FCC TACIT E VW ao)ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY JIN AU/KONG Professor of Electrical Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology A Wiley-Interscience Publication JOHN WILEY & SONS New York @ Chichester @ Brisbane @ Toronto ® Singapore A536Copyright © 1986 by Jin Au Kong Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Section 107 or 108 of the 1876 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Library of Congress Cataloging In Publication Data Kong, Jin Au, 1942— Electromagnetic wave theory. Includes index. 1, Electromagnetic waves. _|. Title. QC661.K648 1985 —_530.1'41 85-9554 ISBN 0-471-82823-8 Printed in the United States of America 10987654321PREFACE This book presents a unified macroscopic theory of electromag- netic waves in accordance with the principle of special relativity from the point of view of the form invariance of Maxwell’s equations and the constitutive relations. Topics essential to the understanding of electro- magnetic waves are so selected and presented as to make the book a useful graduate text. Throughout the book electromagnetic waves are our primary con- cern. For example, when an electromagnetic wave encounters a medium we are concerned with how the wave is affected by the medium, rather than with the reaction of the medium to the wave field. In Chapter I, the fundamental equations and boundary conditions are presented. Time-harmonic fields are studied in Chapter II with the kDB sys- tem developed to treat waves in anisotropic and bianisotropic media. Chapter III is devoted to the treatment of reflection, transmission, ~ guidance, and resonance of electromagnetic waves. Starting with the study of Cerenkov radiation, we present antenna theory with ‘simple structures in Chapter IV. Chapter V then elaborates on the various theorems and limiting cases of Maxwell’s theory important to the un- derstanding of electromagnetic wave behavior. Scattering by spheres, cylinders, rough surfaces, and volume inhomogeneities are studied in Chapter VI. In Chapter VII, we present Maxwell’s theory from the point of view of Lorentz covariance in accordance with the principle of special relativity. The problem section at the end of each chapter provides useful exercise and applications. A solution manual accompa- nying the book is made available. The various topics in the book can be taught independently, and the material is organized in the order of increasing complexity in mathematical techniques and conceptual abstraction and sophistication. Great emphasis is placed on the fundamental importance of thevi Preface & vector in electromagnetic wave theory. The magnitude of the wave vector k, denoted by k, is called the wavenumber. We shall use sub- scripts and superscripts for k in order to differentiate between different wave vectors and their components instead of defining new symbols. A word about notation is thus in order. A vector A is denoted with an overbar, A is a unit vector with magnitude equal to unity and de- noted with a hat, and dyadic or matrix ‘A is denoted with a double bar. For coordinate systems, the z axis is always pointing upward, the z axis to the right, and the y axis into the paper. The vector A is expressed as A = 2A, + 9A, + 2Az, with & §, and 2 as the unit vectors in the 2, §, and 2 directions. Cylindrical coordinates are denoted by p, ¢, 2; ¢ is the polar angle with respect to the axis; p is the radial unit vector in the x —y plane. Spherical coordinates are denoted by r, 6, ¢; * is the radial unit vector, @ is the angle with respect to the z axis. The real part of a complex quantity A is de- noted by Ap, and its imaginary part is denoted by A; . For the wave vector k , the coordinate components k are kz, ky, k, in rectangular coordinates; ky, ky, kz in cylindrical coordinates; k,, kg, kg in spher- ical coordinates. The real and imaginary parts of the z component of & in medium 1, for instance, are kj, and k,,7. For time-harmonic fields we use the time-dependent factor e~* , which leads to familiar equations in quantum theory and facilitates integration in the complex plane. It also leads to the definition of an impedance which is the com- plex conjugate of that used in circuit theory, but circuit concepts are not emphasized. The field quantities in real space-time, in k space, or in w space are all distinguished