 Values of α and β coefficients from relations 1, 2 and 4 and y0, xc, w and A from
relation 3, as well as values R2 coefficient of the four relations

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 G-A. Constantin, Gh. Voicu, G. Ipate, G. Musuroi, E. M. Stefan, M. G. Munteanu, D. Stoica

Rapsodia Wheat

Rapsodia Wheat

Olt Corn - Vipo

distribution law

Glosa Wheat -

Glosa Wheat -

Favorit Corn -

Favorit Corn -
- Analysette
Coefficients
Cumulative

Analysette

Analysette

Analysette
Olt Corn -
- Vipo

Vipo

Vipo
α 0.181 0.102 0.101 0.092 1.827 1.093 1.418 1.213
Rosin-
β -1.739 -1.758 -2.510 -1.948 -2.181 -1.694 -2.437 -2.034
Rammler
R2 0.995 0.999 0.999 0.995 0.997 0.998 0.987 0.991
α 1.098 1.048 1.022 1.034 3.995 4.241 3.019 3.187
Schuhman β 0.953 0.61395 1.098 0.674 0.821 0.584 1.128 0.969
R2 0.966 0.963 0.899 0.935 0.925 0.967 0.957 0.969
α 1.7·10-15 5.7·10-14 3.4·10-19 1.2·10-15 6.3·10-15 1.6·10-11 1.4·10-15 4.6·10-11
Log- β -0.025 -0.019 -0.024 -0.018 -0.022 -0.021 -0.025 -0.034
normal γ -38.898 -42.872 -44.359 -45.867 -40.537 -36.925 -42.314 -28.059
R2 0.963 0.960 0.895 0.931 0.921 0.964 0.954 0.967
y0 -11.598 -71.852 -5.388 -27.640 -11.458 -114.11 -8.742 -15.917
xc 0.930 0.894 0.854 0.851 3.406 3.629 2.886 2.978
Gauss w 0.440 0.690 0.311 0.487 1.560 3.319 1.228 1.489
A 99.964 165.133 106.040 123.308 111.337 206.725 107.05 108.641
R2 0.995 0.996 0.986 0.991 0.994 0.995 0.993 0.993

In the graphs from Figure 1 it can be seen that the allure and the character of the regression
curves are in correlation with the experimental results obtained. They are either concave or
convex or with a central inflection point, depending on the amount of material collected on
each sieve of classifier. Also, it can be seen that the particle size distribution curves have
different allure, depending on the type of sieve classifier used in particle size analysis (the
type of movement the sieve classifier had it).
Analysing the data from Tables 1 and 2 it can be seen that the grist wheat was better sifted
on the vibratory movement classifier (ANALYSETTE 3 SPARTAN), while the grist corn
sifted better on the circular translational classifier (VIPO). Also, if the wheat samples of the
two varieties (Rapsodia and Glosa) were used the same sieves, chosen according to the particle
size analysis methodology, for the corn samples were used different sieves (4 mm, 2.5 mm, 2
mm, 1,4 mm and 1 mm for Favorit and 3,15 mm, 2,5 mm, 1,6 mm, 1 mm and 0,8 mm for Olt
variety). It can be concluded that the wheat variety Olt was grinded in smaller particles than
Favorit wheat under the same grinding conditions.

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Influence of motion type on granulometric distribution of grist obtained from some varieties of wheat and corn

Figure 1 Cumulative distribution curves given by the relations (1 - 4) and the

experimental points for the wheat and corn fraction analysed.

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 G-A. Constantin, Gh. Voicu, G. Ipate, G. Musuroi, E. M. Stefan, M. G. Munteanu, D. Stoica

Different resistance to grinding of the seeds used in the experiment did they have a different
particle size distribution, and at the particle size analysis this may be noticeable by the
different amounts of material on the sieve shaker sieves. It can be observed, that the largest
amount of material remained on the middle of the sieve columns. Cumulative distribution of
the material on the sieve shows an increasing weight for all four equations used in the
regression analysis, but the best correlation with experimental data is presented by Rosin-
Rammler distribution function, followed by the Gauss distribution function, as can be seen
from the analysis of the graphs and the values of the correlation coefficient R2, which presents
values between 0.987-0.999 for the first function, respectively between 0.986-0.996 for the
second function. Interestingly, the two sieve shakers used in particle size analysis, with
different movement characteristics, also have different sieving characteristics, better sifting
being carried out on the sieve shaker with vibratory movement (ANALYSETTE).
Another hint that screening was performed more fully on the vibratory motion sieve shaker,
is even the average particle diameter. Although it was sought through experimentation
methodology that the samples have a similar degree of uniformity, it can be seen (from Tables
1 and 2) that the average diameters are different. In the case of wheat, for grist fractions sifted
with VIPO sieve shaker, the mean diameters are 0.56 mm for both samples (Rhapsody and
Glosa), and those sifted with ANALYSETTE sieve shaker, average diameters are 0.43 mm
for Rhapsody and 0.45 mm for Glosa. This leads us to the conclusion that the sifting was
performed more completely in the case of the sieve shaker with vibratory movement, since
the amount of refusal from the higher sieves has decreased, growing on the lower ones (with
the lower aperture).
The hypothesis can also be applied to Favorit corn samples. After sifting with sieve shaker
that has circular translation motion, the average diameter was 1.88 mm, while for the sieve
shaker with vibratory motion, the average diameter was 1.70 mm. But the exception of this
hypothesis is the grist fractions obtained from Olt corn variety, which seems to better sifting
on the sieve shaker with circular translation motion (the average diameter being 1.57 mm)
than one with vibratory movement (the average diameter being 1.59 mm).

CONCLUSIONS
The granulometric distribution laws, used in the paper, show a very good correlation with
the experimental data regarding the particle sizes of the fractions of the Romanian wheat and
corn varieties. Knowing the average size and distribution by size, as well as the other physical
characteristics of the particles of the milling fractions, are also requirements for choosing the
sifting surfaces of the specific machinery from the milling or even bakery technological flows.
As a recommendation for laboratory workers in bakery or industrial milling laboratories:
at sample of screening analysis it is necessary to use classifiers with sieves of the same type
of movement and the same kinematic regime as the machines that make sifting and sorting on
the technological flow. Otherwise, the results of the granulometric analysis may be
inconclusive.
The data presented may be important in general for all specialists and workers in the field
of cereal milling, and in particular for laboratory workers in milling and bakery units.

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 Influence of motion type on granulometric distribution of grist obtained from some varieties of wheat and corn

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work has been funded by the Institutional Development Fund of the Ministry of
National Education through the Financial Agreement CNFIS-FDI 2017-0086.

REFERENCES
Campbell G.M., Webb C., Owens G.W., Scanlon M.G. (2012). Chapter 8 – Milling and flour quality, in
book Breadmaking (Second edition), Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and
Nutrition, p.: 188-215, ISBN 978-0-85709-060-7
Constantin G.A. (2014). Researches on the sifting and sorting process of grist fractions in a industrial
milling plant, Doctoral thesis, Politehnica University of Bucharest.
Constantin G.A., Voicu Gh., Ștefan E.M. (2014). Influence of cinematic regime and quantity of material
on efficiency of sifting process, 3rd International Conference on Thermal Equipment, Renewable
Energy and Rural Development, p.: 199-204, ISSN 2359-7941
Dal-PAstro F., Facco P., Bezzo F., Zamprogna E., Barolo, M. (2016). Data-driven modeling of milling
and sieving operations in a wheat milling process, Food and Bioproducts Processing, Issue 99, p. 99-
108, ISSN: 0960-3085.
Hickey A., Giovagnoli S. (2018). Pharmaceutical Powder and Particles. Edited by Springer, ISBN 978-
3-319-91219-6, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91220-2.
Karimi M., Kheiralipour K., Tabatabaeefar A., Khoubakht G., Naderi M., Heidarbeigi K. (2009). The
efect of moisture content on physical properties of wheat, Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 8 (1), p.: 90-
95.
KeShun Liu (2009). Some factors affecting sieving performance and efficiency, Powder Technology,
193, p: 208-213.
National Agricultural Research and Development Institute (INCDA) Fundulea, Romania at
http://www.incda-fundulea.ro/fise.
Pankratov G. N. (2016). Analysis of the regularities of the particle size distribution of grain milling
products. Khleboprodukty, No. 9, 58–61
Pruteanu A., David L., Matache M., Nitu M. (2018). Particle size distribution of some chopped
medicinal plants, 17th International Scientific Conference ENGINEERING FOR RURAL
DEVELOPMENT Proceedings, Volume 17 May 23-25, 2018, Jelgava, LATVIA, ISSN 1691-5976,
p. 640-645, DOI: 10.22616/ERDev2018.17.N304
Siler P., Kolarova I., Sehnal T., Snop R., Opravil T., Soukal F. (2016). The Influence of Particle Size of
Cement and Different Additives on the Properties of Portland Cement Pastes. Materials Science
Forum 851:104-109, DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

NUTS VARIETIES INFLUENCE ON WALNUT

BREAKING AND PEELING PROCESS
Daniela DRĂGHICESCU, Dumitru ȚUCU*, Oana Corina GHERGAN, Anuta IUSCO
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
Department of Mechanical Machines, Equipment and Transportation, Mechanical Engineering
Faculty, POLITEHNICA University, Bd. Mihai Viteazul,No. 1, Timișoara, România,

SUMMARY
One important problem in Romania is how to optimize the valorization the
nuts, in conditions of large number of small orchards (less than 3 ha), scattered,
difficult to find a uniform system of collection. A solution could be a small
breaking and peeling machine, cheap and reliable. The paper, a consequence
of requesting some owners of walnut orchards, presents the results of
experiments with a new active organ (cracking rollers with a synchronous
edge), focused on nuts’ shear and breakage. It studied the influences of the
variety of walnuts (with different sizes of fruits derived from the same variety),
on the breaking and peeling process. The experimental research tested 5
Romanian varieties, using 30 different walnuts variety, in the same temperature
and humidity conditions. Each nut’s dimensions were measured on three
rectangular axis and statistical parameter were determined (average,
geometric mean, Standard Deviation etc.). After breaking process, the number
of broken parts was accounted and statistical analyzed using Microsoft Excel
2016. It was considered that relation between the number of nut pieces after
breaking process and initial dimensions’ average (arithmetic, geometric and
square), could qualify the process. The values of arithmetic (A), geometric
(GA), and square (SQA) average of nuts dimensions are very closely (e.g. for
one variety, A=30.68 and SQA=30.64). One conclusion was that larger
walnuts are easier to break, and the number of pieces in which they break,
are lower compared to smaller walnuts. The results will be integrated into a
larger study completed with influences of conditions temperature,
humidity, as well as walnut variety.
Keywords: walnuts, cracking walnut, shell removal, dimensions

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 D. Drăghicescu, D. Țucu, O. C. Ghergan, A. Iusco

INTRODUCTION
Since Roman times, the nut tree (J.regia L.) has been grown in gardens and orchards in
Moldova and Romania. Today walnut cultivation is a traditional branch for Romanian
agriculture, benefiting from a moderate climate, with deep solid opportunities and fertile lands
to maximize the world's most valuable varieties of selection (Șerban, 2016). At global level,
walnut has a special role in the wood industry and in fruit production, both inside the country
and its integration into the world economy (FAOSTAT, 2011; Cristopoulous and Tsantili,
2011; Ojolo et al, 2015; Jenac et al, 2013 etc.).
In fact, since the last 20 years, each year comes became a new record. The walnut industry
determines an urgent need to improve the efficiency of post-harvest processing, in particular
drying, cracking and peeling operations. A lot of researches and engineers tried to develop
new technical systems and applications for optimize and collaborate the farms dimensions,
consumer’s necessities and investments’ possibilities (Sharifian et al, 2008; Sharifian and
Derafshi, 2008; Marey et al, 2017; Ojolo et al, 2015; Mingzheng et al, 2014; Nahal et al, 2013;
Atungulu et al, 2013; Ghafari et al., 2011).
One important topic of study regarding concept, designing and testing a new equipment for
walnut cracking and peeling according with farmers’ needs, must mandatory includes the
analyze of the walnuts’ behavior during cracking and peeling process. There are references
regarding influences of raw materials properties as moisture, chemical properties, variety etc.,
different other studies that results can be transferred to application for cracking of walnuts
(Shahbazi, 2013; Shahbazi, 2014; Vivian, 2017; Altuntas and Erkol, 2011; Altuntas and
Ozkan, 2008; Bernik et al, 2010; Cerit et al, 2017; Chegini and Makarichian, 2014; Khir et al,
2014; Khir et al, 2013; Koyuncu et al, 2004; Koyuncu et al, 2003; Makarichian and Chegini,
2014; Tucu et al, 2006). Almost such studies consider as more important the quality of resulted
broken parts.
In this study was examined the relation between the size of the walnuts and the breakage
process using the special rollers with a synchronous edge. The main objective was to see if
there is an influence of the size and variety of the walnut on the burst mode, evaluated by the
number of resulting parts and the visual examination.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Five different varieties of Romanian walnuts had been selected for the experiment (Sibisel
252 (sample 1), Germisara (sample 2), Claudia (sample 3), Ciprian (sample 4) and Valrex
(sample 5)). From each variety, 30 different walnuts (randomly selected), were taken for burst
tests (testing panel can be seen in figure 1). For insuring the experiments’ control, each nuts
was registered by numbering. Algorithm of the methodology is presented in figure 2.

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 Nuts varieties influence on walnut breaking and peeling process

Figure 1 Testing panel

For insuring the same pressure and more precision at measuring the dimensions, a
micrometer was used, each walnut being measured in three rectangular directions: the length
(L), the maximum diameter (D) measured in the largest section, and the diameter on
rectangular direction, (d) (see figure 3). Also, walnuts were weighed individually for each
variety, with 0.05 g precision (see figure 4).

Walnuts

Sibisel (30pcs) Germisara (30pcss) Claudia (30pcs) Ciprian (30pcs) Valrex (30pcs)

Numbering

Measuring (3D+Weight)

Cracking

Parts accounting

Statistical Approach

Conclusions

Figure 2 Methodology of the study

Figure 3 Measurement of the walnuts’ dimensions

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 D. Drăghicescu, D. Țucu, O. C. Ghergan, A. Iusco

After accounting, the values obtained were registered into a table, where the average,
geometric average, square average, mean value, and standard deviation were calculated.
In the next item of the experiment, the walnuts were broken by the equipment designed for
cracking, and the numbers of broken parts were accounted.
Three equivalent dimensions were calculated:
Average, A:
𝐿𝐿+𝐷𝐷+𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴 = (1)
3
Geometric average, GA:
𝐿𝐿∗𝐷𝐷+𝐷𝐷∗𝑑𝑑+𝑑𝑑∗𝐿𝐿
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = � (2)
3

Square average, SQA:

3
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = √𝐿𝐿 ∗ 𝐷𝐷 ∗ 𝑑𝑑 (3)

The equipment designed for cracking of the walnuts is presented in Figure 4, and the
significance of parts are: 1-Funnel; 2-Bearings; 3-Rollers; 4-Box collecting breakouts (the
pieces).

Figure 4 Functional schema of the equipment designed for cracking of the walnuts

A statistical analyze, made by Microsoft Excel 2016, consisting in calculation of standard

deviation (Stdev), average (Avg) and variance (Var), for each group (L, D and d), of each 30
measurement was made.
After statistical analyze, were represented graphically the dependences between
dimensions and number of parts and weight and number of parts, for each variety. Also, the
optimum curves and R2 were calculated for each variety and dependence.
In the last phase, based on dependences, conclusions were drawn.

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 Nuts varieties influence on walnut breaking and peeling process

RESULTS
Table 1 presents the final results regarding measurement of walnuts and broken parts, and
statistical processing from all samples, according with presented significations.

Table 1 Walnuts and broken parts characteristics

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Avg Stdev Var Avg Stdev Var Avg Stdev Var
L, [mm] 32.80 0.91 0.86 40.36 2.21 5.06 35.58 1.00 1.04
d, [mm] 28.95 0.97 0.98 29.61 0.71 0.52 29.87 0.98 1.00
D, [mm] 30.30 1.09 1.22 29.76 0.63 0.41 31.77 1.00 1.04
Weight, [g] 10.28 1.07 1.19 9.86 0.86 0.77 11.81 0.87 0.78
A, [mm] 30.68 0.99 1.02 33.25 1.18 2.00 32.41 1.00 1.03
AG, [mm] 30,66 0.57 0.59 33.05 0.62 0.74 32.36 0.58 0.59
SQA, [mm] 30.64 0.99 1.01 32.89 1.00 1.03 32.32 1.00 1.03
Pieces 11 3 11 14 4 13 15 4 15
Sample 4 Sample 5
Avg Stdev Var Avg Stdev Var
L, [mm] 41.98 1.59 2.61 32.16 2.26 5.30
d, [mm] 33.28 1.63 2.74 29.11 1.84 3.49
D, [mm] 32.02 1.46 2.21 29.96 1.98 4.05
Weight, [g] 11.19 1.16 1.39 10.25 2.23 5.15
A, [mm] 35.76 1.56 2.52 30.41 2.03 4.28
AG, [mm] 35.62 0.90 1.45 30.40 1.17 2.45
SQA, [mm] 35.50 1.56 2.51 30.38 2.02 4.22
Pieces 14 3 9 10 2 5

Length L, 1
y = -0.6199x + 30.832 y = -0.4118x4 + 53.867x3 - 2641.7x2 + 57558x - 470090
20
R² = 0.0297 R² = 0.0487
15
Parts' number

10

0
30.9 31.4 31.9 32.4 32.9 33.4 33.9 34.4
Length, [mm]

Series1 Poly. (Series1) Linear (Series1)

Figure 5 The influence of nuts length on the number of pieces for sample 1

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 D. Drăghicescu, D. Țucu, O. C. Ghergan, A. Iusco

The influences of length L, diameter D and d and nuts weight on the number of resulted
broken o pieces are presented in figures 5-8.

Diameter D, 1
y = -0.7446x + 32.053 y = 0.1491x4 - 17.445x3 + 764.29x2 - 14857x + 108135
18
R² = 0.0489 R² = 0.1059
16
Pieces' number

14
12
Series1
10
8 Linear (Series1)
6 Poly. (Series1)
4
27.1 28.1 29.1 30.1
Diameter d, [mm]

Figure 6 The influence of nuts diameter D on the number of pieces for sample 1

Diameter d, 1

y = -0.7446x + 32.053 y = 0.1491x4 - 17.445x3 + 764.29x2 - 14857x + 108135

18
R² = 0.0489 R² = 0.1059
16
14
Parts' number

12
10 Series1
8
Linear (Series1)
6
4 Poly. (Series1)
2
0
26.1 27.1 28.1 29.1 30.1
Diameter d, [mm]

Figure 7 The influence of nuts diameter d on the number of pieces for sample 1

The optimum function for each dependence was established by regression. Calculus
suggest a six-degree polynomial function, but is not professional. For study was used a 4th
degree polynomial functions, whose detailed relationships can be seen on the picture. Also,
the corresponding values of R2 are on the image. Also, were represented the linear trends and
corresponding values of R2.

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 Nuts varieties influence on walnut breaking and peeling process

Weight, 1
y = -0.5132x + 15.776 y = -0.1994x4 + 8.1831x3 - 124.81x2 + 838.06x - 2078.7
18
R² = 0.0281 R² = 0.0736
16
14
Parts' number

12
10
8 Series1
6
Linear (Series1)
4
2 Poly. (Series1)
0
8.1 9.1 10.1 11.1 12.1
Weight, [g]

Figure 8 The influence of nuts weight on the number of pieces for sample 1

Such analysis was made for each variety, and the principals results were synthesized in
table 2. The trend curves were split in five sections: Down (Dw), Slow Down (SD), Constant
(H), Slow Growth (SG), Growth (G).

Table 2 Principals results after regression analysis by a polynomial function

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
Trend R2 Trend R2 Trend R2 Trend R2 Trend R2
L, [mm] SD 0,09 G 0,23 H 0,24 D 0,26 D 0,43
D, [mm] SD 0,17 H 0,33 SG 0,17 D 0,06 D 0,34
d, [mm] D 0,11 D 0,16 SG 0,17 D 0,11 D 0,24
Weight, [g] D 0,068 W 0,13 H 0,2 SD 0,58 D 0,33

The results shown an acceptable reproducibility for sample 5 (variety Valrex), and the
lowest reproducibility for varieties 1 and 3 (Sibisel and Claudia), that means high variability
for the last two varieties. During the study was not identified similarly researches. Also, it will
be necessary to correlate the distance between rollers and the dimensions of the walnuts.

CONCLUSIONS
The conception of a nuts’ breaking machine must consider many important parameters in
designing process: geometrical (rollers diameters and profile, distance between rollers etc.),
mechanical (rupture force, rupture strain, required power etc.), functional (rotation speed,
productivity, adjusting possibilities etc.) and economical (costs of investments, maintenance,
repair and replacement etc.).
According to results, one conclusion was that larger walnuts are easier to break, and the
number of pieces in which they break, are lower compared to smaller walnuts, but with poor
probability.

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 D. Drăghicescu, D. Țucu, O. C. Ghergan, A. Iusco

The results of present research show the importance of breaking process for quality,
because bursting directly affects core damage and the influences of nuts’ variability
(differences of dimensions and weight).

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between product quality and milling system in plastic recycling. Materiale Plastice 43(4), 308-311.
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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

MECHANIZING THE GARLIC BULBS DETACHING

INTO CLOVES
Dan CUJBESCU1*, Cătălin PERSU1, Iuliana GĂGEANU1, Iulian VOICEA1,
Gabriel GHEORGHE1, Nicoleta UNGUREANU2
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Testing Department, INMA, Ion Ionescu de la Brad Blv. No. 6, Sector 1, Bucharest, Romania
2Department of Biotechnical Systems, University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei
nr. 313, Sector 6, Bucharest, Romania

SUMMARY
The necessity to mechanize the work for detaching garlic bulbs is justified
through the reduction of labour force, as well as by the fact that the operation
can be performed in a shorter time. Consequently, a study on the manner how
the active bodies ensure bulbs detachment into cloves in normal conditions has
been realized. The kinematics of the movement of the two rollers is chosen so
that the rollers operate with rotation directions opposite to each other. The
paper presents theoretical considerations of 2 hypotheses of clove crush by
means of two rollers. For establishing the adequate type of active bodies for
detaching the garlic bulb into cloves, a series of experiments have been
conducted on both varieties, the spring respectively the autumn one. Opposite
directions were chosen because, this way, the cloves detached from the bulb by
the extremities of rubber rings will be eliminated in the exterior. In order to
prevent harming or crushing the cloves during the detachment process, the
diameter of rollers (namely the exterior diameter of rubber rings) is expected
to be as small as possible, and the peripheral speeds need to be adequately
chosen, elements that will be established during the tests performed on the
experimental model.
Keywords: bulbs, cloves, active bodies, garlic, optimization

INTRODUCTION
Garlic is an annual vegetable crop that behaves like an annual plant. Garlic bulb is formed
of multiple cloves situated tightly on the garlic stem. Garlic bulb is round or flattened in shape
having longitudinal grooves representing cloves separation limits (Chang et al., 1986,
Yamazaki and Okuno, 2008). On the inferior part of the bulb, multiple thin, fasciculate roots

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

429
 D. Cujbescu, C. Persu, I. Găgeanu, I. Voicea, G. Gheorghe, N. Ungureanu

are found, with the help of which the bulb is fixed in the ground and extracts nutritional
substances. (Gül et al., 2018). The plant is 30-35 cm high, while the floral stems reach up 100
cm (Chang et al., 1986). Garlic bulbs have elongated shape, with the outer part bulging and
the interior one hollower. Garlic bulbs contain 64.4% water, 9.76% albumins, 0.6% fat,
23.03% sugar, 0.77% cellulose and 1.44% ash (Son et al., 2012).
In the process of detaching the garlic bulb into cloves, a series of agrotechnical
requirements in which the seeding material (the cloves) needs to fit in arise on one side, and
on the other, the agrotechnical requirements to which the experimental model needs to answer.
(Samavatean et al., 2011).
The clove for seeding has to: be healthy, have no lesions, have no total or partial ruptures
or detachments of tunics, to be single for planting, have the same size in order to avoid uneven
development in the crop after planting (Channabasamma et al., 2015, Mudgal and Sahay,
2009, Özkan, and Aydin, 2016, Sati and Lopez, 1994).
The machine for detaching garlic bulbs into cloves has to satisfy the following
agrotechnical requirements: the active bodies of the devices have to achieve a complete
separation of the bulb into cloves without any of them remaining bonded; peripheral speeds
of the rollers to be different and their diameter to be as small as possible thus removing the
danger of crushing cloves (James et al., 2015); active bodies to operate in such a manner so
that no harm is caused to the cloves (Rahim and Fordman, 1990); during the separation
process to eliminate impurities resulted thus obtaining a clean seeding material (Son and Lee,
2010); simultaneously with separation to also clean and sort the cloves on 2-3 size categories.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For establishing the adequate type of active bodies for detaching the garlic bulb into cloves,
a series of experiments were conducted on both varieties, the spring respectively the autumn
one. For the experimental researches, the following parameters were determined: the force of
detaching cloves from the bulb; the adequate mesh size for sorting cloves before planting.
When determining this force of detaching cloves from the bulb, a device formed of a metallic
frame, two ragged rubber plates, and a dynamometric scale was used, resulting the forces
shown in table 1.

Table 1 Forces for detaching cloves from the bulb

Value of the force in the moment
Product name of detaching the cloves (N)
Rep. 1 Rep. 2 Rep. 3 Average
Spring garlic 9.8 9.0 8.7 9.15
Autumn garlic 6.3 7.8 7.5 7.2

For choosing the adequate mesh size for sorting cloves before planting, the diameter and
length of garlic cloves were measured, after they were manually detached. It was concluded
that it is necessary to have two rows of sieves with different mesh sizes. This was due to the
fact that the marginal cloves are always larger than those in the interior of the bulb for all
varieties, both for the spring and the autumn one. In was determined that the first sieve of the

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 Mechanizing the garlic bulbs detaching into cloves

shaking and pre-sorting system has to be equipped with meshes with a 10 mm diameter, while
the second one needs meshes of 7 mm in diameter.
In order to achieve an experimental model of machine that fulfils the above stated
requirements, four versions of active bodies were achieved, in order to perform the
detachment of garlic bulbs into cloves. These versions had, as a start basis, the theory of
dehusking corn cobs. The base operation in the working process of separation rollers is
constituted by detaching cloves from the bulbs and passing them through the space between
the rollers.

Figure 1 Forces acting on the garlic bulb during the process of detaching cloves

In the process of detaching the garlic bulb, a series of parameters to be taken into
consideration during calculations arise. First, an absolute compression Dh appears,
compression that causes the bulb to open. It is given by the relation:
Dh = dt - h (1)
where:
Dh – absolute compression (mm);
dt – bulb diameter (mm);
h – distance between rollers (mm).
Another parameter taken into consideration is the contact spring between the bulb and the
separation rollers. This is given by the relation:
α0
lc = 2πR = R ×α0 (2)
360
where:
lc – contact spring (mm);
R – radius of separation rollers (mm);
α0 – clove attachment angle (°).

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 D. Cujbescu, C. Persu, I. Găgeanu, I. Voicea, G. Gheorghe, N. Ungureanu

Another indispensable parameter is the attachment angle of the clove on the bulb,
calculated with the relation:
2(dt - h) d -h Dh
αo = = t = (3)
D R R
where:
D – rollers diameter, mm.
The above parameters were established using geometrical relations that can be written by
analysing figure 1. The force of pressing the bulb between the rollers was determined taking
into account the following: the pressing forces are oriented normally on the roller’s surface
and have an uneven contact distribution (fig, 1.a); the pressing forces are normal on the axis
of the stem and are distributed according to the projection of the contact spring (Figure 1.b);
the force of pressing the bulb between the rollers.
Considering the width of the contact trace b and the specific pressure p as constant, by
integrating elemental forces between the limits 0 and α0, the components of the pressing force
N were obtained, namely Nx and Ny.
α0 α0
N x = ∫ dN x = ∫ p ⋅ R ⋅ b ⋅ sin α ⋅ dα = p ⋅ R ⋅ b ⋅ (1 − cos α 0 ) (4)
0 0

α0 α0
N y = ∫ dN y = ∫ p ⋅ R ⋅ b ⋅ cos α ⋅ dα = p ⋅ R ⋅ b ⋅ sin α 0 (5)
0 0

N = N x 2 + N y 2 = pRb 2(1 - cos αo ) (6)

The angle formed by the resultant of the normal pressing N with the line connecting the
centre of the two rollers is given by the relation:
N x 1 − cos α 0 α
tg
= γ = = tg 0 (7)
Ny sin α 0 2

The friction force F between bulbs and rollers is:

F = f ⋅ N = f ⋅ p ⋅ R ⋅ b ⋅ 2(1 − cos α 0 ) (8)

Considering that the law of variation of width b depends on the angle α0 and that in the
case of the bulb compression phenomenon it has the value zero in point A and maximum in
point B, we established that:
π ⋅ R(cos α − cos α 0 )
bi = (9)

From the graphic analysis of the bulb deformation variation under the action of rollers, we
found the following expression between the relative compression and vertical Q, of resultant
N:
c dt − h
Q N=
= y ( )⋅k (10)
2 dt

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 Mechanizing the garlic bulbs detaching into cloves

where c and k are coefficients depending on bulb diameter dr and roller diameter D. It
results that:
Q c d −h
=N = ( t )⋅k (11)
cos γ 2 ⋅ cos γ dt

In this case, friction force F is given by the relation:

c d −h
F = f ⋅N = f ( t )⋅k (12)
2 ⋅ cos γ dt

By applying V.P. Goriacikin’s theory on the distribution and direction of normal pressing
forces for a wheel rolling on the soil, it results that the pressure of the elementary strip of the
contact area between bulb and rollers is:
cos α
dN = q ⋅ bi ⋅ R 2 µ ⋅ dα (13)
cos α 0

Replacing value bi given by relation 9 and integrating again between limits zero and α0, the
components of total bulb pressing between rollers are obtained in the form:
α0
cos α
N x = π ⋅ q ⋅ R3 ∫ ( µ ) ⋅ (cos α − cos α 0 ) ⋅ sin α ⋅ dα (14)
0 cos α 0
α0
cos α
N y = π ⋅ q ⋅ R3 ∫ ( µ ) ⋅ (cos α − cos α 0 ) ⋅ cos α ⋅ dα (15)
0 cos α 0

Using relations 14 and 15, after transformations, relation 16 is obtained which determines
the value of the angle:
Nx 0, 75 ⋅ (1 − cos3 α 0 ) − 2, 25 ⋅ (cos α 0 − cos 2 α 0 )
tg
= γ = (16)
Ny α α3 α5 α α3 
1 − cos α 0 ⋅  0 + 0 + 0 − cos α 0 ⋅ ( 0 + 0 ) 
 4 6 30 2 6 

In the hypothesis of the uniform repartition of pressure on the roller’s contact surface and
taking into account value bi given by relation 9, components Nx and Ny are obtained:
α0
(1 − cos α 0 ) 2
N x = ∫ π ⋅ p ⋅ R ⋅ R ⋅ (cos α − cos α 0 ) ⋅ sin α ⋅ dα = π ⋅ p ⋅ R 2 ⋅ (17)
0 2
α0
α 0 − sin α 0 cos α 0
N y = ∫ π ⋅ p ⋅ R ⋅ R ⋅ (cos α − cos α 0 ) ⋅ cos α ⋅ dα = π ⋅ p ⋅ R 2 ⋅ (18)
0 2
Value of resultant N of angle y and force F are:
π ⋅ p ⋅ R2
N= N x 2 + N y 2= ⋅ (1 − cos α 0 ) 4 + (α 0 − sin α 0 cos α 0 ) 2 (19)
2

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 D. Cujbescu, C. Persu, I. Găgeanu, I. Voicea, G. Gheorghe, N. Ungureanu

Nx (1 − cos α 0 ) 2
tg
= γ = (20)
N y α 0 − sin α 0 cos α 0

f ⋅ π ⋅ p ⋅ R2
F = f ⋅N = ⋅ (1 − cos α 0 ) 4 + (α 0 − sin α 0 cos α 0 ) 2 (21)
2
The condition ensuring the possibility of pulling the clove between the rollers, as integral
part of the bulb with the highest resistance to pulling, determines the rollers pulling capacity
as well as the choice of minimum roller diameter. From the reaction of rollers to the cloves
on the bulb, it results that:
Ptr
N= (22)
2 ⋅ sin α pn

where:
Ptr – force of pulling the clove (N);
αpn – angle of clove attachment on the bulb (°).
The pulling force of both rollers is:
f ×Ptr f ×Ptr
2 ×Fx = 2 × ×cos α pn = (23)
2 ×sin α pn tgα pn

The force pushing the clove from between the rollers is:
2 ×Ptr ×sin α pn
2 ×N x = = Ptr (24)
2 ×sin α pn

In conclusion, for the clove to be caught by the rollers, the following condition needs to be
satisfied:
F ×Ptr
2 ×Fx ³ 2 ×N x or ³ Ptr (25)
tgα pn

f ³ tgα pn or φ ³ α pn (26)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Analysing the kinematics of the two rollers movements, two construction versions are
proposed. Within version “V1” (figure 2) is envisaged to achieve active bodies in the type of
rollers made of rubber cylinders, fitted by pressing on them on length, which will operate on
the principle of dehusking bodies. In order not to produce harm and crushes to cloves, during
the process of detachment is envisaged that rollers diameter (namely the exterior diameter of
rubber cylinders) will be as small as possible, and the peripheral speeds chosen adequately,
elements that will be established during the testing of the experimental model.
The kinematics of moving the two rollers is chosen so that the rollers operate with reverse
rotation directions one compared to the other. Reverse directions were chosen so that cloves
detached from the bulb to be eliminated towards the exterior by the extremities of rubber

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 Mechanizing the garlic bulbs detaching into cloves

rollers. The two rollers will operate in an inclined plane to the horizontal, this way achieving
a composed forwarding and twisting movement of the garlic bulb, thus achieving bulb
separation.

Figure 2 “V1” version – Operating scheme with roller type active bodies

For version V2 (figure 3), a type of conical rubber corrugated rollers is presented. This type
of active bodies operates on the same dehusking principle.

