CHAPTER TWO

BASIC WEATHER PROCESSES

Introduction

Weather is nothing more than the different elements it is composed of, as well
as the way they interact with each to create different atmospheric conditions or weather
events. The atmosphere consists largely of gases with lesser amounts of liquids, such as
drops of water, and solids, such as dust and ice. By nature, gases expand easily or
contract in volume in response to changes in temperature and pressure. Variations in
temperature and resulting changes in pressure are the main drivers of motion in the
atmosphere.
We need to identify what the elements are that make up the weather. Eight
primary elements/factors drive all weather: temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind,
atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, visibility and sunshine duration. All these different
parts work together to create the weather you see when you walk out the door. But, what
do each of these weather examples mean?

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
1. explain how do gases respond to changes in temperature and pressure
2. identify the elements that influence weather conditions
3. discuss the different factors influencing planet’s weather
4. describe the various aspects and elements of weather and atmospheric
water as bases for weather forecasting.

2.0 Gases Respond to Changes in Temperature and Pressure

2.0 A. How does gas behave when heated or cooled?

The quantity of insolation entering the atmosphere exhibits considerable spatial
variability, especially as a function of latitude, and temporal variations on both daily
and seasonal time scales. These variations in insolation in turn lead to differences in
temperatures. How do the gases in the atmosphere respond to changes in temperature?
 Consider what happens when we
want to make a hot-air balloon rise.
Typically, a propane-powered burner
heats ambient air, causing the air to
expand in volume. This increase in
volume inflates the balloon. Since the
same amount of gas now occupies a
much larger volume, the density of the
heated air is less than the density of
the surrounding air, so the balloon
rises. So, as air increases in
temperature, it tends to increase in
volume and become less dense.
The figure below shows how a quantity of gas responds to either an increase in
temperature (heating) or a decrease in temperature (cooling). The starting condition is
represented by the cube of gas on the left.