by the use of their explicit inde- ‘pendent variables, rather than different symbols or the same symbols with different shapes. For four-dimensional notations, the covariant tensors are denoted with subscript indices and contravariant tensors with superscript indices. The material in this book has been used in several graduate courses that I have been teaching at the Massachusetts Institute of Technol- ogy. The development of the various concepts relies heavily on pub- lished work. I have not attempted the task of referring to all relevant publications. The list of books and journal articles in the Reference Section at the end of the book is at best representative and by no means exhaustive. Some of the results contained in the book are taken from many of my research projects, which have been supported by the Joint Service Electronics Program, by grants and contracts from thePreface vii National Science Foundation, the National Aeronautics and Space Ad- ministration, the Schlumberger-Doll Research, the Office of Naval Re- search, and the IBM Corporation. During the writing and preparation of the present version, many people helped. In particular, I would like to acknowledge Soon Yun Poh for his meticulous editing and insightful comments. Mike Tsuk prepared most of the figures with computer graphics and Ruby Li, Sue Wang, and Julie Wu patiently typed and edited several revisions. Over the years, many of my teaching and research assistants provided useful suggestions and proofreading, notably Leung Tsang, Michael Zuniga, Weng Chew, Tarek Habashy, Shun-Lien Chuang, Robert Shin, Jay Kyoon Lee, Apo Sezginer, and Eric Yang. I would like to express my gratitude to them and to the students whose enthusiastic response and feedback give me joy and satisfaction in teaching. Last but not least, I wish to thank my family members, who in many ways made my task of writing this book an enjoyable experience. J. A. Kong Cambridge, Massachusetts September 1985CONTENTS: Chapter I 11 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Chapter IT 2.1 2.2 2.3 Chapter II 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS Maxwell’s Equations and Constitutive Relations Wave Equations and Wave Solutions Conservation Theorems Polarization Boundary Conditions Problems PROPAGATION IN HOMOGENEOUS MEDIA Time-Harmonic Fields Plane Wave Solutions Plane Waves in Homogeneous Media and the kDB System Plane Waves in Uniaxial Media Plane Waves in Gyrotropic Media Plane Waves in Bianisotropic Media Plane Waves in Nonlinear Media Problems REFLECTION, TRANSMISSION, GUIDANCE, AND RESONANCE Phase Matching Reflection and Transmission at a Plane Boundary Reflection and Transmission by a Layered Medium Guidance by Conducting Parallel Plates Guided Waves in Layered Media Cylindrical Waveguides Cavity Resonators Problems 13 16 24 27 ges 60 67. 73 17 79 87 103 104 110 120 132 150 164 182 194x Contents Chapter IV RADIATION 4.1 4.2 43 44 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 49 4.10 Chapter V 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 Cerenkov Radiation Green’s Functions Hertzian Dipoles Radiation Fields Biconical Antennas Linear Array Antennas Contour Integration Methods Integral Formulations for Dipoles in Layered Media Dipole on One-Layer Medium Dipole Above Layered Medium Problems THEOREMS OF WAVES AND MEDIA Equivalence Principle Duality and Complementarity Mathematical Formulations of the Huygens’ Principle Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction Reaction and Reciprocity Stationary Formulas and Rayleigh-Ritz Procedure Geometrical Optics Limit Paraxial Limit Quasi-Static Limits Quantization of Electromagnetic Waves Problems 219 220 225 229 237 247 264 291 309 319 325 328 357 358 367 376 385 396 405 415 436 443 448 460Contents Chapter VI 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Chapter VII 71 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 76 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 TAL SCATTERING Scattering by Spheres Scattering by a Conducting Cylinder Scattering by Periodic Rough Surfaces Scattering by Periodic Media Scattering by Random Media Scattering by Random Rough Surfaces Effective Permittivity for a Volume Scattering Medium Problems ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY AND SPECIAL RELATIVITY Lorentz Transformation Maxwell-Minkowski Theory Derivation of Transformation Formulas Transformation of Constitutive Relations Transformation of Frequency and Wave Vector Plane Waves in Moving Uniaxial Media Phase Matching at Moving Boundaries Guided Waves in a Moving Dielectric Slab Guided Waves in Moving Gyrotropic Media Four-Dimensional Notations Hamilton’s Principle and Noether’s Theorem Problems REFERENCES INDEX 481 482 489 495 507 517 527 550 563 577 578 581 585 593 599 602 606. 