Figure 3 “V2” version – Conical rubber rollers with protrusions

The two rollers are placed and operate in an inclined plane compared to the horizontal.
They were placed in such a manner in the idea that the bulb, entering from the end 1 in the
detachment process, will be completed separated until it reaches end 2 of the rollers.
Peripheral speeds will be chosen so that this way no harm or crushes are caused to the cloves.
At bulb inlet – pos. 1, the distance between the two rollers will be bigger, and at outlet – pos.
2, it will be smaller, namely 25-30 mm respectively 3-5 mm. These rollers were chosen
because even if they have the same angular speed, peripheral speeds vary on the length of
rollers’ axles, leading to catching and detaching the clove from the bulb.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on this study, it is envisaged to achieve a machine for detaching garlic bulbs,
equipped with the two active body versions proposed, and following the laboratory tests to

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 D. Cujbescu, C. Persu, I. Găgeanu, I. Voicea, G. Gheorghe, N. Ungureanu

establish the optimum version of active bodies to be fitted on the final machine, which will
achieve a complete separation of the bulb into cloves, with minimal harm and crushes.
The detachment of the clove from the bulb takes place only when the angle of catching the
clove 𝛼𝛼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 is smaller than the friction angle φ.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Romanian Research and Innovation Ministry, through the
project entitled “Researches on achieving integrated systems for the bioeconomy field
according to the concept of intelligent agriculture” – PN 19 10 01 01 – Ctr. 5N/07.02.2019,
and through Programme 1 – Development of the national research-development system,
subprogramme 1.2 – Institutional performance – Projects for financing excellence in RDI,
contract no. 16PFE.

REFERENCES
Chang, J. I., Kim, Y. R., Lee, Y. B. (1986). Studies n the growth characteristics of the garlic cv. Shanghai
Early. Jour. Korean Soc. Hort. Sci, 27: 966-164.
Channabasamma, B.B., Rathinakumari, C., Kumaran, G.S. (2015). Design, development and
performance evaluation of garlic bulb (Allium sativum) breaker for planting material production,
Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 85(9): 1158-1161.
Gül, M., Bayrakli, B., Karli, B., Akpinar, M.G. (2018). Cost and profitability of garlic production in
kastamonu province. Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture
and Rural Development Vol. 18, Issue 2, PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952, 227-232.
James, C., Reitz, B., James, S.J. (2015). The Freezing Characteristics of Garlic Bulbs (Allium sativum
L.) Frozen Conventionally or with the Assistance of an Oscillating Weak Magnetic Field, Food and
Bioprocess Technology 8(3): 702-708.
Mudgal, V., Sahay, S.B. (2009). Development and Performance Evaluation of a Garlic Bulb Breaker,
Ama, Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa & Latin America 40(1): 32-35.
Özkan, E., Aydin, B. (2016), Comparatively examination of the changes in cost and income indicators
in onion and garlic production in Thrace Region (in Turkish). Bahçe Dergisi, Vol.2: 95-101.
Park, Y.H., Han, G.J., Choe, J.S. (2012). Quality Characteristics of Pre-processed Garlic during Storage
according to Storage Temperature, Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition,
41(7), 994-1001.
Rahim, M.A., Fordman, R. (1990). Effect of shade and environmental conditions on the initiation and
development of garlic cloves (Allium sativum L.), Scientia Horticulture, 45: pp. 21-30.
Samavatean, N., Rafiee, S., Mobli, H., Mohammadi, A. (2011). An analysis of energy use and relation
between energy inputs and yield, costs and income of garlic production in Iran. Renewable Energy,
Vol.36(6): 1808-1813.
Son, S.J., Lee, S.P. (2010). Effects of Black Garlic on the Rheological and Functional Properties of
Garlic Fermented by Leuconostoc mesenteroides. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and
Nutrition 39(6): 864-871.
Sati, S.M.E., Lopez M. (1994). Effects of storage temperature on growth and bulb formation in four
garlic (Allium sativum L.) cultivars, Pak.J.Bot., 26(1): 161-165.
Yamazaki, Y., Okuno, T. (2008). Accumulation of S-Ally-L-cysteine in Garlic Bulbs by Warming.
Nippon Shokuhin Kagaku Kogaku Kaishi Vol. 55, No. 9, 410-415.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Stručni rad
ZADACI Expert paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

NEW SOLUTIONS FOR THE INTERPHASE TRANSPORT

- DECREASING THE DEGREE OF INJURING SEED IN
BUCKET ELEVATORS
Paul GĂGEANU1*, Leonid FADEEV2, Iuliana GĂGEANU1, Alexandru ZAICA1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 INMA Bucharest, 6, Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Bucharest, Romania
2 University
of Agricultural Sciences, Kiev, Ukraine

ABSTRACT
After harvesting, for any crop, an important role is represented by the
creation of adequate conditions for the reception, processing, storing and
valorizing the agricultural products obtained. The yield and quality of any
agricultural crop is determined both by factors influencing even from the
moment of sowing until harvesting, as well as those with direct influence on
seeds, before seeding. The paper presents some of the most effective ways to
decrease the effect of traumatizing the seeds in the purpose of obtaining a
valuable seed material. Specific solutions are presented for an elevator with
attenuation, choosing an optimum regime for loading and unloading the
buckets, the conditions which need to be fulfilled by a cup with attenuation, the
endowments of an exterior and an interior elevator.
Keywords: seed material, traumatized materials, whole seeds, attenuation.

INTRODUCTION
The level, quality and cost of agricultural production have been equally determined by the
technologies applied, by the quality of the biological material used, by providing the
technical-material basis and by informing those who serve it. The production and quality of
any agricultural crop is determined both by factors influencing it from the moment of sowing
until harvesting, as well as by those that directly influencing the seed prior to sowing.
As a factor of primary importance in increasing agricultural production, the seed enjoys a
great deal of attention, many disciplines, institutions and economic agents competing to obtain
material for sowing or for consumption as valuable as possible.
In the past, people were thinking about grains as about themselves and were looking for
solutions to understand if they were able to encompass and "solve" this issue entirely.

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 P. Găgeanu, L. Fadeev, I. Găgeanu, A. Zaica

Unfortunately, businesses in the field of producing seeds, storing and transporting them are
separated into distinct companies that are not motivated by a common end result (Dumitrașcu
et al., 2004; Hapenciuc, 2004; Țucu, 2010,).
As a result, large business owners, in their tendency to make profit, for example, in the
field of seed-cleaning machines or seed transport machines, are not concerned about the
degree of seed damage, which is a problem for the downstream activity. This explains the
existence on the market of a multitude of machines that damage the seeds: elevators with
excavation-throwing buckets, pneumatic conveyors, screw conveyors, weighing machines,
separators, calibrators and other machines with attributes leading to seed damaging (Averkova
et al, 2017; Kim et al., 2017; Richter C., 2017). This will change sooner or later, and those
that understand before the others the economic significance of the attenuated handing of seeds
will prevail.
According to the research data in the field (Fadeev, 2017), the increase of the micro-
deteriorations of the seeds (barley, oats) at one passage through a NPZ-50 type elevator
increased by 4%. The things are even worse in the case of crops that are predisposed to
damage (corn, rice, peas, sunflower, soy). Thus, according to the data provided by I. G. Stron,
the number of external damages caused by the elevator during the transport of maize is about
10%.
The future of seed selection and science does not belong to traumatized, large, heavy seeds
but to integral seed (Fadeev L.V., 2017, INMA Collective, 2018). Separately examining each
of the components of this issue, namely the traumatizing of seeds, it was inferred that the
broken seeds do not emerge in the field, and in the case of weak, traumatized seeds, even if
they germinated in field conditions, remained behind in development and gave poor yields.
The difference, compared to the integral grains harvest represents tens of percent. What
do the standards say in this regard? Virtually nothing. There is only a limitation on crushed
seeds, namely the destroyed seeds that are visible to the naked eye. However, it is known to
everyone that hidden micro-traumatisms exist in the seeds sown ten times more. This is known
mainly by seed selectors and specialists. And what can they do if designers of seed processing
machines treat them not as a living being, but as a friable material, related to sand and gravel?
Even 10 years ago this question would have been a rhetorical one. Currently, the image is
different. Non-traumatic machinery has been designed and produced, such as slow elevators
with attenuation, silage collectors with attenuations, calibrators with low peripheral speed,
machines for treating seeds without traumatizing them, etc.
Therefore, if standards for regulating seed sowing qualities that will appear, they will limit
the share of traumatized seeds, including microtrauma, then the technical conditions to meet
this limitation exist.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

One of the basic requirements in order to call seeds strong is the lack of macro-traumas
and, in particular, of microtraumas. The distribution of nutrients in the caryopsis indicates that
there is no part that could be sacrificed, any trauma leading to the decrease of nutrients and
the reduction of the potential of achene, based on disturbing the processes of starting the
breakdown of nutrients and decreasing their quantity (Richter et al, 2017; Fadeev, 2018).
When we say that seeds should not be traumatized, it is understood that we are talking about

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 New solutions for the interphase transport - decreasing the degree of injuring seed in bucket elevators

seeds and we think of harm to humans. Cut the seed protection cover (less than 0.1 mm) and
storage problems start, "open canteen for microorganisms", destroy the geotropic orientation
of the achene and it will not germinate. Moreover, when destroying the shell, the aleuronic
layer will be traumatized, its destruction disturbing the main component of the germination
process: the fermentation of nutrients (transformation of complex compounds, fats, proteins
in sugars, necessary for the embryo's nutrition).
65-75% of the absence of germination in the field is explained by the traumatization of
seeds. Nature, over time, creating the miracle called seed, has "provided" that in the
germination phase, the first embryonic root should break the casing and "make" it in that spot
thinner, soft and elastic to cushion the random strokes and protect the embryo. This is well
understood by agronomists and, we can say, that engineers, who treat seeds as friable material,
just like sand and gravel do not want to understand. Otherwise, how can machines such as
elevators with excavation and throwing, screws, scrapers, pneumatic conveyors, seed
throwers, worm gears, other seed-destroying devices (figure 1) be explained?

Figure 1 Operation diagram for the throwing elevator with bidirectional loading

For loading and unloading, when the buckets pass over the two drums – inferior and
superior, product particles are found under the action of the following forces (Banu, 1999;
Kim et al, 2017; INMA, 2018):
Gravitational force: G = m∙g and Centrifugal force: F = m∙r∙ω2

The extension of resultant R meets the vertical drawn from the center O to the point P,
called the movement pole, and the distance between points O and P is called polar distance
and is noted with h.

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 P. Găgeanu, L. Fadeev, I. Găgeanu, A. Zaica

Figure 2 Diagram of the forces acting on the product when unloading from the elevator
a) gravitational unloading; b) centrifugal unloading
(INMA Collective, 2018, Moraru C. et al, 1988)

From triangles OPA and ABD, results:

h mg (1)
=
r mrω 2
mgr g 302 g 302 ⋅ 9,81 895 (2)
h= = = = = 2
mrω 2 ω 2 π 2 n 2 3,142 n 2 n

As the speed of the band is higher, distance h increases. Product distribution when
unloading the buckets is presented in figure 3.

Figure 3 Product spreading when unloading the buckets (Banu et al., 1999)

Depending on the size of polar distance h from the inferior radius ri respectively the radius
of the drum and the exterior radius re, respectively the radius of the circle formed on the
exterior edge of the bucket, in rotation movement on the drum, there are three situations (Banu
et al., 1999; Panțuru D., Bârsan I.G., 1997).

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 New solutions for the interphase transport - decreasing the degree of injuring seed in bucket elevators

I - h<ri where the centrifugal force is dominant, unloading is performed centrifugally, and
the elevator is of centrifugal type;
II - h> re, the material gains the tendency to move towards the interior wall of the bucket.
In this case, the unloading is a free gravitational unloading;
III ri<h<re, pole P is found between the two radii ri and re, the material is directed towards
the inlet of the bucket, unloading beginning close to the vertical passing through the center of
the drum. This unloading is called gravitational-centrifugal or mixed unloading.
In the situation when is imposed that seeds that need to be transported to “suffer” a
minimum degree of traumatisms, an elevator with gravitational unloading and the adequate
adaptations is used.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Traditional elevators cannot avoid seed deterioration. High movement speeds of buckets
do not allow their filling in 1/15 seconds, remaining a single option, respectively feeding seeds
at a speed of 3 m s-1 and even above it. The solution consists in decreasing the bucket’s
movement speed to 0.7 m s-1, simultaneously solving the problem of unloading, namely
excluding dropping seeds on the ground. Another solution for rapid elevators does not exist,
because in 1/15 of a second the bucket cannot be filled, remaining only one solution, to take
seeds from the elevator’s foot (figure 1). Seeds are thrown from the buckets under the action
of centrifugal force when the drum rotates and each caryopses hits the shock plate of the end
with a linear speed much larger than the band’s movement speed due to a larger turning radius
of the throwing bucket. Researches have shown that 40% of seeds traumatized by elevators
are affected in the inferior part and 60% in the superior part, because in the superior part, each
caryopses hits shock plate walls (Dumitrascu et al, 2004; Fadeev, 2017). The harm caused by
classic elevators is easy to calculate. When traumatizing only 2% of seeds, a elevator with a
50 t h-1 productivity will lift 400 t per shift, but in the total mass of seeds in a shift, about 8
tons of damaged seeds will be added and 1.6 t of seed dust (see the graph of seed deterioration
in a seed conditioning station in figures 4, 5 and 6).

Figure 4 No of deteriorations at a corn Figure 5 Macro-deterioration in a corn

seed increase in a conditioning station seed conditioning station

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 P. Găgeanu, L. Fadeev, I. Găgeanu, A. Zaica

Figure 6 Rice traumatizing at the contact with the buckets of an elevator in a seed
conditioning station

In the case of seeds for reproduction, the damage is much higher, the broken seeds and the
seed dust becoming in time sources of contamination with microorganisms and hence self-
heating outbreaks. In order to remove this impediment, elevators that do not traumatise seeds,
do not deform the sun flower seeds, do not crack corn, rice, peas, etc., crops prone to trauma,
and thus do not reduce the seed productivity potential and improve their storage. In short, the
replacing of elevators with excavation and throwing with those with attenuation was
performed.
Elevators are destined for both outdoor locations (for receiving seed after unloading from
trucks) as well as for interphase transport from serviced stations. Their main difference lies in
the fact that the external elevators have chains and a vertical and an inclined part, which allows
the movement of the buckets at low speeds (in the range from 0 to 0.7 m s-1 ) and the overturn
of the seeds into the reception device without shocks. Moreover, the inclined portion of such
an elevator allows the seed to be fed to the roof of the rooms, thus avoiding a large length of
the seed transport channels (free fall) and significantly simplifying the maintenance of the
upper part of the elevator, protected from rainfall and frost (figure 7).
For this type of elevator, the buckets have no pins inside. The interior elevators are made
in a vertical version. In their case, the attenuated interaction between the elevator and the
seeds is made on the basis of the low speed and the staged discharge of the seeds from the
bucket (figure 8). The shape of the bucket and the placement of the buckets on the belt ensures
the loading and unloading of the seeds at any speed. On a slow turn of the belt on the upper
drum, the seeds in the bucket are not thrown and do not hit the end of the elevator, but spill at
first on the surface of the back wall of the previous bucket, made in the form of an open bowl,
and then, based on the angle of inclination of this wall towards the horizon (45º and over) in
the receiving device. The installation and fixing of the buckets on the belt is such so that they
completely cover the surface of the belt, which allows for the reduction of the leakage at
loading and the elimination of the traumatization of seeds (characteristic for elevators with
excavation) due to their blockage between the bucket and the belt, because in the case of
elevators with attenuation there is a larger space than the size of the seeds.

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 New solutions for the interphase transport - decreasing the degree of injuring seed in bucket elevators

Figure 7 Elevator with attenuation Figure 8 Elevator with attenuation

(for exterior placing) (stage evacuation for closed spaces)

This may be called the "full bucket" elevator or the Fadeev elevator, the first researcher to
promote the elevator with attenuation. In order to prevent the caving-in when loading the
bucket, a charging repeating device has been provided. The channel on which the buckets
move is spherical and the distance calculated between the front edge of the bucket and the
channel generator does not change at the stretch of the belt, because at the stretch, the whole
aggregate moves along with the spherical bottom.

CONCLUSIONS
Regular elevators with excavation and throwing don’t offer the possibility to adjust the
bucket movement speed and for any reduction in seed flow at the entrance to the elevator, the
buckets are not uniformly filled and the relative share of seeds hit by the edge of the bucket
increases. From the graph in fig. 6, it was observed that when reducing the load 4 times, the
number of cracked seeds increased 3 times. This is explained by the fact that the number of
seeds hit by the front edge of the bucket increases. The attenuator allows a "full bucket"
regime to be set at a given productivity, based on the corresponding reduction of movement
speed and increasing load time. This lowers the load on the moving parts of the elevator,
which increases its service life. Small displacement speeds of the bucket in attenuation
elevators allow for the to drop cup shape the bucket and to install buckets of greater capacity
and different shape. Such a bucket at the same distance between buckets allows a 1.5 times
increase of the minimum elevator output and the elimination of seed leaks at maximum load
when turning from the vertical to the oblique side of the elevator.

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 P. Găgeanu, L. Fadeev, I. Găgeanu, A. Zaica

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Romanian Research and Innovation Ministry, through the
project entitled "Optimizing interphase transport in the food industry, agriculture and
zootechny" - PN 18 30 02 02, and through Programme 1 – Development of the national
research-development system, subprogramme 1.2 – Institutional performance – Projects for
financing excellence in RDI, contract no. 16PFE.

REFERENCES
Averkova O.A., Logachev I.N., Logachev K.I., Zaytsev O.N. (2017). Ejecting properties of a bucket
elevator. 5th International Conference on Particle-Based Methods - Fundamentals and Applications,
Particles, Hannover, Germany, pp. 45-56;
Banu C. (1999). Manual of the Food Industry. Technical Publishing, Vol. 2;
Dumitraşcu C., Păun A., Găgeanu P., Brăcăcescu C. (2004). The importance of maintaining the
biological value of cereal seeds for obtaining finished organic agricultural products. INMATEH-II,
pp. 57-66; ISSN 1583-1019, Bucharest;
Fadeev L. V. (2017). Technologies to facilitate separation into fractions. Harkov, Ukraina;
Fadeev L. V. (2017). Unharmed seeds, the basis of human life. Fadeev's enticing fractional technology,
pp. 64.71, Harkov,Ucraina;
Fadeev L. (2018). Strong seeds, a new word in agricultural businesses. „Fadeev Agro” Conference,
Lvov, Ukraine;
Hapenciuc M. (2004). Transport equipment for the food industry. ”Lower Danube” University
Foundation Publishing, pp. 119-128;
INMA Collective. (2018). Prospective study on optimizing interphase transport that satisfies the
performance and safety requirements in agriculture, food industry and zootechny. April, 2018;
Kim C.U., Lee D.W., Park S.B., Song, J.I. (2017). Dynamic characteristic evaluation of the bucket
elevator chain pin and plate. Journal of the Korean Society for Precision Engineering, Volume 34,
Issue 3, pp. 211-215;
Moraru C. et al. (1988). Technology and equipment for the milling and grits industry. Fascicule 1-2,
Lower Danube University of Galaţi;
Panţuru D., Bârsan I.G. (1997). Calculating and constructing machines from the milling industry,
Technical Publishing;
Richter C., Katterfeld A., Rößler T. (2017). Investigation of the bucket tilting in bucket elevators (Dem
bechernicken auf der spur), Logistics Journal Volume 2017, ISSN: 18607977, DOI:
10.2195/lj_Proc_richter_de_201710_01;
Ţucu D.(2010). Technological systems and productive structures for milling and bakery. Mirton
Publishing house, Timişoara.

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SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Pregledni rad
ZADACI Review paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY AND MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF BIODEGRADABLE TABLEWARE
MADE FROM CEREAL BRAN
Kaarel SOOTS1*, Andres OLT2, Jüri OLT1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Institute of Technology, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia
2Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu,
Estonia

SUMMARY
Biodegradable and compostable tableware which is made by using
agricultural by-products is significantly more environmentally-friendly than is
disposable plastic tableware. The aim of this research was to study and
compare production technologies that are used in the formation of tableware
using by-products from the process of milling cereals, specifically cereal bran,
and to determine the level of technology being used. In order to accomplish the
aim of this research, various sources of literature and patents were analysed
and the mechanical properties of materials that are used to make
biodegradable tableware were studied. In this research, specimens were taken
from various items of tableware that had been manufactured using wheat bran,
palm leaves, and cardboard, and the flexural strength was measured in each
sample.
Keywords: compostable, cereal milling by-products, mechanical strength,
flexural strength.

INTRODUCTION
As we all know, plastic waste is now a global problem. Mankind is living in an era of
mindless over-production and over-consumption. Every year about eight million tons of
plastic waste reach the oceans (Tullo, 2018). The main polluters of the oceans are China,
India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, and Bangladesh (Jambeck et
al., 2015; Macrae, 2015; Tullo, 2018). These countries are characterised by undeveloped
waste handling systems. However, waste problems are topical not only in developing
countries, but also in economically-developed countries. Some of these do not use waste
containers for storing ordinary household waste, not to mention the lack of containers for
various types of waste. In addition to packaging that pollutes the environment (such as crisp

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 K. Soots, A. Olt, J. Olt

packets and sweet wrappers), packaging for alcoholic drinks (such as bottles), filtered tobacco
products (such as cigarette stubs), balloon sticks, straws, plastic cotton buds and plastic bags,
and also disposable tableware (cups, plates, forks, knives, and spoons) all constitute a
significant amount of the world’s waste. According to a twelve-year study in Taiwan,
disposable tableware forms one out of every five of the most common man-made waste items
in the seas (Walther et al., 2018).
Despite the pollution issues, plastic is a very useful material. It can easily be processed
mechanically, it is durable, it has a low bulk density, and it is cheap (Fischer et al., 2010). It
is a shame that Mankind cannot always use it reasonably. The beneficial properties of plastic
when used irrationally as waste will become fatal to both humans and the environment. Over
time, plastic will decompose, and poisonous compounds will be released (Shah et al., 2008;
Tosin et al., 1998). Unfortunately, a cardboard plate is no more environmentally-friendly than
is a plastic plate. A cardboard plate will have been covered with a thin plastic layer, which
means that the plate does not qualify as biowaste and it cannot be recycled. A cardboard plate
qualifies as household waste and is sent to a landfill site or is used as a combustible material
in an incinerator.
Biodegradable tableware offers an alternative; however, it should be noted that it may not
be completely degradable in nature as some versions contain microplastics (Song et al., 2009).
According to the available literature, many biodegradable polymers have been developed but,
at the moment, they are more expensive than synthetic polymers and this is serving to limit
their usage (Siracusa et al., 2008). In addition, biodegradable polymers have usage limitations
which are related to their properties (Siracusa et al., 2008). Biodegradability means that the
materials are capable of undergoing aerobic and anaerobic degradation which results in the
production of CO2, H2O, methane, biomass, and mineral salts. Biodegradable materials may
not be compostable. The composting process consists of the decomposition of organic waste
by microbes in order to produce compost.
Therefore, compostable products are the most nature-friendly ones. Fieschi and Pretato
(2018) claim that using biodegradable and compostable tableware in quick service restaurants,
for example, will reduce carbon emissions, water usage, and the resource footprint. Such
products may be produced from agricultural by-products which are natural in origin and which
most probably will decompose completely in nature without resulting in any pollution (Liu et
al., 2012; Satyanarayana et al., 2009). These by-products may include the bran and chaff of
cereals (Alun et al., 2012), corn (Cornflower, 2018), sugar cane (Xmjeafer, 2018; Shaoneng
Group Guangdong Luzhou Paper Mould Packing Products Co., Ltd., 2018) or rice (Liu et al.,
2012). According to one source (Atrileaf, 2018), the raw materials may include tree leaves.
Studies have shown that tableware which is made of biodegradable plastic can be fully
degraded within twelve weeks (Vaverkova et al., 2014; Willett and Howell, 2017). Table 1
presents the technical characteristics of the by-products of milling cereals (Wheat bran, 2018;
Sauvant et al., 2002).

Table 1 The characteristics of the by-products of milling cereals

Characteristic Oat bran Barley bran Corn bran Wheat bran Rye bran
Dry matter, % 86 86 88 86 86
Raw fibres, % 18.5 15.5 11.5 9.7 10.0
Raw ash, % 5.0 5.5 4.0 5.5 5.0

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 Manufacturing technology and mechanical properties of biodegradable tableware made from cereal bran

The tableware lifecycle has been presented in Figure 1.

Cereal Mill Bran Production Tableware Biodegradation

Figure 1 The life cycle of compostable tableware.

The compression of cereal by-products involves the following processes: pressure is

applied to the compressible material and its temperature is raised to the desired level;
temperature and pressure causes the plant’s ligneous cell structure to break down and heat
softens the lignin in the material while the lignin glues together the particles of the compressed
material (Ivanova et al., 2013; Pietsch, 2002) The production of wood pellets and briquettes
is based on roughly the same principle (Olt and Laur, 2009). The amount of lignin in other
compressed materials (cereal bran) is not known.
It is known from one source (Heuze et al., 2015) that wheat bran contains an average of
45.8% (22.8%-59.6%) of neutral fibres (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin), 13.6% (8.1%-
18.7%) of acid fibres (cellulose and lignin), and 3.8% (1.9%-5.2%) of lignin. Another source
(Sauvant et al., 2002) claims that the content of neutral fibres averages 47.5% (40.3%-55.0%),
with acid fibres at 13.7% (11.1%-17.3%), and lignin at 4.0% (3.1%-4.9%). No such
information is available on other brans. At the same time, it is known that 7.94% of wheat
straws consists of lignin (Tutt et al., 2012), and other types of straw contains between 5.05-
8.76% (Raud et al., 2016). This variation in the lignin content of bran and straw can be
accounted for by the fact that bran contains more starch and, therefore, it must contain less
lignin than the straw. Sources do not contain information on whether the parameters that are
listed in Table 1 may serve to influence the mechanical properties of any product that has been
formed by compressing the material.
The introduction of compostable products, including tableware, is feasible only if their
mechanical properties are comparable to the mechanical properties of disposable tableware
that is made using cardboard and plastic. The aim of this research was to study and compare
production technologies that are used in the formation of tableware using by-products from
the process of milling cereals, specifically cereal bran, and to determine the level of
technology being used.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to be able to determine the level of technology being used in the subject of this
topic, specialist literature was used (from the Web of Science and Scopus), along with two
databases (from Espacenet and WIPO). The conditions for the patent search were as follows:
1. scope - global;
2. depth - 25 years;
3. keywords used in the search: biodegradable AND bran; degradable tableware;
biodegradable tableware; bran AND tableware; disposable AND bran; mouldings
AND bran; decomposable AND bran; biodegradable mouldings.

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In order to broaden the selection of materials that are available for producing compostable
tableware, the mechanical properties of the suitable material must be known. The research
involved measuring the mechanical properties of some of the materials being used in the
production of tableware - namely the flexural properties being used - by using the three-point
flexural test according to the ISO 178:2010 standard. The authors consider the three-point
flexural test to be similar to real-life loads which are applied to tableware when it is used in a
normal, everyday setting. The specimens that were used for measuring the flexural strength
involved in disposable tableware which had been produced using cardboard, palm leaves, and
wheat barn. Specimens were taken from the tableware using a laser. Specimens from plates
which had been produced using cardboard were tested for their flexural strength on both sides.
In one case, the load was applied to the side that was covered in a layer of plastic and vice
versa in the other case. Those plates that had been produced using palm leaves were also tested
twice as this material is anisotropic. In one case, the edge of the cylinder that applied the load
to the material being studied was longitudinal to the fibres of the palm leaf and perpendicular
in the other case. The test scheme is shown in Figure 2.

Specimen Loading edge

Supports

Figure 2 Test scheme for a three-point flexural test

The technical specifications of the flexural tests are given in Table 2.

Table 2 Technical specifications of the flexural tests

Test device Instron 5969
Load cell 1 kN
Span between specimen supports L 34 mm
Test speed v 1 mm min-1
Radius of the loading edge R1 5 mm
Radius of the supports R2 5 mm
Measuring instrument for geometric parameters Micrometer with a resolution of 0.001 mm
Shape and dimensions of the specimens Round plate, diameter 50 mm, thickness as it was

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 Manufacturing technology and mechanical properties of biodegradable tableware made from cereal bran

As appears in Table 1, the shape and dimensions of the specimens and the radius of the
loading edge do not respond completely to the ISO 178:2010 standard due to the existing
equipment and the authors’ further plans in this research field. The maximum flexural-stress
δfm was calculated using the equation given in the ISO 178:2010 standard.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The number of results in the patent search using the terms and listed keywords are given
in Table 3.

Table 3 Keywords used in the patent search and results

Results from Results from the
Results from the Results from the
the Espacenet WIPO database
Keyword Espacenet database WIPO database,
database, concerning
concerning China total
total China
biodegradable AND bran 83 25 89 25
degradable tableware 50 49 164 147
biodegradable tableware 3 2 84 47
bran AND tableware 25 21 23 17
disposable AND bran 26 12 23 9
moulding AND bran 47 24 12 0
decomposable AND bran 19 0 14 0
biodegradable mouldings 14 3 88 7

The patent search revealed that wheat bran (AU2013324540, CA2885853, DK2900872,
CN102993761, KR20150073593, FR2745818, etc), rice bran (CN106618086,
CN103013155, KR20160062641, TW200528612, TW219339, etc), and corn bran
(CN106046828, CN10600974, etc) have been used as the raw materials in the production of
tableware.
This topic has already been addressed in the previous century. In 1997, the US patent, ‘A
method for producing biodegradable products’ (US5688448) was registered, and this was
followed by a series of patents along the lines of ‘The biodegradable composition in the
preparation of tableware, a drink container, mulching film, and packaging, and a method for
carrying out that preparation’ (US7402618), and ‘Recyclable disposable tableware fabricated
from rapidly renewable resources’ (US201814668).
The production technology has been developed very actively in China, where some
examples are as follows: ‘A preparation method for biodegradable tableware’
(CN104086820), ‘Full biodegradable fibre-reinforced starch foaming tableware and a
preparation method for it’ (CN106947117), along with a great many other technical solutions;
in Taiwan (TW411372, TW500746, etc), in South Korea (KR20010091782,
KR20100020047, KR201200251, etc), and in Australia (AU2001014230, AU2013324540,
etc).

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 K. Soots, A. Olt, J. Olt

A compostable tableware production technology which meets the stipulations of patent

document US9517578 contains, for example, the following steps: brans of a fraction of
between 0.01-2.80 mm and a moisture content of at least 14% are mixed; then they are added
to a mould which contains a matrix and a mark, at a temperature of 120°C, which is used to
compress the material up to a pressure of 10 MPa; this compression results in a product with
a density of 1.4 g cm-3.
In order to be able to refer to the product - this in our case being the tableware - as being
completely compostable, it must meet the requirements (DIN EN 13432; ASTM D6400;
ASTM D6868; ISO 14851). Both of these specifications require that biodegradable/
compostable products must degrade completely in the composting environment within a
certain amount of time and are not allowed to leave behind any hazardous residues.
It became clear that there were no sources regarding the use of by-products from the
milling of other cereals besides wheat, rice and corn for the production of compostable
tableware.
The results of the flexural tests are shown in Table 4.

Table 4 The results of the flexural tests

δfm, N mm-2 SD, N mm-2 SE, N mm-2
Cardboard (plastic layer topside) 30.98 8.29 4.14
Cardboard (plastic layer upside down) 20.95 2.83 1.41
Palm leaves (longitudinal) 2.94 0.68 0.40
Palm leaves (crossed) 29.92 8.98 5.19
Wheat bran 9.98 2.30 0.77

Table 4 shows that the plate with the lowest flexural strength is the one that has been made
with palm leaves when the edge of the cylinder being used for applying the load was
longitudinal to the fibres of the palm leaf. The cardboard plates had the highest flexural
strength when the load was applied to the side that was covered with plastic.

CONCLUSIONS
The patent search that was carried out during the research revealed that, despite China
being one of the world’s largest polluters of the oceans in terms of plastic waste, it is also one
of the most active developers of production technology in terms of compostable tableware.
Compostable tableware is produced mostly by compressing the agricultural by-products, and
the raw materials are primarily wheat bran, rice bran, corn bran and tree leaves; with any of
these the density of the compressed products must be at least 1.4 g cm-3.
It became evident during the research that the mechanical properties are different in
tableware that had been produced from different materials. It also became evident that the
flexural strength of tableware that had been produced from anisotropic materials such as palm
leaves tends to vary a great deal. The authors of the article believe that the flexural strength
of any material that is suitable for the production of compostable tableware must be at least

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 Manufacturing technology and mechanical properties of biodegradable tableware made from cereal bran

equal to the flexural strength of those plates that have been made from wheat bran which, in
this article, was δfm = 9.98 N mm-2.
Further research must focus on the possibilities involved in using by-products which are
generated by milling other cereals in the production of compostable tableware, with the most
important factor being the mechanical properties of the products.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ESTIMATION OF EFFECTS ON THE WORKLOAD AT

DAIRY FARMS CAUSED BY AUTOMATIZATION
Martin HÖHENDINGER1,2*, Sophie KERN1, Jörn STUMPENHAUSEN2, Maximilian
TREIBER1, Heinz BERNHARDT1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 Technische
Universität München, Lehrstuhl für Agrarsystemtechnik, Am Staudengarten 2, D-85354
Freising, Tel: +49.8161.71.6467;
2 Hochschule Weihenstephan-Triesdorf, Lehrstuhl für Landtechnik, Am Staudengarten 1,
D-85354 Freising, Tel: +49.8161.71.6467

ABSTRACT
The automatization of routine tasks in dairy farming is becoming more and
more important, especially family farms in southern Germany. This
development may result in a consolidation of decision making, which despite of
decreasing working hours per cow could create an increasing workload. Aim
of this research is to identify different manifestations of work and their working
time requirements in dairy farming. Further a comparison of types of work and
working time requirements is created, depending on different levels of
automatization on a dairy farm.
For this purpose, three fictional barn systems, a "manual barn", a "semi-
automatic barn" and an "automatic barn, are examined regarding the working
time requirements and types of work.
From literature, the individual main tasks in dairy production are
subdivided into work elements that are consecutively assigned to physical work,
mental work and sensorimotor work. Afterwards the barn systems are
compared regarding manifestations of work and the working time demands.
Increasing automatization leads to a reduction of total working time
requirements. Especially physical work can be reduced. The largest savings
can be expected in the milking and feeding processes. The role of mental work
increases relatively to the other types of work. This mental work largely consists
of management and control tasks, computer work and device operation.
Therefore, an increasing strain to the mental skills of farmers needs to be
expected.
Keywords: automatization, workload, dairy farming

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 M. Höhendinger, S. Kern, J. Stumpenhausen, M. Treiber, H. Bernhardt

INTRODUCTION
Human labour is one of the most important production factors in dairy farms´ production
processes. Despite the fact that the size of livestock at German dairy farms increases, the
number of workers is decreasing (Blumöhr, Walsemann, 2004). In consequence, this
development leads to increasing workloads. However, innovations in technology within the
last years make automatization of production processes in dairy farming possible. These
automatization processes for routine tasks are becoming more and more important, especially
for Bavarian family farms as they are under pressure to rationalize their workload. Therefore,
the main reason for investments in automatic milking systems are the reduction and improved
flexibility of workload (Fübbeker, Kowalewsky, 2005).
In consequence, the utilisation of these modern technologies, causes a transformation of
types of work and working time requirements in dairy farming. This development may result
in a consolidation of decision making (Schlick et al., 2010), which despite of decreasing
working hours could create an increasing workload.
This research examines the working time requirements of routine tasks on the basis of
literature data for three fictional barn systems with different levels of automatization. The
focus is set on changes of working time requirements and types of work for the main tasks in
dairy production that are milking, feeding, manure removal and littering.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Technical equipment of model farms
For the research, three fictional barn systems were examined that are common and
representative for agricultural practice in Germany. The size of livestock was 120 cows, as it
represents a farm size, which, despite of structural changes, is a presumable fit for the future
in southern Germany. All barn systems were freestall barns, with four-rows of cubicles. The
most important routine tasks in dairy farming were found in the processes of milking, feeding,
manure removal and littering. Therefore, these three main tasks were in the focus of this
research. The three barn systems were meant to represent three the different levels of
automatization: "manual barn", "semi-automatic barn" and "automatic barn”. The technology
used on each farm type is shown in Table 1.
Milking was executed two times every day in the manual and semi-automatic milking
systems. In the automatic milking system (AMS) the milking process is flexible and
continuous throughout the day. However, each cow needs to be milked at least two times each
day. Fresh feed was provided one time and pushed in to the feeding ally three times daily.
Additional feeding of concentrated feed via feeding stations was not considered. The manure
was removed right after or during the milking and feeding times, every day. In the semi-
automatic barn, only the cleaning of the crossing passages was executed manually during
these times, while the cleaning of the walkways was automatic with dung scrappers two times
daily. In the automatic barn, the cleaning of the walkways and crossing passages was executed
automatically. In all three systems, the cleaning of the cubical was executed manually.
Littering was automated in the automatic barn system.
The data for working time requirements result from ART-Arbeitsvoranschlag, 2016 and
KTBL Betriebsdatensammlung 14/15 (Frisch, 2014). Futher data from other publications

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 Estimation of effects on the workload at dairy farms caused by automatization

(Schick, 2000) and manufacturer´s instructions were used. If there is no literature data or other
secondary data available, the working time requirements were approximated with comparable
tasks or extrapolated from smaller scaled technology with Microsoft Excel 2016.
Based on literature each task was divided up in work elements. The work elements were
categorized in the types of work “physical work”, “mental work” and “sensorimotor work”.
Subsequently the working time requirements of the single work elements ware added up
according to the mentioned types of work. Afterwards the three barn systems were compared
regarding the differences between the claims of workload in the different types of work.

