STAINLESS STEEL

IN ARCHITECTURE,
BUILDING AND
CONSTRUCTION –
GUIDELINES FOR
ROOFS, FLOORS, AND
HANDRAILS
A GUIDE TO THE USE OF
NICKEL-CONTAINING ALLOYS
NO 11013

Distributed by
NICKEL
INSTITUTE
STAINLESS STEEL IN ARCHITECTURE,
BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION –
GUIDELINES FOR ROOFS, FLOORS,
AND HANDRAILS

A GUIDE TO THE USE OF

NICKEL-CONTAINING ALLOYS
NO 11013

Published 1994

The material presented in this publication has been prepared for

the general information of the reader and should not be used or
relied on for specific applications without first securing competent
advice.

The Nickel Institute, its members, staff, and consultants do not

represent or warrant its suitability for any general or specific use
and assume no liability or responsibility of any kind in connection
with the information herein.

Prepared by D. J. Cochrane
Stainless Steel - the modern material
with a 60 year track record.
The term "stainless steel" is used to describe over one Thickness of Stainless Steel
hundred different stainless steels, with each one tailor-
made to give outstanding performance in specific
used in Architectural applications
u,·
applications. The key to successful use is understanding the Q)"'CI "'C
C (I) (I) Standard wire guage mm
roC o,
application and then specifying the correct type from the six "' o..J'!<> 10 3.25
generally associated with Architectural and Building
C
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0
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• 0 ...,..._ Door bumpers
products.
-~
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0 0. C
12 2.64
& framing

> o -T5 Column covers, interior,

Grade Typical Chemical Composition ~
1i,
C ~ ~
E o .c ..,__ where bumping by baggage
~
::,:=..c crates etc is not expected.
430 17% Cr 0.07% C /i5 8E·j 14 2.03

304L 18% Cr 10.0% Ni 0.03% C ...,___ Roofing for large buildings

braced but not backed
304 18% Cr 10.0% Ni 0.06% C Roll formed, long
Self supporting ___.. 16 1.62
316L 17% Cr 12.0% Ni 0.03% C 2.5% Mo members
316 17% Cr 12.0% Ni 0.06% C 2.5% Mo
2205 22% Cr 5.5% Ni 0.03% C 3.0% Mo 18 1.22
Formed and braces
for stiffness, ___,..
Why do stainless steels resist corrosion? supported at edges
20 0.91
All metals react with oxygen in the air to form a film of
...,_ Window sills for
oxide on the surface. The oxide formed on ordinary steel commercial buildings
allows the oxidation to continue producing the typical rusty 22 0.71
appearance. However,, because stainless steels contain "'
C
~~ ..,__ Cleats, clips, etc.
0 =>
more than 11 % chromium, the characteristics of the oxide -~ E
are changed. Further oxidation is prevented and if the film is ,g~-
0. (I)
oti~~k~~t:~~~ ___,.. 24 0.56
0. ~

accidentally removed, a new one forms to continue the ~ -g

<D ro
> 0.
protection. ~"'
©~ 26 0.46
In practice, stainless steel contain at least 18% chromium. ~ i ....,.._ Gutters, leaders, :xposed
~ _£;
flashing, residential roofing
The most frequently used grades also contain at least 8% >
0
.c =>
ro
t
u 28 0.38
nickel. <(

_......, Concealed flashing

Typical Uses 32 0.27

Type 430 stainless steel performs reasonably well indoors,
but steels containing nickel are required for satisfactory
service outdoors. Type 304 is widely used for curtain
walling, side walling, roofing etc. but Type 316 stainless
steel is preferable for coastal regions and locations where Design
atmospheric pollution is a problem. Guidance on selection For over 60 years, architects have used stainless steel to
can be obtained from the companion brochure "Advantages produce permanent expressions of their design concepts.
for Architects". Some, such as the Chrysler Building in New York City, are
The European specification Eurocode 3 Part 1.4, will include highly visible, but there are many other external and interior
Grades 304L, 316L and 2205 for structural applications. applications where stainless steel plays a less dramatic but
vital role in the aesthetics and performance of a building.
Product forms
Stainless steel is produced in virtually all standard metal Stainless steel's role as a long life, high integrity structural
forms and sizes, plus many special shapes and castings. material is recognised by design codes such as the
The most commonly used products are made from thin American Society of Civil Engineers standard ANSI/ASCE - 8
sheet and strip. - 90 "Specification for the Design of Cold Formed Stainless
Steel Structural Members" and the "Design Manual for
Surface appearance Structural Stainless Steel" published by the Nickel
A wide range of commercial surface finishes is available. Development Institute in conjunction with Euro lnox.
The surface can be highly reflective or matt; smooth,
brushed or embossed; painted, coloured or even coated Future
with terne alloy to produce an appearance similar to lead. Stainless steel already has many ideal characteristics
required for an architectural material - but its development
Fabrication continues.
Techniques used for welding, forming and cutting ordinary
carbon steel can be used for stainless steel, but Existing types have been improved to give -even better
adjustments in equipment settings and recognition of the performance and new steels are being marketed to meet
higher strength of stainless steel will be required. When the demands of advanced architectural applications.
these differences are accommodated, stainless steel can be
readily fabricated.
 Advantages of stainless steel
Roofs Roofing with stainless steel offers many
advantages:
Introduction (a) it is highly resistant to corrosion and totally
The unique properties of stainless steel are impervious to water
ideally suited for roofing, whether flat, pitched, (b) it requires no maintenance other than the
arched or curved. removal of leaves and debris as with all roofs
Stainless steel is a highly durable long lasting (c) it will last the lifetime of the structure[1]
material, of high strength and ductility, and totally (d) it is light, around 3kg/m 2 (Hand Built)
impervious to water. It requires little or no (e) it has a high degree of safety in the event of
maintenance and Is readily formable and fire
weldable. (f) it is simple to lay
(g) it is cost competitive
It can be coloured, by resin coating, as widely (h) it has high strength and high ductility for
used for roofing in Japan for example, or used as forming
a bare metal roof covering in hand built or (j) it can safely be used with other building
standard profiled form. materials and is not attacked by cement,
mortars, or timber preservatives
Domestic, commercial, municipal and industrial (k) is aesthetically pleasing
buildings, sports stadia and Churches, have all (I) it can be coloured
been fitted with stainless steel roofs. (m) it can be soldered and welded
(n) it can be shaped
Many of these applications have been curved.