608 611 614 624 63111 1.2 1.3 1.4 15 FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS Maxwell’s Equations and Constitutive Relations a. Constitutive Matrices b. Isotropic, Anisotropic, and Bianisotropic Media Wave Equations and Wave Solutions Conservation Theorems a. Poynting’s Theorem b. Momentum Conservation Theorem Polarization a. Stokes Parameters and Poincaré Sphere b. Partial Polarization Boundary Conditions a. Stationary Boundaries b. Moving Boundaries Problems 1.1 Maxwell’s Equations and Constitutive Relations The fundamental equations of electromagnetic wave theory were established by James Clerk Maxwell in 1873 and experimentally veri- fied by Heinrich Hertz in 1888. Since then electromagnetic wave theory has played a central role in the development of radio, television, op- tical communications, radar, microwave heating, remote sensing, and numerous other practical applications. Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity in 1905 further asserted the rigorousness and elegance of Maxwell’s theory. As a well-established scientific discipline, this sophis- ticated theoretical structure embodies many principles and concepts which serve as fundamental rules of nature and vital links to other scientific disciplines.3 I. Fundamental Equations In three-dimensional vector notation, Maxwell’s equations are Vx BG,t)+ 2 Bir.) =0 (1) Vx H(t) - 2D) =F) . (2) V-B(F,t) =0 (3) Vv ‘Dé, ) = p(F,t) (4) where EF, B, H, D, J, and pare real functions of position and time. E (Ff, t) = electric field strength (volts/m) B (F,t) = magnetic flux density (webers/m?) H (¥,t) = magnetic field strength (amperes/m) D (F,t) = electric displacement (coulombs/m?) J (¥,t) = electric current density (amperes/m?) p (F,t) = electric charge density (coulombs/m*) Equation (1) is Faraday’s induction law. Equation (2) is the gen- eralized Ampere’s circuit law. Equations (3) and (4) are Gauss’ laws for magnetic and electric fields. Taking the divergence of (2) and in- troducing (4), we find that V-F(F,)+ Zo(F,t)=0 (5) This is the conservation law for electric charge and current densities. Regarding (5) as a fundamental equation, we see that it can be used to derive (4) by taking the divergence of (2). Equation (3) can also be derived by taking the divergence of (1) which gives 2(V-B (7, t))/dt = 0 orthat V-B(7,t) is a constant independent of time. Such a constant, if not zero, then implies the existence of magnetic monopoles similar to free electric charges. Since magnetic monopoles have not been found to exist, this constant must be zero and we arrive at (3). _Maxwell’s equations are fundamental laws governing the behav- ior of a electromagnetic field in free space and in media. We have so far made no reference to the various material properties that provide connections to other disciplines of physics, such as plasma physics,1.1 Maxwell’s Equations and Constitutive Relations 3 continuum mechanics, solid-state physics, fluid dynamics, statistical physics, thermodynamics, biophysics, etc., all of which interact in one way or another with electromagnetic fields. We did not even mention the Lorentz force law, which constitutes a direct link to mechanics. It is time to state how we are going to account for this vast “outside” world. From the electromagnetic wave point of view, we shall be interested in how electromagnetic fields behave in the presence of media, whether the wave is diffracted, refracted, or scattered. Whatever happens to a medium, whether it is moved or deformed, is of secondary interest. Thus we shall characterize material media by the so-called constitutive relations that can be classified according to the various properties of the media. The necessity of using constitutive relations to supplement the Maxwell equations is clear from the following mathematical observa- tions. In most problems we shall assume that sources of electromag- netic fields