Table 1 Technological equipment of the different barn systems

Barn system Manual barn Semi-automatic barn Automatic barn

Milking system • Herringbone milking • Herringbone milking • Two Automatic

parlor with 2x6 parlor with 2x6 milking systems
milking places milking palaces
• No technological • Automatic
support stimulation
• Service arm
• Automatic stripping
• Removal automatic

Feeding technology • Feed mixer and • Feed mixer and • Automatic

distribution trailer distribution trailer feeding system
extra filling-system self-filling system • Automatic feed
• Manual feed push in • Robotic feed pusher push in
• Daily filling of
feed storage
container
Manure removal • Walkways: tractor and • Walkways: Scraper • Walkways and
and bedding system sliding shield (2,0 m) demanuring crosswalk
• Crosswalk: manual • Crosswalk: manual robotic slat
• Cleaning cubical: • Cleaning cubical: cleaner
manual manual • Cleaning
• Litter down cubical: • Litter down cubical: cubical: manual
manual manual • Litter down
cubical:
automatic

Work elements of the examined tasks

The work elements in milking parlor were very different from the work elements in an
automatic milking system (AMS). In consequence, the work elements of the manual and
semiautomatic system were different to the AMS work elements. The different work elements
of milking and their classification within the three types of work are shown in Table 2 and
Table 3.

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 M. Höhendinger, S. Kern, J. Stumpenhausen, M. Treiber, H. Bernhardt

Table 2 Work elements for milking in a 6x2 herringbone milking parlor with
working time requirement and categorization in types of work
(according to Schick (2000) and (ART-Arbeitsvoranschlag, 2016))
Manual barn Semi-automatic barn
Work elements Type of work
(h/cow/year) (h/cow/year)
Let in cows physical 1.02 1.02
Udder preparation sensorimotor 2.80 0.92
Milking cluster put on physical 1.02 0.86
Milking cluster alignment physical 0.15 -
Milking-out physical 1.02 -
Milking cluster removal physical 0.41 -
Udder control and dipping sensorimotor 0.31 0.31
Let out cows physical 0.76 0.76
Walking in milking parlor physical 1.07 0.51
Other (preparation, cleaning work,
physical 10.22 9.91
waiting times, cow pushing)

Table 2 Work elements for milking AMS with working time requirement and categorization
in types of work (according to KTBL (2013))

Work elements Type of work h/cow/year

Preparation of milking physical 0.20

Milking of separated cows physical 1.51
Cow control / observation sensorimotor 1.25
IT-tasks mental 2.43
Milking box cleaning physical 1.71
Teach new cows sensorimotor 0.39
Clearance of error mental 0.99
Cleaning of milk tank physical 0.53

For the feeding, the differences of work elements were mostly regarding the technological
implementation in the working process. The detailed classification of the single work
elements is shown in Table 4. With the step from the manual system to the semiautomatic
system, the working process changed, as the operator did not have to switch between the
wheel loader and the tractor with the feed mixer. The mental tasks include, for the most part,
the ration management, which was assumed to be identical for the three systems as this work
is independent and not affected by automatization of routine tasks. Therefore, it was not
mentioned especially in the list of work elements. The controlling tasks for the autonomous
feeding and pushing in of the feed is assumed to be negligible, as it would be programmed
onetime and further run automatically. On the other hand, more complicated service tasks can

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 Estimation of effects on the workload at dairy farms caused by automatization

not be executed by the farmer himself, therefore, these tasks were assumed to be outsourced
to a technical service partner.

Table 3 Work elements for feeding with working time requirement and categorization in
types of work (according to Grothmann et al. (2010) and Nydegger et al. (2005))
Manual barn Semi-automatic barn Automatic barn
Work elements Type of Type of Type of
h/cow/year h/cow/year h/cow/year
work work work
Feed ration
mental 0.62 mental 0.62 mental 0.66
management

Filling of feed
sensori- sensori- sensori-
mixer / storage 2.83 2.83 1.84
motor motor motor
container
sensori- sensori-
Feeding 0.71 0.71 mental -
motor motor
Pushing in of
physical 0.78 mental - mental -
feed

Clarification of
physical 0.81 physical 0.81 physical 0.81
feeding table

The workings steps of the manure removal and bedding systems are identic for the three
different barn systems. The main differences are in the technological implementation of the
automatic systems and the workload of these technologies regarding the farmer. The single
steps and their classification are shown in Table 5. The field of farm management tasks is
assumed to be not affected by the automatization of the production processes. Therefore, these
tasks are not considered in this research.

Table 4 Work elements for manure removal and littering with working time requirement
and categorization in types of work (according to Schick, Moritz (2004))
Manual barn Semiautomatic barn Automatic barn
Work elements Type of Type of Type of
h/cow/year h/cow/year h/cow/year
work work work
Cleaning cubicle,
physical 1.83 physical 1.83 physical 1.83
with litter
Cleaning
physical 0.61 physical 0.61 mental 0.00
of crossings

Cleaning sensori-
1.83 mental 0.50 mental 0.12
of walkways motor
Littering manual/
sensori-
Filling of automatic physical 1.70 physical 1.70 0.25
motor
littering system

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 M. Höhendinger, S. Kern, J. Stumpenhausen, M. Treiber, H. Bernhardt

RESULTS

Changes of the main tasks

The comparison of the three barn systems shows decreasing working time requirement in
context with increasing automatization of routine tasks in all considered main tasks (Figure 1).
Compared to the manual milking system, in the semiautomatic milking system, only a
slight reduction of physical and sensorimotor tasks can be expected (Figure 1a). Exclusively
mental tasks are not observed in both systems. On the other hand, large effects on working
time claims and types of work can be expected with the automatic milking system. Besides,
the total reduction of working time requirements, especially the work load of physical work
is decreasing. However, the number of mental tasks regarding management, information
technology (IT) and cow control and observation increase. This leads to equal working time
requirements of mental and physical tasks in the automatic milking system.
In the feeding tasks, decreasing working time requirements can be expected with the
automatization of the feeding process (Figure 1b). The most working time requirements are in
the form of sensorimotor work. This results from operation task with tractor, autonomous feed
mixer or wheel loader. As the physical work of pushing in the feed is taken by an autonomous
robot, the amount of physical tasks is cut in half in the semiautomatic and automatic feeding
system. The remaining physical work results from the removal of feed residues.

a b c
20 7 7
mental
6 6
15 senorimotor
working time requirement

5 5
h per cow per year

4 4 physical
10
3 3

2 2
5

1 1

0 0
0

barn system
Figure 1 Change of working time requirements and claims of types of work for
a) milking; b) feeding; c) manure removal and littering

458
 Estimation of effects on the workload at dairy farms caused by automatization

The automatization of the manure removal system shows a high potential for the reduction
of working time requirements (Figure 1c). The most physical work occurs during the cleaning
of cubicles. In the manual and semiautomatic system the physical task “Cleaning of crossings”
additionally shows high working time requirements of physical work. However, the
sensorimotor work of cleaning with the tractor and sliding shield is shifted into the mental
working form, by using the manure scrapper in the semiautomatic system. Also a reduction
of total working time can be realized by this system. Highest potential for the reduction of
working time requirements provides the robotic slat cleaner. The physical task of littering is
only observed in the manual and semiautomatic system. It is replaced in the automatic system
with the sensorimotor task of “Filling of automatic littering system”. However, the automatic
littering leads to a reduction of physical work and the total working time requirements.

Reduction of total workload

The increasing usage of automatic systems for the execution of routine tasks shows high
potentials for the reduction of total working time requirements. Therefore, the total working
time requirements decrease between the manual barn and the semiautomatic barn as well as
between the semiautomatic and the automatic barn (Figure 2).
Additionally, the working time requirements change regarding the types of work. In
consequence the working time requirements for physical and sensorimotor work are
decreasing with an increasing degree of automatization, as well as the working time
requirements for mental tasks are increasing.

25

20
working time requirement
h per cow per year

15
physical
10
sensorimotor
5
mental
0
manual semiautomatic automatic
barnsystem

Figure 2 Total working time requirements of the three examined barn systems divided by
the work forms physical, sensorimotor and mental work

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 M. Höhendinger, S. Kern, J. Stumpenhausen, M. Treiber, H. Bernhardt

DISCUSSION
The literature data given by Frisch (2014) ranges between the calculated values for the
manual and the semiautomatic milking system. Therefore, it can be assumed that in the
mentioned literature there was no differentiation between milking parlor with or without
automatic support systems. It is also likely, that many automatic support systems only have a
low direct effect on the working time for a certain work element. For this reason, the work
relief might be mainly in the process optimization.
The low working time requirements with the AMS arise from the fact, that the whole
milking process is executed by the autonomous system. The main tasks in this system are IT-
and controlling tasks. (Fübbeker, Kowalewsky, 2005)
A decreasing physical workload is the consequence of this automatization. However, an
increasing workload of mental tasks needs to be assumed based on this development, which
is also indicated by increasing working time requirements for mental tasks. Further
confirmation of this assumption is given by a survey of Fübbeker, Kowalewsky (2005).
The reduction of workload between the manual feeding system and the semiautomatic
feeding system results from the automatization of pushing in feed. With the step from the
manual system to the semiautomatic system, the working process changes, as the driver
doesn´t have to switch between the wheel loader and the tractor with the feed mixer. However,
the effect on working time and working form caused by this change of process structure is
negligible. Effects in this task field are more affected by operational structures characteristic
for each farm (Fübbeker, 2014).
In the task field of manure removal and littering, the most working time requirements are
accounted for the cubicle maintenance. This physical task remains in the working process,
independent of the automatic technologies. New technologies regarding an automatic cleaning
of cubicles were not considered in this research, but should be considered in further studies.

CONCLUSIONS
The comparison of the total working time requirements indicates an overall reduction of
working time requirements caused by automated production systems. Additionally, this
development indicates an increasing ratio of mental tasks compared to the types of work of
manual and sensorimotor work. This leads to a work relief on the ergonomic based tasks but
rising workload by mental tasks and higher claims on the mental abilities of the farmers can
be expected in the future development. However, for further studies, it is important to consider
farm structures that determine the progress of work elements.

REFERENCES
ART-Arbeitsvoranschlag: Software für die landwirtschaftliche Betriebsplanung (2016). Agroscope,
Ettenhausen.
Blumöhr, T., Walsemann, U. (2004). Landwirtschaft in Deutschland 2003. Wirtschaft und Statistik,
2004, 173-183.
Frisch, J. (2014). Betriebsplanung Landwirtschaft 2014/15: Daten für die Betriebsplanung in der
Landwirtschaft. 24. Aufl. Kuratorium für Technik und Bauwesen in der Landwirtschaft, Darmstadt.

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 Estimation of effects on the workload at dairy farms caused by automatization

Fübbeker, A., Kowalewsky, H.-H. (eds) (2005). Praxiserfahrungen mit automatischen Melksystemen.
KTBL-Schr.-Vertrieb im Landwirtschaftsverl., Münster.
Fübbeker, A. (2014). Futtermischwagen: Angehängt oder Selbstfahrer? Bauernblatt, 2014, 49–50.
Grothmann, A., Nydegger, F., Häußermann, A., Hartung, E. (2010). Automatische Fütterungssysteme
(AFS) – Optimierungspotenzial im Milchviehstall. LANDTECHNIK, 2010, 129–131.
KTBL (ed) (2013). Automatische Melksysteme: Verfahren - Kosten - Bewertung. Kuratorium für
Technik und Bauwesen in der Landwirtschaft, Darmstadt.
Nydegger, F., Schick, M., Ammann, H., Steinmann, P. (2005). Futternachschieben im Rindviehstall.:
Der Butler erledigt dies selbständig, regelmässig und mühelos. FAT-Berichte 648, Ettenhausen.
Schick, M. (2000). Arbeitszeitbedarf verschiedener Melkverfahren – Von der Eimermelkanlage zum
AMS. FAT Berichte 544, Ettenhausen.
Schick, M., Moritz, C.H. (2004). Entmistung von Milchviehställen. Stationär oder mobil? 619,
Ettenhausen.
Schlick, C., Bruder, R., Luczak, H. (2010). Arbeitswissenschaft. 3., vollständig überarbeitete und
erweiterte Auflage. Springer, Heidelberg.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

POTENTIAL REDUCTION OF ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT,

CO2 EMISSIONS AND GWP USING AUTO TANDEM
PARLOUR SYSTEM WITH HEAT EXCHANGER
Denis STAJNKO*, Damijan KELC, Miran LAKOTA
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
University of Maribor, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chair for Biosystem Engineering,
Pivola 10, 2311 Hoče, Slovenia

ABSTRACT
The intensification of milking production has led to activities that profoundly
influence the ecosystem not only due to the fodder processing and farm
management but also in milking and milk cooling, thus the estimating of
environmental impact is essential. In our study, the Sustainable Process Index
(SPI) was used for estimating ecological footprint, CO2 emissions and Global
Warming Potential (GWP) on two farms equipped with different milking and
milk cooling systems. On the farm 1 the old milking pipeline with 2 jars, electric
boiler and refrigerating system is used. Contrary, the farm 2 is equipped with
modern 2 x 3 auto tandem parlour system with heat exchanger, which serves
for cooling down the milk and successively heat the water for cleaning the
systems. The farm 1 produces annually on the average 6,000 kg of milk per cow,
while on the farm 2 the average annual production is 8,000 kg of milk per cow.
On the first farm the ecological footprint for milking and cooling of 1 litre of
fresh milk amounts to 8.3846 m2 anno/l and on the second farm to only 2.7050
m2 anno/l. Moreover, on the farm 2 also the total CO2 and GWP emissions for
milking and cooling of 1liter of milk is smaller for 67.67% and 67.82%,
respectively, than on the farm 1. The results of our research proved that the
modern milking systems not only requires less time and manual labour, but also
significantly reduce negative effects on the environment.
Keywords: milking pipeline, auto tandem parlour, ecological footprint,
Sustainable Process Index

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 D. Stajnko, D. Kelc, M. Lakota

INTRODUCTION
Increasing demand for daily fresh milk products has tremendously driven on increase in
milking production in Europe since 1960s till nowadays. However, in the new century a
fundamental objective of milk production is to assure net income for dairy farmers
(VandeHaar and St-Pierre, 2006). Due to the wagging milk prices, in many parts of the
developed world, dairy producers aim to increase farm income by maximizing milk yield per
cow. This is usually accomplished by offering cows nutritionally precise diets in confinement
and through improving genetic merit (Arsenault et al., 2009; Capper et al., 2009).
Besides other inputs, energy usage on dairy farms has grown gradually in the past 20 years
due to increases in farm sizes, use of automated equipment, and around-the-clock operation.
Dairy farms in the USA consume between 800 and 1,200 kilowatt-hours (kWh) per cow
annually. About 50% of the total energy used on a dairy farm is spent for milk-production
equipment, which includes milk cooling 25%, vacuum pump 17%, and water heating.
Lighting and ventilation account for most of the remainder of energy used. In Ireland, for
instance, electricity accounted for 60% of the direct energy use, whereby mainly resulted from
milk cooling (31%), water heating (23%), and milking (20%).
Because of the large number of processes that contribute to electrically driven equiment,
the evaluation of the whole value chain would extend the knowledge about the broader
environmental performance of ecological impact cauased by milking and cooling of milk on
fram. In early 1990s life-cycle assessment (LCA) was introduces for evaluating the
environmental effects (air, water, and land) associated with any given activity, beginning with
the initial gathering of raw materials from the environment to the point at which all residuals
are returned to the environment known also as cradle-to-grave analysis (Romero-Gámez et al.
2012).
The Sustainable Process Index (SPI) belongs also to ecological footprint family and it was
specially developed and customized for agriculture by Krotscheck and Narodoslawsky
(1996). The concept of calculating the ecological footprint assumes that a sustainable
economy might be built only on solar radiation as natural input and the earth's intact surface
as the resource for the conversion of solar radiation into products and services. Since the
global surface area is a limited resource, the area required to embed a certain process
sustainably into the ecosphere is a appropriate measure for ecological sustainability.
To assess the ecological footprint of milk from particular dairy systems, it would be
necessary to adopt a life cycle approach. This approach, referred to as life-cycle assessment
(LCA), involves quantifying CO2 and GHG emissions generated from all stages associated
with a milk, from raw-material extraction through production, use, recycling, and disposal
within the system boundaries (ISO, 2006a,b). Several studies have applied LCA methods to
compare carbon footprints of milk from confinement and grass-based dairy farms (Belflower
et al., 2012; O’Brien et al., 2012, Flysjö et al., 2011b). However, the results of these studies
have been inconsistent.
The main goal of our research was focused on ecological footprint, CO2 emissions and
global warming potential (GWP) caused during milking and cooling of milk on two types of
farm tipically represented in Slovenian dairy production; i) a tied-stall system with pipeline
and 2 milking units and ii) the free-housing system with auto-tandem milking parlour (2 x 3).

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Potential reduction of ecological footprint, CO2 emissions and GWP using auto tandem parlour system with heat…

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Farm 1
The milking system consists of a tied-stall system with pipeline and 2 milking units. The
milked milk flows directly into the 1000 l refrigerating cooling tank, placed in the special part
of the dairy. The milk is cooled to 4 ° C and stored for 48 hours before it is pumped to the
collecting tank on the van. In the same room, a washing machine with associated washing
heads for soap units is attached to the wall, and there is also a vacuum pump. The milking
begins by cleaning the udder and obligatory removal of the first jets. Whole herd milking of
17 cows lasts about 1 hour. The most important task is to prepare milking units and equipment
for the next milking. Immediately after milking, milking units and equipment are cleaned
using a washing machine. In the majority of cases, the system is cleaned in the morning with
basic, and in the evening with acid detergent. Washing machine works approximately 90
minutes. After the washing was completed, the machine automatically switches off and the
equipment is ready for the next milking. In addition, every second day, when the cooling tank
is empty, then cleaning of tank is done. The tank is not cleaned with the washing machine but
manually. Like other equipment, the cooling tank is cleaned alternatively once with basic and
secondly with acid cleaner.
Farm 2
This farm owns a new free-housing system with auto-tandem milking parlour (2 x 3). In the
adjacent area of the dairy, there is the cooling tank with a volume of 2000 litres, and a washing
machine with washable heads. The milking begins with the automatic opening of the gate to
the dairy. When the cows are ready for milking, the wipes are washed and wiped off with
paper towels, followed by the obligatory removal of the first jeans; then the dairy unit is
installed in the wake. The entire herd's milking of 42 cows lasts for about 1.5 hours. After that
the milking units are roughly washed to remove larger, rough dirt, which lasts for about 45
minutes. The overall cleaning of the system depends mainly on the water temperature. When
the washing is complete, the machine is switched off automatically. Milk is stored in the tank
for approximately 48 hours, and the removal to the dairy is guaranteed for at least another
day. The milk that comes directly from the parlour system to the tank has got temperature
between 22 and 23 oC. Milk is cooled to 4 oC temperature.
SPIonWeb tool
The SPIonWeb tool developed at TU Graz (http://spionweb.tugraz.at) is a license free
software for estimating the ecological footprint, CO2 emissions and GWP. The ecological
footprint of each milking and cooling system was estimated by including environmental
impacts related to fossil-C, air, water, soil, non-renewable, renewable and area resources.
Calculation of fossil-C assumed sedimentation of carbon to ocean beds, which requires
about 500 m² of sea ground per year to put 1 kg of carbon back into the long-term (fossil)
storage of the seabed.
The footprint for emissions to water is based on a replenishment rate, which is calculated
on the precipitation rate in a specific geographic region of the compartment and a natural
concentration of the emitted substance. In the SPI concept, the concentrations found in ground
water are the reference for each natural compartment. The footprint of a given emission flow
is therefore the area that is necessary to provide so much pure water via the seepage rate that

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 D. Stajnko, D. Kelc, M. Lakota

may dilute the emission to the reference concentration of the emitted substance in ground
water.
The footprint for emissions to soil is similar to the footprint for emissions to water, and it
is calculated based on the regeneration rate of the compartment soil calculated as compost
generated from grassland and the natural concentrations of the emitted substances in the top
soil.
The footprint for emissions to air does not have a natural replenishment rate as do the other
compartments, but the natural emissions of gaseous substances by forests are taken as a
reference. The footprint for emissions to air is calculated as the area of forest that emits the
same amount as the emission in question
One kilogram of CO2 emissions or releases are calculated from the “Area for fossil
carbon”, where the extracted fossil carbon and carbon based materials are assumed to be
oxidized to CO2 over the life cycle and finally to end up as CO2 emission to the atmosphere.
GWP (global warming potentials) are calculated on the basis of GWP factors i. e. carbon
dioxide equivalent (CO2e), where exhausts gases components are converted to CO2e by
multiplying their amounts for instance (CH4 has 25 and N2O 298 higher GWP then CO2 itself).
The sum of CO2 life-cycle-emissions equivalents of all input processes and other GWP
relevant impacts is the total GWP measured in kg CO2 equivalent Kettl (2013).
Input data
Data for this study was retrieved from interviews as well as measurements of working
process on two different types of milking farm, whereby the one-week lasting chronometric
measurements were considered as a basis for estimation of ecological footprint. The following
input parameters were first measured chronometrically: time of milking per cow (min),
amount of milk per cow (l), the average amount of energy spent for milking one cow (kW),
the average amount of energy spent for 1 liter of milk per cow (kW), the amount of energy
spent for cooling of 1 liter milk (kWh) and the amount of water required per washing of all
equipment (l).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The average quantity of milk per cow
Table 1 represents the average quantity and standard deviation of milk per cow per one
milking on each farm. As seen, on average 9.55 l per cow was produced on farm 1 and 11.43
l per cow on farm 2. The difference of 1.88 l depends on better fodder quality, variety, day of
lactation as well as type of housing, which is strongly connected with animal behavior.

Table 1 Average quantity of milk per cow

Cows (n) Average (l) St. deviation (l) CV (%)
Farm 1 17 9.55 2.18 22.82
Farm 2 42 11.43* 3.26 28.52
*significant t-test at p<0.05

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The average time of milking per cow

The total time of milking took on average 1 hour for herd on farm 1 and 1 hour and 30
minutes for herd on farm 2 (Table 2). Contrary, the milking of one cow took 7.46 minutes on
farm 1 and 6.42 minutes per cow on farm 2, respectively, which means that the outflow of
milk was quicker in herd 2. The main reason lies probably in the varieties of cow, because
20% of all animals is Holstein-Frisien breed on the farm 2, while on farm 1 all cows belongs
to Simmental breed.

Table 2 Average time of milk per cow

Cows (n) Average (min) St. deviation (min) CV (%)
Farm 1 17 7.46 2.27 30.43
Farm 2 42 6.43 n.s. 2.43 37.79
n.s not significant t-test at p<0.05

The average electricity consumption per milking of one cow

The average electricity consumption amounts to 0.083 kWh per one milking of one cow
on farm 2 and 0.088 kWh per one milking of one cow on farm 1 (Table 3). The quantity of
electrical energy is directly correlated to average time of milking, since the nominal power of
vacuum pumps is similar on both farms.

Table 3 Average amount of electrical energy per cow and one milking
Cows (n) Average (kWh) St. deviation (kWh) CV (%)
Farm 1 17 0.088 0.027 30.68
Farm 2 42 0.083 n.s. 0.032 38.55
n.s not significant t-test at p<0.05

However, the outflow of milk differs significant between the cows inside the same herd.
For instance, on the farm 1, for milking of cow ‘Boka’ only 0.048 kWh was spent and contrary
0.142 kWh per milking of cow ‘Riba’.

The average electricity consumption per milking of 1 liter of milk

The average electricity consumption amounts to 0.0073 kWh per milking of one liter of
milk on farm 2 and 0.0092 kWh per one milking of one cow on farm 1, respectively (Table
4). The smaller amount of electrical energy per one liter of milk on herd 2 is primary
connected with higher average quantity of milk per cow and quicker milk outflow and not
with milking system itself.

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 D. Stajnko, D. Kelc, M. Lakota

Table 4 Average amount of electrical energy per cow and one milking
Cows (n) Average (kWh) St. deviation (kWh) CV (%)
Farm 1 17 0.0092 0.0020 22.73
Farm 2 42 0.0073 n.s. 0.0023 28.92
n.s not significant t-test at p<0.05

The electricity consumption for cooling of 1 liter of milk

On the farm 1 for cooling and storage of milk in 1000 l tank 5.956 kWh was spent on
average in 48 hours during our measurements, which means 0.0059 kWh per 1 liter of milk.
However, in warmer part of the year the energy consumption can be even for 12% higher. On
the other side, for cooling the milk in the modern 2000 l tank on average 61.45 kWh was spent
on farm 2, which amounts to 0.0031 kWh per 1 liter of milk.
Water consumption for cleaning the system
The average consumption of water per one cleansing of pipeline system amount to 56 l,
while per cleansing of parlour system 50 liters or 10.6% less is spent after each milking, so
annual amount is 4.380 liters less than on the farm 1.

Table 5 Average split of dairy farm electricity use in kWh per 1 liter of milk/lactation
Farm 1 Farm 2 Farm 1 Farm 2
1 litre milk 1 litre milk Lactation Lactation
(n=17) (n=42) (n=17) (n=42)
Water heating 0.0079 Heat exchanger 47.3143 Heat exchanger
Water pumping 0.0076 0,0002 45.3429 1.5762
Milk cooling 0.0059 0.0031 35.4857 24.8000
Milking 0.0092 0.0073 55.2000 58.4000
Lighting 0.0010 0.0000 5.9143 0.2056
Other 0.0013 0.0000 7.8857 0.0010
Total 0.0329 0.0106 197.1429 84.9828

Estimation of ecological footprint and other emissions

Estimated ecological footprint, CO2 release and GWP caused by all processes on a dairy
farm (Table 5) during milking, cooling and storage of 1 litre milk on two different milking
systems is represented in Table 6. Despite higher lactation of the average cow on farm 2, the
ecological footprint for milking on auto-tandem parlour system is for 67.74% smaller than on
the pipeline system. The main reason represents the innovative cooling system of milk on one
side and heating of processing water on other side, which is based on the heat exchanger and
thus save approximately 0.0079 kWh per each litre of milk. The footprint of processing the
fresh water needed for cleaning of the milking system is in both cases practically the same
and amount to 0.0005 m2 anno/ for l litre of milk.

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Potential reduction of ecological footprint, CO2 emissions and GWP using auto tandem parlour system with heat…

The estimated CO2 release for auto-tandem parlour system is also for 67.67% smaller than
the one emitted for milking with milking pipeline (8.3846 m2 anno/ l). The main reason lies
in the SPIonWeb assuming that the fossil fuels is still a dominant energy for producing of
electricity.
In the case of global warming potential 0.0102 kg of CO2 equivalent was estimated for
milking on the parlour system and 0.0317 kg of CO2 equivalent when milking on pipeline
system. On this way 67.82% smaller GWP is emitted on the farm 2.

Table 6 Ecological footprint, CO2 emissions and GWP for all operations during milking
and cooling of 1 litre milk
Footprint
Milking system CO2 (kg) GWP (CO2eq)
(m2 anno/ l)
Pipeline 8.3846 0.0300 0.0317
Auto tandem parlour 2.7050 0.0097 0.0102

CONCLUSIONS
Slovenian dairy production depends very much on the European market prices, which are
wagging for almost second year after the milk quotas were abandonee, so dairy producers aim
to increase farm income by maximizing milk yield per cow. However, this is not connected
only with higher and better fodder demand, but also with increase cost of energy, manual
labor and not least with rising of ecological impact of diary production. In the presented study
the ecological footprint, CO2 emissions and GWP was estimated with SPIonweb software on
two Slovenian dairy farms. The results showed significant decrease of all ecological impacts
whenever a newel milking and cooling technique (parlour milking system with heat
exchanger) is used instead of old milking pipeline and refrigerator system, is used. On the
farm 1 the old milking pipeline is used for milking 17 cows, and on the farm 2 42 cows is
milked with modern 2 x 3 auto tandem parlour system. It was shown that ecological footprint
for the average lactation of 6,000 liters of milk per cow annual footprint amounts to 50,307.6
m2 anno/ l and it is for 57.99% bigger than on the farm 2 producing on the average 8,000 liters
of milk per cow annual. Moreover, despite higher average lactation on the farm 2, the total
emissions of CO2 caused by electricity and water consumption amount to 77.5 kg, which for
56.89% less than on the farm 1. Also, the GWP on the farm 1 is almost double of that on the
farm 2 (190.2 kg versus 81.6 kg).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors also acknowledge the vital contributions made by Marko Pliberšek. The
results presented are an integral part of the project CRP V4-1815 entitled "Reducing of
draught stress and increasing of soil fertility by introducing conservation (conservation) soil
tillage into sustainable agriculture", which is financed by the Slovenian Research Agency and
the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food of the Republic of Slovenia.