Types of Roofing
Stainless steel can be used In the following
ways:
(a) as Profiled sheeting
(b) as profiled sheeting with a Secret Fix system
(c) Standing Seam method, seam welded or
folded
(d) Batten Roll method
The material can also be given a proprietary
finish, used plain or terne coated, or be coloured.

Fig.1 Coloured Japanese roof (a) Profiled sheeting

In the same way that carbon steel may be
profiled, stainless steel may also be used.

ho+

Fig.3 Typical roof profiles (dimensions in mm)

Due to its work hardening characteristics,

stainless steel requires around 50% more
pressure to produce the profile than is required
for carbon steel, and austenitic grades of
Fig.2 Thames Barrier An example of a curved standing material are also subject to 'springback' during
seam roof the roll forming process.
For these reasons manufacturers tend to offer a particular system for which a proprietary pearl
limited range of profiles.[2] finish was given to the stainless steel.[3]
An alternative process is brake pressing. The This system uses roll formed profiles which have
Waterloo Terminal roof was manufactured by this male and female sides designed to clip over one
route and the panels were specifically designed another and thus provide a strong interlocking
to accommodate the long span required by the watertight roof membrane.
architect.
In between the interlocking members are
specially designed clips which are fixed to the
purlins and hold the roof down.

Fig.5 Interlocking panel

1/
Hinge about
clip
Fig.4 Waterloo International rail terminal

The method of construction, however, is the

same, in that the decking is supported on purlins,
generally at about 1.8m centres, although the
spacing is dependent upon the depth of profile
and the design loading.
With stainless steel roofing, It Is important that
primary and secondary fixing screws are also
made from stainless steel. Austenitic fasteners
must be used with austenitic roofing sheets,
As Youngs Modulus for stainless steel is similar
to that of carbon steel, deflections for identical
profiles will be similar. ,.,·
tr· ....
·.·
·"';a;-:/ 1;::•' ,,<

(b) Secret Fix System

The secret fix system is similar to profiled
decking in appearance but uses a hidden clip ck fall
rlin/batten
fastening to connect adjacent sheets.
--
The advantage of this method is that the roof is
not perforated by fixing screws, therefore, a
potential source of leakage is eliminated.
Fig.6 Fixing clip
There are different proprietary methods and
profiles of secret fix systems available but the The interlocking panel principle may also be used
concept is the same for most of them. for wall cladding either external or internal.

The roof shown in Fig.7 illustrates one system. A This type of system allows thermal movement,
Post Office Sorting Office in London used this either expansion or contraction, to take place.
2
 Installation
The installation of this type of roof begins by
marking out and fixing the first row of clips.

The first profile is hinged over the row of clips

and lowered on to the purlins.

The next row of clips are installed by fitting them

over the sheet that has been laid and secured as
before to the purlins.

It is necessary to use crawler boards during

installation, and that applies to most metal roof
structures, to avoid permanent deflections and
surface damage.

Footwear should also be selective for this

reason, and, to avoid grease contamination, it is
recommended that clean gloves should be worn
for handling the material.