are given. Thus J and p are known and they satisfy the conservation equation (5). Let us examine the Maxwell equations and see if there are enough equations for the number of unknown quanti- ties. There are a total of 12 scalar unknowns for the four field vectors E, H, B, and D. As we have learned, (3) and (4) are not independent equations; they can be derived from (1), (2) and (5). The independent equations are (1) and (2), which constitute six scalar equations. Thus we need six more scalar equations. These are the constitutive relations. a. Constitutive Matrices Constitutive relations in the most general form can be written as (62) (68) where c = 3X10° m/s is the velocity of light in vacuum, and P, Q, L, and M are all 3 x 3 matrices. Their elements are called constitu- tive parameters. The reason that we write constitutive relations in the present form is based on relativistic considerations. First, the fields E and cB forma single tensor in four-dimensional space, and so do cD and FH. Second, constitutive relations written in the form (6) are Lorentz-covariant. These aspects will be discussed in Chapter VII.4 I. Fundamental Equations Equation (6) can be rewritten in the form [#]-2-[5] (0 and @ isa 6 x6 constitutive matrix: =_[P TL c= E Z| (78) which has jhe dimension of admittance. The constitutive matrix C may be functions of space-time coordi- nates, thermodynamical and continuum-mechanical variables, or elec- tromagnetic field strengths. According to the functional dependence of C, we can classify the various media as (i) inhomogeneous if C is a function of space coordinates, (ii) nonstationary if C is a function of time, (iii) time-dispersive if C is a function of time derivatives, (iv) spatial-dispersive if C is a function of spatial derivatives, (v) non- linear if C isa function of the electromagnetic field, and so forth. In the general case C’ may be a function of integral-differential operators and coupled to fundamental equations of other physical disciplines. We have defined constitutive relations by expressing D and H in terms of Z and B, We may also express constitutive relations in the form of D and B asa function of EB and H: [2] =2en-[2] 0 where Cen =| i)=2[P 270" 12 | (8b) All al | Here Coy is the. constitutive matrix under #H representation. To express # and H in terms of B and D, we write 5] -2- (3 .1.1 Maxwell’s Equations and Constitutive Relations 5 where Oe-[F (er gered Here Cpa is the constitutive matrix under DB representation, The other possible construction for expressing E and B in terms of H and D is not shown because it will not be needed in later developments. b. Isotropic, Anisotropic, and Bianisotropic Media In the definition of the constitutive relations, the constitutive ma- trices L and M relate electric and magnetic fields. When T and M are not identically zero, the medium is bianisotropic. When there is no coupling between electric and magnetic fields, Z = M = = 0 and the Fo ae is anisotropic. For an anisotropic medium, if P = cel and = (1/epz)I with T denoting the 3 x 3 unit matrix, the medium is Carole Isotropic Media. The constitutive relations for an isotropic medium can be written simply as D=e where ¢ = permittivity (10a) B=ypH where p= permeability (106) Thus the field vector E is parallel to D and the field vector H is parallel to B. In free space void of any matter, p= pp and €= € , Ho = 4a xX 10-7 henry /meter €) & 8.85 x 107}? farad/meter Inside a material medium, the permittivity « is determined by the electrical properties of the medium and the permeability 4 by the Magnetic properties of the medium. A dielectric material can be described by a free-space part and a part that is due to the material alone. The material part can be char- acterized by a polarization vector P such that D = «,E +P. The polarization P symbolizes the electric dipole moment per unit vol- ume of the dielectric material. In the presence of an external electric6 I. Fundamental Equations field, the polarization vector may be caused by induced dipole mo- ments, alignment of the permanent dipole moments of the medium, or migration of ionic charges. A magnetic material can also be described by a free-space part and a part characterized by a magnetization vector M such that B =p .H + poM. A medium is diamagnetic if » < »., paramagnetic if » > po. Diamagnetism is caused