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REFERENCES
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and confinement-based dairy systems in Nova Scotia (Canada) using life cycle assessment. Int. J.
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Belflower, J.B., Bernard, J.K., Gattie, D.K., Hancock, D.W., Risse, L.M., Rotz, C.A. (2012). A case
study of the potential environmental impacts of different dairy production systems in Georgia. Agric.
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Capper, J.L., Cady, R.A., Bauman, D.E. (2009). The environmental impact of dairy production: 1944
compared with 2007. J. Anim. Sci. 87:2160–2167.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) (2006a). Environmental management—Life cycle
assessment: Principles and framework. ISO 14040:2006. European Committee for Standardization,
Brussels, Belgium.
Flysjö, A., Henriksson, M., Cederberg, C., Ledgard, S., Englund, J.-E. (2011b). The impact of various
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assessment: Requirements and guidelines. ISO 14044:2006. European Committee for
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O’Brien, D., Shalloo, L., Patton, J., Buckley, F., Grainger, C., Wallace, M. (2012). A life cycle
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Romero-Gámez, M., Suárez-Rey, E.M., Antón, A., Castilla, N., Soriano, T. (2012). Environmental
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POTENCIJALNO SMANJENJE EKOLOŠKOG OTISKA,

EMISIJE CO2 I POTENCIJALA GLOBALNOG ZAGRIJAVANJA
(GWP) KORIŠTENJEM AUTOMATIZIRANOG TANDEM
IZMUZIŠTA S IZMJENJIVAČEM TOPLINE
Denis STAJNKO*, Damijan KELC, Miran LAKOTA
*
E-mail dopisnog autora: [email protected]
Univerza v Mariboru, Fakultet za kmetijstvo in biosistemske vede,
Katedra za biosistemsko inženirstvo, Pivola 10, 2311 Hoče, Slovenia

SAŽETAK
Intenzivnija proizvodnja mlijeka dovela je do aktivnosti koje značajno utječu
na ekosustav ne samo zbog proizvodnje i dorade krme, nego i zbog mužnje te
hlađenja mlijeka, pa je procjena da će u budućnosti utjecaj mljekarstva na
okoliš biti značajan. U našoj studiji je korišten indeks održivosti procesa (SPI)
za procjenu ekološkog otiska, emisije CO2 i potencijala globalnog zagrijavanje
(GWP) na dvije farme opremljene različitim sustavima za mužnju i hlađenje
mlijeka. Na poljoprivrednom gospodarstvu 1 koristi se stari mljekovod za
mužnju u 2 staklene posude, električni bojler te rashladni sustav s
kompresorom. Nasuprot tome, farma 2 opremljena je modernim 2 x 3 auto
tandem izmuzištem s izmjenjivačem topline, koji služi za hlađenje mlijeka i
zagrijavanje vode za čišćenje sustava. Na farmi 1 godišnje se proizvodi
prosječno 6.000 kg mlijeka po kravi, a na farmi 2 prosječna godišnja
proizvodnja iznosi 8.000 kg mlijeka po kravi. Na prvoj farmi ekološki otisak za
mužnju i hlađenje 1 litre svježeg mlijeka iznosi 8,3846 m2 /god. l, a na drugom
gospodarstvu samo 2,7050 m2 /god. l. Štoviše, na farmi 2 također su ukupne
emisije CO2 i GWP za mužnju i hlađenje 1 litre mlijeka manje za 67,67%
odnosno 67,82% u usporedbi sa farmom 1. Rezultati naših istraživanja pokazali
su da moderni sustavi za mužnju nisu nužni samo zbog manjeg utroška vremena
i ručnog rada, nego i značajno smanjuju-negativni utjecaj na okoliš.
Ključne riječi: mljekovod, auto tandem izmuzište sustav, ekološki otisak,
indeks održivosti procesa (SPI)

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SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI
Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ENERGY PRODUCTION FROM THE WALK OF

THE ANIMALS IN PADDOCK BY THE USE
OF PIEZOELECTRIC ELEMENTS
Anuţa IUSCO1, Dumitru ȚUCU1*, Oana-Corina GHERGAN1, Septimiu LICA2
*
E-mail corresponding author: [email protected]
1POLITECHNICA University Timisoara, Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Department for

Mechanical Machines, Equipment and Transportation, Bd. M.Viteazul 1, Timisoara, Romania

2POLITECHNICA University Timisoara, Faculty of Electronics and Communications, Applied

Electronics Department, Bd. Mihai Viteazul, No.1, Timisoara, Romania

SUMMARY
This paper focuses on finding an optimum solution that uses piezoelectric
elements (integrated in panels, called walking parts), PE, to exploit the
mechanical energy resulting from the walking of animals in paddock. For
measurement of the results a special device was designed. Three different
piezoelectric elements were used for fabrication of platform walking parts
(Ceramic plate-2,85 MHz, PZT5 21x21x0,7 mm; Ceramic plate-41,5 KHz,
PZT5X 70x10x0,48 mm; Ceramic plate-21 KHz, PZT Φ30x0,27 mm), fixed in
different positions on the panels, charged at the same speed (200 N·s-1) and the
same different values for pushed forces (10, 20, 30, 40, 50 N), tested
individually. By comparing theoretical and experimental values, was made a
calculation of energy production which can be used at estimating of economic
efficiency that clearly expresses the recovery period of investment costs in
condition of low exploitation cost, corresponding to use of piezoelectric panels.
The numerical results showed that the use of a harvester energy PE generates
reasonably well electrical power outputs. The results can be used to develop
new solutions for complementary energy resources in such farms necessities.
Keywords: mechanical energy, piezoelectric panels, energy production,
optimization

INTRODUCTION
The energy crisis, together with environmental demands and increasing of consumption,
imposes, imperatively the necessity for extend the use of renewable energy and promotion of
new ways for obtaining such kind of energy, according with depleting of fossil fuels reserves,

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 A. Iusco, D. Țucu, O.-C. Ghergan, S. Lica

and taking into consideration the polluting effects on the ecosystem and global heating (Tucu
and Filipovici, 2014; Tucu, 2014).
One important extensive research could be considered the technology to use different
transducers, realized from different piezoelectric elements, manufactured for transform
mechanical energy into electrical energy, however, for specific applications, but
commercially expensive (Forero-Garcia et al., 2019; Anwar et al., 2017; Deterre et al.; 2012;
Ismail and Ghani, 2013; Nelson, 2010; Oy and Ozdemir, 2016; Sodano et al., 2004 (1);
Sodano et al., 2004 (2); Szarka et al., 2012; Toprak and Tigli, 2014; Abidin et al., 2018).
Such applications involve different aspects, from fundamental researches (the use of finite
element model specific (De Marqui et al., 2009), introduction and use of bimorph cantilever
model for piezoelectric energy harvesting from base excitations (Erturk and Inman, 2008;
Erturk and Inman, 2009; Franco and Varoto, 2017), analysis under an elastic wave (Han and
Huh, 2017), etc.), to practical solutions of special parts and modules, with different functions:
parts for frequency tuning (Al-Ashtari et al, 2012), micro harvester for low level of
acceleration fabricated with a CMOS compatible process (Defosseux et al., 2012), energy
harvester for high power output at low frequencies (Dhakar et al., 2013), MEMS-based
piezoelectric power generator for vibration energy harvesting (Fang et al., 2006) etc.
Starting from previous experience in micro energy harvesting technology based on
mechanical vibration and mechanical stress and strain (pressure) (Nayan, 2015), present paper
proposes a solution for optimize the use of piezoelectric elements, PE, to exploit the
mechanical energy resulting from the walking of animals in paddock.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

For evaluate the performance of different piezoelectric pieces, three different piezoelectric
elements were used for fabrication of platform walking parts (Ceramic plate-2,85 MHz, PZT5
21x21x0,7 mm (position 1 in figure 1); Ceramic plate-41,5 KHz, PZT5X 70x10x0,48 mm
(position 3 in figure 1); Ceramic plate-21 KHz, PZT Φ30x0,27 mm (position 2 in figure 1)),
those characteristics, based on deliver information, are presented in table 1. The sensors were
fixed in different positions on the parts’ panels. Each part was charged at the same speed (200
N·s-1), and different values for walking forces (10, 20, 30, 40, 50 N), five times in the same
conditions. For the present study the piezoelectric elements were tested individually (without
any connection between them: series, parallel or mixt).

Figure 1 Piezoelectric pieces tested: 1-PZT5, 2-PZT, 3-PZT5X

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 Energy production from the walk of the animals in paddock by the use of piezoelectric elements

The resulted impulses were registered on Oscilloscope HAMEG Type HM 1508 during
the discharge on 360 Ω resistance (was established after testing different values by a variable
electrical resistance). The structure of the experimental equipment is presented in figure 2,
where 1- resistance variable, 2-panel parts with sensors and connectors, 3-oscilloscope.

1 2 3
Figure 2 Structure of the experimental equipment

The surfaces of the oscillograms Si, were evaluated by planimetry. In hypothesis of the
equivalence of practical surfaces determinate by planimetry and a rectangular surface, the
rectangular resulted surfaces will be Si=Ui·ti (Ui - voltage, [V]; ti – impulses duration), results
the practical equivalent values for impulses duration tip= Sip/Uip).
Based on these values was calculated the harvest energy, Ehi, with relationship:
𝑈𝑈𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2
𝐸𝐸ℎ𝑖𝑖 = 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 , [J] (1)
𝑅𝑅
To estimate the possibility for recovery of the investment were calculate the number of
pulses necessarily, np, considering the equivalence 1 J = 2.777778·10-7KWh, and the price 0.1
EUR·KWh-1.

Table 1 Characteristics and price of piezoelectric elements

Characteristics UM PZT5 PZT5X PZT

Dielectric constant, ε F·m-1 3800±10% 4500±10% 2600±10%
Capacitance, C F·10-12 19000±10% 51000±10% 12000±10%
Curie Temperature, Tc 0C 160 200 150
Dissipation factor, tgδ % ≤ 2.0 ≤ 2.5 ≤ 2.8
Thickness Frequency, Fr Hz·106 2.85±10% 0.021±5% 0.0025±5%
Resonant impedance, Zr Ω ≤0.5 ≤2.5 ≤0.4
Electromechanical coupling coefficient, Kt % ≥ 48 ≥ 35 ≥ 48
Mechanical quality factor, Qm - ≥100 ≥50 ≥100
Piezoelectric Charge Constants, d33 1012MeV 620 650 490
Price EUR 3.44 9.24 0.35

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 A. Iusco, D. Țucu, O.-C. Ghergan, S. Lica

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In figure 3 and 4 are presented two oscillograms, respectively from the tests of PZT
Φ30x0,27 mm, corresponding to charging at 10 N, and PZT5 21x21x0,7 mm, corresponding
to charging at 30 N (maximum voltage=5,05V). Table 2 presents the final results for tested
piezoelectric pieces, presented in figure 1 and having characteristics from table1 (the initial
values are the averages of five experimental determination).

Figure 3 Oscillogram resulted for test of Figure 4 Oscillogram resulted for test of
PZT Φ30x0,27 mm, 10 N PZT5 21x21x0,7 mm, 30 N

Table 2 Final results for energy and investments recovery

Price Force Ui tip Eip Pulses for Investment
Sensor
[EUR] [N] [V] [s] [J] recovery, np
10 1.45 0.0001482 8.654E-07 1.43099E+14
20 3.54 0.0001419 4.939E-06 2.50740E+13
1 3.44 30 5.05 0.0001454 1.030E-05 1.20195E+13
40 5.82 0.0001474 1.387E-05 8.92737E+12
50 6.67 0.0001401 1.732E-05 7.15044E+12
10 1.04 0.0001474 4.427E-07 2.84604E+13
20 2.53 0.0001419 2.522E-06 4.99532E+12
2 0.35 30 3.61 0.0001454 5.265E-06 2.39333E+12
40 4.16 0.0001474 7.084E-06 1.77877E+12
50 4.75 0.0001401 8.777E-06 1.43550E+12
10 1.98 0.0001471 1.602E-06 2.07674E+14
20 4.81 0.0001417 9.109E-06 3.65193E+13
3 9.24 30 6.87 0.0001452 1.903E-05 1.74790E+13
40 7.90 0.0001474 2.556E-05 1.30163E+13
50 9.02 0.0001402 3.167E-05 1.05018E+13

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 Energy production from the walk of the animals in paddock by the use of piezoelectric elements

The results confirm the recommendation for the use of PZT Φ30x0,27 mm. Also, during
the experiments was observed the excessive fragility of the other two type of piezoelectric
elements that didn’t recommend also their use and maintenance (observed in the same
mentioned experimental conditions).
For practical efficiency of such solutions must group (serial connection) two or more
sensors in the same position on the panel parts. It will be necessarily to adapt the animals
walking process on paddocks for increase economic efficiency.

CONCLUSIONS
The results confirm the feasibility of such solutions as new ways for obtaining renewable
energies, but it will be necessary to adapt the farm organization and integrate the investments.
A lot of connected experiments will be necessary for realize the optimum solutions:
optimize of piezoelectric elements position on panel parts, the connections between elements,
the structure of electric circuit, etc.
The most efficient solution is to use piezoelectric elements cheaper, with low life-cycle
costs, simple construction and exploitation, low effect on environment (energy balance and
waste) and safety use. The investments recovery must be considered as essential criteria,
calculated according with life-cycle costs.
The authors calculus effectuated in actual conditions for developing a co-financed project
(maximum 40%), shows for a 1000 pig’s farm a term of recovery of the supplementary
investment of 12 years.

REFERENCES
Al-Ashtari, W., Hunstig, M., Hemsel, T., Sextro, W. (2012). Frequency tuning of piezoelectric energy
harvesters by magnetic force. Smart Materials and Structures 21, 3, 035019.
Defosseux, M., Allain, M., Defay, E., Basrour, S. (2012). Highly efficient piezoelectric micro harvester
for low level of acceleration fabricated with a CMOS compatible process. Sensors and Actuators A-
Physical 188, SI, 489-494.
Dhakar, L., Liu, H., Tay, F.E.H., Lee, C. (2013). A new energy harvester design for high power output
at low frequencies. Sensors and Actuators A-Physical 199, 344-352.
De Marqui, C., Erturk, A., Inman, D.J. (2009). An electromechanical finite element model for
piezoelectric energy harvester plates. Journal of Sound and Vibration 327, 1-2, 9-25.
Deterre, M., Lefeuvre, E., Dufour-Gergam, E. (2012). An active piezoelectric energy extraction method
for pressure energy harvesting. Smart Materials and Structures 21, 8, 085004.
Erturk, A., Inman, D. J. (2009). An experimentally validated bimorph cantilever model for piezoelectric
energy harvesting from base excitations. Smart Materials and Structures 18, 2, 025009.
Erturk, A., Inman, D.J. (2008). A distributed parameter electromechanical model for cantilevered
piezoelectric energy harvesters. J. Vib. Acoust. Trans. ASME 130, 4.
Fang, H.B., Liu, J.Q., Xu, Z.Y., Dong, L., Wang, L., Chen, D., Cai, B.C., Liu, Y. (2006). Fabrication
and performance of MEMS-based piezoelectric power generator for vibration energy harvesting.
Microelectronics Journal 37, 11, SI, 1280-1284.
Forero-Garcia, E.F., Gelvez-Lizarazo, O.M., Torres-Pinzon, C.A. (2019). Piezoelectric transducer
design for electric power generation. UIS Ingenierias18, 1, 119-125.

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Franco, V. R., Varoto, P. S. (2017). Parameter uncertainties in the design and optimization of cantilever
piezoelectric energy harvesters. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 93, 593-609.
Han, S.M., Huh, C.S. (2017). Analysis of a Piezoelectric Generator under an Elastic Wave. IEEE
Transactions on Plasma Science 45, 11, 3001-3006.
Ismail, N., Ghani, Rasli A. (2013). Advance Devices Using Piezoelectric Harvesting Energy. 2013 IEEE
Student Conference on Research and Development (SCORED 2013), 450-453.
Nayan, H.R. (2015). Power Generation Using Piezoelectric Material. Journal of Material Sciences &
Engineering, 4 (3), 171
Nelson, W.G. (2010). Piezoelectric Materials: Structure, Properties and Applications. Piezoelectric
Materials: Structure, Properties and Applications. Materials Science and Technologies, 1-259. Nova
Science Publishers, Hauppauge, NY.
Oy, S.A., Ozdemir, A.E. (2016). Usage of piezoelectric material and generating electricity, Renewable
Energy Research and Applications (ICRERA). REN EN RES APPL ICRE 1, 63-66.
Sodano, H.A., Park, G., Inman, D.J. (2004). Estimation of electric charge output for piezoelectric energy
harvesting. Strain 40, 2, 49-58.
Sodano, H.A., Inman, D.J., Park, G. (2004). A review of power harvesting from vibration using
piezoelectric materials. Shock and Vibration Digest 36, 3, 197-205.
Szarka, G.D., Stark, B.H., Burrow, S.G. (2012). Review of Power Conditioning for Kinetic Energy
Harvesting Systems. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics 27, 2, 803-815.
Toprak, A., Tigli, O. (2014). Piezoelectric energy harvesting: State-of-the-art and challenges. Applied
Physics Reviews 1, 3, 031104.
Tucu, D.; Filipovici, A. (2014). Controlled stems cutting module for SRC nurseries. Actual Tasks on
Agricultural Engineering-Zagreb 42, 397-404.
Tucu, D. (2014). The behavior of willow stems by cutting in nurseries. Tasks on Agricultural
Engineering-Zagreb 42, 405-413.

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SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

THE USE OF SELF-ASSESSMENT IN OCCUPATIONAL

RISK MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN SMES FROM
AGRICULTURE
Dumitru ȚUCU1*, George Cătălin CRIȘAN1, Alexandru ȚUCU2
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 Department for Mechanical Machines, Equipment and Transportation, Mechanical Engineering
Faculty, POLITECHNICA University, Bd. MihaiViteazul, No.1, Timisoara, Romania
2The Faculty of Entrepreuneurship, Business Engineering and Management, Politehnica University,

Splaiul Independentei nr 313, Sector 6, Bucuresti, RO-060042

SUMMARY
Occupational health & safety (OHS) risk management becomes an
important part of management, especially in small and middle-size enterprises
(SMEs) from agriculture, in obvious conditions of disproportionately work-
related injuries and deaths risks. Nowadays, a variety of standards have been
developed to implement OHS risk management: ISO 45 000, ISO 31 000,
CAN/CSA-Z1000 OHSAS 18001, etc. Sometimes it is difficult to apply both, due
their content small contradictions and between law and economic conditions
and/or enterprises resources. The main goal of the paper was to measure the
efficiency and impact of work conditions by self-assessment of employees in
SMEs from agriculture. The research analyzes the employees’ perception on
the work conditions using a questionnaire with 22 indicators (including
technical, organizational and legal requirements), distributed at 34 employees
in 14 SMEs specialized in agriculture from Timis and Arad counties, west side
of Romania, based on its own methodology. The statistical analysis made by
Microsoft Excel 2016 and STATGRAPHICS Centurion revealed differences
between opinions, maximum values in the case of “presentation of work
accidents”, P4 (Average 4,76 and Standard Deviation 3,58) and “knowledge
of health problems generated by incidents”, P6 (Average 4,69 and Standard
Deviation 3,51). The conditions most important ranked were “first-aid kit on
each section”, P1 (average 8,81, median 9,5 and standard deviation 1,67) and
“fire extinguishers in each space”, P2 (average 8,73, median 10 and standard
deviation 1,72). The results were used to recommend elements for optimization
of OHS risk management system specific SMEs from agriculture.
Keywords: ranking, efficiency, impact of work conditions, perception,
optimization

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INTRODUCTION
Occupational health & safety (OHS) risk management, nowadays takes a crucial role in
every technological process in agriculture environments, especially in small and middle-size
enterprises (SMEs) from agriculture, especially in obvious conditions of disproportionately
work-related injuries and deaths risks (Crisan et al., 2017). Work in agriculture was classified
as “hazardous occupation with high rates of injury and death” (Morgaine K.C. et al., 2014).
In this kind of enterprises (SMEs), not only the work conditions are highly important, but also
economic aspects, the insufficient resources could seriously affect the functionality of
occupational health & safety (OHS) risk management (Mnerie et al., 2008).
Many OHS risks can be generated by external aspects as migration and immigration
(Liebman et al., 2016; Neitzel R.L. et al., 2014), youth farm workers (Perla M.E. et al., 2015)
and absence of OHSAS certification of accreditation.
On the other hand, OHS risk management systems may become a critical tool that can
significantly improve safety and operating performance only after implementation of the
OHSAS standards, (may be part of investments with strategic impact), but it is necessary to
involve “empiric” evaluation methods (Abad, 2013).
Furthermore, auditors are often uncertain as to how they should handle psychosocial risks,
which are only briefly mentioned in the standard, and the question therefore remains whether
audits in practice cover these risks to a sufficient extent. Usually auditing practices do not
ensure a consistent and encompassing coverage of such issues in their reports, and the results
call for stronger inclusion of the psychosocial work environment in the standard, as well as in
the accreditation and audit processes (Hohen and Hasle, 2018).
Classical approach has been adapted and enriched with new opportunities, thank to IT
system evolution, especially in built up of online, real time and augmented reality (AR)
systems (Tatic, 2018; Tatic and Tesic, 2015). All are designated for mobile devices as a tool
for safeguarding health and safety, and the secure performance of tasks in a technological
process by following virtual instructions in the workplace.
But, even the evolution of OHS risk management systems (OHSRMS), it is necessary to
evaluate their efficiency based on safety performance and labor productivity, paying special
attention to the returns to certified safety experience and employments perceptions (Abad,
2013).
The main goal of the paper was to measure the efficiency and impact of work conditions
by self-assessment of employees in SMEs from agriculture, taking into consideration the
possibilities to use the results for propose elements for optimization of theirs OHSRMS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The team used the questionnaires for evaluation of workers’ perceptions about works’
conditions.
The methods’ items are presented in figure 1, and were established based on previous
experience presented in other papers (Crisan et al., 2017; Gusetoiu et al., 2013; Gusetoiu et
al., 2012).

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 The use of self-assessment in occupational risk management system in SMEs from agriculture

Establishing of indicators

Preparing of questionnaires

Distribution to workers

Checking questionnaires

Data centralizing

Data normalizing

Statistical analysis

Graphical representation

Interpretation of results

Primarily correction

Final results

Analysis

Proposing of measures

Figure 1 Research methodology

The indicators were established related to statistic of fatal accidents, injuries, and work
illness, after a Brainstorming with 10 specialists in OHS risk evaluation and management (22
indicators (P1-P22), presented in table 1, columns1 and 2). The indicators were grouped in
next sections:
- Section I: emergency situations (P1-P3);
- Section II: work accidents (P4-P6);
- Section III: tests of knowledge (P7-P8);
- Section IV: nonconformities (P9-P14);
- Section V: risks assessment (P15-P16);
- Section VI: work colleagues (P17-P19);
- Section VII: ITM (Territorial Labor Inspectorate) activities (P20-P22).
In the study 34 workers (noted L1-L34), from 14 SMEs specialized in agricultural
activities (all have the same activities code, and dimensions from 6 to 19 workers – typical
for small enterprises according to Romanian law), from Timis and Arad counties, west side
of Romania. Each questioned person made ranking by given significance quotas from 0
(lowest level of importance) to 10 (highest level of importance), without any restriction.

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There were took into consideration the following hypotheses:

- Workers have equilibrated interest on the chosen indicators;
- Could be a dependence between low level of significance of some indicators and
workers less interesting, or vice-versa, according with own importance of OSH;
- No one methodology for evaluation of indicators were distributed, only worker
opinion.
Microsoft Excel 2016 and STATGRAPHICS Centurion were used for the statistical analysis.

The results brought to light the differences between employees’ opinions, maximum
values and indicators hierarchy.

RESLTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 presents the results of factors’ ranking, according to average of received points
(column 3, noted “Aver.”). Also, in table 1 there are presented the values of median (column
4, “Med.”), standard deviation of received points (column 5, “STD.P”) and variance (column
6, “Var.P”).
After reception and analyzing of questionnaires, several aspects have been observed:
- The maximum sum of received points was at P2 (297 points), but, 2 questioned persons
(workers), didn’t give points for P1, and the average has maximum in this situation
(for P1);
- The average of points given per one indicator was 127,68 points, approx. 128 points
(17 persons (workers) raked over average and 17 below average);
- 10 workers have quoted all indicators over 6 points, awarding over 75% from
maximum possible points;
Because two workers have underestimated the indicators and two workers overrated the
indicators, a new statistical analysis was made after exclusion of their opinions, but the
ranking was not modified.
Actually in relevant scientific literature such approach is poorly represented, because
usually specialists in occupational risk are almost dedicated to middle and big enterprises
(Weissbrodt et al, 2018; Bruhn and Frick, 2011; Filer and Golbe, 2003; Johnstone et al, 2011),
or to specific risk factors (Nordgren and Charavaryamath, 2018; Buralli et al, 2018; Crowe et
al, 2010; Damacus, 2014). According to the legal provisions and law enforcement procedures,
in such enterprises the OHS responsibilities are in charge of administrator and of one of
workers, already specialized.
For optimization of the OHSRMS, even there were some differences between opinions,
the most important results were:
- Workers gave much more points for clearly formulated indicators (firefighting
equipment, first-aid kit, exercises for evacuation, qualified workers);
- Indicators that needs high level of knowledge (work accidents, nonconformities,
identification of dangers, ITM), were poorly classified;
- Also, misunderstanding generated poorly classification of some indicators that can
increase significantly the working conditions (Protection & Prevention Plan,
identification and remediation of nonconformities and dangers and risk assessment).

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Table 1 Indicators of performance for work conditions

No. Indicators Average Median St. Dev. Variance
1 2 3 4 5 6
P1 If exist first aid kit 8.813 9.5 1.667 2.777
P2 If exist firefighting equipment in each room 8.735 10 1.720 2.959
Knowledge of seniority at present workplace of
P18 7.824 8 1.706 2.910
colleagues
Knowledge of seniority at present workplace for
P19 7.824 8 1.947 3.792
total work period of colleagues
P3 Periodical exercises for evacuation 7.529 8.5 2.523 6.367
Knowledge of qualified workers from total
P17 7.235 7.5 2.521 6.356
workers of SME
Knowledge about qualification received at yearly
P8 tests regarding Prevention and Protection Plan and 7.206 8 2.374 5.634
charges according to job description in last year
Knowledge about qualification received at yearly
P7 6.824 8 2.854 8.145
tests regarding emergency situations for last year
Assessing of number of risks for accident
P16 5.824 6 3.365 11.322
identified at risk assessing
Knowledge about ITM (Territorial Labor
P20 5.375 5.5 3.199 10.234
Inspectorate) controls
P15 Assessing of global risk level for workplace 5.294 5 3.241 10.502
Knowledge about level of penalty given by ITM
P21 5.065 5 3.331 11.093
after controls
P9 The existence of nonconformities at workplace 4.970 6 3.233 10.454
Knowledge about existence of nonconformities
P22 4.969 5 3.349 11.218
identified by ITM
Rapidly repairing of identified nonconformity at
P11 4.882 4.5 3.197 10.221
workplace
P4 Presentation of work accidents 4.758 5 3.576 12.790
Knowledge about health problems, consequences
P6 4.697 5 3.512 12.332
of some incidents
P13 Identification of nonconformities 4.647 4.5 3.047 9.287
Rapidly assessing of costs for repair a
P12 4.559 4 2.932 8.599
nonconformity
P14 Remediation of nonconformities 4.559 4.5 2.932 8.599
Knowledge of nonconformities at workplace
P10 4.500 4 3.031 9.188
already repaired
P5 Knowledge about persons accidents at workplace 3.970 1 3.316 10.999

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CONCLUSIONS
Optimization of OHSRMS, with an eye to increase the efficiency of resources’
consumption must consider the workers’ opinion and to be interested by perception at every
workplace. There are necessarily not only legal and statute measures, and also specific action
for improve the understanding of OHSRMS’ own terms, procedures and actions (eq. PDCA
(plan-do-check-act) or others).
Friendly language will be also strongly necessary.

REFERENCES
Abad, J., Lafuente, E., Vilajosana, J. (2013). An assessment of the OHSAS 18001 certification process:
Objective drivers and consequences on safety performance and labour productivity. Safety Science,
60, 47-56
Bruhn, A., Frick, K. (2011). Why it was so difficult to develop new methods to inspect work organization
and psychosocial risks in Sweden. Safety Science, 49(4), 575-581
Buralli, R.J., Ribeiro, H., Mauad, T., Amato-Lourenço, L.F., Salge, J.M., Diaz-Quijano, F.A., Leão,
R.S., Marques, R.C., Silva, D.S., Guimarães, J.R.D. (2018). Respiratory Condition of Family
Farmers Exposed to Pesticides in the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. International Journal of
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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

POLJOPRIVREDNA PROIZVODNJA REPUBLIKE

HRVATSKE PRIJE I NAKON PRISTUPANJA EU
Ivo GRGIĆ1*, Stjepan KRZNAR2, Vjekoslav BRATIĆ3
*
E-mail dopisnog utora: [email protected]
1Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Agronomski fakultet, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10 000 Zagreb, Hrvatska
2 Porečka 40, 10 000 Zagreb, Hrvatska
3 Institut za javne financije, Smičiklasova 21, 10 000 Zagreb, Hrvatska

SAŽETAK
Poljoprivredna proizvodnja Republike Hrvatske (RH) sudjeluje s manje od
1% u ukupnoj vrijednosti poljoprivredne proizvodnje Europske unije (EU).
Tako mali udio navodi na zaključak da u okviru EU hrvatski poljoprivredni
sektor ne igra značajnu ulogu. Međutim, zato tržišni trendovi na zajedničkom
tržištu EU itekako utječu na relativno malo tržište poljoprivrednih proizvoda u
Hrvatske. Temeljni je cilj ovog rada utvrditi promjene u proizvodnji najvažnijih
poljoprivrednih proizvoda u RH prije (2000.–2013.) i nakon pristupanja
Hrvatske Europskoj uniji (2014.–2017.). Pretpostavljeno je kako se ulaskom u
EU ukupna poljoprivredna proizvodnja u RH količinski povećala, ali se i
istovremeno vrijednosno smanjila, zbog promjene proizvodne strukture i
smanjenja proizvođačkih cijena. Istraživanje je pokazalo da u strukturi ukupne
hrvatske poljoprivredne proizvodnje dominira biljna proizvodnja (oko 65%) u
odnosu na stočarsku (oko 35%). Poljoprivredna proizvodnja u odnosu na
pretpristupno razdoblje povećala se količinski za 2,6% (od toga npr.
proizvodnja žita za 1,2%, industrijskog bilja za 40,8% te krmnog bilja za
26,8%). Istovremeno, smanjena je proizvodnja povrća (za 15,8%), voća i
grožđa (za 32,1%) te stočarska proizvodnja (8,8%). Posebno zabrinjava
smanjenje govedarstva i svinjogojstva, koji su često pokazatelj stanja
poljoprivrednog sektora. Značajno je smanjena vrijednost poljoprivredne
proizvodnje (za oko 24%) što za posljedicu ima i smanjenje udjela hrvatske
poljoprivrede u ukupnoj poljoprivredi EU za oko 32%. Hrvatska
poljoprivredna politika mora pronaći odgovore za negativne trendove u
stočarskoj proizvodnji što bi potaklo i promjenu proizvodne strukture kod biljne
proizvodnje s povećanjem udjela stočnih krmiva, posebno žita.
Ključne riječi: Hrvatska, Europska unija, poljoprivredna proizvodnja,
zajedničko tržište

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 I. Grgić, S. Krznar, V. Bratić

UVOD

Republika Hrvatska (RH) je 1. srpnja 2013. postala punopravna članica EU, a s tim je
datumom pokrenut niz promjena u mnogim društvenim i gospodarskim segmentima pa i u
poljoprivrednom sektoru. Ulaskom u EU, Hrvatska je prestala primjenjivati dotadašnje
sporazume o slobodnoj trgovini, uključujući i Srednjoeuropski ugovor o slobodnoj trgovini
(engl. Central European Free Trade Agreement, skraćeno CEFTA). Istodobno, kao nova
punopravna članica preuzela je važeće trgovinske sporazume Europske unije s trećim
zemljama, između ostaloga i s članicama CEFTA-e.
Udio poljoprivrede, šumarstva i ribarstva RH u ukupnom bruto domaćem proizvodu
(BDP) za razdoblje 2000./2017. godine iznosi oko 4%, dok je u bruto dodanoj vrijednosti
(BDV) oko 5%. Sama poljoprivreda u BDP-u i u BDV- u sudjeluje s oko 3%. Vanjsko
trgovinska bilanca hrvatske poljoprivrede je negativna (deficit od 0,9 milijardi eura, 2016.).
Vrijednost vanjskotrgovinske razmjene poljoprivredno-prehrambenih proizvoda u 2016.
godini čini 13,9 % vrijednosti ukupne robne razmjene (MP, 2016).
Hrvatski poljoprivredni sektor u okvirima EU, nije od veće važnosti te je vrijednost
poljoprivredne proizvodnje manja od 1% ukupne vrijednosti poljoprivredne proizvodnje EU.
Zbog toga promjene u poljoprivredi Hrvatske ne utječu značajnije na poljoprivrednu
proizvodnju EU. Međutim, tržišni trendovi sa zajedničkog tržišta EU uključujući i kretanje
cijena značajno utječu na relativno malo hrvatsko tržište poljoprivrednih proizvoda. No,
ulaskom u EU Hrvatskoj se pružaju mogućnosti koje prije nismo imali, od tehnoloških i
financijskih do prodajnih. Budući je EU najvažniji trgovinski partner pristupom se proširilo
izvozno tržište ali i liberalizirao sam protok trgovine (Kersan, 1998)
Cilj rada je utvrditi promjene u poljoprivrednoj proizvodnji Hrvatske nakon njenog
pristupanja EU.

MATERIJAL I METODE

U radu su korišteni podaci Državnog zavoda za statistiku (DZS), Statističkog ureda

Europskih zajednica (EUROSTAT), Ekonomskih računa u poljoprivredi, Agencije za
plaćanje u poljoprivredi, ribarstvu i ruralnom razvoju (APPRRR), FAOSTAT-a (The Food
and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database) te dostupna znanstvena i stručna
literatura. Kao metode analize prikupljenih podataka su se koristile deskriptivna metoda a od
statističkih metoda: metoda trenda, stope promjene te metoda indeksa.
Poljoprivredna proizvodnja računata je primjenom žitnih jedinica (Anonimno 2013).
Rezultati rada su prikazani grafički i tablično.
Rad se temelji na analizi i usporedbi prosječne poljoprivredne proizvodnje Hrvatske u
pretpristupnom razdoblju i u razdoblju nakon ulaska u EU. Navedena su razdoblja specifična
jer obuhvaćaju razdoblje prilagodbe i same integracije na tržištu EU. Vrijednost proizvodnje
obuhvaća razdoblje 2005/2017., a proizvodnja 2000/2017. godina.

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REZULTATI I RASPRAVA

Vrijednost poljoprivredne proizvodnje Hrvatske u pretpristupnom razdoblju je iznosila

2.775,87 milijuna eura odnosno 0,74% vrijednosti poljoprivredne proizvodnje EU. U
razdoblju članstva u EU vrijednost poljoprivredne proizvodnje se smanjila za 24,04% što je
dovelo i do smanjenja udjela u EU za 31,89% (Tablica 1.).

Tablica 1 Vrijednost poljoprivredne proizvodnje u Hrvatskoj od 2005. do 2017. godine

Table 1 Value of agricultural production in Croatia from 2005 to 2017
Udjel RH u EU
Razdoblje Prosjek (mil. €) Verižni indeks The share of the Verižni indeks
Period Average (EUR mil) Chain index Republic of Chain index
Croatia in the EU
Pretpristupno
2.775,87 - 0,74 -
Pre-accession
Članstvo u EU
2.108,46 75,96 0,50 68,11
Membership in the EU
Prosjek 2005./17.
2.442,17 0,62
Average 2005/17.
Izvor: Autor prema podacima Eurostata
Source: Author according to Eurostat data

Udio poljoprivrede, šumarstva i ribarstva RH u BDV-u Republike Hrvatske u

pretpristupnom razdoblju iznosio je 4,9%, a u razdoblju članstva 3,7%. Udio poljoprivrede,
šumarstva i ribarstva RH u BDP-u Republike Hrvatske u pretpristupnom razdoblju je bio
4,07%, dok je u razdoblju članstva 3,03%. Razmjena poljoprivredno-prehrambenih proizvoda
RH većinski se odvija s država članicama EU, kao što je to bilo u razdoblju prije pristupa
(Grgić, Zrakić i Županac, 2012).
Vrijednost same poljoprivrede bilježi smanjenje u BDP-u i BDV-u u razdoblju nakon
ulaska RH u EU. U pretpristupnom razdoblju vrijednost poljoprivrede je iznosila 1.285
milijuna eura a u razdoblju članstva smanjila se za 28,9% te je iznosila 912 milijuna eura.
Udio poljoprivrede RH u BDV-u u pretpristupnom razdoblju je iznosio 3,5% te u BDP-u 3%,
a nakon ulaska u EU udio u BDV-u smanjio na 2,3% te u BDP-u na 1,9%.

Poljoprivredna proizvodnja
Najveći dio poljoprivredne proizvodnje 2000./2017. čini biljna proizvodnja (žita,
industrijsko bilje, krmno bilje, povrće i voće i grožđe) s oko 65%, dok je udjel stočarstva oko
35% (DZS, Biljna proizvodnja, 2018).
Poljoprivredna proizvodnja RH, preračunata preko žitnih jedinica, u razdoblju članstva
povećala se za 2,6%. Najveće povećanje ostvarila je proizvodnja industrijskog bilja i to za
40,8%, ali istodobno bilježimo smanjenje kod povrća (15,8%), stočarstva (8,8%) te najviše
kod voća (32,1%) (Tablica 2.).