Fig.7 Example of a Secret Fix roof It is normal practice at ridge joints to turn up the
sheeting, using a special tool, to prevent the
passage of water, and conversely turn down the
Minimum Slope sheeting at drips and sheet ends to facilitate
As with most roof structures a mInImum water run off.
degree slope is necessary to avoid ponding and
the creation of permanent water pools. Preformed stop ends are usually driven in at the
rib ends to provide a neat finish and prevent their
While this Is the absolute minimum use by small birds insects etc.
recommended, steeper pitches will allow a
faster water run off and improved washing action Details of Ridge capping, gutters, verges, fascias
by rainwater. and drips will be available from the roofing
manufacturer.
It is more usual to deploy a roof slope of
between 3 and 6 degrees however, to simplify
flashings and gutter details. Hand Built Types of Roof
Hand built types of metal roofing require a
Thickness of Sheet substrate for support, and stainless steel is no
Profiles are usually rolled in thicknesses of 0.5, exception.
0.6, and 0.7mm and are designed for a multiple Within this category of roofing there are basically
span condition over the purlins which may be two systems used, commonly known as:
from 1.5m to 2.25m centres depending upon the
load to be carried. Standing seam
Pressed panels may be of thicker material and Batten roll
account should be taken of the increased Preferably, the stainless steel used for hand built
pressure required for stainless steel sheets as roofs should be in the softened condition for
indicated in Types of Roofing (a).
ease of forming.

Load/Span Tables It is recommended that for roof pitches up to 7°,

These are available from roofing manufacturers. the batten roll method be used but above this
roof pitch either method may be used.
Accessories Aesthetically, the standing seam system
As with any stainless roof structure accessories provides a less conspicuous profile than the
such as clips and screws should also be batten roll system which gives visually bold lines
manufactured in stainless steel. at the batten joints.
3
Both systems may be used together if the Standing seam
architect so chooses.
Care should be taken in manipulation, forming of
Method of forming
seams, and dressing, as the stainless will rapidly
harden when cold worked.

(c) Standing Seam

The standing seam system comprises a series of
bays formed by the sheeting trays which are laid
down the slope adjacent to the clips which have
already been fixed to the substrate at 375mm
centres. Clip size 45mm high x 25mm x 50mm
long. Expansion clip 40mm high x 85mm long,
50mm slot for 30mm clip.
The clips are secured to the substrate or battens Fig. 1O Securing the tray
by screws or helical twist nails. The clips are
folded with the upturn of the sheeting to form
the longitudinal standing seam which will be
approximately 25mm in height.

~Cll
~
(/J
..._
0
:,.._
(/)

~
....
::,
0
0

Fig.8 Forming the standing seam [4] Fig.11 Seam formed securing adjacent trays

Plain clips are used to secure lengths up to 3m

and when this length is exceeded, a mixture of
1/3rd plain clips and 2/3rds expansion clips
should be used to take account of expansion, or
thermal movement.

~Cll
~
(/J
..._
0
:,.._
(/)

~::,
8 F;ig.12Folding the standing seams at drips and eaves
Fig.9 Expansion clip
(d) Batten Roll System
When lengths in excess of 9m are required, In this system longitudinal timber battens are
sheets may be joined across the fall by a single securely fixed to the substrate at 450mm
welt, where the roof pitch exceeds 45°. Joints centres using stainless steel number 10 size
should be flattened to allow water to flow freely screws (3.5mm).lt is important that the battens
over the sheets. Where the roof pitch is less are securely fixed to avoid any displacement
than 45° then it is recommended that a drip be when dressing the metal into position and they
formed. To avoid the difficulty of welting multiple will also be fitted with the sheeting clips prior to
thicknesses of stainless steel in the standing fitting to the substrate. Spacing of the battens is
seam, cross joints should be staggered. normally 425mm centres.
4
 Table 1. Materials suitable for
Batten Roll, Standing Seam and
Seam Welded roofing
Stainless Steel Grade Min. Tensile Condition Min.0.2% Typical
UNS BS1449: ASTM Strength Stress H'ness
Part 2 A240 N/mm' N/mm' Vickers

S30403 304S11 304L 480 Softened 180 150

S30400 304S31 304 500 Softened 195 150

S31603 316S11 316L 490 Softened 190 150

S31600 316S31 316 510 Softened 205 150

Fig.13 Batten roll arrangement

Table 2. Physical properties of
stainless steel in the softened
condition.
Stainless Grade 304S11 304S31 316S11 316S31

Density kg/m' 7905 7910 7970 7970

Specific Heat 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.52

KJ/KgK (20-200cl

Coefficient of
linear expansion 8.0 x 1o~c 18.0 X 10~C 17.x 310~c 17.3 x 1o~c
(20-200c)

Thermal 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0

] Conductivity
Q) W/mk100C
.El
V) Melting Point°c 1415 1415 1380 1380
"--
C)
::,.._
V)