by induced magnetic moments that tend to oppose the externally applied magnetic field. Paramag- netism is due to alignment of magnetic moments. When placed in an inhomogeneous magnetic field, a diamagnetic material tends to move toward regions of weaker magnetic field, and a paramagnetic material toward regions of stronger magnetic field. Ferromagnetism and anti- ferromagnetism are highly nonlinear effects. Ferromagnetic substances are characterized by spontaneous magnetization below the Curie tem- perature. The medium also depends on the history of applied fields, and in many instances the magnetization curve forms a hysteresis loop. In an antiferromagnetic material, the spins form sub-lattices that be- come spontaneously magnetized in an antiparallel arrangement below the Néel temperature. Anisotropic Media. The constitutive relations for anisotropic media are usually written in the: H representation as D= B= ‘EB where € = permittivity tensor (11a) -H where ji = permeability tensor (118) BI a The field vector E is no longer parallel to D, and the field vector 1 is no longer parallel to B. A medium is electrically anisotropic if it is described by the permittivity tensor € and magnetically anisotropic if it is described by the permeability tensor 77. Note that a medium can be both electrically and magnetically anisotropic. Crystals are described in general by symmetric permittivity ten- sors. There always exists a coordinate transformation that transforms a symmetric matrix into a diagonal matrix. In this coordinate system, called the principal system, _ é& O 0 €=|;0 g O (12) 0 O «& The three coordinate axes are referred to as the principal axes of the crystal. For cubic crystals, ¢2 = €, = €, and they are isotropic. In1.1 Maxwell’s Equations and Constitutive Relations 7 tetragonal, hexagonal, and rhombohedral crystals, two of the three parameters are equal. Such crystals are uniaztal. Here there is a two- dimensional degeneracy; the principal axis that exhibits this anisotropy is called the optic azis. For a uniaxial crystal with e 0 0 €=|0 € 0 (13) 00 & the z axis is the optic axis. The crystal is posttive uniazial if €, > €; it is negative uniaxial if €, < ¢. In orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic crystals, all three crystallographic axes are unequal. We have €, # €y # €z, and the medium is biazial. Bianisotropic Media. For isotropic or anisotropic media, the constitu- tive relations relate the two electric field vectors and the two magnetic field vectors by either a scalar or a tensor. Such media become polarized when placed in an electric field and become magnetized when placed in a magnetic field. A bianisotropic medium provides the cross coupling between the electric and magnetic fields. When placed in an electric or a magnetic field, a bianisotropic medium becomes both polarized and magnetized. Magnetoelectric materials, theoretically predicted by Dzyaloshin- skii [1959] and by Landau and Lifshitz [1957], were observed experi- mentally in 1960 by Astrov in antiferromagnetic chromium oxide. The constitutive relations that Dzyaloshinskii proposed for chromium oxide have the following form: e 0 0 €0 0 D=|0 « O|-E+j0 € O|-F (14a) 0 0 ¢ 00 & £00 nO 0 B=|0 € O|-E+]0 » 0|-F (145) 00 & 0 0 ps It was then shown by Indenbom [1960] and by Birss [1963] that 58 magnetic crystal classes can exhibit the magnetoelectric effect. Rado [1964] proved that the effect is not restricted to antiferromagnetics; ferromagnetic gallium iron oxide is also magnetoelectric. In 1948, the gyrator was introduced by Tellegen as a new element, in addition to the resistor, the capacitor, the inductor, and the ideal8 , I. Fundamental Equations transformer, for describing a network. To realize his new network ele- ment, Tellegen conceived of a medium possessing constitutive relations of the form D=cE+tH (15a) B=tE+ueH . (158) where €7/ye is nearly equal to 1. Tellegen considered that the model of the medium had elements possessing permanent electric and mag- netic dipoles parallel or antiparallel to each other, so that an applied electric field that aligns the electric dipoles simultaneously aligns the magnetic dipoles; and a magnetic field that aligns the magnetic dipoles simultaneously aligns the electric dipoles. Tellegen also wrote general constitutive relations (8) and examined the symmetry