An increase in the temperature of a gas means more energetic molecules, so a

larger volume is needed to accommodate the same amount of gas.
If a gas cools, the molecules within it have less kinetic energy (motions) and can
therefore be packed into a smaller volume. The gas has a higher density and will tend to
sink.
This example shows that temperature and volume of a gas are directly related —
in fact they are proportional if pressure is held constant. Such a proportional relationship
means that if temperature is doubled, volume doubles too. If temperature decreases by
half, volume does too. This specific relationship is called Charles's Law, which is one
of the fundamental laws governing the behavior of gases, and it explains why a hot air
balloon rises.
2.0 b. What happens when a gas is compressed?
If a gas is held at a constant temperature but forced to occupy a smaller volume,
the pressure of the gas increases. Pressure is proportional to the number of collisions of
the molecules. If the same gas fills a larger volume, the pressure decreases. In both cases,
if we instead change the pressure, the volume of the gas will adjust accordingly. A
material, like a gas, that can be compressed, is said to be compressible.
Molecules of gas in the sealed container in the left canister are under pressure,
represented by the two weights resting on top. At some temperature, the molecules have
a fixed amount of energy, and some of the moving molecules are hitting the moveable
lid, resisting the downward force of the attached weight.
Removing a weight reduces the
downward pressure on the gas. However,
the gas retains its same average energy
level (temperature) and therefore exerts
the same upward force on the moveable
lid as before. The upward force from the
gas molecules exceeds the downward
force of the weight and so raises the lid,
increasing the volume occupied by the
gas. In this way, a decrease in pressure
results in an increase in volume, if the
gas does not change temperature.
Increasing the downward pressure by adding weight on the original canister causes
the lid to slide down. This increase in pressure causes a decrease in volume. As the gas
is compressed into a smaller volume, the number of the molecules impacting the lid
increases. When this upward force from the gas molecules equals the downward force
from the weight, the lid stops moving, and the volume and pressure of the gas stop
changing.
The relationship between pressure and volume of a gas, under conditions of
constant temperature, is inversely proportional — if pressure increases, volume
decreases. If pressure decreases, volume increases. Either pressure or volume can
change, and the other factor responds accordingly, changing in the opposite direction by
a proportional amount. That is, if the volume is cut in half, the pressure doubles. If the
volume doubles, the pressure is cut in half. This inversely proportional relationship
between pressure and volume, under constant temperature, is called Boyle's Law.
2.0 c. How are temperatures and pressures related?
Since Charles's Law relates volume to temperature, and Boyle's Law relates
volume to pressure, we might suspect that we can relate temperature and pressure.
Combining Charles's Law and Boyle's Law leads to the Ideal Gas Law, which relates
temperature, pressure, and density (mass divided by volume). Basic aspects of the Ideal
Gas Law help explain the processes that drive the motion of matter and associated
energy in the atmosphere.
We can represent the Ideal Gas Law with a figure, with words, or with an equation.
We begin with this figure, which expresses the two sides of the equation. On one side
of the equation (the left in this figure) is
pressure. On the right side of the equation are
density and temperature. What the Ideal Gas
Law states is that if we increase a variable on
one side of the equation (like increasing
pressure), then one or both of the variables on
the other side of the equation have to change
in the same direction — density or temperature
have to also change, or perhaps both do.
Examine this figure and envision
changing any one of the three variables
(pressure, density, and temperature), and consider how the other two variables would
respond to satisfy the visual equation.
 What happens if pressure increases? If temperature does not change, then density
must increase. If pressure increases but density does not change, then temperature has
to increase. Alternatively, temperature and density can both change. This three-way
relationship partly explains why temperatures are generally warmer and the air is more
dense at low elevations, where the air is compressed by the entire weight of the
atmosphere, than at higher elevations, where there is less air. Higher pressure often
results in higher temperatures.
What does the relationship predict will happen if a gas is heated to a higher
temperature? If the density does not change, the pressure exerted by the gas on the
plunger must increase. If the pressure does not change, the density must decrease. This
is because density and temperature are on the same side of the equation, so an increase
in one must be matched by a decrease in the other — if the other side of the equation
(pressure) does not change. The relationship indicates that heated air can become less
dense, which allows it to rise, like in a hot air balloon.
The Ideal Gas Law can also be expressed by the equation to the right: P = R p T
where P is pressure, R is a constant,p is density (shown by the greek letter rho), and T
is temperature. Note how this equation roughly corresponds to the figure above.
2.0 d. How can differences in insolation change Temperatures, Pressures, and
Density in the atmosphere?
The way gas responds to changes in temperature and pressure is the fundamental
driver of motion in the atmosphere. Since temperature changes are largely due to
insolation, we can examine how insolation affects the physical properties of gas and how
this drives atmospheric motion.

The Sun is the major energy source for Earth's weather, climate, and movements
of energy and matter in the atmosphere and oceans. In the figure above, insolation
strikes Earth's surface (land or water), which in turn heats a volume of gas in the
overlying atmosphere.
The increase in temperature results in expansion of the gas because of the
increased kinetic energy of the molecules in the gas, which is an increase in volume. If
the same number of gas molecules occupy more volume, the density of the air decreases
(the air becomes less dense).
The increase in volume can result in a decrease in pressure (less frequent molecular
collisions). As a result, the air mass is now less dense than adjacent air that was heated
less. The more strongly heated and expanded air rises because it is less dense relative to
surrounding air (which was not heated as much and so is more dense).
As the heated, less dense air rises, adjacent air flows into the area to replace the
rising air. The end result is a vertical and lateral movement of air within the atmosphere
— vertical motion within and above the rising air, and lateral motion of surrounding air
toward the area vacated by the rising air.
In this way, the response of gas to changes in temperature, pressure, and density
(or volume), as expressed by the gas laws, is the primary cause of motion in the
atmosphere. Variations in insolation cause changes in temperature, pressure, and
density, which in turn cause air to move within the atmosphere.