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Substructure
The design of the substructure for stainless will
8 be identical to that used for other metal roofing.
Fig.14 Forming at Drip and Eaves
Timber in the form of tongued and grooved
At eaves and drip positions battens are usually boards 25mm in thickness or exterior grade
splayed at 45° to facilitate dressing of the plywood 19 or 25mm in thickness will provide a
stainless steel capping. The main sheeting trays suitable substrate for stainless. Alternatively a
are formed from a coil width of 455mm with concrete sub-structure will suffice. With a
45mm upstands along the longitudinal edges concrete substructure, provision must be made
which are dressed up to the sides of the battens. for securing clips or rolls by wooden dovetailed
The sheeting clips are folded over to secure or battens or plugs set into the concrete and set
hold the sheet in position. Size 55mm high x flush with the finished level of concrete.
50mm long. Separate roll caps, generally 1m
long should be provided for the batten rolls. The It is suggested that timber battens be 75mm x
capping covers locate and lock at one end and 25mm deep. All timber should be preferably
are fixed by 3, number 10 screws at the other. pressure treated or impregnated with a
preservative to prevent decay.
Materials The substructure should incorporate an even fall
All materials associated with stainless roofing to facilitate drainage with the minimum slope
should also be made from stainless including being 1 in 40.
batten covers, flashings, drop aprons, and clips
and nails. Flashings may also be in lead. An underlay should be laid on top of the
Austenitic grades of stainless steel are generally substructure to provide a smooth and even
used for roofing purposes, and these are typically surface for the roof sheeting. The underlay is not
as shown in Table 1. The higher alloyed Type 316 a vapour barrier and ventilation should be
is recommended for aggressive coastal or provided by othermeans unless the underlay
industrial areas and further guidance can be comprises a composite layer impervious to
obtained in ref .1. water.
5
This is important when concrete or screeds are 5. ensure that aprons and flashings are secured
used as they may retain moisture for long against wind uplift and main roof coverings
periods. adequately weathered
6. ensure that all paintings and flashings are
completed and and adequately dressed or
Material Thickness and Finish weathered
A softened material generally with a hardness
value less than 150 Vickers, and only 28 SWG 7. finally, ensure that the surface of the stainless
(0.375mm) is generally preferred for hand built steel has been properly cleared of all debris.
roofs.
Terne Coated Stainless Steel
A dull matt finish similar to a 2D finish, or Terne Whilst a dull flat finish is normally recommended
coated material (see under Terne Coating) is the for roofing, in order to reduce glare, terne coated
usual type of finish preferred, to avoid reflection. material is frequently specified for roofing
because of it's appearance which is similar to
that of lead.
Precautions
Storage and protection of stainless steel. The This type of coating weathers, and in time,
stainless steel should be kept dry whilst in transit closely resembles a lead roof.
and in the store on site.
Terne coating is a material with an alloy coating
At all times care should be taken to avoid comprising 80-85% lead and 15-20% tin,
marking or scoring the material by for example depending upon the plating company, and the
nailed boots or heavy tools. Stainless steel coating thickness is in the order of 20 microns
should never be cleaned by wire wool made per side.
from carbon steel as this will inevitably lead to It was developed by Follansbee in the USA from
deposits of carbon steel and result in rust whom details of the way in which this coating is
staining. achieved, may be obtained.
Stainless steel must always be kept apart from It is important to note with this type of coating
carbon steel especially where these are being that it can be worked in the same way that
machined. ordinary sheeting in stainless steel can be
worked and it is the appearance that is the main
The sheeting trays formed to fit the bays of the difference.
roof should contain an allowance for expansion
and contraction as appropriate. It is popular for this reason.

Resin Coated Stainless Steel

Checks Resin coated stainless steel, i.e. PVF2, has met
It is worthwhile for a construction that is to last with spectacular success in Japan where it was
as long as a stainless one to carry out a few introduced in the mid 1980's.
checks and ensure that a good job has been
done. Over 22,000 tonnes/annum is currently used for
roofing in Japan.
These should take the form of the following
check list Resin coated stainless steel has been developed
1. ensure that the substructure surface is of to give a long life coating and the process
satisfactory finish, flat and firm, and with no involves a tempering of the skin of the stainless
projections such as screw heads. steel by holding the final annealing process for a
little longer than normal. ,
2. ensure that the underlay is dry and free from
dirt and extraneous matter and joints are To ensure good adhesion, the steel passes
butted and not lapped. through shotblasted skin pass rolls. An epoxy
3. ensure that the main roof covering is laid true resin layer is applied as a primer prior to the
with the substructure and secured against application of the resin coating.
wind uplift A high weathering coat of Vinylidene fluoride
4. ensure that all welted seams are correctly resin has been developed although the general
formed and in the proper direction purpose coating is a Silicone acryl resin.
6
Because seam welding is the fast growing gutters are generally of the preformed type also
market in Japan, a weldable resin coating has hand built. They may also be thin gauge rolled
been developed. products. This is an area where the soldering of
stainless may be used, not specifically for it's
The coating differs to the normal resin coating by joint strength, but in order to seal a particular
the addition of 20% in weight of stainless junction.
powder and this ensures the electrical
conductivity necessary for the seam welding Stainless can be used uncoated or terne coated
equipment. Profiled sheeting can be used in the and in both cases are readily soldered.
usual way or installed using a 'Secret Fix' type of
concealed fitting.
Soldering of uncoated stainless
Soldering as a process is generally suitable for
Seam Welding materials up to 1.25mm in thickness and it is
Seam welded roofs are basically the standing recommended that a flux be used that suits
seam mentioned earlier except that the seams stainless. For uncoated stainless a phosphoric
are welded to form a watertight join. based flux, which is only active at soldering
temperatures, may be used. Either a 50/50 or
This is achieved with the aid of automatic 60/40 tin/lead solder is suited to stainless and
portable machinery initially developed for the the 2D surface finish to the roofing material
purpose by the Rostfria Tak Corporation of means that no surface treatment other than
Sweden. perhaps a degrease is necessary before
soldering.
The principle of this method is that the sheeting
clips are first spot welded to the sheeting.
The second is to seam weld 15mm up from the
Post soldering treatment
All flux residues and vapours must be removed
roof deck with the automatic seam welder which
following completion of the soldered joint.
is self propelled.
The final operation is the folding over of the
seam which again is a process carried out by a
Terne Coated Sheet
Because the coating already contains lead and
self propelled seam bending machine.
tin, the soldering operation is generally simpler
The seam welder requires a 3 phase power than the uncoated stainless, and again a Tinmens
supply of 380V or a generator for 27 kVA and it's solder of 60/40 is very suitable.
self propelling speed is 4 metres/ minute.
Technical information on roofing is available
in a well illustrated NiDI publication entitled:
'Technical Manual for the Design &
Construction of Roofs of Stainless Steel
Sheet'
References
1. An Architects Guide on Corrosion Resistance
Published by the Nickel Development
Institute.
2. European Profiles Ltd. Dyfed, Wales.
3. B. & N. Engineering Ltd. Cleveland, England.
4. Lee Steelex Publication Number 2. Sheffield,
England.
Fig.15 Seam welding