properties by energy conservation. Media in motion were the first bianisotropic media to receive at- tention in electromagnetic theory. In 1888, Roentgen discovered that a moving dielectric becomes magnetized when it is placed in an electric field. In 1905, Wilson showed that a moving dielectric in a uniform mag- netic field becomes electrically polarized. Almost any medium becomes bianisotropic when it is in motion. In Chapter VII, we shall derive constitutive relations for uniformly moving media using the Lorentz transformation of field vectors. The bianisotropic description of material has fundamental impor- tance from the point of view of relativity. The principle of relativ- ity postulates that all physical laws of nature must be characterized by mathematical equations that are form-invariant from one observer to the other. For electromagnetic theory, the Maxwell equations are form-invariant with respect to all observers, although the numerical values of the field quantities may vary from one observer to another. The constitutive relations are form-invariant when they are written in bianisotropic form. In Chapter VII we shall treat special relativity and electromagnetic theory in detail. 1.2. Wave Equations and Wave Solutions The Maxwell equations in differential form are valid at all times for every point in space. First we shall investigate solutions to the Maxwell equations in regions void of source, namely in regions where J = p = 0.1.2 Wave Equations and Wave Solutions 9 This of course does not mean that there is no source anywhere in all space. Sources must exist outside the regions of interest in order to produce fields in these regions. Thus in source-free homogeneous isotropic media, Maxwell’s equations become = 8s VxE=-p i (1) = oe VxH=er FE (2) V:H=0 (3) V-E=0 (4) We shall consider free space with permittivity « = €, and permeability BL = wo. A wave equation can be easily derived by taking the curl of (1) and substituting (2). We find, upon using the vector identity Vx (Vx E)=V(V-E) -V°E and (4), VE peo, or E=0 (5) The Laplacian operator V? in a rectangular coordinate system is o? a? a? 2 v= az? + dy? + dz? The simplest solution to (5) is E = &Eo cos(kz — wt) = £E,(z,t) (6) Substituting (6) in (5) we find that the following equation, called the dispersion relation, which relates w and k must be satisfied: R= wpe (7) There are two points of view useful in the study of a space-time varying quantity such as H,(z,t). The first is to examine the time variation at fixed points in space. The second is to examine spatial variation at fixed times, a process that amounts to taking a series of pictures. We first fix our attention to one particular point in space, say 0. We then have the electric vector £,(z,t) = Eycoswt . Plotted fee a function of time in Figure 1.2.1, we find that the waveform repeats10 I. Fundamental Equations wt SF = a [~ E,(z = 0,t) = Epcoswt Figure 1.2.1 Electric fleld magnitude as a function of time at z = 0. itself in time as wt = 2mm for any integer m. The period is defined as the time T for which wT = 27. The frequency f is defined as f =1/T which gives f=e (8) Since w = 2af, w is the angular frequency of the wave. Often we simply refer to frequency w, as w is more commonly encountered than f. To examine wave behavior from the other point of view, we let wt =0 and plot E,(z,t) in Figure 1.2.2a. The waveform repeats itself in space when kz = 2mm for integer values of m. The wavelength is defined as the distance for which kA = 24. Thus = 2a/k, or Qn n=™ (9) We call k the wavenumber which is equal to the number of wavelengths _ in a distance of 27 and has the dimension inverse length. In Figures 1.2.2b and 1.2.2c we plot E,(z,t) at two progressive times wt = 1/2 and wt = 7. We observe that a constant phase front represented by A with kz—wt = constant moves along the z axis with a velocity dz_w =% (10) "a sk1.2 Wave Equations and Wave Solutions 11 kz kz kz 3 3a 2x 2a A 7 7 A E, 7 a. at =0 b. w= c. wt=a7 E, = Eo coskz E, = Eo sinkz E, = — Ep coskz Figure 1.2.2 Electric field magnitude vs. kz at different times. By virtue of the dispersion relation in (7), we see that v = (ue)—1/? = (#o€)~1/? , which is equal to the velocity of light in free space c. In this book we shall place great emphasis on the use of k , as we shall learn that the wavenumber concept is, in