2.1 Elements that Influence Weather Conditions

The conditions of the atmosphere at any time or place is expressed by a
combination of several elements primarily:
2.1 a. Temperature
Temperature is the intensity that is, as to how hot
or cold the atmosphere is, how many degrees
Celsius(centigrade) it is above or below freezing
(0°C). It is measured with a thermometer in
Fahrenheit, Celsius, or Kelvin, the temperature tells
you how fast the air molecules and atoms are moving.
Fast-moving molecules and atoms mean the temperature is high, while slow-moving
molecules in the air create a low temperature. It is a very important factor in determining
the weather, because it influences or controls other elements of the weather, such as
precipitation, humidity, clouds and atmospheric pressure.
2.1 b. Humidity
Atmospheric moisture is the most important
element of the atmosphere which modifies the air
temperature. Humidity is the measurable amount of
moisture in the air of the lower atmosphere. There
are three types of humidity:
1.) Absolute humidity is the total amount of
water vapor present in per volume of air at a definite
temperature
2.) Relative humidity is the ratio of the water vapor present in air having a definite
volume at a specific temperature compared to the maximum water vapor that the air is
able to hold without condensing at that given temperature.
3.) Specific humidity is the mass of water vapor in grams contained in a kilogram
of air and it represents the actual quantity of moisture present in a definite air.
Air is a mixture of gases, which includes mostly nitrogen, oxygen, but also some
argon, carbon dioxide and water vapor (water in its gas form). Humidity refers to the
amount of water vapor in air. All air contains at least some water vapor, but the amount
of water vapor changes a lot from place to place and from time to time. The amount of
water vapor in air can increase when water evaporates from land and water surfaces, and
as plants respire. Humidity decreases when water vapor condenses to form very small
drops of liquid water, forming clouds or growing to become rain drops. Evaporation and
condensation happen all the time. Sometimes more water is evaporating into the
atmosphere, sometimes more water is condensing out of the atmosphere, and sometimes
as much water evaporates into the atmosphere as condenses out of it. When evaporation
is the same as condensation at a location in the atmosphere, scientists call the air at this
point saturated. The humidity element of weather makes the day feel hotter and can be
used to predict coming storms.

2.1c. Precipitation
Precipitation is the term given to moisture that falls
from the air to the ground. Precipitation is simply any
water form that falls to the Earth from overhead cloud
formations. As an element of weather, precipitation
determines whether outdoor activities are suitable. There is
no argument that water in any of its forms is an absolute
necessity for life on Earth to exist. Humans, animals, and
plants need water to grow or stay alive, and precipitation is the only way to replenish
the dams, rivers, reservoirs, and groundwater on which we rely.

2.1c 1.Forms of Precipitation

The major forms of precipitation are :
1. Rain is a form of precipitation that is in the form of water drops of a size larger
than 0.5mm. The maximum raindrop size is about 6mm. Drops of larger size break up
into smaller drops as it falls down. Rainfall is the predominant form of precipitation and
hence the term precipitation is used synonymously with rainfall. The magnitude of
rainfall shows high temporal and spatial variation. This variation is responsible for the
occurrence of hydrologic extremes such as floods and droughts. Rainfall can be very
light, moderate, or very heavy.
2. Snow consists of ice crystals in a flaky form (average density ~ 0.1g/cc). It is
also an important form of precipitation. Snow is the precipitation in the form of solid,
frozen water. Snow is formed when the temperature is below freezing and falls down to
the surface. If the temperature in the atmosphere is not sufficient to melt the snow, we
receive snowfall.
3. Drizzle is a fine sprinkle of tiny water droplets of size less than 0.5mm and
intensity greater than 1mm/h. The tiny drops forming a drizzle appear to float in the air.
4. Glaze (Freezing Rain) is formed when rain or drizzle comes in contact with the cold
ground at around 0 degrees celsius. The water drops freeze to form an ice coating.
Freezing rain happens when supercooled water droplets fall on surfaces that have
freezing temperatures. This causes the water to freeze on the surfaces, such as roads,
pavements, cars, etc.
5. Sleet is frozen raindrops formed when rainfall passes through the air at
subfreezing temperatures. It occurs when snow partially melts during its fall through
warm layers and it refreezes when the drops fall through freezing conditions. Thus, hail
is the precipitation in which we receive snow pellets.
6. Hail is a type of showery precipitation in the form of pellets or lumps of size
greater than 8mm. Hail occurs in violent thunderstorms.

2.1 c2. Types of Precipitation

Precipitation occurs when the moist air mass undergoes condensation. This process
happens when the air is cooled and saturated with the same amount of moisture. This
process of cooling air mass is performed only when the air mass moves up to higher
altitudes. The air mass can be lifted to higher altitudes mainly by three methods based
on which there are three types of precipitation namely:
 1. Cyclonic Precipitation
A cyclone is a region in the atmosphere with large low pressure having circular
wind motion. The cyclonic precipitation is caused by the movement of moist air mass
to this region due to the difference in pressure. Cyclones can be of two types frontal and
non-frontal precipitation.
1.a Frontal Precipitation
A frontal is called as the hot moist air mass boundary. This precipitation is caused
by the expansion of air near the frontal surface.
1.b Non-Frontal Precipitation
This is a cold moist air mass boundary that moves and results in precipitation.