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Tablica 2 Poljoprivredna proizvodnja, tisuća tona ŽJ

Table 2 Agricultural production, GU (grain unit) thousand tons

Voće i grožđe
Krmno bilje

Vegetables

Stočarstvo
Indu. bilje
Industrial

Livestock
Fruit and

Ukupno
Razdoblje

Fodder

Povrće
Grains

grapes
crops

Total
Žita
Period

Pretpristupno
2.892 712 702 99 228 2.662 7.294
Pre-accession
Članstvo u EU
2.926 1.003 890 83 155 2.427 7.483
Membership in the EU
Promjena, %
1,2 40,8 26,8 -15,8 -32,1 -8,8 2,6
Change, %
Izvor: Isti kao za Tab. 1
Source: Same as for Tab. 1

Žita
U pretpristupnom razdoblju na žetvenoj površini od 557.611 ha proizvedeno je ukupno
2.892.415 tona žitarica s prirodom po hektaru od 3,95 tona. U razdoblju nakon ulaska u EU
žetvene površine su se smanjile za 11%, ali se proizvodnja povećala za 1,2% uglavnom zbog
povećanja priroda. Najveće povećanje proizvodnje od ulaska u EU ostvareno je kod
proizvodnje ječma (7,5%), dok je najveće smanjenje u istom razdoblju zabilježeno kod raži
(37,3%) (Tablica 3.).

Tablica 3 Proizvodnja žita u Republici Hrvatskoj, tisuća tona ŽJ

Table 3 Production of cereals in the Republic of Croatia, GU (grain unit) thousand tons
Razdoblje Pšenica Raž Ječam Zob Kukuruz Ukupno
Period Wheat Rye Barley Oat Maize Total
Pretpristupno
806 5 208 65 1.808 2.892
Pre-accession
Članstvo u EU
762 3 223 69 1.868 2.926
Membership in the EU
Promjena, %
-5,4 -37,3 7,5 6,1 3,3 1,2
Change, %
Izvor: Isti kao za Tab. 1
Source: Same as for Tab. 1

U strukturi proizvodnje žita najvažniji je kukuruz (Zrakić i sur., 2017.). Udio kukuruza u
proizvodnji žita povećao se s 62,1% u pretpristupnom na 63,8% u razdoblju nakon ulaska u
EU. Pšenica je po udjelu druga kultura, ali bilježi smanjenje s 28,2% u pretpristupnom na
26,0% u razdoblju nakon ulaska u EU.

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U pretpristupnom razdoblju proizvedeno je 1.808.404 t kukuruza na 301.449 ha, a prirod

po ha bio je 5,99 tona. U razdoblju nakon ulaska u EU proizvodnja kukuruza se povećala za
3,3%, dok su se površine smanjile za 15,8%, u odnosu na promatrano pretpristupno razdoblje.
Primjena kvalitetnih agrotehničkih mjera uz povoljne klimatske prilike za uzgoj kukuruza
omogućile su povećanje prinosa na 7,35 t ha-1.
Pšenica je u pretpristupnom razdoblju zauzimala 172.078 ha proizvodnjom od 805.890 t i
s prinosom od 4,66 t ha-1. U razdoblju nakon ulaska u EU površine su se smanjile za 2,6%,
proizvodnja za 5,4% dok se prirod povećao na 5,30 t ha-1.
Ječam je treće žito (oko 7% ukupne proizvodnje žita). U pretpristupnom razdoblju
proizvodnja ječma je bila 207.515 tona na 58.216 hektara i s prirodom 3,56 t ha-1. Nakon
ulaska u EU proizvodnja se povećala za 7,5%, površine su se smanjile za 14,1% uz povećanje
priroda za 24,4%.

Industrijsko bilje
Industrijsko bilje zauzima treće mjesto s prosječno 11% poljoprivredne proizvodnje. U
pretpristupnom razdoblju na površini od 126.155 ha, proizvedeno je ukupno 712.308 tona
industrijskog bilja s prirodom po hektaru od 10,86 tona. U razdoblju nakon ulaska u EU
površine su se povećale za 32,1%, proizvodnja za 40,8%, te se povećao i prirod na 15,07 t ha-
1
. Najveće povećanje u proizvodnji od ulaska u EU su ostvarili uljana repica, soja i suncokret,
dok je duhan jedina kultura koja bilježi smanjenje proizvodnje.

Tablica 4 Proizvodnja industrijskog bilja, tisuća tona ŽJ

Table 4 Production of industrial crops, GU (grain unit) thousand tons
Razdoblje Šećerna repa Uljana repica Suncokret Soja Duhan Ukupno
Period Sugar beet Rapeseed Sunflower Soybean Tobacco Total
Pretpristupno
284 77 154 170 27 712
Pre-accession
Članstvo u EU
Membership in 288 188 210 292 24 1.003
the EU
Promjena, %
1,4 145,0 35,9 72,4 -12,7 40,8
Change, %
Izvor: Isti kao za Tab. 1
Source: Same as for Tab. 1

Proizvodnja šećerne repe je od iznimne važnosti za RH. U pretpristupnom razdoblju na

površini od 25.261 ha proizvedeno je 284.327 tona šećerne repe s godišnjim prirodom od
45,09 t ha-1. U razdoblju članstva površine su se smanjile za 29,9%, a proizvodnja se povećala
za 1,4% zahvaljujući prirodu koji se povećao za 44,1%. Udio šećerne repe u proizvodnji
industrijskog bilja smanjio se s 39,6% u pretpristupnom na 28,8% u razdoblju članstva.
U pretpristupnom razdoblju na površini od 48.433 ha proizvedeno je 469.626 tona soje s
godišnjim prirodom od 2,34 t ha-1. U razdoblju članstva površine su se povećale za 54,7%,
proizvodnja za 72,4% zahvaljujući povećanju priroda.

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Suncokret se uglavnom koristi za proizvodnju jestivog ulja, a osim toga, nusproizvod

prerade suncokreta (suncokretova pogača) koristi se kao kvalitetna stočna hrana za tov junadi.
U pretpristupnom razdoblju na površini od 31.208 ha proizvedeno je 154.481 tona suncokreta
s godišnjim prirodom od 2,47 t ha-1. U razdoblju članstva površine su se povećale za 17,6%
te proizvodnja za 35,9%.

Krmno bilje
U strukturi poljoprivredne proizvodnje, krmno bilje zauzima četvrto mjesto s prosječnim
udjelom od oko 10%. U pretpristupnom razdoblju na površini od 384.439 ha, proizvedeno je
ukupno 701.731 tona krmnog bilja s prirodom po hektaru od 10.67 tone. U razdoblju nakon
ulaska u EU površine su se povećale za 74,8%, proizvodnja za 26,8%, a prirod se povećao na
12.63 t ha-1 u odnosu na pretpristupno razdoblje.
Najveće povećanje u proizvodnji ostvario je kukuruz za zelenu krmu, a slijede ga lucerna
i trajni travnjaci, dok djetelina i mješavine bilježe smanjenje proizvodnje za 46% u odnosu na
pretpristupno razdoblje.
Proizvodnja kukuruza za zelenu krmu je veća 50,1%, površina 24% te prirod 23,5%.
U pretpristupnom razdoblju na površini od 316.811 ha proizvedeno je 216.731 tona trajnih
travnjaka s godišnjim prirodom od 2,35 t ha-1. U razdoblju članstva površine su se povećale
za 92,7%, proizvodnja samo za 11,7%, a jedan od razloga je što se prirod smanjio za 44,7%
u odnosu na pretpristupno razdoblje. Iako se u razdoblju članstva bilježi veliko povećanje
površine trajnih travnjaka, udio proizvodnje trajnih travnjaka u ukupnoj proizvodnji krmnog
bilja smanjio se s 31,9% u pretpristupnom na 27,5% u razdoblju članstva.
Površine lucerne smanjile su za 0,5%, ali zahvaljujući povećanju priroda za 13,9%,
povećala se proizvodnja za 13,3%.

Povrće
Najmanji udio u ukupnoj poljoprivrednoj proizvodnji ima proizvodnja povrća (Hadelan i
sur. 2015.). U pretpristupnom razdoblju na površini od 26.866 ha, proizvedeno je ukupno
98.535 tona povrća s prirodom po hektaru od 18,37 tona. U razdoblju članstva površine su se
smanjile za 35,6%, ali se povećala proizvodnja (15,8%) zbog povećanja priroda. Najveće
povećanje u proizvodnji ostvarila je mrkva čija se proizvodnja povećala za 80% u odnosu na
pretpristupno razdoblje, dok je najveće smanjenje u istom razdoblju zabilježeno kod graha
(suho zrno) za 58,6%.
U strukturi proizvodnje povrća najvažnije mjesto ima krumpir koji bilježi smanjenje udjela
u proizvodnji povrća s 68,2% u pretpristupnom na 61,6% u razdoblju članstva. U
pretpristupnom razdoblju na površini od 14.941 ha proizvedeno je 67.459 tona krumpira s
godišnjim prirodom od 15,19 t ha-1. U razdoblju članstva površine su se smanjile za 33% te
je zbog povećanja priroda manje smanjenje proizvodnje (za 24,2%). Domaća proizvodnja
krumpira ne pokriva domaću potrošnju, s istom tendencijom i u budućem srednjoročnom
razdoblju (Gugić i sur., 2014).
Luk i češnjak u strukturi proizvodnje povrća zauzimaju drugo mjesto s oko 6,5% ukupne
proizvodnje povrća. U pretpristupnom razdoblju proizvodnja luka i češnjaka je bila 5.648 tona
na površini od 1.037 hektara i s prirodom od 18,18 t ha-1. U razdoblju članstva proizvodnja se
povećala za 35,3%, površine za 4,7%, a prirod za 29%.

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 Poljoprivredna proizvodnja Republike Hrvatske prije i nakon pristupanja EU

U pretpristupnom razdoblju proizvedeno je 4.937 t kupusa na 1.649 ha uz prirod od 20,36

tona. U razdoblju članstva proizvodnja se smanjila za 7,4%, površine za 22,3% dok se
povećao prirod za 22,9%.

Voće i grožđe
Hrvatska ima izvrsne klimatske, pedološke i hidrološke potencijale za proizvodnju voća i
grožđa (Grgić, Gugić i Zrakić, 2011). Unatoč tome, proizvodnja voća i grožđa sudjeluje s 2
do 3% u ukupnoj poljoprivrednoj proizvodnji.
Od voćnih kultura značajna je proizvodnja jabuka. Analiza grupe autora Cerjak i sur.
(2016) ukazuje na pozitivne trendove na tržišta jabuke u razdoblju 2000./2008., ali i
nedostatke vezane uz nedovoljnu samodostatnost domaće proizvodnje odnosno značajan uvoz
jabuke. Prema autorima državna potpora dala određene rezultate (veće površine pod
jabukom), strukturni problemi sektora jabuka nisu riješeni. Pristupanjem Republike Hrvatske
u punopravno članstvo Europske Unije (2013), rezultiralo je povećanjem inozemne
konkurencije na domaćem tržištu (ukidanje carinskih zaštita za proizvode iz EU) jabuka, te
smanjenjem prodajnih cijena (Čagalj i Strikić, 2017).
U pretpristupnom razdoblju na površini od 67.542 ha, proizvedeno je ukupno 227.628 tona
voća i grožđa. U razdoblju članstva bilježi se smanjenje površina za 1,5% te proizvodnje za
32,1%.
U pretpristupnom razdoblju površine vinograda su bile 30.077 ha te proizvodnja 71.173 t.
U razdoblju članstva površine su se smanjile za 19,7% te proizvodnja za 44,2%.
U pretpristupnom razdoblju na 5.769 ha proizvedeno je 39.210 t jabuka, da bi došlo do
smanjenja površina za 2,8% te proizvodnje za 2,6%.
U pretpristupnom razdoblju proizvedeno je 16.121 t mandarinki na 1.330 ha te se
proizvodnja mandarinka u doba članstva povećala za 33,6%, a površine za 58,2%.
Prerada maslina u maslinovo ulje postupno se povećava, a hrvatsko maslinovo ulje sve
više postaje gospodarski važan potencijal u poljoprivrednoj proizvodnji mediteranske
Hrvatske, i to znatno poboljšane kakvoće.
U pretpristupnom razdoblju pod maslinama je bilo 14.235 ha, a proizvodnja 9.011 t
maslina odnosno 60.664 t maslinovog ulja. U razdoblju članstva površine su povećane za
31,8%, ali se proizvodnja smanjila za 19,1% te maslinovog ulja za 36,8%.

Stočarstvo
Prema Kraliku i Zmaiću (2013) rezultati njihova istraživanja pokazali su da mjere agrarne
politike kao i državne potpore prije ulaska RH u EU nisu dali adekvatne rezultate. Posljedica
toga bio je značajan uvoz tijekom cijelog razdoblja, goveđeg, svinjskog i peradskog mesa.
Udio stočarstva u ukupnoj poljoprivrednoj proizvodnji bilježi smanjenje s 36,8%, u
pretpristupnom razdoblju na 32,5% u razdoblju članstva (Grgić i Zrakić, 2015.).
U pretpristupnom razdoblju prirast goveda je bio 461.817 t, a proizvodnja kravljeg mlijeka
512.835 t, ali se u vrijeme članstva prirast goveda smanjio za 12,3%, a proizvodnja mlijeka
za 9,7% ili ukupno za 10,9%.

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 I. Grgić, S. Krznar, V. Bratić

Tablica 5 Proizvodnja prirasta goveda i kravljeg mlijeka, tisuća tona ŽJ

Table 5 Production of the increase of cattle and cow's milk, GU (grain unit) thousand tons
Razdoblje Prirast goveda – t Kravlje mlijeko - t Ukupno -t
Period Increase of cattle-t Cow's milk-t Total-t
Pretpristupno
461.817 512.835 974.651
Pre-accession
Članstvo u EU
405.104 462.963 868.066
Membership in the EU
Promjena, %
-12,30 -9,70 -10,90
Change, %
Izvor: Izvor: Isti kao za Tab. 1
Source: Same as for Tab. 1

U ukupnoj poljoprivrednoj proizvodnji, prosjek 2000./2017. godina, svinjogojstvo

zauzima oko 11,5%. a u stočarskoj proizvodnji oko 32%.
U pretpristupnom razdoblju svinjogojstvo je oko 12,3% ukupne poljoprivredne
proizvodnje, dok je u razdoblju članstva 9,2%.
U pretpristupnom razdoblju prirast svinja je bio 885.445 t, da bi se smanjio za 22,5%.
U ukupnoj poljoprivrednoj proizvodnji 2000./2017. godine, peradarstvo u prosjeku
sudjeluje s 9% te 25,2% ukupne stočarske proizvodnje pri čemu na meso peradi otpada 24,8%,
i na kokošja jaja 0,4%.
U pretpristupnom razdoblju prirast peradi je bio 644.049 t, a prosječna proizvodnja
kokošjih jaja 11.885 t da bi se u vrijeme članstva povećao za 2,6% te proizvodnja kokošjih
jaja smanjila za 19,4%.
Ovčarska i kozarska proizvodnja su grane koje se sve više razvijaju u Hrvatskoj
(Antunović, Novoselec i Klir, 2013). Autori navode da je prilagodbom zakonima EU i
uvođenjem novih znanstvenih, stručnih i tehnoloških dostignuća u području ovčarske i
kozarske proizvodnje došlo do izrade novih uzgojnih programa iz područja ovčarstva i
kozarstva (Antunović i sur., 2013).

ZAKLJUČAK
Istraživanje je pokazalo da se ukupna poljoprivredna proizvodnja RH u razdoblju nakon
ulaska u EU povećala za 2,6% u odnosu na analizirano pretpristupno razdoblje.
Poljoprivreda Hrvatske sudjeluje u BDP-u RH s manje od 3%, U strukturi poljoprivredne
proizvodnje prevladava biljna proizvodnja (oko 65%), dok stočarstvo sudjeluje s oko 35%.
Proizvodnja žita bilježi povećanje za 1,2% u odnosu na pretpristupno razdoblje.
Proizvodnja industrijskog bilja povećala se za 40,8% pri čemu najveće povećanje bilježe
uljana repica (za 145%) i soja (za 75%). Krmno bilje također bilježi povećanje proizvodnje
(26,8%) u odnosu na pretpristupno razdoblje. Proizvodnja povrća se smanjila za 15,8% u
odnosu na pretpristupno razdoblje. Najveće smanjenje od ulaska u EU dogodilo se kod voća
i grožđa i to za 32,1% u odnosu na pretpristupno razdoblje.

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 Poljoprivredna proizvodnja Republike Hrvatske prije i nakon pristupanja EU

Stočarska proizvodnja ostvarila je smanjenje za 8,8% u odnosu na pretpristupno razdoblje.

Najveće smanjenje u proizvodnji bilježi svinjogojstvo, zatim govedarstvo, dok peradarstvo i
ovčarstvo bilježe blago povećanje.

NAPOMENA
Rad je izvod iz diplomskog rada studenta Stjepana Krznara, mag. ing. agr., studenta
diplomskog studija Agrobiznis i ruralni razvitak na Agronomskom fakultetu u Zagrebu.

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svijetu, Hrvatskoj i Sloveniji // Glasnik zaštite bilja, 40 (2017), 6; 78-85

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF

CROATIA BEFORE AND AFTER EU ACCESSION
Ivo GRGIĆ1*, Stjepan KRZNAR2, Vjekoslav BRATIĆ3
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
2 Porečka 40, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
3 Institute of Public Finance, Smičiklasova 21, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia

ABSTRACT
Agricultural production of the Republic of Croatia (RH) accounts for less
than 1% of the total value of agricultural production of the European Union
(EU). So small share suggests that the Croatian agricultural sector does not
play a significant role in the EU. Therefore, market trends in the common EU
market have a profound impact on the relatively small market of agricultural
products in Croatia. The aim of this paper is to identify changes in the
production of the most important agricultural products in Croatia before
(2000-2013) and after Croatia's accession to the European Union (2014-2017).
It was assumed that by entering the EU, total agricultural production in the RH
increased in quantity, but at the same time it decreased in value, due to changes
in the production structure and the reduction of producer prices. Research has
shown that the structure of total Croatian agricultural production is dominated
by plant (about 65%) in relation to livestock production (about 35%).
Agricultural production compared to the pre-accession increased in quantity
by 2.6% (including e.g. cereals by 1.2%, industrial crops by 40.8%, and fodder
by 26.8%). At the same time, vegetables production (by 15.8%), fruit and
grapes (by 32.1%) and livestock production (8.8%) were reduced. There is
concerning situation in the reduction of cattle and pig production, which are
often an indicator of the agricultural sector state. The value of agricultural
production significantly decreased (about 24%), which results in the reduction
of the share of agriculture in total Croatian agriculture EU by about 32%.
Croatia's agricultural policy must find answers to negative trends in livestock
production, which would also trigger a change in the production structure in
plant production with an increase in the share of livestock feed, particularly
grains.
Keywords: Croatia, European Union, agricultural production, common
market

496
47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ANALIZA KORIŠTENJA SREDSTAVA IZ PROGRAMA

RURALNOG RAZVOJA REPUBLIKE HRVATSKE
2014. – 2020. DO KRAJA 2017. GODINE
Marin ČAGALJ1*, Ivo GRGIĆ2, Josip GUGIĆ3
*
E-mail dopisnog autora: [email protected]
1Institutza jadranske kulture i melioraciju krša, Put Duilova 11, 21 000 Split, Hrvatska
2Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Agronomski fakultet, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10 000 Zagreb, Hrvatska
3Sveučilište u Splitu, Sveučilišni odjel za studije mora, Ruđera Boškovića 37, 21000 Split, Hrvatska

SAŽETAK
Program ruralnog razvoja Republike Hrvatske 2014.-2020. odobren je 26.
svibnja 2015. godine od Europske komisije. Programom ruralnog razvoja RH
definirano je 6 prioriteta s 18 mjera čiji je cilj povećanje konkurentnosti
hrvatske poljoprivrede, šumarstva, prerađivačke industrije, te unaprjeđenje
životnih i radnih uvjeta u ruralnim područjima. Program je vrijedan oko 2.4
milijarde €, a do 2018. godine je doživio četiri izmjene. U fokusu ovoga rada
su Mjera 4- Ulaganja u fizičku imovinu s podmjerama 4.1. Potpora za ulaganja
u poljoprivredna gospodarstva i 4.2. Potpora za ulaganja u preradu,
marketing i/ili razvoj poljoprivrednih proizvoda, te Mjera 6- Razvoj
poljoprivrednih gospodarstava i poslovanja s podmjerama 6.1. Potpora
mladim poljoprivrednicima i 6.3. Potpora razvoju malih poljoprivrednih
gospodarstava. Kroz proteklo vremensko razdoblje za Mjere 4 i 6, potporu je
zatražilo 10.058 korisnika, od čega su 2.922 korisnika isplaćena u ukupnom
iznosu od 111.386.493,51 €. Izdano je 3.570 odluka o dodjeli sredstava u
vrijednosti od 321.508.937,42 €, dok je ukupni iznos traženih potpora iznosio
999.190.504,63 € od čega je izdana 1.861 odluka o odbijanju u vrijednosti od
406.032.671,15 €. Od ukupnog zatraženog iznosa potpora, odobreno je
32,18%, dok ih je isplaćeno 34,64 %.
Ključne riječi: Program ruralnog razvoja RH 2014.-2020., Mjera 4, Mjera
6, EAFRD

UVOD
U Republici Hrvatskoj (RH) 99,24 % površine (56 594 km²) je ruralno (EUROSTAT,
2018), te na tom području živi 43% ukupnog stanovništva RH (1,82 milijuna stanovnika) (Ex-
ante evaluacija, 2018). Nakon završetka IPARD-a (pretpristupni program Europske unije za
razdoblje 2007. – 2013. godine koji je sastavni je dio IPA-e, Instrument pretpristupne pomoći,

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

497
 M. Čagalj, I. Grgić, J. Gugić

eng. Instrument for Preaccession Assistance), koji je za osnovne ciljeve imao pomoći
državama kandidatima i državama potencijalnim kandidatkinjama u njihovom usklađivanju i
provedbi pravne stečevine EU te pripremama za korištenje budućih EU fondova, Republika
Hrvatska je od 26. svibnja 2015. godine odobrenjem Europske komisije započela Program
ruralnog razvoja Republike Hrvatske (PRR RH) za razdoblje od 2014.-2020. godine. PRR RH
definirano je 18 mjera koje imaju za cilj povećanje konkurentnosti hrvatske poljoprivrede,
šumarstva i prerađivačke industrije, ali i unaprjeđenja životnih i radnih uvjeta u ruralnim
područjima uopće. Ukupna vrijednost PRR RH za razdoblje 2014. – 2020. je oko 2.4 milijarde
€, a sami PRR RH je dosada doživio četiri izmjene (http://ruralnirazvoj.hr). Ukupna
predviđena EU sredstva za PRR RH u razdoblju 2014.-2020. iznose 2.026.222.500 €, dok
ukupna javna sredstva potpore (EU i HR sredstva) iznose 2.383.294.500 €. PRR RH sastavni
je dio Europskog poljoprivrednog fonda za ruralni razvoj (eng. European Agricultural Fund
for Rural Development, EAFRD) koji se financira sredstvima Zajedničke poljoprivredne
politike (ZPP) i pridonosi ostvarivanju ciljeva strategije Europa 2020 promicanjem održivog
ruralnog razvoja u cijeloj Europskoj uniji (http://europski-fondovi.eu/eafrd). Republika
Hrvatska je nakon iskorištavanja sredstava iz IPARD-a, pristupanjem u punopravno članstvo
u EU (1. srpnja 2013. godine) stekla pravo na korištenje sredstava iz EAFRD-a. Sredstva
fonda EAFRD predviđena su za korištenje poljoprivrednim gospodarskim subjektima,
poljoprivrednim organizacijama, udrugama i sindikatima, udrugama za zaštitu okoliša,
organizacijama koje pružaju usluge u kulturi zajednice, uključujući medije, udruge žena,
poljoprivrednike, šumare i mlade. PRR RH sastoji se od 66 tipova operacija (TOP-ova) iz 40
pod-mjera unutar 18 mjera. Tipovi operacija su podijeljeni u 15 žarišnih područja, a unutar 6
prioriteta (Godišnje izvješće, 2017). Prioriteti su podijeljeni u skladu s aktivnostima iz
EAFRD:
PRIORITET 1: Promicanje znanja i inovacija u poljoprivredi, šumarstvu i ruralnim
područjima;
PRIORITET 2: Jačanje konkurentnosti svih vrsta poljoprivrede i jačanje održivosti
poljoprivrednih gospodarstava;
PRIORITET 3: Promicanje organiziranja prehrambenog lanca i upravljanje rizicima u
poljoprivredi;
PRIORITET 4: Obnavljanje, očuvanje i poboljšavanje ekosustava ovisnih o poljoprivredi i
šumarstvu;
PRIORITET 5: Promicanje učinkovitosti resursa i pomaka prema klimatski elastičnom
gospodarstvu s niskom razinom ugljika u poljoprivrednom, prehrambenom i šumarskom
sektoru;
PRIORITET 6: Promicanje socijalne uključenosti, smanjenje siromaštva i gospodarski razvoj
u ruralnim područjima.
Tipovi operacija 4.1.1. i 6.3.1. PRR RH odnose se na prioritet 2; jačanje konkurentnosti
svih vrsta poljoprivrede i jačanje održivosti poljoprivrednih gospodarstava, pod žarišnim
područjem 2A.. Žarišno područje 2A odnosi se na poljoprivredna gospodarstva kojima je
dodijeljena potpora u okviru PRR RH za ulaganja u restrukturiranje ili modernizaciju. Tip
operacije 6.1.1. PRR RH također ulazi u prioritet 2, ali pod žarišnim područjem 2B. Žarišno
područje 2B odnosi se na poljoprivredna gospodarstva kojima je dodijeljena potpora u okviru
PRR RH za plan razvoja poslovanja ili ulaganja za mlade poljoprivrednike. Tip operacije
4.2.1. PRR RH odnosi se na prioritet 3; promicanje organiziranja prehrambenog lanca i
upravljanje rizicima u poljoprivredi, pod žarišnim područjem 3A. Žarišno područje 3A odnosi

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Analiza korištenja sredstava iz programa ruralnog razvoja Republike Hrvatske 2014. – 2020. do kraja 2017. godine

se na poljoprivredna gospodarstva koja primaju potporu za sudjelovanje u programima

kvalitete, lokalnim tržištima i kratkim lancima opskrbe
Važna obilježja ruralnih gospodarstava u RH su da se sastoje od uglavnom malih i srednjih
poljoprivrednih gospodarstava, od kojih se velika većina mikrosubjekata s visokim udjelom
samozapošljavanja. Obzirom da mala i srednja poljoprivredna gospodarstva imaju visoki
potencijal za stvaranje novih radnih mjesta u ruralnim područjima i jačanju gospodarstva, ona
čine bazu potencijalnih korisnika PRR RH, što je i u skladu s prioritetima Zajedničke
poljoprivredne politike (ZPP) gdje su takva gospodarstva označena kao ključni element
gospodarskog razvitka EU.

MATERIJAL I METODE
Rezultati rada temelje se na podacima Godišnjih izvješća o provedbi PRR RH za razdoblje
od 2014.-2020. godine (2014. – 2017.), Evaluacijskim izvješćima, Dokumentima za praćenje
i evaluaciju PRR RH, Izvješćima Agencije za plaćanje u poljoprivredi, ribarstvu i ruralnom
razvoju (APPRRR). U radu su analizirani podaci odabranih Mjera 4- Ulaganja u fizičku
imovinu s podmjerama 4.1. Potpora za ulaganja u poljoprivredna gospodarstva i 4.2. Potpora
za ulaganja u preradu, marketing i/ili razvoj poljoprivrednih proizvoda, te Mjera 6- Razvoj
poljoprivrednih gospodarstava i poslovanja s podmjerama 6.1. Potpora mladim
poljoprivrednicima i 6.3. Potpora razvoju malih poljoprivrednih gospodarstava. Od svih
tipova operacija i mjera ove su u fokusu obzirom da se ruralna gospodarstava u RH sastoje od
uglavnom malih i srednjih poslovnih subjekata s potencijalom stvaranja novih radnih mjesta,
te da su u ovim tipovima operacija prihvatljivi troškovi nabavke mehanizacije i opreme.
U promatranim operacijama fokus je na objavljenim natječajima po godinama za navedene
operacije, broju prijavljenih, odobrenih i odbijenih projekata, izdanim odlukama o dodjeli
sredstava i njihovim vrijednostima, izdanim odlukama o odbijanju projekata i njihovim
vrijednostima, broju isplaćenih projekata i njihovom vrijednostima.
Podaci se odnose na razdoblje od 2014. do 2018. godine. Za statističku obradu podataka
korišten je statistički analitički softver SPSS (ver. 25.0).

REZULTATI I RASPRAVA
Od početka provođenja PRR RH pa do kraja 2017. godine (31. prosinca 2017.) RH je
započela s provedbom 16 mjera, odnosno 29 podmjera kroz 48 TOP-a pod svih 16 žarišnih
područja. Od ukupnih predviđenih javnih sredstava i sredstava EU u iznosu od 2.383.294.500
€, u promatranom razdoblju odobreno je 34 % javnih sredstava (813.372.640,78 €). Od
ukupno odobrenih javnih sredstava, u 2017. godini odobreno je gotovo 50% sredstava
(405.787.165,91 €) (Tablica 1).
Od početka provođenja PRR RH alocirano je za Prioritet 2 ukupno 711.003.205,43 €, od
čega za žarišno područje 2A 592.135.000,00 €, dok je za žarišno područje 2B alocirano
ukupno 54.339.869,28 €. Za prioritet 3 alocirano je ukupno 278.956.380,04 €, od čega za
žarišno područje 3A 104.165.359,48 €. Za prioritet 4 alocirano je ukupno 659.748.724,27 €,
prioritet 5 ukupno 200.597.894,12 €, te prioritet 6 ukupno 468.241.752,40 € (Grafikon 1).
Najviše sredstava alocirano je za Prioritet 2 (31%), Prioritet 4 (28%), dok je najmanje
sredstava alocirano za Prioritet 5 (9%).

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800
711
660
700

600
468
500

400
279
300
200
200

100

0
Prioritet 2 Prioritet 3 Prioritet 4 Prioritet 5 Prioritet 6
(Priority 2) (Priority 3) (Priority 4) (Priority 5) (Priority 6)

Grafikon 1 Alocirana sredstva po prioritetima PRR RH 2014.-2020. u milijunima €

Graph 1 Alocated resources within priorities for Programme of Rural Development for the
Republic of Croatia for the period 2014.-2020. in million €
Izvor: Kalkulacije autora / Source: Author calculations

U dosadašnjem razdoblju provođenja PRR RH, najviše zahtjeva 5.664 za potporu pristiglo
je za Mjeru 6.3.1. „Potpora razvoju malih poljoprivrednih gospodarstava“ kroz 2 objavljena
natječaja (Grafikon 2). Za drugi natječaj koji je bio otvoren do ožujka 2017. godine,
administrativna kontrola je završila, ali nije bilo isplata. U prvom natječaju, od 1.475 zahtjeva,
za 996 korisnika su izdane odluke o dodjeli sredstava (67.26 % od ukupno prijavljenih), a
ukupno je isplaćeno svih 996 korisnika (100%). Druga mjera s najviše prijava 1.579 za
potporu je Mjera 4.1.1. „Restrukturiranje, modernizacija i povećanje konkurentnosti
poljoprivrednih gospodarstava“ kroz 7 objavljenih natječaja. Od 404 izdane odluke o dodjeli
sredstava, što je 25.59 % od ukupno pristiglih zahtjeva, isplaćeno je ukupno 316 korisnika,
odnosno 78.22 % (Grafikon 2). Za Mjeru 6.1.1. „Potpora mladim poljoprivrednicima, kroz 2
natječaja, pristiglo je ukupno 1.245 zahtjeva za potporu. Za drugi natječaj, koji je bio objavljen
do veljače 2017. u cijelosti je završena administrativna obrada, ali nije bilo isplata. U prvom
natječaju, na koji je pristiglo 432 zahtjeva, izdane su 282 odluke o dodjeli sredstava (65.28 %
od ukupno pristiglih zahtjeva), dok je isplaćeno svih 282 korisnika (100%) (Grafikon 2). U
promatranom vremenskom razdoblju, najmanje prijava 191 pristiglo je kroz 3 objavljenja
natječaja za Mjeru 4.2.1. „Povećanje dodane vrijednosti poljoprivrednim proizvodima“. Za
drugi i treći natječaj, administrativne kontrole do kraja 2017. godine su bile u tijeku. Na prvom
natječaju pristigao je 91 zahtjev, a izdana je 41 odluka o prihvaćanju (45.01 % od ukupno
pristiglih zahtjeva), dok je ukupno isplaćeno 36 korisnika (87.80 %) (Grafikon 2).

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1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
4.1.1.
800
4.2.1.
600
6.1.1.
400
6.3.1.
200
0
Broj zahtjeva Izdane odluke o Izdane odluke o Br. Isplaćenih
(Number of dodjeli dobijanju korisnika
requests) (Allocation (Decisions of (Number of paid
decisions issued) rejection) users)

Grafikon 2 Ukupan broj predanih zahtjeva,izdanih odluka o dodjeli i odluka o odbijanju, te

broj isplaćenih korisnika po odabranim mjerama za PRR RH od 2014.-2017. godine
Graph 2 The total number of submitted requests, issued decision of acceptance and issues
of rejection, and the number of paid beneficiaries by selected measures for Programme of
Rural Development for the Republic of Croatia in the period of 2014.-2017.
Izvor: Kalkulacije autora / Source: Author calcuations

Najviše prijava za potporu (5.644) bilo za Mjeru 6.3.1. „Potpora razvoju malih
poljoprivrednih gospodarstava“, kroz 2 objavljena natječaja, dok je najmanje prijava (191)
bilo za Mjeru 4.2.1. „Povećanje dodane vrijednosti poljoprivrednim proizvodima“, kroz 3
objavljena natječaja (Tablica 2). Najveći broj natječaja (7) u dosadašnjem vremenskom
razdoblju objavljen je za Mjeru 4.1.1. „Restrukturiranje, modernizacija i povećanje
konkurentnosti poljoprivrednih gospodarstava“, za koju je i zatraženo najviše potpore u
iznosu od 643.726.495,76 €, od čega je odobreno ukupno 37.88% sredstava, dok ih je
isplaćeno 30.240.642,05 € odnosno 12.40% imajući u vidu da je do kraja 2017. godine za 4
natječaja administrativna kontrola još bila u tijeku te da nije bilo isplata. Također, kao mjera
s najviše prijava, Mjera 6.1.1. ima i najveći postotak prijava s izdanim odlukama o odbijanju
(56.16 %). Najviše isplaćenih korisnika (996) je za mjeru 6.3.1. i to u ukupnom iznosu od
10.334.823,61 € (Tablica 2).