fact, more fundamental in electromagnetic wave theory than both of the more popular concepts of wavelength A and frequency f. In Figure 1.2.3, we illustrate the electromagnetic wave spectrum according to the free space wavenum- ber k = k,. The corresponding values of frequency and wavelength are f = ck/2x and \ = 2x/k. The photon energy in electron-volts is calculated from fw = hick where h = 1.05 x 10-*4Joule-sec is Planck’s constant divided by 2” and the electron charge is 1.6 x 10719 coulombs. The magnetic field vector H for the wave solution can be found from either (1) or (2), which gives A(z,t) = a(S Bocon(ke —wt) (11) We see that the magnetic field vector is perpendicular to the electric field vector and that both are perpendicular to the direction of prop- agation of the wave. The following is a solution for the electric field E(¥,t) to the waveI, Fundamental Equation hw ff m ev Bz 34 10 10® 0? Quantum Theory 10? Mev} Gamma Ray 10 A 104 10% k=2n/d X-Ray ke 5x 10° hw wt kw 2.1 x 10-8 f Ultraviolet 1011916 — Visible Visible 0.38 ~ 0.72 wr 10¥ Near IR 0.72 ~ 1.3 Infrared Thermal IR 7~ 15p 0 Millimeter Wave THz mm ————— Ka-band 27-40 GHz EHF K-band 18-27 GHz om Ky-band 12-18 GHz SHF Microwave X-band 8~12 GHz C-band 4~8 GHz , UBF ow oH S-band 2~4 GHz i-band 1~2 GHz VHF FM Radio "TV (14-83) 470 ~ 890 MHz HF a TV (7-13) 174-216 MHz MF AMRadio -MHz FM (100 Ch.) 88-108 MHz kn —————___—_- TV (5~6) 76-88 MHz LF TV (2-4) 54-72 MHz AM (107 Ch.) 535 — 1605 KHz VLF ULF KHz 196 ———________. SLF Quasi-static Limit ELF Hz Figure 1.2.3 Electromagnetic Wave Spectrum.1.3 Conservation Theorems 13 equation (5) E(F,t) = Eo cos(ket + kyy + kez — wt) (12) where Ep is a constant vector. We define a wave vector Kk = Ske + Hhy + ky and a position vector = £2 + gy + 2z The field solution then takes the form EG, t) = Eo cos(k - F — wt) The wave vector k is often referred to simply as the k vector. At any instant the field is a constant when k-F is a constant. The equation k-*= constant defines a plane. The magnetic field H’ has the same space-time dependence as EF. Substituting (11) and (12) into the Maxwell equations, we find kx E=oph kx H =—weE k-H=0 k-E=0 Thus © and H are both mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the wave vector k. 1.3. Conservation Theorems a. Poynting’s Theorem Energy conservation immediately follows from Maxwell’s equa- tions. Dot-multiply Faraday’s law (1.1.1) by H, Ampere’s law (1.1.2) y E and subtract. By making use of the vector ‘identity V-(Ex#) = H-VxE-E-Vx 4H, we obtain Poynting’s theorem V-(Ex H)+H- oB yn. oP __B.7 q)14 I. Fundamental Equations The Poynting vector S=Exit (2) is interpreted as the power flow density with dimension of watts/m? : and H -(@B/dt) + £-(9D/dt) represents the time rate of change of the stored electric and magnetic energy. On the right-hand side of (1), —E-TJ is the power supplied by the current J. As an example consider the simple wave solution E = &Eocos(kz — wt) (3a) H= if< Eqcos(kz — wt) (38) The Poynting vector is calculated to be F= ifs Ei cos*(kz — wt) (4) The time-average Poynting’s vector power density is given by . T < Mt) >= 2 | dt [E,(t)? T Jo The Stokes parameters are I= Int ly == (
+ ) Q = In~ Ie = = (< Bh > ~ < BE >) = 1 < con 2acoe 26 > 4 U= 2 < E,E, cos > = I < sin 2acos 28 > n V= 2. E,E, sin > = I < sin 28 > n For completely unpolarized waves, E;, and E, are uncorrelated and we have I = total Poynting power and Q = U = V = 0. For com- pletely polarized waves we have I? = Q? + U?+V?. For partially polarized waves it can be shown that J? > Q?+U?+V?. With the Poincaré sphere of radius I, the partially polarized waves correspond to points inside the sphere. In concluding this section on wave polarization, two remarks are in order. First, in defining the handedness of polarizations, we have taken the viewpoint of staying at a fixed point in space and observing the rotation of the tip of the electric field vector E. If we take the other viewpoint of examining the spatial variation of F at fixed times, we shall find that a left-handed circularly polarized wave gives size to a right-handed helix in space [Problem 1.12]. Secondly, the polarization is defined according to the space and time variations of the # vector. As we shall see in Chapter II, it is imperative that we define polarization in terms of D when anisotropic and bianisotropic