2. Convective Precipitation
The air above the land area gets heated up by some cause. The most warmer air rises
up and cools and precipitates. Convective precipitation is showery in nature. This type
of precipitation happens in varying intensities. The areal extent of convective
precipitation is small in the range of less than 10km in diameter.

3. Orographic Precipitation
Moving air masses have chances to strike barriers like mountains. Once they strike,
they rise up which causes condensation and precipitation. The precipitation is greater in
the windward side of the barrier compared to the leeward side of the barrier.

The table below shows the types of rainfall based on their intensity
Type of Rainfall Intensity (mm/h)

Light Trace to 2.5

Moderate 2.5 – 7.5

Heavy >7.5

2.1c3. Occurrence of Precipitation

Precipitation occurs when the atmosphere has sufficient moisture. There must
be sufficient nuclei (salt particles, products of combustion, etc) in the atmosphere to
make condensation happen. Weather conditions must be favorable for the condensation
of water vapor to take place. Under favorable weather conditions, water vapor condenses
over these nuclei to form tiny water droplets of size (generally less than 0.1mm in
diameter). The clouds are carried by the wind while its turbulence helps to retain water
droplets in suspension (similar to particles in a colloidal suspension). Precipitation
occurs when these water droplets come together and coalesce, forming larger drops of
water that can dropdown. When the precipitation occurs, a considerable part of it
evaporates back into the atmosphere. Net precipitation at a place and its form depend on
a number of meteorological factors such as temperature, humidity, wind, pressure in the
region.

2.1 D.Winds (Speed and Direction)

Wind is the result of the horizontal differences in
the air pressure. Wind is simply the movement of air
from high pressure to low pressure. The speed of the
wind is determined by the difference between the high
and low pressure. The greater the difference the faster
the wind speed. Closer the isobars stronger the winds.
The wind brings with it the temperature of the area it is
coming from, therefore a high pressure in a warm region will make the temperature in
the low pressure area higher. Wind-chill is the effect of the wind making it feel colder
than it actually is. As the wind speed increases air is moving more quickly and therefore
removes warm air therefore making it seem colder than the actual temperature.

2.1 E. Air pressure

Air pressure is the weight of air resting on the earth's surface. Air has a specific
weight. It is also one of the critical variables used to make
accurate weather forecasts. This weight exerted by the air
is atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is defined
as the force per unit area exerted against a surface by the
weight of air above that surface in the Earth's
atmosphere. It is used primarily by meteorologists to
monitor developing storms that can seem to come out of
nowhere. It is also called a barometric pressure, named after the instrument used to
measure air pressure. While typically considered an aspect of weather, certain regions
of the world exist in zones where changing atmospheric pressures form a part of the
predictable climate. Because of their proximity to large bodies of water (a major factor
in atmospheric pressure changes), places like coastal regions and islands experience
severe storms on a regular basis.
Air pressure isn't uniform across the Earth. It ranges from 980 to 1050 millibars
and changes with altitude. The higher the altitude, the lower the air pressure. This is
because the number of air molecules decreases at higher altitudes, thus decreasing air
density and air pressure. Air pressure is highest at sea level, where air density is greatest.
There are 5 basics about air pressure:
• It increases as air density increases and lowers as air density lowers.
• It increases as temperatures increase and lowers as temperatures cool.
• It increases at lower altitudes and decreases at higher altitudes.
• Air moves from high pressure to low pressure.