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ZAKLJUČAK
Za analizirane mjere i potpore iz PRR RH postoji veliki interes poljoprivrednika, što
potvrđuje i veliki broj prijava po natječajima, dok je iskoristivost sredstava za pojedine mjere
iznimno niska u odnosu na broj prijavljenih potpora. Od ukupno objavljenih 14 natječaja za
analizirane mjere, do kraja 2017. godine bila je u tijeku administrativna kontrola za njih 8.
Imajući u vidu činjenicu da je dodana vrijednost poljoprivrednog gospodarstva među
najnižima u EU, svakako više pozornosti bi trebalo posvetiti Mjeri 4.2.1. „Povećanje dodane
vrijednosti poljoprivrednim proizvodima“, za koju je u promatranom razdoblju bilo najmanje
prijava. Od 2018. godine poljoprivrednicima u RH na raspolaganju su i mikro i mali zajmovi,
te investicijski krediti, koji bi svakako trebali poboljšati konkurentnost poljoprivrednika kako
na domaćem, tako i na inozemnom tržištu poljoprivredno – prehrambenih proizvoda.

LITERATURA
Europski poljoprivredni fonda za ruralni razvoj - EAFRD (2018): http://europski-fondovi.eu/eafrd
EUROSTAT (2018): Factsheet on 2014-2020 Rural Development Programme for Croatia,
https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/rural-development-2014-2020/country-files/hr_en
Final Report Ex-ante Croatia Agriculture (2018): European Investment Bank,
https://ruralnirazvoj.hr/program/ostala-izvjesca/
Godišnje izvješće o provedbi programa ruralnog razvoja Republike Hrvatske za 2014 i 2015 godinu
(2016): https://ruralnirazvoj.hr/program/godisnja-izvjesca-o-provedbi/
Godišnje izvješće o provedbi programa ruralnog razvoja Republike Hrvatske za 2016 godinu (2017):
https://ruralnirazvoj.hr/program/godisnja-izvjesca-o-provedbi/
Godišnje izvješće o provedbi programa ruralnog razvoja Republike Hrvatske za 2017 godinu (2018):
https://ruralnirazvoj.hr/program/godisnja-izvjesca-o-provedbi/

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ANALYSIS OF ABSORBED FUNDS TILL THE END OF

2017 FROM THE RURAL DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAMME OF THE REPUBLIC OF CROATIA FOR
THE PERIOD 2014.-2020.
Marin ČAGALJ1, Ivo GRGIĆ2, Josip GUGIĆ3
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 Institute
for Adriatic Crops and Karst Reclamation, Put Duilova 11, 21 000 Split, Croatia
2University of Zagreb Faculty of Agriculutre, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
3University of Split, University Department of Marine Studies, Ruđera Boškovića 37, 21 000 Split,

Croatia

ABSTRACT
The Program of the Rural Development of the Republic of Croatia for the
period of 2014-2020 had been approved by the European Commission on May
26, 2015. The Rural Development Program of the Republic of Croatia defines
6 priorities with 18 measures aimed at increasing the competitiveness of
Croatian agriculture, forestry, processing industry and improving living and
working conditions in rural areas. The program is worth about 2.4 billion €,
and have been four time changed until 2018. The focus of this paper is on the
Measure 4 - Investments in Physical Property with sub measures 4.1. Aid for
investments in agricultural holdings, and 4.2. Support for investment in the
processing, marketing and /or development of agricultural food products, and
Measure 6 - Development of farms and operations with sub measures 6.1.
Support to young farmers and 6.3. Support to the development of small
agricultural holdings. Over the past period for Measures 4 and 6, 10.058
beneficiaries were requested, of which 2.922 users were paid in the total
amount of 835,398,701.29 kn. There were 3.570 decisions on allocation of
funds in the amount of 2,411,317,030.68 kn, while the total amount of the
requested grants amounted to 7,493,928,784.69 kn, of which were issued 1.861
rejection decisions worth 3,045,245,033.60 kn. Out of the total requested
amount of aid, 32.18% was approved, while 34.64% was paid out.
Keywords: Rural Development Programme of the Republic of Croatia for
the Period 2014.-2020., Measure 4, Measure 6, EAFRD

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Pregledni rad
ZADACI Review paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

ROMANIAN’S EXPERIENCE AND PERSPECTIVES

REGARDING TO EDUCATION IN BIOSYSTEMS
ENGINEERING
Nicolae FILIP, Victor ROS, Teodora DEAC*, Lucian FECHETE-TUTUNARU
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
Technical University from Cluj-Napoca, B-dul Muncii, no.103-105, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

ABSTRACT
The paper is an analysis regarding to the effect on the development of MSc
in Biosystem Engineering at the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca.
Contextually, starting with the European premise in this direction, educational
partnerships and experience exchanges for this purpose, is being set up.
Detailed statistics on the profile of recruited students and their employability
are also presented. This is an argument for the need to develop studies in the
Engineering of Biosystems for Agriculture. The experience gained in the
development of this study program is quantified in the orientation directions of
the specialist profile in this field and in identifying the future requirements
imposed on the didactic process.
Keywords: biosystems engineering, education, master’s degrees, education,
employment.

INTRODUCTION
The concept of Biosystem Engineering has been used for the first time in the academic
world since the 1960s, in the US, designating an area on the borderland between life sciences
(biology, environment) and engineering. Specifically, the concept of biosystem engineering
referred to the application of methods and principles of engineering in biology, for a better
understanding, modeling of biological systems.
The subsequent evolution, the development of the concept and its application in more and
more fields was achieved in accordance with the necessities of the major structural changes
faced by society: climate change, increasing population, increasing environmental pollution,
technological reorientation of agriculture, building a close relationship between human and
nature.

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 N. Filip, V. Ros, T. Deac, L. Fechete-Tutunaru

In the ERABEE program, "Biosystem Engineering" is defined as "a field of engineering

that integrates engineering science and design with applied biology, environmental and
agricultural sciences. It represents an evolution of the Agricultural Engineering discipline
applied to all living organisms not including biomedical applications. Therefore, Biosystems
Engineering is the branch of engineering that applies engineering sciences to solve problems
involving biological systems." (ERABEE, 2007).
In order to implement the above-mentioned principles, a new professional field, a
specialist engineer in the Biosystem Engineering, was created. This will be able to apply the
engineering principles and methods for solving problems involving biological systems in the
field of agriculture, food industry, etc. This created the premises of the university curriculum
orientation towards a new field, Biosystems Engineering in agriculture and food industry (Ros
et al., 2005).

The context of the development of Master's degree in Biosystem Engineering

In the European Union Context, the emergence and development of university degree
programs in the field of Biosystems Engineering applied in agriculture and food industry was
slower, being required by two basic components: the evolution of the European educational
framework and the technological reorientation of agriculture and the necessity to implement
the principles of bio-system engineering in agriculture and food industry (Kosutic et al.,
2006).
Also, the European tendency towards technological reorientation in the field of agriculture
has led to the assimilation of a new approach to the Human - Soil - Agricultural machine,
including the environmental condition as a component of equal importance. The necessity to
implement the principles of Biosystem Engineering in practice, also required the creation of
a new qualification on the labor market, a specialist engineer in systems bioengineering
(Briassoulis and Panagakis, 2005). Efforts to promote these new concepts have resulted in
initiatives to harmonize the curriculum for the training of specialists in this field, and also the
need to define new occupational profiles. In this context, programs such as ERABEE have
provided support for the development of a platform for dialogue between universities
throughout the European continent.
The Romania representation in the ERABEE project is carried out by the Technical
University of Cluj-Napoca, the Faculty of Mechanics, which represents a national pawn in the
development of Biosystem Engineering education. In 2009 was developed an Msc program
named “Engineering of Mechanical Biosystems for Agriculture and Food Industry” but in the
context of what the labor market demands and current trends in the field of bio-system
engineering, was renamed “Biosystems Engineering in Agriculture and Food Industry”. The
Master's program has been developed in line with European trends in the modification of the
curriculum specific to the training of specialists in agriculture and food industry, due to the
demand of specialists applying the principles of bio-system engineering in agriculture and
food industry and as a extension of bachelor education in the agricultural machinery field at
Technical University from Cluj-Napoca, Mechanics Faculty (Filip, 2010).
Starting from these prerequisites, the main aim of the specialization "Biosystems
Engineering in Agriculture and Food Industry" is: the formation of highly qualified specialists
- engineers, graduates of the master cycle, in the field of mechanical engineering, according
to the current economic and social needs of Romania, capable of responding to the social

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order in the agriculture and food industry, whose professional and scientific capacity meets
the required quality criteria (Filip, 2008). There were also two components that formed the
basis of the managerial analysis of the opportunity and the didactic and scientific potential to
support this new program:
- investigating the need for training in the field, starting from the principles of a modern,
sustainable agriculture;
- didactic capacity quantified by lecturers' training and applied scientific level defined
by the level of endowment of the specialized laboratories in order to ensure adequate
training, according to the principles agreed in ERABEE.
Of course, before these steps, were didactic and research initiatives that ensured the
initiation and development of the field (Șahin et al., 2016).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to investigate the training requirements of the specialists in the field of
Agricultural Mechanics and Biosystem Engineering, starting from the principles of a modern
and sustainable agriculture (Fuchs, 2007), was materialized in 2011 through an initiative of
the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Mechanics, respectively a study
conducted at the national level. In this way, it has been tried to investigate the situation of
agriculture at national level, the influencing main factors of Romanian farms efficiency, the
national interest fields in agriculture and, the importance of implementing the principles of
Biosystems Engineering for Romanian farmers.
Thus, a nationwide survey with a regional distribution was carried out, covering the
regions with intensive agricultural activity. The survey was conducted in medium and large
farms in 14 Romanians counties. The analysis of the data obtained from the survey shows
that:
- young generations of agriculture and food industry specialists need to know the latest
news in the field of agriculture and bio-systems (50% of respondents agree or totally
agree with it);
- agricultural specialists must have knowledge in the field of Biosystem Engineering
and they must be able to implement them in practice (57% of respondents agreed with
this statement);
- one of the main factors that will lead to the efficiency of Romanian farms is the green
energy and biomass production (65% of respondents are agreed with this statement,
0,7% of respondences being in full agreement with this);
- the production and use of renewable energy sources in agriculture, in line with the area
potential is an important aspect in the future development of agriculture in our country
(57,17% of respondents agreed with that: this aspect is very important and 43,83 %
said it was just important. Noteworthy is that no farmer among the respondents did not
respond negatively to this statement, which demonstrates the importance of acquiring
knowledge and abilities in this field of young specialists).
- the production of raw material for the production of biomaterials for industry was also
considered as an important aspect for farmers (64,28% of the respondents considered
this important or very important, the remaining 35,74% having no opinion on this
statement).

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In this context (Figure 1), the development of Master's studies in the field of Biosystems
Engineering for Agriculture and Food Industry has become a necessity dictated by the need
of specialists with solid knowledge in the field of bioengineering of systems, production of
bio-raw materials for industry, production of biofuels, alternative energy sources for farm
efficiency. These issues were the basis for developing the educational framework specific to
the Master's program "Biosystem Engineering in Agriculture and Food Industry".

The educational framework of the Romanian Biosystems Engineering

The vision of the Msc program "Biosystem Engineering in Agriculture and Food Industry"
is to deepen basic concepts (acquired by students during their undergraduate studies) in
closely areas related to hardware and its applications in the industrial and research fields (Filip
and Ros, 2008). Thus, the aim of the program are to train highly qualified specialists -
engineers, graduates of the master cycle - in the field of bio-system engineering, according to
the current economic and social needs of Romania, with competences in research,
development and exploitation of complex products requiring knowledge interdisciplinary.
The specialization's perspective consists in training the specialists in a modern,
continuously developing and unprofessionally developed field all over the world. This
Master's program aims to provide students in the second cycle, to deepen their knowledge and
to develop skills in the field of bachelor studies or in a close field, or to obtain complementary
competencies for those who have been licensed in other fields.
A basic principle in the development of the specialization was the provision of a common
basic platform, which would ensure a more generous accessibility to the graduates interested
in the specialization in the field.
In this context, the specific objectives of the specialization were defined:
- to ensure the university communities, the beneficiaries and the public in general that
the education providing organization, accredited or authorized to organize a study
programme, proves to comply with the minimum quality standards of a higher
education institution;
- to support higher education institutions in order to develop a quality management and
culture and to demonstrate their state, by relevant proof and documents;
- to determine the education providing organization to self-valuate and to cooperate in
its external evaluation in order to ensure and increase quality;
- to identify and publish any functioning attempt of a programme that does not comply
with the minimum standards of academic quality.
The specific objectives defined are related to the formation of highly qualified specialists
for the particular fields directly or indirectly related to the themes of the courses proposed for
this study program.
The thematic directions of the courses related to the specific objectives, reflected in the
acquired competencies, refer mainly to the following aspects:
- Current fundamental knowledges regarding the construction and operation of
machinery and installations in agriculture and food industry;
- Basics knowledges of the effect of the use of equipment and installations on the
environment and the legislative framework that monitors the environmental impact;

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 Romanian’s experience and perspectives regarding to education in biosystems engineering

- Advanced fundamental knowledges, based on the assimilation of modern concepts

regarding the dynamics of the development of the agricultural and food industry
equipment;
- Basic elements on biodegradable materials used in the food industry;
- A distinct set of disciplines addresses the field of advanced interdisciplinary
knowledge related to: techniques and equipment for design and technological
development through the automation of processes and installations in agriculture and
food industry; control and reduction of chemical and noise pollution caused by specific
equipment and installations.
The benefits of the carried-out grants consist in development of material basis and certain
specialized laboratories, where the students can attend the applicative courses according to
syllabus. The educational infrastructure consists of specialized laboratories where the teachers
and students carry out the application class and at the same time the research.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Master's Degree Program "Biosystem Engineering in Agriculture and Food Industry"
provides training on level 7 of the EQF (Bologna cycle II - master studies) mainly for students
who have graduated from the Bachelor Cycle of the Agriculture and Food Engineering Studies
Program and the Food Industry in the field of Basic Engineering Sciences, but also for
graduates of related study programs such as Fine Mechanics and Nanotechnologies, Heat and
Thermal Equipment, Mechatronics and Agricultural Sciences.
The main requirements of direct beneficiaries, young engineers, are related to successful
integration into the labor market. In this respect, the study program enjoys an undeniable
success due mainly to the collaboration relations with Romanian and foreign companies
interested in the development of mechanical engineering oriented towards the engineering of
bio-systems for agriculture and food industry. These collaborative relationships are
materialized by involving students in solving projects launched by companies and firms active
in the field, thus integrating young graduates into the national and European economic
environment.
Biosystem Engineering Education is 8 years old, currently the sixth graduate course
preparing the dissertation. Statistically, the annual evolution of the number of students
compared to the number of those who completed the studies is shown in Figure 1.
The number of students enrolled in the first year of the master’s program remained
relatively constant between 2009 and 2011, recording a slight increase between 2011 and
2018. As shown in Figure 1, from of a total 20 students enrolled in the first year of study, in
2009 (the first year of the specialization), in 2011 graduated a total of 15 students, ie a higher
percentage (93.75%) of the students promoted in the second year of study. Compared with
students enrolled in the first year in 2011, the number of students promoted since the first year
of the second year increase (13 graduates from 20 enrolled in the first year of 2011). In 2012,
the graduation degree of students from the first year of studies in the 2nd year of study is
growing again (20 promoted students), but the percentage of graduates drops to 75%. In 2014,
the degree of graduation increases again, reaching 85.71%.
In conclusion "Biosystems Engineering in Agriculture and Food Industry" master’s
program enjoys the attention of the young graduates of the bachelor programs, as evidenced

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 N. Filip, V. Ros, T. Deac, L. Fechete-Tutunaru

by the number of students enrolled in the first year of the study program. Also, the high
percentage of graduate students (over 75%) demonstrate that a significant percentage of the
students enrolled in the first year of the study program, promoted in the second year,
successfully completing the final study exam.
The statistical data presented demonstrate that:
- A high percentage of master students enrolled in the first year of study of the
specialization promoted in the second year of studies, successfully completing the final
examination;
- The dynamics of the students during the Master's degree demonstrates their good
preparation in terms of the necessary initial knowledge and the increased interest in
the professional training in the field of bio-system engineering, coming from the labor
market conditions and needs imposed by the orientation of the field of agricultural
engineering towards biology.
- Regarding the initial engineering training of the students of this program, the graph in
Figure 2 highlights the following aspects:
- There is a significant percentage of graduates of agricultural faculties (in the first year
of specialization 20% of the candidates came from the field of agricultural engineering,
the percentage then rising to 69.1% in 2013) that have accessed this program,
presenting significant elements of education in agricultural mechanical engineering.
The reason for this is the need to deepen knowledge about the amount of equipment
used to apply agricultural technology;
- A moderate percentage of trainees already have a basic mechanical engineering
training (60% in 2009, which drops to 38.10% of 1st year students from mechanical
engineering), continuing to an advanced level of initial training;
- Environmental Faculty graduates (in 2009, 15% of students enrolled in the first year
coming from other fields in general, of which a significant percentage came from the
environment) found in this program the opportunity to deepen knowledge on
applicability in particular on renewable energies.

25

20

15

10

Total number of graduate students

Number of students enrolled in the first years of study program
Number of students enrolled in the second years of study program

Figure 1 The annual evolution of master students compared with number of graduates

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 Romanian’s experience and perspectives regarding to education in biosystems engineering

25

20

15

10

Agricultural Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Other graduate programs

Figure 2 Initial engineering training of the students of the Msc program

Another priority in order to investigate this specialization was employability of the

graduate’s students. As can be seen from the statistics shown in Figure 3:
- The degree of employability of graduate students is moderate in the earliest graduates
(20% of students are engaged in the field), registering an increase starting with the
third graduate promotion (the percentage rises to 38.10% in 2014), indicating an
increase of the employers' interest for bioengineering specialists;
- The analysis of the data presented also shows an increasing interest for the graduates
of the specialization, not only of the employers in the field of agricultural engineering
but also in other fields of the labor market. The dynamics of the evolution of the
number of students in the field shows a positive trend, the degree of employability in
the field at graduates increasing from 30% in 2010 (graduation of the first promotion)
to 38,10% in 2014;
- Also, the increase in the employability of the graduates at 6 months from the
graduation (from 60% in 2010 to 66,67% of the third promotion - 2014) shown in
Figure 4, indicates the recognition of their good training in the agriculture field, the
demonstration of high-level of theoretical knowledge, the ability to apply them in
practice and the demonstration of skills, competences acquired and learned during the
study years.
The dynamics of the percentage of graduates employed in the field versus the total number
of graduates (Figure 5) indicates:
- From the first graduate students (2010-2011), a moderate percentage of master students
were employed in mechanical engineering / bioengineering immediately after they
graduated master’s studies (30% of all graduates). But the situation was changed at
least 6 months after graduation, when the number of graduates employed in the
specialization field is growing significantly (6 months post graduation statistics
indicate that 60% of all graduates have been involved in the specialization field). This
is due to the increase in the visibility of master program on the labor market and the
high degree of graduate education demonstrated by them;

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 N. Filip, V. Ros, T. Deac, L. Fechete-Tutunaru

- The dynamics of the employability degree of the graduates of the specialization in the
following years demonstrates the increased visibility of the Msc program and the
increasing interest of the employers for the bioengineering specialists, but at the same
time it is also influenced by the economic conditions during 2010-2018.

25

20

15

10

Employed in the master program field at the graduation

Total number of graduate students
Number of students enrolled in the first years of study program
Number of students enrolled in the second years of study program
Total employees

Figure 3 Employabylity of graduate students

25

20

15

10

Employed in the master program field at 6 month after

graduation
Total number of graduates studies

Number of students enrolled in the first years of study program

Figure 4 Employability of graduated students at 6 months after graduation

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 Romanian’s experience and perspectives regarding to education in biosystems engineering

20

15

10

Total number of graduate students

Employed in the master program field at the graduation
Employed in the master program field at 6 month after graduation

Figure 5 The dynamics of the percentage of graduates employed in the field

at the end of master studies, respectively 6 months after the graduated versus
the total number of graduate’s students

Trends in qualitative development and continuity of study program

The qualitative development of the study program "Biosystems Engineering in Agriculture
and Food Industry", is carried out in accordance with the requirements imposed by the
Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in Higher Education in Romania as part of
the European Higher Education Area (Briassoulis and Panagakis, 2006). The trends in the
development of master's degree program follow the European trend of teacher development
in the field of mechanical engineering in general, presenting particularities of the field of
bioengineering. On the other hand, the objectives established at institutional level for the
future development of the university curriculum are related to the correlation of the study
subjects with the development of the field of bioengineering in Romania and the requirements
of the employers in the field. Thus, in order to highlight the qualitative development and
ensure the continuity of the study program (Weir, 2017), it is envisaged to intensify the
collaboration relations with employers in the field of bioengineering in order to ensure the
graduates have the highest knowledge and abilities.
Also, in the next period will be the development of the university curriculum so as to offer
the graduates high quality-oriented knowledge, both theoretical and practical, mainly to the
field of bioengineering applied in agriculture in general and in the field of bioenergy
production, biofuels and last but not least of biomaterials. The elaboration of the discipline
records will be done in full compliance with the Standards and Guidelines for Quality
Assurance in National Higher Education, respectively with European Standards and
Methodologies for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (European Commision, 2009).
An important objective assumed in the qualitative development and continuity of the study
program is to increase the degree of insertion of the graduates in the economic and social
environment as a result of the quality of the knowledge and abilities gained from the university
curriculum. The future trends of development aim to intensify the collaboration relations with

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the companies, generally international companies, which are active in the field of bioenergy,
biofuel production.
Thus, we can say that for the Romanian education, the training of bioengineering
specialists is a real challenge. The continuity of the study program or the training of the
bioengineering specialists is ensured by the growing demand of specialists in the field from
the economic environment. One argument that supports the aforementioned is that over the
last four years, more than 240,000,000 euros have been invested in the production of biofuels
by national and international companies. As a result, the national biofuel market is constantly
growing and growing, leading to an increase in the demand for specialists in the field. Also,
in recent years there has been an increase in agricultural land cultivated with energy plants
(over 500000 ha). In this context, an immediate demand was created by specialists, engineers
with competences in the field of biofuels and energy crop production. Thus, it is expected that
in the near future, there will be a significant increase in demand by companies of such
specialists. This is a new argument in order to ensure the continuity of the study program.

CONCLUSIONS
The development of the Master's program "Biosystem Engineering in Agriculture and
Food Industry" was carried out, first of all, in the context of the major changes (globalization,
climate change, population aging) and secondly in the European tendency towards
technological reorientation in the field agriculture.
In this context, the specialization of Master's (Bachelor's cycle 2) developed at the
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Mechanics, answers the need to define new
educational profiles imposed by the economic realities, based on services and the role of
knowledge and innovation in ensuring competitiveness.
As a participant in the European projects (eg ERABEE) developed to create platforms for
dialogue between European universities, in order to harmonize the educational curriculum for
the training of bioengineering specialists, our university is a national pawn to develop
education in Biosystem Engineering.
The developed university curriculum has been achieved both in accordance with the
objectives established by the European projects mentioned above and following the meetings
with representatives of the economic environment, national and international companies
active in the field of bioengineering in general and the production of energy plants or biofuels
in particular.
The quality of the graduates' training is demonstrated by the high degree of employability
both at the end of the studies, especially after 6 months. Also, the statistics regarding the
number of students enrolled in the 1st year, indicate an increase in the degree of visibility of
the specialization during the whole functioning period.
Regarding the fields of study (Master's degree I) from which the master students come,
the future specialists in the field of Bioengineering, observe an increased interest from the
engineers from the field of agricultural engineering and mechanical engineering, but not only,
to be noted the number of those who come from the field of environmental protection.
For the purpose of the qualitative development and the continuity of the study program it
is envisaged to increase the degree of insertion of the graduates in the economic and social

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environment as a result of the quality of the acquired knowledge and abilities as well as the
intensification of the relations with the economic environment, the direct beneficiary of the
result obtained at the completion of the studies.
In accordance with the development of bioengineering at European level and especially at
the national level, as well as the rapid increase of investments in energy production from
energy crops and biofuel production, a significant increase of the demand of specalists with
competences in bioengineering is expected in the near future.

REFERENCES
Briassoulis, D., Panagakis, P. (2005). Agricultural Engineering programmes meeting theFEANI and
EurAgEng criteria. Proceedings of 6th USAEE Workshop, Budapest.
Briassoulis, D., Panagakis, P. (2006). Agricultural Engineering programmes meeting the FEANI and
EurAgEng criteria. Proceedings of 7th USAEE Workshop, Vilnius.
Filip, N. (2010). Quality assurance and assessment frameworks of biosystems engineering studies in
Romania, Proceedings of the 5th ERABEE Workshop on “Quality Assurance & Assessment
Frameworks of Biosystems Engineering studies” Prague, 140-146
Filip, N., Ros, V. (2008). The emerging of biosystems engineering discipline in romania, Proceedings
of the 1st ERABEE Workshop on “Definition of the Emerging Biosystems Engineering Discipline
in Europe”, Madrid, 106-111.
Filip, N. (2008). Update and expand the scope of biosystems engineering programs of studies placing
emphasis on the areas of bio-fuels, biomaterials and quality of products, Romanian context,
Proceedings of the 2nd ERABEE Workshop on Update and expand the scope of Biosystems
Engineering programs of studies, placing emphasis οn the areas of bio-fuels, bio-materials and
quality of products” Dublin, 123-129.
Fuchs, W. (2007). How engineers can contribute towards more innovation in Europe, European institute
of Technology, Brusels.
Kosutic, S., a.o. Agricultural Engineering in South East Europe, status and prospects. Session of Club
of Bologna.
Pierluigi, F., Bill, D. (2017). An invited editorial interview with Professor Pierluigi Febo, Professor of
Agricultural Engineering, University of Palermo, on the topic of the development of a European
dimension in higher education for Biosystems Engineering. Biosystems Engineering, vol.156, i-iii.
Ros, V., Lammers. P. S., Mandru, D. (2005). An Approach to Bisosystems Engineering Education in
the Agricultural Field. 33th Symposium Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering, Opatija, Croatia,
13 – 20;
Şahin, A., Kumar, A., Altun, B. (2016). There is a Need for Pedagogical Approach to Agricultural
Education. ournal of Agricultural Faculty of Uludag University., Turky, Vol. 30, Number: Special
Issue 17-23.
Weir, M. H., Mitchell, J., Libarkin, J., Mraz, A. L. (2017), Board # 156 : QMRA Wiki: An Educational
Tool for Interdisciplinary Teaching of Risk Modeling in Engineering Curricula Paper presented at
2017 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Columbus, Ohio. https://peer.asee.org/27787
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http://www.erabee.aua.gr/

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

STAVOVI STUDENATA O ULOZI AGROTURIZMA U

OČUVANJU RURALNOG PROSTORA
Ivo GRGIĆ1*, Kristina BATELIĆ2, Kristina SVRŽNJAK3, Jernej PRIŠENK4,
Magdalena ZRAKIĆ1
*
E-mail dopisnog utora: [email protected]
1 Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Agronomski fakultet, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10 000 Zagreb, Hrvatska
2 Javorinska 3, 10 000 Zagreb, Hrvatska
3 Visoko gospodarsko učilište u Križevcima, Mislava Demerca 1, 48260 Križevci
4 Fakulteta za kmetijstvo in biosistemske vede, Pivola 10, 2311 Hoče, Slovenija

SAŽETAK
Ruralni prostor Europe doživljava značajne promjene pri čemu je
najizraženiji proces depopulacije. Posljedica toga su promjene u strukturi
djelatnosti pri čemu nestaju mnoga tradicijska zanimanja. Značajne promjene
su i kod poljoprivrede koja je dugo bila glavna djelatnost ruralnog prostora. U
okviru brojnih načina revitalizacije ruralnog prostora važna je uloga
agroturizma, posebno u povećanju dohotka poljoprivrednika što omogućava
zadržavanje stanovništva. Cilj rada je utvrditi stavove studenata diplomskih
studija na Szent Istvan Sveučilištu u Gödöllu u Mađarskoj i Agronomskom
fakultetu u Zagrebu o ulozi agroturizma u očuvanju ruralnog prostora. U
istraživanju je sudjelovalo 98 studenata i to 33 studenta u Gödöllu te 65
studenata u Zagrebu. Istraživanje je provedeno tijekom mjeseca travnja 2017.
godine. U istraživanju se polazi od pretpostavke da studenti percipiraju
agroturizam kao priliku u očuvanju ruralnog prostora te da ne postoje
statistički značajne razlike među stavovima dviju skupina ispitanika. Većina
ispitanih navodi da agroturizam omogućava razvoj ruralne ekonomije,
povećava vrijednost postojeće poljoprivredne proizvodnje, doprinosi
zadržavanju ljudi u ruralnom prostoru, obogaćuje ukupnu turističku djelatnost
države te omogućuje stvaranje novih radnih mjesta. Također, njih 42% se u
potpunosti slaže kako bi agroturizam trebalo poticati novčanim potporama od
strane države te se u istom postotku slažu i s izjavom da se kroz agroturizam
povećava konkurentnost poljoprivrednog gospodarstva te da poljoprivrednici
lakše plasiraju svoje proizvode i usluge kroz agroturizam.
Ključne riječi: agroturizam, revitalizacija ruralnog prostora, mišljenje
studenata

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

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 I. Grgić, K. Batelić, K. Svržnjak, J. Prišenk, M. Zrakić

UVOD
Ruralni prostor mnogih europskih država doživio je svekoliku devastaciju te se kao mjera
njegove revitalizacije navodi i poticanje razvitka agroturizma. Jedan od glavnih ciljeva
agroturizma je povećanje dohotka poljoprivrednika što omogućava zadržavanje stanovništva
u ruralnom prostoru te je potpora njegovoj ukupnoj održivosti. Agroturizam nudi proizvode
koji se ne mogu u potpunosti standardizirati čime se njegova privlačnost još više povećava na
turističkom tržištu. Agroturizam omogućuje samozapošljavanje i ostanak mladih na selu,
čime postaje bitan instrument demografske revitalizacije ruralnih prostora. I samo lokalno
gospodarstvo se može unaprijediti razvitkom agroturizma zbog toga što on educira javnost o
važnosti poljoprivrede i njezinom doprinosu ukupnom gospodarstvu. Istovremeno, razlike
između urbanih i ruralnih sredina se smanjuju te se naglašava potreba za očuvanjem ruralnih
sredina (Brščić, 2016.).
Agroturizam čuva lokalni identitet i okoliš, jača autohtonu, tradicijsku i ekološku
proizvodnju. Važnost mu se najviše očituje u kombiniranju temeljnih resursa poljoprivredne
proizvodnje: tradicionalnih proizvoda, tradicije te gastronomije. Ciljani potrošači za
proizvode i usluge agroturizma su stanovnici urbanih središta.
Cilj rada je utvrditi stavove studenata diplomskih studija na Szent Istvan Sveučilištu u
Gödöllu u Mađarskoj i Agronomskom fakultetu u Zagrebu o ulozi agroturizma u očuvanju
ruralnog prostora. U istraživanju se polazi od pretpostavke da studenti percipiraju agroturizam
kao priliku za očuvanje ruralnog prostora i da ne postoje statistički značajne razlike među
stavovima skupina ispitanika.

MATERIJAL I METODE
Za potrebe istraživanja anketirani su studenti diplomskih studija Agronomskog fakulteta
Sveučilišta u Zagrebu te Sveučilišta Szent Istvana u Gödöllu, Mađarska. Pitanja u anketnom
upitniku su bila otvorenog i zatvorenog tipa, a za mjerenje stavova korištena je Likertova
ljestvica koja omogućuje doznati stupanj suglasja ispitanika s određenom tvrdnjom.
Istraživanje je provedeno tijekom mjeseca travnja 2017. godine. Rezultati rada su prikazani
grafički i tablično, a obrađeni pomoću SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Science)
programa.

REZULTATI I DISKUSIJA
Ukupno je anketirano 98 osoba, više ženskih (53) nego muških te je većina odrasla u
urbanom središtu.
Ispitanicima je ponuđeno nekoliko obilježja koja bi važila za ruralni prostor. Primjetne su
razlike između grupa ispitanika uvjetovane povijesnim razvojem poljoprivrede i ruralnog
prostora u Hrvatskoj i Mađarskoj.
Karakteristika koju ispitanici smatraju najrelevantnijom je „depopulacija“. Ruralni prostor
najčešće napuštaju mlade, obrazovanije i nezaposlene osobe te osobe koje još nisu zasnovale
obitelj (Žutinić i sur. 2008.). Najčešći razlozi migriranja iz sela u grad jesu nezaposlenost te
težnja za poboljšanjem životnog standarda, a čije ostvarenje oni vide jedino u odlasku u veća
urbana središta.

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Drugo, po jakosti, obilježje ruralnog prostora za ispitanike je proces senilizacije odnosno

proces starenja stanovništva. Mnoga ruralna područja su bila pod prijetnjom demografskog
„pražnjenja“ i starenja već u prvoj polovici 20. stoljeća. Nažalost, selo u sve većem postotku
postaje mjesto staračkih gospodarstava i domaćinstava bez potencijalnih nasljednika, a nakon
sadašnjih stanovnika, selo postaje samo geografski pojam. Kod populacije gdje prevladava
starije stanovništvo, smanjena je ekonomska aktivnost, a zapostavljen je i društveni i kulturni
život. Manje se ulaže u gospodarstvo, obradivo zemljište se slabije obrađuje, a gospodarski i
stambeni objekti polako propadaju zbog neodržavanja. Općenito, u takvim ruralnim
sredinama prevladava depresivna i nostalgična atmosfera. Kako bi se usporilo starenje
ruralnog stanovništva, potrebno je poduzeti neke mjere pronatalitetne populacijske politike
čime bi se ravnoteža među dobnim skupinama uravnotežila.