media are involved.24 I. Fundamental Equations This is because in isotropic media E is perpendicular to k, k-E =0, while in non-isotropic media it is k- D = 0. This also suggests that wave polarization can be defined in terms of the field vector B. 1.5 Boundary Conditions The Maxwell equations have been written in differential form. They must be supplemented with boundary conditions and initial con- ditions wherever derivatives do not exist. The boundary conditions can be derived from the integral form of Maxwell’s equations. First we con- sider the integration of a vector field A over a volume V enclosed by asurface S with surface normals §. The following formulas are useful: If wv A=ffass-A (1a) I avvxA=ff asax A (18) where (1a) is the familiar Gauss theorem which relates integration of the divergence of the vector field A over the volume V to the integration of the field over the surface S enclosing V . Equation (15) is derived from (1a) by noting that V-(C x A) =-C-V x A where C is a constant vector independent of position. Applying the Gauss theorem (la) to V-(C'x A), we obtain (15) dot-multiplied by C on both sides. Letting C be an arbitrary vector, the result is then (16). Now consider an interface separating regions 1 and 2 [Fig. 1.5.1]. Assume a small pillbox volume across the interface. Integrating (1.1.1)- (1.1.4) over the volume and applying (1), we obtain ffasaxze ff We B=0 (2) ffassxH- Ife Ler (3) (4) fess ffase-D- “fife 6) These are Maxwell’s equations in integral form.1.5 Boundary Conditions 25 region 1 region 2 Figure 1.5.1 Pillbox for Gerivation of boundary conditions. a. Stationary Boundaries If we assume that the boundary surface is not in motion, then for the terms involving partial derivatives with time, 9/dt can be moved to the outside of the integral. Since the integration is over the volume, the result is a function of time only, and the partial derivatives become total derivatives. Therefore, for stationary boundary surfaces, Maxwell’s equations in integral form become fpassxB=-3 fff va (6) fren s for ffor 0 ffess fas for ° Now we let the volume of the pillbox approach zero in such a manner that the thickness of the ribbon side, 5, goes to zero before the top a ml u ale J °26 I. Fundamental Equations and bottom areas a shrink to a point. We dispose of terms of the order of 6. The field vectors E, B,D, and H are assumed to be finite but may be discontinuous across the boundary. The volume current and charge densities J and 7, however, may be infinite, such as on the surface of a perfect: conductor, where we can define the surface current density J, = 6J in the limit as 6 + 0 and J — oo, and define the surface charge density p, = dp in the limit as 6 +0 and p — oo. The surface current density has dimension amp/m and the surface charge density has dimension coulomb/m?*. First we see that the terms involving time derivatives in (6) and (7) drop out because they are proportional to 6. We then consider the right-hand sides of (7) and (9) which become SaJ and dap, respec- tively. If J and p are finite, both terms will be zero because they are proportional to 6. When there are surface charges and currents at the boundary, the right-hand sides of (7) and (9) become aJ, and ap,. We then see that the surface integral terms involving cross and dot products by & will be dropped except when §& is in the directions fi or —f. After cancelling @ on both sides of the equations, we obtain from (6)-(9) the following boundary conditions ax (EZ, — E2) =0 (10) ax (Hi -F2)=J, (11) fi (By - Be) =0 (12) fi-(Di—D2)=p. © (13) where subscripts 1 and 2 denote fields in regions 1 and 2, respectively. Essentially the boundary conditions state that the tangential compo- nents of EZ and the normal components of B are continuous across the boundary; the discontinuity of the tangential components of H is equal to the surface current density J,; and the discontinuity of the normal components of D is equal to the surface charge density p,. b. Moving Boundaries The boundary conditions as stated in (10)-(13) are for stationary boundaries. When the boundary surface is moving, the partial time derivatives can no longer be commuted with the volume integral in (2)- (3). To derive the boundary conditions at moving boundaries, we let the pillbox move with the boundary surface. In accordance witlrkinematic