Gutters and Downpipes

With hand built roofing, that is batten roll or
standing seam methods, gutters are generally
laid on a substrate of hard board and valley
7
Floors Basic Forms of Flooring
The following types of stainless steel flooring is
produced:
Introduction
Stainless steel teardrop patterned floorplate was 1. Raised pattern solid floorplate.
first produced in the UK in the mid-eighties in 2. Etched pattern solid floorplate
response to market demand, as an alternative to 3. Grid
corrosion protected carbon steel. 4. Plank
Stainless flooring has since found applications in
many different industries, for a variety of 1. Raised Pattern Solid Floorplate
reasons, appearance, cleanliness, ease and
frequency of cleaning - sometimes with This is a hot rolled product produced by the
chemicals - hygiene, hostility of the environment, rolling mills at the steelworks.
and cost effectiveness.
Floorplate is usually supplied in coil up to a
Food processing plants, dairies, breweries, weight of 23 tonnes, or in plate form which is
abattoirs, industrial and chemical plants, already cut to size. With a maximum width of
hospitals, motor plants, have all installed 1830mm the rolled product is produced in
stainless flooring. thicknesses of 3, 4.5, 6, 8, and 10 mm with a
raised teardrop pattern at a cross centre pitch of
Commercial buildings, offices, and railway 27mm. Typically the height of the studs or
stations have also fitted stainless steel floorplate. teardrops will be in the range 1.5 - 2.2mm and
the teardrops themselves are 27mm long and a
Electro-polished, floorplate is visually attractive maximum width of 9mm.[1 l
and provides a surface finish that is least likely to
harbour bacteria and dust - a requirement in Hi- This pattern facilitates the removal of surface
tech plants and food processing areas for water which can readily be swept away.
example - while security underfoot is provided by
it's pattern which may be rolled, pressed, or It has been shown by tests, that stainless steel
etched. floorplate of this pattern has considerably higher
resistance to abrasion than materials such as
It is an ideal material for applications where carbon steel and aluminium.[2]
corrosive conditions place demands upon
materials and protective finishes that require
regular inspection, and often costly maintenance
or replacement.

Fig.1 Waterloo International rail terminal teardrop raised pattern floorplate

8
Fig.2 Abrasion resistance of floorplate

Fig.3 Etched patterned floorplate

Loading
Thin gauge floorplate, a recent development, is Unless laid on a flat surface, floorplate will
available as a pressed product in thicknesses of require support and the load carrying capacity
1, 1.5, 2, and 3mm.[3,4] will depend upon whether this is in the simply
supported condition or encastre (fixed) on all four
This product is finding application as wall liner edges.
and floors of transport vehicles such as
refrigerated lorries, and floors of fire service Load tables are provided by the manufacturers of
vehicles, and milk lorries. the stainless floorplate for given width and
breadth spans and are based either on deflection
Adjacent sheets may be joined by the lock seam or a maximum skin stress of 180 N/mm 2 . This
method to provide the necessary width, and the value for bending stress was derived from load
sheet may also be bonded in position using tests.
epoxy resin.
It can also be bonded to carbon steel floorplate Fixing
where the pattern has worn flat - on steps for Floorplate may be bolted to a suitable subframe
instance - where the bonding effectively acts as or welded depending upon the application.
a barrier between the dissimilar metals and
prevents galvanic corrosion. Countersunk headed bolts can be used provided
that the material. has sufficient thickness to
prevent protruding boltheads.
2. Etched Patterned Solid Floorplate The subframe may be either of stainless or
Architectural floorplate is available in a variety of carbon steel and bolts should be stainless to
patterns and is principally produced in Japan.[5] prevent corrosion between the dissimilar
materials. If the subframe is carbon steel and the
Patterns are etched to a depth of around 800
environment a corrosive one, then a suitable
microns and the bottom of the etching is coated
barrier should be used to separate the metals - a
to prevent contamination and corrosion.
coat of bitumen would suffice, or a non-metallic
Proprietary patterns are available, however, any barrier such as Teflon or a rubber strip.
pattern can be applied.
If the floorplate is welded in position, and this
This product is commonly found at the bottom of may be necessary between floorplates to seal
escalators. the floor for washing purposes, thermal
movement should be taken into consideration.
Plate thickness is in the range 3 to 8mm and the The welds should be cleaned up to restore the
maximum width available is 1.5m. surface to prevent rust staining occurring due to
the oxidised or weld heat tinted surface.