Tablica 1 Percipirane karakteristike ruralnog prostora

Table 1 Perceived characteristics of the rural area
Ukupno Hi kvadrat (p)
Zagreb Gödöllő
Total Chi-square (p)

Depopulacija N 56 24 80
F=2,632(0,105)
Depopulation % 86,2 72,7 81,6

Senilizacija N 51 14 65
F=12,727(0,000)
Senilization % 78,5 42,4 66,3

Smanjenje poljoprivredne
proizvodnje N 44 13 57
F=7,203(0,007)
The reduction of agricultural % 67,7 39,4 58,2
production
Niža obrazovna struktura u
odnosu na prosjek populacije N 36 14 50
Lower educational structure F=1,471(0,225)
in comparison to the average % 55,4 42,4 51, 0
population

Prilika za razvoj turizma N 23 12 35

Opportunities for tourism F=0,009(0,924)
development % 35,4 36,4 35,7

Moguć razvoj
nepoljoprivrednih djelatnosti N 19 7 26
F=0,722(0,395)
Possible development of non- % 29,2 21,2 26,5
agricultural activities
Generacijska obnova
stanovništva N 1 2 3
F=1,508(0,219)
Generational renewal of the % 1,5 6,1 3,1
population
Izvor: Anketa / Source: Survey

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 I. Grgić, K. Batelić, K. Svržnjak, J. Prišenk, M. Zrakić

U provedbi takve politike nužno je ispunjene tri temeljna cilja i to povećanje nataliteta,
doseljavanje pučanstva te povećanje zaposlenosti mladih radi sprečavanja njihova odlaska u
gradove ili inozemstvo. Dakle, da bi se usporila tendencija starenja stanovništva ruralnih
prostora, potrebno je povećati natalitet, čime bi se usporedno pomladio dobni sastav. Također,
nužno je poticati doseljavanje iz urbanih središta te povećanje mogućnosti za zaposlenjem
mladih radi sprečavanja njihova odlaska u urbana središta ili inozemstvo (Nejašmić i sur.,
2013.).
Kao drugu po važnosti karakteristiku ruralnog područja ispitanici percipiraju smanjenje
poljoprivredne proizvodnje, zatim nižu obrazovnu strukturu u odnosu na prosjek države.
Ruralni prostor se ne smatra velikom prilikom za razvoj turizma i razvoj nepoljoprivrednih
djelatnosti te ga najmanje percipiraju kao prostor kojega karakterizira generacijska obnova
stanovništva.
Kod svih navedenih percepcija postoji razlika između grupa ispitanika kao posljedica
različitosti u povijesti razvitka poljoprivrede i ruralnog prostora u Hrvatskoj i Mađarskoj.
Ispitanici primjećuju relativno smanjenje značenja poljoprivrede u ekonomskoj strukturi,
ali i jakost veze s drugim sektorima te posebno ističu komplementarnost poljoprivrede s
turizmom. I sam ruralni prostor je vrlo pogodan za odvijanje turističke djelatnosti. Ispitanici
primjećuju da danas ruralna područja privlače sve veći broj urbanog stanovništva koje traži
raznoliku ponudu što može ponuditi „ruralno“. Ruralni prostor pruža mnogo; od netaknute
prirode do brojnih autohtonih i tradicionalnih proizvoda.
Kod toga mora se voditi računa o održivom razvoju jer su ruralni i održivi razvoj pojmovi
koji su u vrlo uskoj vezi. Održivo podrazumijeva očuvanje i zaštitu posebice neobnovljivih
resursa. Dakle, nikakvo kratkoročno forsiranje razvoja nije dozvoljeno jer bi takvim
pristupom okoliš i netaknuti prirodni resursi počeli propadati. Kako bi se ruralni održivi razvoj
mogao provoditi, on mora biti temeljen na izravnoj vezi s tradicijom koja se mora uvažiti kao
glavni resurs za različite poduzetničke i gospodarske aktivnosti u ruralnom prostoru. Takvim
pristupom omogućilo bi se stvaranje novih djelatnosti i poslova, posebice u turističkom
sektoru. Stanovništvo bi dobivalo veće šanse za zaposlenje, a mogućnosti za obrazovanje
ruralnog stanovništva bi se značajno povećale. Razumljivo je da bi se time mladi „prisilili“
na ostanak u takvim područjima (Čavrak, 2003.).
Dvije trećine ispitanika smatra da je upravo agroturizam tip ruralnog turizma za kojeg su
čuli, a definiraju ga različito. Njihove odgovore možemo svrstati u četiri skupine i to:
Prva: „Agroturizam je pojam uži od ruralnog turizma, odvija se na poljoprivrednim
gospodarstvima na kojima je i dalje aktivna poljoprivredna djelatnost te je to dodatna
djelatnost kojom se povećava prihod gospodarstva.“
Druga: „Agroturizam je seoski turizam koji omogućuje turistima privremeni boravak na
seoskom prostoru. Pruža im se mogućnost kušanja i kupnje domaćih proizvoda kao i doticaj
s domaćim životinjama.“
Treća: „Agroturizam je oblik turizma u kojem je glavni motiv povratak čovjeka prirodi.“
Četvrta: „Agroturizam je oblik turizma koji vraća čovjeka prirodi. Aktivnostima čovjeka,
ruralni prostor se nastoji učiniti živim. Sam po sebi takav oblik djelatnosti nastoji zadržati
ljude u ruralnim područjima, ali i privući ljude da se nasele u ruralna područja.“

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Iz navedenog se može zaključiti kako studenti i jednog i drugog sveučilišta nisu posve
upoznati sa samim pojmom agroturizma. Iznimno je važno znati da je ruralni turizam oblik
turizma koji okuplja sve aktivnosti u ruralnom području, dok je agroturizam uži pojam od
ruralnog turizma, a vezan je za ambijent sela i okolice i sve njegove aktivnosti koje se tiču
poljoprivrede, manifestacija, gastronomije, folklora, zanatstva i slično.
Veliki dio (75%) ispitanika je posjetilo agroturističko gospodarstvo u svojoj državi, a samo
31% ukupnih ispitanika agroturističko gospodarstvo izvan svoje države.
Razlozi zbog kojih nisu posjetili agroturističko gospodarstvo su različiti i mogu se svrstati
u četiri odgovora kao što su (1) „Ne doživljavam agroturizam bitnim u turističkom smislu,
jer i sam živim na selu, tako da, ono što je za urbane stanovnike zanimljivost, za mene je
uobičajeni način života.“; (2) „Nisam imao priliku, a ne znam ni gdje ima takvih
gospodarstava.“; (3) „Nikad nisam čula za agroturistička gospodarstva.“ te (4) „Nisam
zainteresiran za takve oblike turizma.“
Primjetne su razlike između skupina ispitanika s obzirom na stav prema agroturizmu.
Međutim, ispitanici značajnim procjenjuju doprinos agroturizma otvaranju novih radnih
mjesta te razvoju ruralne ekonomije. Agroturizam obogaćuje ukupnu turističku ponudu
države koja ga zbog toga treba i novčano poticati. Kao dopunska djelatnost, agroturizam
povećava konkurentnost poljoprivrednih proizvođača te time i smanjenju depopulacije
područja. Bitno je spomenuti da ispitanici ističu pozitivnu ulogu agroturizma u čuvanju
prostora, sprečavanju onečišćenja te ulogu u razvoju lokalne infrastrukture.
Na kraju, oko 90% studenata Agronomskog fakulteta u Zagrebu odgovorilo je kako bi
proveli odmor na agroturističkom gospodarstvu, a njih 67% se želi baviti agroturizmom u
budućnosti. Slično je i kod studenata Sveučilišta Szent Istvana u Gödöllu gdje njih 76% želi
provesti odmor na agroturističkom gospodarstvu, a 73% bi se u budućnosti bavilo
agroturizmom.

ZAKLJUČAK
Agroturizam kao oblik turizma je sastavni dio lokalne zajednice i on utječe na očuvanje
ruralnog prostora. Rezultati istraživanja nisu pokazali bitnije razlike između stavova studenata
Agronomskog fakulteta u Zagrebu te Sveučilišta te studenata Szent Istvana u Gödöllu,
Mađarska.
Većina ispitanih kao glavnu karakteristiku ruralnog prostora navodi proces depopulacije
(82%).
Ruralni prostor je dobar za odvijanje turističke djelatnosti (93%) i poljoprivredna
djelatnost je komplementarna s turizmom (70%). Najveći dio ispitanika je čuo za pojam
agroturizma (82%) te nešto više za pojam ruralnog turizma (92%). Veći dio ispitanih definira
ruralni turizam kao „oblik turizma na seoskim područjima“ (52%) i značajni dio tvrdi da nisu
upoznati s temeljnim razlikama ruralnog turizma i agroturizma (32%). Većina ispitanih je
posjetila agroturističko gospodarstvo u svojoj državi (75%). Kao najčešći razlog
neposjećenosti agroturističkom gospodarstvu su naveli nedostatak informacija i vremena.
Većina ispitanih navodi da agroturizam omogućava razvoj ruralne ekonomije, povećava
vrijednost postojeće poljoprivredne proizvodnje, doprinosi zadržavanju ljudi u ruralnom
prostoru i obogaćuje ukupnu turističku djelatnost države te omogućuje stvaranje novih radnih
mjesta. Također, njih 42% se u potpunosti slaže kako bi agroturizam trebalo poticati novčanim

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 Stavovi studenata o ulozi agroturizma u očuvanju ruralnog prostora

potporama od strane države te da se kroz agroturizam povećava konkurentnost

poljoprivrednog gospodarstva i da poljoprivrednici lakše plasiraju svoje proizvode i usluge
kroz agroturizam. Agroturistička djelatnost je veoma prihvaćena kod mladih, stoga je
potrebno uložiti više sredstava u sam napredak agroturizma kao poslovne djelatnosti, čime bi
došlo do većeg razvitka, a na kraju i bržeg napretka.

NAPOMENA
Rad je izvod iz diplomskog rada studentice Kristine Batelić, mag. ing. agr., studentice
diplomskog studija Agrobiznis i ruralni razvitak na Agronomskom fakultetu u Zagrebu.

LITERATURA
Brščić, K. (2016). Agroturizam - mogućnost i izazov za mlade poljoprivrednike. Institut za poljoprivredu
i turizam, Poreč
Čavrak, V. (2003). Održivi razvoj ruralnih područja Hrvatske. Zbornik Ekonomskog fakulteta u
Zagrebu. 1(1), 61-77.
Nejašmić, I., Toskić, A. (2013). Starenje stanovništva u Hrvatskoj–sadašnje stanje i perspektive.
Hrvatski geografski glasnik. 75(1), 89-110.
Petrić, L. (2006). Izazovi razvoja ruralnog turizma : dosadašnja praksa u Europi i reperkusije na
Hrvatsku. Acta turistica. 18(2), 138-170.
Štambuk, M. (1977). Stavovi o potrebi stručnog obrazovanja poljoprivrednika. Sociologija i prostor :
časopis za istraživanje prostornoga i sociokulturnog razvoja. (58), 63-71.
Žutinić, Đ., Kovačić, D., Grgić, I., Markovina, J. (2010). Percepcija kvalitete življenja i namjere o
odlasku iz ruralnih sredina. Društvena istraživanja : časopis za opća društvena pitanja. 19(1-2 (105-
106)), 137-159.

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 I. Grgić, K. Batelić, K. Svržnjak, J. Prišenk, M. Zrakić

ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS ON THE ROLE OF

AGROTOURISM IN PRESERVING RURAL SPACE
Ivo GRGIĆ1, Kristina BATELIĆ2, Kristina SVRŽNJAK3, Jernej PRIŠENK4,
Magdalena ZRAKIĆ1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1Universityof Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
2Javorinska 3, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
3Križevci College of agriculture, Mislava Demerca 1, 48260 Križevci
4Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Pivola 10, 2311 Hoče, Slovenia

ABSTRACT
The rural area of Europe is experiencing significant changes, with the most
prominent depopulation process. As a consequence, there are changes in the
structure of economic activities where many traditional professions disappear.
Significant changes have also occurred in agriculture, which has long been the
main activity of the rural area. In the context of the many ways of revitalizing
the rural area, the role of agrotourism is important, especially in increasing
the income of farmers, which enables the retention of the population. The aim
of the paper is to determine the attitudes of students of graduate studies at Szent
Istvan University of Gödöllő in Hungary and the Faculty of Agriculture in
Zagreb on the role of agrotourism in the preservation of rural area. The survey
included 98 students and 33 students in Gödöllő and 65 students in Zagreb. The
survey was conducted during the April 2017. The research is based on the
assumption that students perceive agrotourism as an opportunity to preserve
the rural area and that there is no statistically significant difference between
the attitudes of the two groups of respondents. Most respondents stated that
agritourism allows the development of rural economy, increases the value of
existing agricultural production, contributes to the retention of people in the
rural area, enriches the overall tourist activity of the state and enables the
creation of new jobs. Also, 42% of them fully agree that agrotourism should be
stimulated by state subsidies and, in the same percentage. They agree with the
statement that agrotourism enhances the competitiveness of the agricultural
economy and that farmers sell easier their products and services through
agrotourism.
Keywords: agrotourism, revitalization of rural areas, student's opinion

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Prethodno priopćenje
ZADACI Preliminary communication
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

WATER MILLS IN BASILICATA REGION –

A HERTIAGE TO BE PRESERVED
Carmela SICA1*, Aleksandra DIMITRIJEVIC2
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 University of Basilicata, Spin-off "DY-Tech srl", via dell’Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy
2 University of Belgrade, Faculty of Agriculture, Department for Agricultural Engineering,

Nemanjina 6, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia

ABSTRACT
Basilicata region is traditionally an agricultural territory which can be seen
from the diffused presence of rural buildings and water mills, used in the past
above all for grinding of the cereals. These factories were built primarily in the
hilly and mountainous areas near to broad streams and springs. Unfortunately,
today the greatest part of the mills is overgrown by uncultivated vegetation and
represent ruins without the hydraulic and grinding systems. Only a small
number of these mills is still working. A lot of factories, however, preserved, at
least partially, the brickworks and/or the hydraulic and grinding systems;
therefore, they could be recovered and used for didactic-demonstrative aims,
in a context of rural tourism, and/or to produce good quality material for
typical pasta and biscuits, in order to keep alive a historical-cultural tradition
of the Basilicata.
The aim of this paper was to present the state of the art of some existing
agricultural water mills and to give future perspectives and ideas how to
reconstruct them and revitalize them. The paper shows their historical
characterization and a first classification based on their state of conservation,
both structural and plant.
Keywords: water mill, rural construction, preservation, tourist-cultural
routes.

INTRODUCTION
The mountain and hilly rural territories of the Basilicata region (South Italy), typically
covered by cereal cultivation, were characterized by a widespread presence of water mills.
Most of them served for the processing of wheat into flour. Their recovery, in the context of
environmental and historical protection would require research and legislators study. In fact,

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 C. Sica, A. Dimitrijevic

the water mills can be considered an environmental asset because they were an instrument for
organizing and managing water and, so, the territory.
In order to keep alive a historical-cultural tradition of the Basilicata region, the ancient
water mills that are still conserved, or could reacquire, their functionality should be re-
evaluated as energy production machine and / or machine for the production of high quality
flours for producing typical fresh pasta and biscuits of this territory or to be used for the
didactic-demonstrative purposes in a context of rural tourism. In particular, in reference to the
high quality of the products, it would be interesting to improve not only the quality of the
flours even but also of the final products. In the perspective of cereal-based functional food
development, Di Silvestro et al. (2014) compared stone watermill and stone mill, which
differed in the heat generated during grinding (respectively 30 and 60 °C), in order to verify
the effects of the temperatures on the phytochemicals present in the grain.
Cartographic studies and inspections in situ have allowed the identification of some mills
which have been characterized from an historical point of view and classified according to
their state of conservation, both structural and plant.
The art of grinding has a very ancient past: originally the kernels were crushed with
rudimentary tools like the stones. Subsequently the mortar, the stone roller and the revolving
millstone moved by men or animals were used.
Between the ninth and tenth centuries a. C., the need to find a source of energy, different
from muscular human or animal one, and the awareness that the regularity of the rotation
movement is generated by the thrust of water, led to the technical development of hydraulic
machines, included the water mills.
The spreading of the mills was slowly and not even in all the regions due to the many
reasons such as the possibility of having available both a flow of water and a substantial
investment of money and, above all the costs of the first plant.
Since their building was advantageous, only when the quantity of processed product was
such as to amortize in reasonable time the expenses incurred, the monopoly of the water mills
remained for a long time in the hands of religious bodies and some families of the upper
bourgeoisie.
Since there was the need of a constant operation of the millstones over time, the water
mills were built where the water courses were less affected by the o water level in the water
courses.
Water was conveyed into a narrow artificial channel (gora, in Italian) and then on to a
wheel with blades (hydraulic wheel) linked to a shaft (axis) in order to cause a continuous
rotary movement. A shutter was opened or closed to regulate the water flow and,
consequently, to control the speed of the wheel. In the oldest water mills (like the Greek ones)
the axis was vertical with respect to the water current direction and the whole wheel was
immersed in the water. Subsequently, the hydraulic wheels were constrained to a horizontal
axis so to be able to be fed from the bottom, by exploiting the water current, or from the top.
This second way was more complex but more efficient because the wheels were moved by
current and the weight of the water in fall.
In the Basilicata region, it is possible to find different buildings once destined to the cereal
grinding (De Rosa et al., 1998; Oliveto, 1997; Rescio, 2001); the most of them belonged to
religious bodies and/or to the upper bourgeoisie, similarly to the national territory, as

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 Water mills in Basilicata region – a hertiage to be preserved

evidenced by historical notes. In 1004 the priest Savino donated the mill of the De Fugardi
land, placed in Montemilone, to the abbot of the Monastery of Morbano. In 1053 Unfredo
(comes et dux Abulie et Calabrie) offered the Racidisio Mill to the Trinity of Venosa; in 1546
Donna Altabella Petitti di Saponara sold a part of the mill, complete with the hydraulic and
milling system, located in the countryside of Moliterno, to Parisano of Moliterno.
The structure and functioning of the water mills, built in the XIV and XV centuries, were
unchanged until their final abandonment, after the Second World War, when the hydraulic
energy was replaced progressively by other sources, as steam and electricity. In this contest,
it is interesting to hypnotize that the water mills, apart from milling purposes use, can be
consider for the reconstruction also as a renewable hydraulic energy sources (Sanchez-
Jimenez, 2018).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bibliographic and cartographic studies as well as field surveys have been conducted to
obtain indications about the diffusion of water mills on the whole territory of the Basilicata
region with the aim to hypothesize the recovery of those structures considered valid from the
historical-cultural point of view (even if ruins) or the re-use those still productive (needing
improvements).
The first phase of the bibliographic research enabled locating of, about, one hundred water
mills diffused on the territory, of which their different state of conservation was known. In
order to do a new upgraded census of the water mills, comparing the literature conditions and
data with the current ones, the second phase of the research (surveys in situ) started by analysis
of some water mills, located in province of Potenza. In particular, six water mills were chosen
randomly, in the north of the Basilicata Region, an area already known for its natural (the
waterfalls of San Fele, the volcanic lakes of Monticchio) and historical (castles of Frederick
II of Sweden, Orazio’s house, one of the greatest poets of the ancient age) attractions and the
food and wine routes. In this way, the upgrade of the list of the water mills started and if some
of them were considered interesting, they could be insert very easily into existing touristic
routes.
During the inspections in situ, the researchers compiled sheets to note several information
grouped into four thematic levels concerning:
- The location of the building by geo-referencing;
- The typological and functional aspects and general conservation of the water mills;
- The analysis of the structural elements, the materials employed, the plants and their
state of conservation;
- Historical analysis and photographic study.
The data summarized in the sheets, with the bibliographic and cartographic ones, will be
the basis for the subsequent phase of "proposition of recovery and / or reuse interventions",
compatible with the conservation status and with the history of the surveyed watermills.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Basilicata region is characterised by a territory traditionally suited to agricultural
activity, also evidenced by the widespread presence of rural buildings used for the production

529
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and service activities of the primary sector. Water mills are located mainly in the hilly and
mountainous areas (Fig. 1), near rivers and springs.

Figure 1 Some water mills on territory of Basilicata region

A first phase of the bibliographic research enabled locating of, about, one hundred water
mills diffused on the territory, of which their different state of conservation is known. Six
water mills were chosen randomly, for the surveys in situ, all located in province of Potenza.
Cartographic and bibliographic studies, together with the inspections in situ, allowed
defining the prevailing typology of the water mill in Basilicata region: almost all were
medieval period. They represented the evolution of the technological scheme of the "Greek-
Arab mill", made by essential elements, as gripping, transport, energy production and milling
systems.
From a building point of view, water mills were equal to the other rural constructions,
characterized by elementary plans (rectangular or square) and simple structures with load-
bearing walls (exposed or plastered). Generally, they were not operated directly by water of
rivers or streams but were powered by derivation channels allowing the regulation of the water
flow. The milling system was very simple:

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 Water mills in Basilicata region – a hertiage to be preserved

- a horizontal wheel, placed in a basement room characterized by arched ceiling,

alimented by a wood little canal (inclined between 35 - 60 degrees) that carried water
directly on a side of the wheel;
- an axis (tree of transmission) to transmit the movement to the milling stone;
- milling stones, two ring stones, one fixed and one mobile, having height 10-20
centimetres and diameter of 80-120 centimetres. The fixed stone was placed on a base
into the space on the hydraulic wheel; it had a central hole across tree of transmission
of the same wheel. The second mobile stone had a hole, shaped in the lower part,
suitable both for its insert of the transmission tree and for the passage of the cereals to
mill.
Analyzing the results of the carried research, it was possible to highlight the presence of
buildings with different levels of susceptibility to recovery – re-use. There are three structures
in ruins (one of which should be preserved due to its historical importance), one potentially
recoverable plant (operating facility) and two renovated buildings, as shown in table 1.

Table 1 First water mills that were analysed

State of
Name Municipal territory
conservation
Mill Plastino Ginestra
Ruin Old mill Ripacandida
Mill of Muro Muro Lucano
Recuperable Mill Latorre Venosa
Mill Lorenzo San Fele
Restructured
Old mill Avigliano

The ruins were without the hydraulic and milling systems. It was possible to see only
remains of walls, sometimes covered with uncultivated vegetation. The ruins of these three
water mills had a low historical value. Their examination has been useful for learning the
building techniques and materials used, once time. In this sense, it was possible to observe
walls of good realization made with square blocks and stones of several dimension well
embedded, linked by mortar. The photos 1a and 1b show what remains of the Mill Plastino,
one of the three mills of which there are only partially the perimeter walls.

1a 1b

Photos 1a, 1b Mill Plastino (land of Ginestra) - ruins

531
 C. Sica, A. Dimitrijevic

Mill Latorre, located in the land of Venosa, has been classified as “recoverable”. It has
milling and hydraulic systems (Photo 2a) in a fairly good state, but it is not suitable for
producing and therefore it's abandoned twenty years ago. This one needs some structural
interventions (Photo 2b) and an external accommodation by cutting of spontaneous grass and
plant (Photo 2c). Thanks to its collocation (countryside of Venosa is typical land of wine
production), it can be recovered and inserted in already existing food and wine routes, as
cultural point and /or selling one of cereal products (pasta and biscuits), even without
recovering of its functionality.

2a 2b

2c
Photos 2a, 2b, 2c Mill Latorre (land of Venosa) - recuperable

With reference to the water mills already restructured, two different situations were found;
sometimes the interventions have not been very invasive, respecting both the history and the
original function of the building (old mill into the land of Avigliano). Other water mills have
been subjected to strongly invasive restructuration with distortion of the original functional
and architectural features (Mill Lorenzo, land of San Fele). More in detail, the old water mill
in Lavangone land (countryside of Avigliano) has worked until the early nineties, producing
barley, oat and corn flours. Its original structure, dates back to 1840, but it has been subjected
by renovation works, completed between 1998 and 1999. Respecting the original architectural
and functional character of the building, works concerned only the main body. The water
supply systems and the basement, housing the water gears, have not been restructured.
Currently, the entry of the basement as well as walkways, are covered by spontaneous grass,
bushes and brambles.

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 Water mills in Basilicata region – a hertiage to be preserved

In the countryside of San Fele, there is the mill Lorenzo. At the end of the XX century, it
was characterized by a high structural degradation due to the abandonment for the cessation
of activity and to the stresses induced by the 1980 earthquake.
Successively, it was subjected to reconstruction interventions (law 219/81) that have
profoundly altered the original architectural character of the building. It has not been possible
to enter inside the mill, but by interviews with local people, it emerged that the original
structure was in masonry with exposed stones and it had a wooden upper floor. It can be seen
from photo 3a, that the exterior facades have been plastered and painted white. Besides, people
also told that bricks had replaced the wood during the reconstruction of the upper floor. No
functional recovery of the hydraulic and milling systems has been foreseen as witnessed by
the abandonment of the millstones which, set aside outside the structure, are now covered by
spontaneous vegetation (Photo 3b).

3a 3b
Photos 3a, 3b Mill Lorenzo (land of San Fele) – mill badly restructured

CONCLUSION
On the whole territory of Basilicata region, there is a significant number of water
mills. Most of them are reduced to ruins while only a small number is still working.
First results of the analysis showed that some water mills preserve the masonry works and /
or the milling and hydraulic systems, at least partially. These could be recovered for a didactic-
demonstrative and / or productive reuse.
According the Authors, their recovery would have a positive impact on the territory,
preserving historical-cultural traditions and enhancing the landscape.
The research will continue both to complete the census of the water mills present on
the whole territory of the Basilicata region and to developed procedures, based on economic-
technical criteria, in order to assess their susceptibility to recovery-reuse.
Recovered water mills, or eventual ruins interesting from a historical point of view,
could be integrated in existing tourist-cultural routes or in new ones.

NOTE: The contribution to programming and executing this research must be equally shared
between the Authors

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REFERENCES
De Rosa, R., Martorano, S., Massaro, G., Fittipaldi, E., Smilari, D. (1998). Naturalistic and historical
artistic excursions in the Pollino National Park. Province of Potenza (in Italian).
Di Silvestro, R., Di Loreto, A., Marotti, I., Quinn, R., Dinelli, G. (2014). Effects of flour storage and
heat generated during milling on starch, dietary fibre and polyphenols in stone ground flours from
two durum-type wheats. International journal of Food Sciences and Technology; Vol. 49, Issue 10;
pp. 2230-2236.
Oliveto, A. (1997). San Severino Lucano and the valley of the Frido (in Italian).
Rescio, P. (2001). Daily life in Basilicata in the Middle Ages. Publication of the Council of the Basilicata
Region (113-115) (in Italian).
Sánchez-Jiménez, F.J. (2018). Industrial Archaeology Review (in Italian); Vol. 40, Issue 1; pp. 2-10.
National Archives of Potenza.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

VALORISATION OF HISTORICAL FARM BUILDINGS

FOR PROTECTING THE RURAL LANDSCAPE
Giuseppe CILLIS*, Dina STATUTO, Pietro PICUNO
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
University of Basilicata - SAFE School, via dell’Ateneo Lucano n.10, 85100 Potenza, Italy

SUMMARY
Rural buildings play a central role on the environmental characteristics of
the rural land, because they accompanied in the centuries the development of
agricultural activities; the farmer-man built them also considering the specific
characteristics of the economic, social, climatic and cultural rural context.
They are important elements of the rural landscape which, in addition to having
a considerable architectural value, constitute a witness of the economic and
productive organization of a specific territory. Mostly in some southern
European countries - as in the Basilicata region (Southern Italy) – these rural
structures have been built based on the agricultural needs and land
characteristics. Considering the land abandonment occurred during the last
centuries, also historical farm buildings, in most cases, have been abandoned,
since people living there moved to more comfortable residences within urban
settlements, causing a loss of the historical-cultural heritage of the rural
landscape. In this context, it would be fruitful to improve the knowledge about
the specific characteristic of farm buildings considering also their geographic
location, in order to include each one of them into a geo-database and, through
the use of new advanced tools, to connect the valorisation of these rural
buildings within the relevant landscape. The use of advanced technological
tools may considerably support the protection of landscapes with high cultural
and naturalistic value. In recent years, open data and geographic technologies
are allowing the implementation of multidisciplinary information, which may
reveal crucial for a sound management of the rural landscape, including also
an important focus on rural buildings. In this paper, the potential of a
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been explored, with the aim to
improve the cataloguing system of the Basilicata region's farm buildings,
traditionally known as: "masserie". After the realization of a specific geo-
database incorporating different datasets, specific tools have been used to
provide some particular analyses that can be used both for the management
and valorisation of farm buildings, even for touristic purposes. In addition, by

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 G. Cillis, D. Statuto, P. Picuno

integrating some typical aspects of the landscape studies, an innovative

approach has been implemented, so as to preserve not only each individual
building, but even the entire rural landscape context in which these important
witnesses of the rural history are included.
Keywords: Historical farm building, Geographical Information System,
Rural landscape, Sustainable development.

INTRODUCTION
Farm buildings, designed over the centuries in order to fulfil their primary agricultural
role, now constitute a widespread heritage that in some cases possesses an irreplaceable
architectural value, playing a central role for the sustainability of the rural environment as
well. Conceived to host biological production, the farm building constitutes indeed a unique
example in the wide epistemological sector of building construction (Picuno, 2012). The birth,
growth and development of living vegetal or animal organisms contained inside these
volumes raise architectural and technical issues that are radically different if compared to
those of other building sectors. Aimed at producing optimal environmental conditions for
plants and animals, while at the same time protecting the hygiene and health of workers
involved in the daily operations for the care of living organisms at different stages of their
development, the rural building constitutes therefore a unique and unrepeatable technological
model (Fuentes, 2010; Fuentes et al., 2010; Picuno et al., 2015).
The originality of what happens inside the farm building corresponds to what happens
outside. The role that the buildings have historically played is strictly connected with the
surrounding context, due to the need of the farmer to live in close contact with agricultural
land and animal husbandry (Cañas et al., 2009; Hernandez et al., 2004; Jeong et al., 2012;
Lista et al., 2013/a; Lista et al., 2013/b). While the organization of human beings involved in
the activities of the industrial or tertiary sector allowed aggregation in urban centres, the need
to live in constant contact with the agricultural production developed a synergetic function of
close proximity to the extra-urban land. This aspect led to the spread in rural areas of many
examples of buildings that served for farming, storage and processing of agricultural products
constituting, at the same time, housing for the farmer and his family. This form of settlement
has been, and still is, a unique way by which humans have populated, in harmony with the
natural elements, the agricultural land, joining the primary production needed for human
nutrition with the control and care of rural land. So, the activities made by the Man have often
strongly influenced the agricultural environment and the visual perception of its landscape
(Statuto et al., 2014/a; Statuto et al., 2014/b; Statuto et al., 2015; Tortora et al., 2015).
The recent expansion of rural tourism currently registered in Europe (Ana, 2017) makes it
necessary to monitor rural buildings, both to preserve them as historical and cultural heritage
and to redevelop in the perspective of sustainable tourism planning. Besides the importance
from a tourism point of view, there is also a growing interest focused onto the ecological
effects of the rural buildings on landscape, then on the importance of applying a sustainable
rural development strategy to improve the protection of habitats and ecosystem services
(McKenzie et al., 2011; McCann et al., 2017). In fact, as reported by Haller & Bender (2018),
there is a strong link between biodiversity and conservation/restoration of grassland, which
necessarily passes through the conservation of the rural building heritage. This is especially
true for some Natura2000 priority habitats such as the semi-natural dry grasslands code 6210

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(Calaciura and Spinelli, 2008). The monitoring of the rural buildings and of surrounding
landscape, considering the multidisciplinary and the strong spatial component of the
information, requires therefore a suitable approach, which is now possible when based on new
geographic technologies (Cano et al., 2013, Palmisano et al., 2016; Jeong et al., 2013).
In the present study, the potential of a Geographic Information System (GIS) applied to
the monitoring, conservation and enhancement of the rural heritage of one southern Italian
region, i.e.: the Basilicata region, has been explored. After the creation of a preliminary geo-
database of rural buildings and spatial data related to the rural landscape, two methodologies
have been implemented: the first one, was aimed to evaluate the role and impact of the rural
buildings in the conservation of semi-natural environments of the surrounding context; the
second one, has been focused on the assessment of the safeguarding of the visual quality of
the rural landscape.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study area, consisting of the total land of the Basilicata region (Southern Italy), covers
a total surface of almost 10,000 km2 and 90% of the whole territory being mountain (Fig. 1).
It has a population of about 600,000 units distributed into the two provinces of Matera and
Potenza. The territory has a strong agricultural vocation; indeed almost 50% of the regional
area is cultivated, the main agricultural activities having an influence on the structure and the
biotic components of the landscape are arable land and pasture, which occupy 29% and 13%
of the territory respectively. The other main component of the landscape of the Basilicata
region is constituted by forests, which cover 35.6% of its territory.

Figure 1 Study area, rural buildings at regional level and areas of analysis

One of the most important elements of the Basilicata’s landscape, expression of a type of
agriculture that is not particularly intensive, is constituted by the old rural buildings. These
have a considerable architectural and cultural value and they are a testimony of the historical
economic and productive organization of this territory (Grano, 2014; Picuno, 2012).
The first fundamental operation conducted has been the collection and standardization of
the various datasets, so as to be able to realize a Geographical Information System (GIS)

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model able to include and link all the information related to the rural buildings. Thanks to an
available open dataset of the Basilicata Region, it has been possible to collect the position of
the main rural buildings (so-called: "masserie"), having a cultural interest and protected by
specific regulations. In according with Cano et al., (2013), this is the starting point for the
cataloguing process. Thanks to the potential of GIS tools, it has been possible to connect
different datasets coming from both field survey (measuring, photographic report, field
databases) and spatial analysis work (studies on land use and surrounding landscape, socio-
economic analysis, viewshed analysis, index creation) so as to create a single GIS-based
model of rural buildings. This database model can be exploited for several purposes: planning
and management; protection and conservation of the surrounding rural landscape (Jeong et
al., 2016); valorisation of the existing rural buildings; strategic decision on the localization of
new farm buildings; etc. The creation of a geo-database has been the preliminary and
fundamental operation for implementing and monitoring concrete valorisation actions (Cillis
and Statuto, 2018).

Figure 2 Flowchart of the GIS-based model implementation

In this study, to explore the GIS tools potential to be applied to the rural building and
landscape management, a specific framework has been implemented (figure 2). To examine
in depth the potential in the use of GIS tools for the management of rural buildings and the
surrounding rural landscape, two types of analysis have been implemented, so as to contribute
to the valorisation of historical farm buildings, in the framework of the protection of the rural
landscape. All operations were performed with the open source QGIS software and all used
dataset are free and open.
After the creation of the geo-database, the first analysis performed has been finalized to
set each single rural building to understand, as proposed by McKenzie et al. (2011), if it can
have an important ecological role on the surrounding environment and habitats. To do this,
spatial analyses have been carried out regarding changes in land use in the surrounding area
of each rural building, so as to highlight any transition that can have negative repercussions
on some important habitats for the biodiversity such as, for example, the loss in grasslands
(Eriksson and Cousins, 2014; Hallen and Bender, 2018). To this aim, it has been decided to
carry out this spatial analysis only on some rural buildings which are located in the
neighbouring or even within a protected natural area, due to the critical ecological role that
these buildings could have for the protection of some natural habitats. On the basis of the
analysis of the information levels that compose the GIS-based model realized in the first
phase, the analysis has been restricted to the Regional-Natural Archaeological Park of the
Rupestrian Churches of Matera (EUAP0419), which has been selected because it is the area
of the Basilicata region around which it is concentrated the higher number of rural buildings.

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 Valorisation of historical farm buildings for protecting the rural landscape

Considering a 1-km-radius buffer zone around each rural building (309,02 ha), the land cover
changes during 1990-2000, 2000-2006 and 2006-2012 have been detected. To enable a more
detailed analysis, proposing at the same time a methodology that can be replicated to the entire
rural heritage as well, a specific rural building has been identified, for which the dynamics of
change between the different land use classes have been analyzed. The datasets used are those
provided by the free Network of the National Environmental Information System (SinaNET
– ISPRA).
The second analysis involved an inter-visibility assessment of rural buildings (Hernández
et al., 2004). These buildings, as well as being an important safeguard for the ecological
protection of the rural landscape, have also an important historical and cultural value, for
which there is a need to preserve simultaneously the farm building and the surrounding rural
landscape. Through the "Viewshed Analysis" QGIS plugin, it is possible to calculate the
visible surface from a given observation point to a digital elevation model. With this type of
analysis, it is possible to evaluate the visual quality of the landscape (La Rosa, 2011), then
exploit it for planning purposes, such as the identification of some negative visual impact
assessment that new constructions and land use transformations can have on the surrounding
landscape. The plugin, based on a raster of the digital model of the surface (with a resolution
of 5 meters, and freely available on the cartographic portal of the Basilicata region) and the
position of the viewpoint on panoramic roads close to rural buildings, returns a cumulative
integer raster grid in which each cell stores the number of visible viewpoints. To limit the
survey region, an area of influence of 1-km-radius around the building has been considered
even in this second application. This methodology can be useful for tourism purposes as well
to enhance points of panoramic view from which to appreciate the rural landscape as a whole.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

From the first spatial analysis (Table 1) it emerged that in the first period (1990 - 2000)
there have been no important changes in terms of surface. In fact, only around the "Masseria
Monacelle" there has been a change in land use of about 24 ha (8% of the buffer area). The
following period (2000 - 2006) is that one in which the greatest changes have occurred. In
each one of the buffer areas of each farm, a percentage of change has been recorded, with
even 50% of changes in the case of "Masseria San Francesco". In the last period (2006 -
2012) a reduction in the area subject to change has been registered, with a maximum value of
28% (in the case of "Masseria Monacelle"). This methodology, which in this study has been
applied at a small scale, can reveal useful to identify how the landscape around the farms has
been transformed, mainly identifying those farms playing an important ecological role within
the rural landscape.
Moreover, with the construction of a geo-database including rural buildings, it is possible
to carry out some geospatial surveys, from simple mapping to geo-statistical surveys and cross
tabulation (McKenzie et al., 2011; Statuto et al., 2018). For example, it is possible to identify
the rural building around which there have been more land use dynamics, to be linked to an
area with high naturalistic value. A preliminary analysis is shown in table 2, in the case of
"Masseria San Francesco". Here, after having identified the rural building showing the
highest level of variations, the relevant changes in land use classes, which could have
characteristics related to semi-natural grassland habitats, have been assessed (Figure 3).

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 G. Cillis, D. Statuto, P. Picuno

It can be noted that an increase, in the period 2000-2006, of natural grasslands (50 ha) that
potentially (excluding 2 ha that in the period 2006-2012 were converted into cultivated areas),
could turn into habitats of interest (code 6210) and then be monitored accordingly.

Table 1 Surfaces (in percentage and hectares) that changed with respect to the buffer
analysis in the three analysis periods
Changes 1990-2000 Changes 2000-2006 Changes 2006-2012
Name of the Rural Building
ha % ha % ha %
Masseria Parco dei Monaci 0.00 0.00 24.78 8.05 0.00 0.00
Masseria Malvezzi 0.00 0.00 37.01 11.98 26.70 8.64
Masseria Monacelle 24.80 8.03 42.72 13.82 87.18 28.21
Masseria S. Francesco 0.42 0.14 154.27 49.92 3.00 0.97
Masseria Selva Malvezzi 0.00 0.00 24.98 8.08 39.89 12.91
Masseria Torre Spagnola 0.00 0.00 35.44 11.47 23.09 7.47

Table 2 Changes in land use classes (in hectares) for the three-time period of analysis in the
area close to “Masseria San Francesco”

Changes in land use classes Masseria San Francesco

1990 - 2000 2000 - 2006 2006 - 2012
Annual crops with permanent crops to
18.37
Non-irrigated arable land
Non-irrigated arable land to Complex
11.87
cultivation patterns
Industrial or commercial units to Complex
0.42
cultivation patterns
Olive groves to Natural grasslands 52.45
Annual crops with permanent crops to
27.06
Complex cultivation patterns
Complex cultivation patterns to
20.26
Discontinuous urban fabric
Annual crops with permanent crops to
31.29
Olive groves
Natural grasslands to Complex cultivation
2.76
patterns
Complex cultivation patterns to Olive
0.24
groves

The second application which has been here performed, has concerned a viewshed analysis
related only to two neighboring rural buildings: "Masseria Serra dell'Olmo" and "Borgo
Rurale Piano del Conte". These two historical rural buildings have been chosen since they
are located close to an area with an high landscape value, at the same time affected by some
re-development actions. This operation has been done starting from the information collected
in the geodatabase: geolocalization of the rural buildings; digitalization of panoramic roads;
and implementation of the digital surface model (DSM) of elevation.

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 Valorisation of historical farm buildings for protecting the rural landscape

Figure 3 Land use changes in case of the "Masseria San Francesco" (year 2000-2006)

From the mapping of the cells visible from the panoramic roads (Figure 4), it is possible
to calculate the percentage of visible surface in the reference area buffers (470.17 ha).
Specifically, from the results of the analysis reported in Table 3, it is noted that almost 30%
of the area is not visible from the roads (percentage less than 1.5%) and that about 72 ha are
visible from 25-50% of the study area. Moreover, when considering the area close to the rural
buildings in relation to the planning needs (as an example, a buffer 100-meters-radius and
about 3 ha was taken), it is possible to make an even more detailed analysis. Table 4 shows
indeed that almost 80% of the area surrounding the rural building "Masseria Serra dell'Olmo"
is visible from 10 to 50% of the scenic roads. Instead, for the other considered farm (Borgo
Rurale Piano del Conte), most of the surrounding area is not visible from the panoramic roads.
In this way, it is possible to contextualise the rural building within the landscape, then
evaluating its potential in terms of increase/decrease of the visual quality of the rural
landscape and therefore, during the relevant planning activities, regulate any constructions or
changes in land use that could affect its aesthetic value.

Figure 4 Viewshed analysis performed in the buffer area of rural buildings “Masseria Serra
dell’Olmo” and “Borgo Rurale Piano del Conte”.

541
 G. Cillis, D. Statuto, P. Picuno

Table 3 Surface modification inside 1-km-buffer (in hectares and %)

of different percentage class of cell visible from panoramic roads.
Percentage of cell visible Surface
from panoramic roads (%) ha %
< 1.5 140.47 29.88
1.5 - 5 62.49 13.29
5 - 10 72.03 15.32
10 - 20 77.72 16.53
20 - 25 45.11 9.59
25 - 50 72.35 15.39
Total 470.17 100

Table 4 Surface variation inside the 100 metres buffer (in hectares and %) of different
percentage class of cell visible from panoramic roads for “Masseria Serra dell’Olmo” e
“Borgo Rurale Piano del Conte”.
Masseria Serra dell' Olmo Borgo Rurale Piano del Conte
Percentage of cell visible
Surface Surface
from panoramic roads (%)
ha % ha %
< 1.5 0.22 7.12 0.51 16.59
1.5 - 5 0.17 5.42 0.72 23.14
5 - 10 0.30 9.71 0.77 24.84
10 - 20 1.35 43.69 0.79 25.65
20 - 25 0.66 21.20 0.15 4.69
25 - 50 0.40 12.86 0.16 5.10
Total 3.09 100.00 3.09 100.00

CONCLUSIONS
Farm buildings play a central role for improving the sustainable growth of agriculture,
even through new alternative ways for living the extra-urban land, as the rural tourism. The
role of rural building is indeed fundamental for enabling practices aimed to reduce resources
consumption, combat environmental degradation and create better living environments,
preserving at the same time architectural and historical assets that constitute a living witness
of the building heritage left by our forefathers, who marked the rural territories, influencing
and steering the spontaneous development of nature, while leading to production that enabled
to get food.
In this study, an approach based on geographic technologies has been proposed, in order
to implement new methodologies useful for the enhancement and conservation of agricultural
built heritage and rural landscape. The implementation of a GIS for cataloguing historical
rural buildings with geo-referenced information and subsequently using them as a basis for

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 Valorisation of historical farm buildings for protecting the rural landscape

more complex spatial analysis, has allowed the assessment of the role and impact of these
buildings within the surrounding context. This approach would reveal a suitable tool for future
possible application in rural landscape analysis, planning and management.

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47.
SIMPOZIJ
AKTUALNI Izvorni znanstveni rad
ZADACI Original scientific paper
MEHANIZACIJE
POLJOPRIVREDE

VINSKE CESTE KAO TURISTIČKA PONUDA

RURALNOG PROSTORA: STAVOVI STANOVNIKA
GRADA ZAGREBA
Ivo GRGIĆ1*, Marina PETRIĆ2, Vladimir LEVAK3, Magdalena ZRAKIĆ1
*
E-mail dopisnog autora: [email protected]
1Sveučilište
u Zagrebu, Agronomski fakultet, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10 000 Zagreb, Hrvatska
2 Dužica 2b, 10431 Sv. Nedelja, Hrvatska
3 Poljoprivredna zadruga Jalžabet, Suhodolska 21, 42 203 Jalžabet, Hrvatska

SAŽETAK

Vinske ceste su značajan oblik turističke ponude suvremenog doba i posebno

su razvijene u okolici većih gradova. One su bitan segment turističke ponude i
dodatnog dohotka stanovnika ruralnog prostora. U istraživanju se pošlo od
pretpostavke da kod odluke o odlasku u posjet vinskoj cesti nema značajnih
razlika s obzirom na dob i spol ispitanika, ali da postoji razlika s obzirom na
dohodak kućanstva anketiranih. Anketno istraživanje je provedeno na uzorku
od 167 punodobnih ispitanika u 2018. godini. U radu je korišten Hi-kvadrat
test nezavisnosti i neparametrijski testovi za utvrđivanje povezanosti
sociodemografskih obilježja ispitanika i učestalosti, odnosno motiva posjeta
vinskim cestama. Različiti su motivi za posjete vinskim cestama. Prema
rezultatima istraživanja stanovnici grada Zagreba posjećuju vinske ceste
najviše zbog kušanja vina (39,3%) zatim turističkih sadržaja (16,8%) te
prigodnih događaja (15,9%). Relativno su zadovoljni ponudom (57,9%) i
smatraju da vinske ceste trebaju bolju promociju. Istraživanje je pokazalo da
osobe sa završenom višom ili visokom školom posjećuju vinske ceste češće nego
ispitanici sa završenom srednjom školom. Na učestalost posjeta značajan je
utjecaj visine dohotka kućanstva. Ispitanici vinsku cestu u ruralnom području
percipiraju kao čuvara prostora, visoko ocjenjuju njenu ulogu u poticanju
razvitka ruralne ekonomije te povećanju konkurentnosti poljoprivrednih
gospodarstava. Vinske ceste su kanal prodaje lokalnih poljoprivrednih i drugih
proizvoda te potiču novo zapošljavanje.
Ključne riječi: vinske ceste, ruralni prostor, grad Zagreb, turisti, dohodak

47 th Symposium "Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija, Croatia, 2019.

545
 I. Grgić, M. Petrić, V. Levak, M. Zrakić

UVOD
Vinski turizam pojam je novijeg doba, ali se o njemu raspravlja u akademskim krugovima.
Definicija tog tipa turizma koja se najčešće izdvaja je Hallova (1996.) prema kojoj se vinski
turizam odnosi na posjete vinogradima, vinarijama, vinskim festivalima i izložbama vina u
kojem su kušanje vina i/ili doživljavanje posebnosti vinorodnog područja glavni motivacijski
čimbenici posjetitelja. Gotovo da i ne postoji regija Hrvatske koja nema vinske ceste.
Najrazvijenije vinske ceste su u Istri, zatim Slavoniji i Zagorju. Vinska cesta je poseban oblik
prodaje poljoprivrednih, turističkih i ugostiteljskih proizvoda jednog vinorodnog područja na
kojemu poljoprivredna gospodarstva i drugi djeluju udruženi pod nazivom vinske ceste.
Vinske ceste pružaju usluge kušanja vina iz vlastite proizvodnje, usluge hrane i pripremanja
iste, usluge smještaja i usluge koje unapređuju turističku ponudu.
Vinska cesta uključuje i prirodnu ljepotu koju karakterizira posebni krajolik kroz koji
prolazi cesta. Na cesti se nalaze kulturne i prirodne znamenitosti koje njeguju tradiciju i
posebnosti vinorodnog područja. Di Gregorio i Licari (2006) naglašavaju simbiozu lokalnih
specifičnosti, prirodne osnove i kulturne baštine te ponudu vinskih cesta i vina koji zajedno
potiču socio – ekonomski i prostorni razvoj vinorodnog područja.
Svaka vinska cesta mora ispuniti uvjete vinske ceste. Ona mora prolaziti vinorodnim
područjem na prostoru najmanje jednog vinogorja gdje postoji ponuda i proizvodnja vina i
drugih proizvoda od grožđa i vina. Na cestovnoj udaljenosti mora biti najmanje 5
poljoprivrednih gospodarstava unutar 10 km koja nude usluge kušanja i barem jedno od njih
da je kontroliranog podrijetla.
Najmanje dva gospodarstva moraju imati usluge hrane, pogotovo seljačkih specijaliteta.
Za vinske ceste je bitno da je okoliš očuvan i prirodno lijep, cestovna mreža mora biti dostupna
i povezana s prometnicama višeg ranga, nužne su odgovarajuće oznake i informativni
materijal o vinskoj cesti dostupan posjetiteljima. Moguće je i povezivanje manjih lokalnih
vinskih cesta u regionalne što doprinosi prepoznatljivosti brenda (Drvenkar i Banožić, 2010).
Na vinskoj cesti moraju se označiti atrakcije i ugostiteljska ponuda. Od atrakcija zanimljivi
su kulturni spomenici, galerije, muzeji, vidikovci i manifestacije. Dodatna ponuda koja može
obogatiti turističku ponudu na vinskim cestama je planinarenje, biciklizam, jahanje, hodanje,
zmajarenje, ribolov, lov, berba i drugi oblici. Razvoj vinskog turizma doprinosi pozicioniranju
i prepoznatljivosti određenog turističkog područja i stvara konkurentsku prednost (Razović,
2015), a vinska cesta doprinosi promociji područja (Weston, 2003). Izravan utjecaj vinskog
turizma na ekonomski razvoj prostora očituje se kroz povećanu prodaju i potrošnju proizvoda
i usluga (Šlezak, 2010) odnosno razvoj i drugih djelatnosti u području. Prema Šlezaku (2010)
utjecaj ovog oblika turizma vidljiv je i kroz povećanu brige za zaštitom prostora,
unaprijeđenije prometne i komunalne infrastrukture sve do socio – ekonomske i demografske
preobrazbe prostora u kojem se on odvija.
Cilj rada je utvrditi učestalost i motiv posjeta stanovnika grada Zagreba vinskim cestama
te njihove stavove o vinskoj cesti kao dijelu turističke ponude ruralnog prostora.

MATERIJAL I METODE
U radu su korišteni primarni i sekundarni izvori podataka. Provedeno je anketno
istraživanje sa 167 punodobnih ispitanika na području Grada Zagreba pri čemu je i 107
posjetilo vinsku cestu (poduzorak). Sudjelovanje u istraživanju je bilo anonimno. Istraživanje

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 Vinske ceste kao turistička ponuda ruralnog prostora: stavovi stanovnika grada Zagreba

je provedeno putem Google obrazaca, online. Za mjerenje stavova (stupanj suglasnosti s

navedenim izjavama) korištena je Likertova ljestvica (Marušić i Prebežac, 2004). Za obradu
podataka korišten je statistički paket SPSS 21. Kao sekundarni izvori podataka korišteni su
podatci Državnog zavoda za statistiku (DZS), Agencije za plaćanja u poljoprivredi, ribarstvu
i ruralnom razvoju, ARKOD, znanstvena i stručna literatura, te relevantni internetski izvori.

REZULTATI I RASPRAVA
Ukupno je anketirano 167 osoba prosječne dobi 40, 9 godina. Prevladava mlađa skupina
u dobi od 19 do 29 godina (107; 64,1%).
Prosječan prihod kućanstva je viši od prosjeka Hrvatske pri čemu su podjednako
zastupljena kućanstva s prihodima od 6.001 do 10.000 kn (64; 38,3%) i ona s više od 10.000
kn (64; 38,3%). Gotovo tri četvrtine ispitanika ima višu ili visoku stručnu spremu (122;
73,1%) te četvrtina srednju (44; 26,3%).
Ispitanici su odgovarali na pitanje o učestalosti kozumiranja vina. Trećina (34,1%)
konzumira vino jednom mjesečno, 24,6% jednom tjedno, 14,8% dva do tri puta tjedno, 5,4%
četiri do pet puta tjedno dok ih 10,8% vino konzumira svaki dan. Ostali ispitanici (10,3%)
uopće ne konzumiraju vino.
Gotovo dvije trećine ispitanika je (107; 64,1%) barem jednom u životu posjetilo vinsku
cestu. Preko polovice ih posjećuje vinske ceste jednom godišnje (58; 54,2%), trećina dva do
tri puta godišnje (34; 31,8%), manje njih četiri do pet puta godišnje (4; 3,7%) te 6 i više puta
godišnje (11; 10,3%).

Tablica 1 Razlozi za posjet vinskoj cesti

Table 1 Reasons to visit the wine road
Frekvencija Postotak
Frequency Percentage
Kušanje vina
43 40,5
Wine tasting
Prigodni događaji (teambuilding, berba grožđa, slavlja)
14 13,2
Occasional events (teambuilding, grape harvest, celebrations)
Kulturne i povijesne znamenitosti
19 17,9
Cultural and historical sights
Prirodne znamenitosti
4 3,8
Natural sights
Turistički sadržaji (kulturne i tradicijske manifestacije)
6 5,7
Tourist facilities (cultural and traditional events)
Kušanje ostalih proizvoda (sir, med, tradicijski proizvodi)
18 17,0
Tasting of other products (cheese, honey, traditional products)
Sportski sadržaji
2 1,9
Sports facilities
Ukupno
106 100,0
Total
Izvor: Anketa / Source: Survey

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 I. Grgić, M. Petrić, V. Levak, M. Zrakić

Kao najčešći motiv posjete vinskoj cesti je upravo kušanje vina (43; 40,6%). Također su
čest razlog posjeta kulturnim i povijesnima znamenitostima (19; 17,9%), kušanje ostalih
proizvoda (18; 17%) te prigodni događaji (14; 13,2%). Manje je zastupljeno sudjelovanje u
sportskim sadržajima (2; 1,9%), razgledavanje prirodnih znamenitosti (4; 3,8%) i uživanje
turističkih sadržaja (6; 5,7%) rjeđe su navođeni.
Hi-kvadrat test pokazuje da ne postoji statistički značajna razlika između muškaraca i žena
u učestalosti posjete vinskim cestama (χ2 (1) = 0,221; p = 0,638) odnosno ne može se
zaključiti jesu li češći posjetioci muškarci ili žene. Također, ne postoji niti razlika kod motiva
zbog kojih jednih i drugi posjećuju vinske ceste (χ2 (6) = 2,147; p = 0,925).
Ispitanici sa završenom srednjom školom posjećuju vinske ceste statistički značajno rjeđe
nego što je očekivano, a sudionici sa završenom višom ili visokom školom statistički značajno
češće (χ2 (1) = 4,980; p = 0,029). Postojeće odstupanje je male veličine efekta (Cramerov V
= 0,173).
Hi-kvadrat test kojim je provjereno postojanje razlike među sudionicima različitih
stupnjeva obrazovanja obzirom na glavni motiv posjeta vinskoj cesti nije utvrđena statistički
značajna razlika (χ2 (5) = 4,133; p = 0,542). Razlike koje su pronađene male su veličine efekta
(Cramerov V = 0,199).
U slučaju kada se uspoređuju dvije skupine, korišten je Mann-Whitney test koji nije
pronašao statistički značajnu razliku između muškaraca i žena po učestalosti posjete vinskih
cesta (U = 1288, p = 0,449). Efekt postojeće razlike je zanemarive veličine (η2 = 0,007).
Mann-Whitney U test nije detektirao niti statistički značajnu razliku između sudionika koji
jesu odnosno nisu posjetili vinske ceste prema visini dohotka (U = 3047,5, p = 0,556). Efekt
postojeće razlike je također zanemarive veličine (η2 = 0,003).
Dob ispitanika je mjerena na omjernoj ljestvici, no Shapiro-Wilk test normalnosti
proveden nad podskupinama nezavisne varijable proračunao je statistički značajna odstupanja
od normalne distribucije (p < 0,05) kod obje podskupine. Uvid u grafičke prikaze distribucija
također je otkrio distribuciju drugačiju od normalne. Zbog toga je proveden neparametrijski
test Mann-Whitney U test koji nije pronašao statistički značajnu razliku između sudionika
koji su završili srednju i višu ili visoku školu po učestalosti posjećivanja vinskih cesta (U =
870, p = 0,340. Efekt postojeće razlike je zanemarive veličine (η2 = 0,009).
Kako bi se utvrdila povezanost učestalosti posjećivanja vinskih cesta s visinom dohotka i
dobi, izračunati su Kendallovi Tau koeficijenti korelacije, koji mjere snagu povezanosti
između dvije varijable mjerene na barem ordinalnoj ljestvici. Statistički značajna povezanost
između učestalosti posjećivanja vinskih cesta i dobi nije pronađena (τb = -0,076; p = 0,330; n
= 107). Pronađena je statistički značajna povezanost učestalosti posjećivanja vinskih cesta i
visine dohotka kućanstva (τb = 0,211; p = 0,015; n = 107). Sudionici koji češće posjećuju
vinske ceste imaju statistički značajno veći dohodak kućanstva.
Razlike u motivima za posjet vinskih cesta po dobi i visini dohotka utvrđen je primjenom
Kruskal-Wallis H testa. Kruskal-Wallis H test nije zabilježio statistički značajne razlike među
različitim motivima za posjet vinskim cestama (H (6) = 1,377; p = 0,971). Sukladno tome,
post hoc testovi za utvrđivanje razlika među podskupinama nisu provedeni.
Kruskal-Wallis H test proveden s dobi kao zavisnom varijablom nije našao statistički
značajne razlike među različitim motivima za posjet vinskim cestama (H (6) = 3.766; p =

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0,708) te zbog toga post hoc testovi za utvrđivanje razlika među podskupinama nisu
provedeni.
Ispitanici koji su posjetili vinsku cestu odgovarali su na pitanja o prihvatljivoj udaljenosti
od mjesta stanovanja. Pitanje je glasilo „Koja vam je prihvatljiva udaljenost za posjet vinske
ceste od mjesta življenja?“. Za najveći dio njih (38,3%) udaljenost od mjesta stanovanja nije
važna, za četvrtinu (25,2%) ispitanika u poduzorku prihvatljiva je udaljenost do 60 minuta
vožnje, dok je za manji dio ispitanika prihvatljiva udaljenost do 30 minuta (21,5%) a za
najmanji dio 120 minuta vožnje (15%). Prema Šlezaku (2010) primjerice Međimurska vinska
cesta u okvirima Hrvatske rubno položena, dovoljno je blizu Zagreba, najvećeg emitivnog
centra vinskog turizma. Udaljenost od oko 120 kilometara, odnosno sat i pol vožnje od
Zagreba, ovu cestu ipak čini dovoljno dostupnom.
Na pitanje „Tijekom kojeg godišnjeg doba najčešće posjećujete vinske ceste?“ ispitanici
su odgovorili da to čine najčešće u jesen (41,1%) i proljeće (29,0%). Posjete ljeti su također
značajno zastupljene (25,2%) dok zimi ispitanici najslabije posjećuju vinske ceste (4,7%).
Na pitanje „Da li ste zadovoljni ponudom posjećenih vinskih cesta?“ preko 84% ispitanika
koji su posjetili vinske ceste su zadovoljni ponudom usluga i proizvoda koje se nude
posjetiteljima, dok njih 12,15% nije niti zadovoljno niti nezadovoljno ponudom.
Uloga vinske ceste općenito je pozitivno percipirana. Izjave da vinska cesta čuva tradiciju
područja (4,17), da vinske ceste trebaju bolju promociju (4,13) te da doprinose razvoju ruralne
ekonomije (4,12) su izjave s najvišim srednjim ocjenama.
Na pitanje koji su se sadržaji posebno svidjeli ispitanicima prilikom posjeta vinskoj cesti
isti su mogli izabrati između više ponuđenih odgovora. Od ukupnog broja ispitanika (107)
njih 82 navelo je kao odgovor samo kušanje vina, zatim mogućnost kušanja ostalih proizvoda
(57) te ponudu vina (51).
U otvorenom tipu pitanja ispitanici su mogli navesti što im se nije svidjelo prilikom posjeta
vinskim cestama. Neki od izdvojenih odgovora su: „Oglašavanje o događanjima izvan mjesta
vinske ceste (negdje dalje, da ljudi koji nisu u blizini mogu saznati za to, a ne samo staviti
plakate u mjestu gdje se to odvija)“; „Angažiranost i samopromocija vinara na vinskim
cestama.“; „Infrastruktura, sadržaji za obitelji s djecom, dodatni sadržaji koji bi ispunili
vrijeme za višednevni posjet, radno vrijeme ili dežurstva vinarija“; „Valorizacija kulturne
materijalne i nematerijalne baštine i prikaz tradicijskih zanata i uključivanje turista u to“;
„Kvalitetniji pristup kod kušanja vina uz bolje čaše, komadić kruha, sira, nisu uvijek
rashlađena“; „Smještaj, samoberba, edukativne radionice“; „Kvalitetnija prezentacija sa više
zanimljivosti, informacija i stečenih/prenesenih znanja, kušanje proizvoda koji "pašu" uz
određenu sortu vina, autohtona glazba“; „Prezentacija kako se nekad radilo da bi se dobilo
vino“; „Nikada nisam posjetio vinsku cestu a da je došlo do nekakvog nezadovoljstva ili da je
nešto nedostajalo. Sve su posebne na svoj način.“; „poklon - paketi“; „Bolje radno vrijeme,
dostupnost i ponuda hrane uz kušanje vina“ itd.
Posljednje pitanje u upitniku bilo je otvoreno za komentare ispitanika ukoliko smatraju da
je nešto izostavljeno kroz prethodna pitanja. Izdvajamo jedan odgovor: „Jedini minus vinskih
cesta ide cijenama vina, koja su tamo skuplja nego u vinarijama i dućanima, umjesto da bude
obrnuto.“

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Tablica 2 Stavovi ispitanika o vinskoj cesti (1-u potpunosti se ne slažem; 2-ne slažem se; 3-niti se
slažem niti se ne slažem; 4-slažem se; 5-u potpunosti se slažem)
Table 2 Respondents attitudes on wine road (1 - strongly disagree, 2 - disagree, 3 - neither agree or
disagree, 4 - agree, 5 - strongly agree)

SO* SD
N Min Max
AG St. Dev.

Vinska cesta čuva tradiciju područja

107 1 5 4,17 1,225
The wine road preserves the tradition of the area

Vinska cesta doprinosi razvoju ruralne ekonomije

107 1 5 4,12 1,171
The wine road contributes to the development of the rural economy

Vinska cesta potiče diverzifikaciju ruralne ekonomije

107 1 5 4,07 1,135
The wine road encourages the diversification of the rural economy

Vinska cesta povećava konkurentnost poljoprivrednih proizvođača

107 1 5 4,07 1,118
The wine road increases the competitiveness of agric. producers

Vinska cesta povećava vrijednost poljoprivredne proizvodnje

107 1 5 4,01 1,161
The wine road increases the value of agricultural production
Razvoju vinskih cesta pomaže poslovno povezivanje
poljoprivrednih proizvođača
107 1 5 4,00 1,099
Business association of agricultural producers helps to the
development of wine roads
Vinske ceste olakšavaju poljoprivrednicima prodaju proizvoda i usluga
107 1 5 3,94 1,106
Wine roads help farmers sell their products and services

Vinska cesta obogaćuje ukupnu turističku ponudu države

107 1 5 3,93 1,294
The wine road enriches the total tourist offer of the state

Vinska cesta omogućava stvaranje novih radnih mjesta

107 1 5 3,83 1,209
The wine road allows to create new jobs

Vinske ceste doprinose zadržavanju ljudi

107 1 5 3,81 1,297
Wine roads contribute to retaining people

Kroz vinske ceste se ekonomično iskorištavaju prirodni resursi

107 1 5 3,79 1,234
Natural resources are exploited economically through wine roads

Hrvatska ima bogatu ponudu vinskih cesta

107 1 5 3,53 1,152
Croatia has a rich wine roads offer
Mlađa populacija je više zainteresirana za vinske ceste od starije populacije
The younger population is more interested in wine roads than 107 1 5 3,03 1,224
the older population
Poljoprivrednici koji se uključuju u projekt vinske ceste ne
trebaju dodatno (cjeloživotno) obrazovanje
107 1 5 2,63 1,307
Farmers involved in the wine road project do not need
additional (lifelong) education
Vinska cesta ne doprinosi razvoju lokalne infrastrukture
The wine road does not contribute to the development of local 107 1 5 2,46 1,362
infrastructure
Vinska cesta nepovoljno utječe na autohtonost područja
107 1 5 2,25 1,388
The wine road adversely affects the autochthonous area

Vinska cesta zagađuje okoliš i narušava krajolik

107 1 5 1,97 1,328
The wine road pollutes the environment and distorts the landscape
* Srednja ocjena / Average grade; Izvor: Kao za Tablicu 1. / Source: Same as for Tab. 1

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ZAKLJUČAK
Prema rezultatima istraživanja stanovnici grada Zagreba posjećuju vinske ceste najviše
zbog kušanja vina (39,3%) zatim turističkih sadržaja (16,8%) te prigodnih događaja (15,9%).
Relativno su zadovoljni ponudom (57,9%) i smatraju da vinske ceste trebaju bolju promociju.
Više od polovine sudionika na pitanje o učestalosti posjeta vinskih cestama navelo ih je
da posjećuju jednom godišnje (54,2%), otprilike trećina dva do tri puta godišnje (31,8%
poduzorka). Manje su zastupljeni oni sudionici koji češće posjećuju vinske ceste, četiri do pet
puta godišnje (3,7%) te 6 i više puta godišnje (10,3%).
Između muškaraca i žena ne postoji statistički značajna razlika s obzirom na odluku o
posjećivanju vinske ceste. Isto se odnosi i na motiv posjete s obzirom na dob pri kojemu
također nije nađena statistički značajna razlika. Prema obrazovanju utvrđena je statistički
značajna razlika s obzirom na sudionike koji su završili višu ili visoku školu i onih sa srednjom
školom. Sudionici sa završenom višom ili visokom školom učestalije posjećuju vinske ceste
od onih sa završenom srednjom školom. Provjerena je i razlika između različitog stupnja
obrazovanja i motiva za posjet vinskoj cesti te su rezultati pokazali da ne postoji statistički
značajna razlika između te dvije varijable.
Statističkom analizom pronađena je statistički značajna povezanost učestalosti
posjećivanja vinskih cesta i visine dohotka kućanstva. Sudionici koji češće posjećuju vinske
ceste imaju statistički značajno veći dohodak kućanstva
Vinske ceste posjetitelji vide kao doprinos razvoju ruralne ekonomije, očuvanje tradicije,
povećanje vrijednosti poljoprivredne proizvodnje, zadržavanje ljudi na ruralnom prostoru,
obogaćivanje turističke ponude države, povećanje konkurentnosti, stvaranje novih radnih
mjesta i povećanje znanja o vinu.

NAPOMENA
Rad je izvod iz diplomskog rada studentice Marine Petrić, mag. ing. agr., studentice
diplomskog studija Agrobiznis i ruralni razvitak na Agronomskom fakultetu u Zagrebu

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(20. 11. 2018.)
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(1): 62-75.
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Kelebić, N. (2016). Vinski turizam – segment turizma u koji se sve više ulaže. Dostupno na:
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Pravilnik o vinskim cestama Zagrebačke županije (2010). Narodne novine. Dostupno na:
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f3f5946d636c/pravilnik_o_vinskim_cestama.pdf Pristupljeno : 29. 07. 2018.
Razović, M. (2015). Vinski turizam kao posebni oblik turističke ponude Dalmacije. Zbornik radova
Veleučilišta u Šibeniku, 3-4, 51-67.
Šlezak, H. (2010). Međimurska vinska cesta. Zbornik radova Međimurskog veleučilišta u Čakovcu.
1(2):84-91.
Vinska kultura i kultura čovjeka. Dostupno na: http://vinarija.com/1123-vinska-kultura-i-kultura-
covjeka, Pristupljeno: 30. 07. 2018
Vinske ceste. Turistička zajednica Zagrebačke županije. Dostupno na: http://www.tzzz.hr/kroz-
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WINE ROADS AS A TOURIST OFFER OF RURAL

AREAS: ATTITUDES OF INHABITANTS OF ZAGREB
CITY
Ivo GRGIĆ1*, Marina PETRIĆ2, Vladimir LEVAK3, Magdalena ZRAKIĆ1
*
E-mail of corresponding author: [email protected]
1 University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Svetošimunska cesta 25, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
2
Dužica 2b, 10 431 Sv. Nedelja, Croatia
3 Agricultural Cooperative Jalžabet, Suhodolska 21, 42 203 Jalžabet, Croatia

ABSTRACT
Wine roads are a significant form of tourist offer of the modern age and have
been specifically developed around the big cities. They are an important
segment of the tourist offer and additional income of residents of rural areas.
The study is based on the assumption that in the decision to go to visit the wine
road there is no significant differences according to age and sex of respondents,
but there are differences regard to household’s income. The survey was
conducted on a sample of 167 adult respondents in 2018. Hi-square test
independence and nonparametric tests were used to determine the relation
between the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents and
frequency, or motives in visiting the wine roads. According to the survey results,
respondents visit the wine roads mostly because of wine tasting (39.3%)
followed by tourist contents (16.8%) and occasional events (15.9%). They are
relatively satisfied with the offer (57.9%) and believe that wine roads need
better promotion. The research has shown that respondents with higher or high
school degree visit the wine roads more often than those who have completed
secondary school. The level of household income has a significant impact on
the frequency of visits the wine roads. Respondents perceived wine roads in a
rural area as the “guardian” of these areas, highly evaluate its role in
promoting the development of rural economy and increasing the
competitiveness of farms. Wine roads are a channel for local agricultural and
other products selling and encouraging new employment.
Keywords: wine roads, rural area, Zagreb City, tourists, income

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