9
This may be achieved using proprietary pickle Aesthetics
pastes which are available for this purpose. Floorplate with a raised pattern, if not in
Manufacturers full instructions should be stainless, is subject to wear particularly at the
followed when using this method which involves high points in well used areas. Stainless steel
brushing on the paste followed by a thorough has a good surface which will not become readily
water rinse. worn in the way that softer material such as
aluminium will.
When welding material less than 4.5mm thick,
some distortion may occur due to the heat input Painted surfaces, often found on carbon steel
and the solution is to adopt a stitch and gap flooring, tend to become unsightly where the
technique where small runs are welded, a gap surface becomes worn at its high points and the
left, followed by another weld run and gap and same applies to galvanised surfaces. With any
so on. The gaps are filled when the metal has surface protection and raised projections, there
cooled. is inevitably going to be wear exposing the
substrate and leaving it bare and susceptible to
attack and corrosion. Periodic recoating to
Forming restore the protection may be necessary for
Not all applications require flat square plates and painted and galvanised steel.
floorplate is readily formed and cut in the
fabrication shop. Upstands may be formed to In ship engine rooms, for example, it has been
facilitate washing to prevent the water from found necessary to remove floorplates and
going over the edge. return for regalvanising before refitting. The cost
of this exercise is such that stainless steel has
become the standard material used by one of the
Finishes UK major shipbuilders.
Floorplate is generally supplied in the rolled
condition or is descaled to provide a dull matt Stainless steel does not show the effects of
appearance. abraded surfaces as protected surfaces do, and
this is a clear advantage.
Where appearance or exceptional cleanability is
concerned, it can be electro-polished to provide a
superb finish. This type of finish leaves a smooth
surface which is not susceptible to collection or 3. Grid Flooring
harbouring of contaminants. Grid flooring is often used as walkways,
frequently elevated, or mezzanine floors, where
the transmission of light and ventilation are
Stairtreads required. In certain industries they may be
The formability of floorplate readily allows its subject to a highly aggressive working
application for stairtreads. A fully stainless environment.
stairway, with stairtreads in floorplate as well as
the handrail support frame, makes an attractive, Grids are formed from bars welded or held in
practical installation. position and carbon steel grids can lose load
carrying capacity if corrosion occurs, therefore,
regular inspection and maintenance is essential.
It is an ongoing cost.
Stainless steel can be cost effective in this type
of environment. Likely disruption and possible
shut down for maintenance/replacement can be
avoided by using stainless steel.

Fig.4 Stairtreads, Science Museum London

10
 .__
Q)

~ Q)
Fig.6 Grid Floor, Plain Fig.7 Grid Floor,
u::
)
Serrated
-2
a The bars are placed in position and subjected to
it a pressure of 100 tons and a 2000 k.V.A.
Fig.5 Corroded grid in carbon steel electrical charge simultaneously. The transverse
bars are pressed into the bearer bars under this
As shown in Fig.5 the structural capacity of a welding process and fused together.
carbon steel grid may not be evident simply by
visual inspection. Clearly any elevated walkway The twisted top transverse bars provide for grip
in this type of environment is unlikely to tolerate underfoot and the bearer bars can be serrated to
this degree of attack without impairing its safety. provide improved grip.

On a typical walkway with 5mm bearer bars, the The principle of bearer bars with transverse bars
thickness of a galvanised coating is which stiffen the frame and provide support to
approximately 65 microns i.e. a coating mass of the compression part of the bearer bars can be
460 gm/m 2 . This, by itself, is unlikely to provide a achieved in different ways.
long service life in aggressive conditions because Small grids or gulley cover plates are
the surface will wear underfoot and reduce the commonplace in many commercial areas
life to first maintenance. particularly in kitchens, food processing areas,
and abbatoirs that are washed frequently.!7]
In addition to industrial applications, stainless
steel grids have also been installed as an
architectural feature on the outside of a building,
where it was used to break up the monotony of
the glass facade and serve as access for window
cleaning purposes.
Weight for weight grids have a higher load
carrying capacity than solid floorplate and load
tables are available from the manufacturers.
There is more fabrication involved with the
manufacture of grid flooring than with solid
floorplate, but cut-outs and special shapes can
be accommodated in the workshop so that site
work is simply an assembly process.
Fig.8 Kitchen grid floor
Site modifications are difficult with grid flooring
and involve cutting, rewelding, and clean-up of From a hygiene standpoint, the use of stainless
the weld areas to restore the surface to full for the gulleys as well as the grid covers has
corrosion resistance. become popular. It is worth noting that the
smooth surface of stainless facilitates the
Because grids are made up from a number of removal of food particles and other droppings
components, welding of the individual bars could that occur in food processing and preparatory
be a time consuming process and automated areas, that are washed into the drainage gulleys.
processes are a cost effective production
method. The smoothness of stainless means that
particles are less likely to cling to the sides of the
An example of an automated process is the gulley walls where they can store bacteria and
forge weld process where the bearer bars and lead to unpleasant odours if not cleaned
the transverse bars are fused in one press.[6] completely.
11
Plastic and other materials do not have the same 4. Plank Flooring
high quality, durable surface to facilitate this Typically this is formed from 2mm thick sheet
removal. which may be of the teardrop patterned type.
Alternatively, it may incorporate punched holes
It has been demonstrated by independent tests that also form small upstands for underfoot grip.
that the cleanability of stainless, i.e. the removal
of bacteria, is comparable with glass and Generally this type of floor is produced in a range
ceramics.[8] of widths from 63mm to 333mm to
accommodate different sizes of end uses.
About 98 % of bacteria is removed on these Depths can be as necessary but are usually
surfaces and this is one of the reasons why around 35 to 50mm. Spans are up to 2m
stainless is so widely used in the food generally but may be more if required provided
processing industries and in the kitchens of the that the thickness and depth can take the design
world's leading hotels.
loading.
Grid flooring can take different forms but
basically transverse members are installed for
rigidity to the frame as a whole and for the
support of the compression part of the bearer
bars.
Interlocking bars can be used to stabilise the
frame while reducing the welding needed and
generally this type of frame would have
serrations at the top to provide grip underfoot.

Fig.10 Formed Plank

This type of floor is literally laid like wooden

planks, side by side, requiring only end supports,
and it has the capacity to carry very high loads
and remain light in weight by bolting the planks
together through the webs, effectively forming
an I beam.
Should a plank be badly damaged for any reason
it can be replaced quite readily.
Plank flooring is produced by pierce and blank
tooling and press brake forming.

Fig.9 Grid floor and drainage system This type of flooring may be produced with any
type of punched pattern to provide the strength
required, generally punched round and slotted
Member Sizes holes are used to reduce the product weight,
Grid flooring has the advantage that the size of allow the passage of air and light, and provide a
the bars can be selected as appropriate for the surety underfoot.
load and span required, and typical sizes for the
main bearer bars range from 20 x 3mm for a Whereas with grid flooring items which may be
clear span up to 900mm, to 60 x 5mm for spans dropped onto it could fall through, bolts for
up to 3m. example on a site, the plank form will not be
susceptible to this, hence it's usefulness over
This will support a load slightly higher than the other 2 forms.
5kN/m 2 when in a uniformly loaded condition and
with the bearer bars at a pitch of 30mm.
Deflection under this condition would be a little Life Cycle Cost Analysis
over 8mm or span/360 which is acceptable. A typical life cycle cost analysis was instigated
by NiDI on the walkways for an offshore oil
platform operating in the North Sea.
12
Contractor's normal maintenance practice is to References
use galvanised walkways, and in this type of 1. Durbar Stainless steel floorplate Safe load
environment, platforms are subject to aggressive tables Published by Avesta Sheffield ltd.,
salt water conditions. Sheffield, England.
Normally walkways last between 8 and 10 years 2. Technical Report Abrasion tests on NAS
before they are stripped out and new walkways Chequered Floorplate Nippon Yakin Kogyo
shipped out and installed. In process areas this Co.Ltd., Tokyo, Japan.
means cutting and welding equipment will be 3. Suregrip Produced by Wincro Metal
required and the rig may be shut down whilst the Industries Ltd., Sheffield, England.
refit takes place. 4. Stainless steel flooring and formed section
Ancon Clark Ltd., Sheffield, England.
The life cycle cost study showed that the use of
stainless steel obviates the need for any 5. Etched Floorplate Literature from Nisshin
replacement during the life of the platform which Steel Co.Ltd., Tokyo, Japan.
may be 30 or 40 years. 6. Industrial Flooring Produced by Redman
Fisher Engineering Ltd., Tipton, West
For a 30 year platform, there would be 2 Midlands, England.
replacements at years 10 and 20 of the carbon 7. Surface Drainage Systems Literature from
steel walkways and stainless would become ACO Technologies pie, Shefford, England.
cost effective at the time of the first
replacement. The second results in very 8. Sinks of stainless clean best, beat bacteria.
significant savings. Published by the Nickel Development
Institute NiDI Reprint Series Number 14 008
This study emphatically proved that it is not only 9. Walkways for Offshore Platforms Published
the first cost that should be taken into by Euro lnox.
consideration when specifying materials but the Available from the Nickel Development
total ongoing related cost including operational Institute
and maintenance costs.
10. Stainless steel for durability, fire resistance
Stainless steel has the added benefit of and safety NiDI Technical Series Number
increased safety in a fire situation, as it retains a 10 042
higher level of strength at elevated Published by the Nickel Development Institute
temperatures, than carbon steel. In a separate
study in which stainless steel and other materials
were subjected to direct and radiated heat,
structural integrity was maintained, whilst under
load, at temperatures over 1,000°c.

13
Handrails
Introduction
Whether for interior or exterior use, stainless
steel can be seen in most countries in the world,
in the form of handrails, balustrades, and
staircases.
There are a great many variations in design for
these components using tubular or oval sections,
square or rectangular, flat plate, or drawn section
(thin gauge stainless drawn onto a hardwood
core).[1I

Drawn sections permit variations is section

shape whilst providing a solid rail with a thin skin
of stainless steel.

Infill panels may be safety glass, stainless wire

mesh, or simple sections.
Key features in the use of stainless steel are
aesthetics, strength, corrosion resistance, Fig.1 Handrail with stainless steel infill wire
formability, weldability, and ease of maintenance.
Care must be taken in design and manufacture
In densely populated areas such as shopping to ensure that the welds can be ground and
malls and airports where rails may be subject to polished particularly with uni- directional finishes
accidental damage from trolleys, cases etc, the where polishing must be carried out in the
high impact resistance of stainless steel and the direction of the pattern or grain.
fact that it has no added surface protection such
as paint that will show damage, reduces the All end plates, ball joints, screws and fixings
need for ongoing maintenance. must be in stainless steel of similar grade to
avoid galvanic corrosion or staining. All
In roadside areas, or as bridge rails and parapets, manufacture should be carried out in a separate
stainless steel provides a maintenance free part of the workshop to carbon steel fabrications,
security barrier that will not be adversely and all tools and grinding wheels used should be
affected by road de-icing salts. dedicated to stainless production to avoid
contamination by iron particles.
Stainless steel provides the designer with a wide
choice of end product to suit the location. Austenitic stainless steel has high ductility,
around 40%, and is, therefore, readily formable.
Surface Finish Account must, however, be taken of the work
Satin finish and bright polished (number 4) are hardening characteristics of the material and
the types of finish popularly specified. Sections springback. Approximately 50% more load or
may also be electro-polished. force is required to form stainless steel than for
carbon steel and about 5% should be allowed for
springback.
Material Specification
The readily weldable austenitic grades 304 (for Bending
interior use) and 316 (for exterior use) are usually Tubular handrail sections can be bent to a tight
specified. A ferritic grade type 430 may also be radius on specialist equipment.
used for interior dry atmospheres.
2 x diameter is the minimum inside radius for
tubular sections and the use of core bars are
Design & Fabrication often used to prevent surface wrinkling.
GTIG and argon arc welding are the most
common processes used and provide a neat Plate sections can be bent to a radius equal to
weld that can be ground smooth and polished. the thickness of the material.
14
Joining
Tube lengths may be joined by a variety of
methods. Welded joints, sleeved joints (which
~
may incorporate a socket set screw on the
underside to secure the connection), or the use
of a spigot pressed into the tube end, are all
popular types of handrail connection.
Care must be taken to ensure that socket set Ii
screws do not protrude from the tube surface.
Glazing Glazing
The use of square or rectangular section channel lug
stanchions will alleviate the need for profile
cutting and simplify weld clean up.
Fig.5 Glass fixings
Welding can be avoided, or concealed, by the
use of ball joints or sleeved ends.[2)

J;j
..J

Zl
C,

~
ct
LJ
0
C, Fig.6 Handrail sections using thin gauge stainless steel
C,
drawn onto a timber core
"'
a:
C)
:,._

~::,
8
Fig.2 Welded joint

(I)
C:
~
-C
C,

8
--,
a
.8
0
if
Fig.7 Flat bar handrail

Fig.3 Sleeved joint

Fig. 8 Joining with a spigot[4]

/

Fig.4 Wall fixings

15
Cleaning
Generally, an occasional wipe with a damp cloth
followed by a dry duster will retain the pristine
surface of stainless steel.
Proprietary stainless steel cleaning agents are
available which will remove finger marking and
other light contaminants. Wire wool must never
be used unless made from stainless steel. In
swimming pools, modern pool atmospheres are
highly aggressive due to the use of chlorine,
hypochlorite, and other chemicals in the water.
Under these conditions it is advisable to clean
the stainless steel weekly to avoid the build up
of contaminants on the surface which could lead
to staining.[4]

References
1. Product Literature, Drawn Metal Ltd., Leeds,
England.
2. Product Literature, Racco Products Ltd.,
Sheffield, England.
3. Product Literature, Malcolm Cole Group,
Poole, Dorset, England.
4. Forthcoming publication on swimming pools
to be issued jointly by the Nickel
Development Institute, the Building Research
Establishment and the Sports Council.

16