2.2 F.Cloud (Type and Cover)

a. How clouds are formed?
Clouds are part of the Earth's water cycle. Formed naturally due to the cooling
of water vapor within the Earth's atmosphere, clouds are made up of billions of water
particles. Clouds take on many shapes and forms, dependent on local weather systems
and local terrain. Some of the most common cloud types include cirrus, cumulus and
stratus.
 Light from the sun hits the surface of the earth. A large part of the solar radiation
is absorbed by the ground and gradually heats it up.
Constant heat reaching the surface of the ground causes air to heat up. The heated
air becomes lighter, which causes it to rise above the cooler air which lies above it. This
process is called convection.
Rising hot air is pushed farther upward by wind blowing over terrain such as
mountains, or over cliffs onto land from the sea. This process is called Orographic uplift.
Wetter areas are generally found near high terrain features, as the air cools at a quicker
rate around these areas.
Air is also forced to rise at a weather front. This is due to the differing air masses
of the two weather fronts. At cold fronts, cold air is pushed under warm air, forcing it
upward and at a warm front, warm moist air is forced up and over the cold air. This
process is called convergence or frontal lifting.
Clouds begin to develop in any air mass that becomes saturated. Saturation point
is reached when the air reaches its frost point. At this point, air gradually cools,
preventing it from rising any farther. Water vapor molecules within air begin to clump
together.
Water vapor condenses to form cloud droplets or ice crystals. This can be at
various heights, which creates a variety of different cloud systems. Clouds contain
millions of droplets of water or ice, depending on the temperature, which are suspended
in the air.

b. Cover
Clouds are suspended water in the atmosphere. Clouds are usually the most
obvious feature of the sky. Clouds give us a clue about what is going on in our
atmosphere and how the weather might change in the
hours or even days to come. Each type of cloud forms
in a different way, and each brings its own kind of
weather. Clouds play multiple critical roles in the
climate system. In particular, being bright objects in
the visible part of the solar spectrum, they efficiently
reflect light to space and thus contribute to the
cooling
of the planet. A small increase in cloud cover could, in principle, balance the heating
resulting from greenhouse gases. Clouds are the bases for precipitation. In summer
cloudy days provide protection from the rays of the sun. In winter cloudy skies at night
diminish nocturnal radiation and check the fall of temperature. Clear calm winter nights
are usually the coldest and helps in condensation. The amount of could controls the
duration of sunshine, the brightness of the sky and the amount of diffused day-light.

c. Type of Clouds
According to the World Meteorological Organization's International Cloud
Atlas, more than 100 types of clouds exist. The many variations, however, can be
grouped into one of 10 basic types depending on their general shape and height in the
sky. Thus, the 10 types are:
• Low-level clouds (cumulus, stratus, stratocumulus) that lie below 6,500
feet (1,981 m)
• Middle clouds (altocumulus, nimbostratus, altostratus) that form between
 6,500 and 20,000 feet (1981–6,096 m)
• High-level clouds (cirrus, cirrocumulus, cirrostratus) that form above
20,000 feet (6,096 m)
• Cumulonimbus, which tower across the low, middle, and upper
atmosphere
Whether you are interested in cloud watching or are just curious to know what
clouds are overhead, read on to find out how to recognize them and what type of
weather you can expect from each.
1.Cumulus
Cumulus clouds are the clouds you learned to draw at an early age and that serve
as the symbol of all clouds (much like the
snowflake symbolizes winter). Their tops are
rounded, puffy, and a brilliant white when
sunlit, while their bottoms are flat and
relatively dark. Cumulus clouds develop on DENNISAXER Photography/Getty Images
clear, sunny days when the sun heats the
ground directly below (diurnal convection).
This is where they get their nickname of "fair
weather" clouds. They appear in the late
morning, grow, and then disappear toward
evening.
2. Stratus
Stratus clouds hang low in the
sky as a flat, featureless, uniform
layer of grayish cloud. They
resemble fog that hugs the horizon
(instead of the ground).
Stratus clouds are seen on dreary,
overcast days and are associated with
light mist or drizzle.

3. Stratocumulus
If you took an imaginary knife and spread cumulus clouds together across the sky
but not into a smooth layer (like stratus), you
get stratocumulus—these are low, puffy,
grayish or whitish clouds that occur in patches
with blue sky visible in between. When viewed
from underneath, stratocumulus have a
dark, honeycomb appearance.
You are likely to see stratocumulus on mostly
cloudy days. They form when there's weak convection in the atmosphere.
 4. Altocumulus
Altocumulus clouds are the most common
clouds in the middle atmosphere. You'll
recognize them as white or gray patches that
dot the sky in large, rounded masses or clouds
that are aligned in parallel bands. They look
like the wool of sheep or scales of mackerel
fish—hence their nicknames "sheep backs" and
"mackerel skies."
Altocumulus and stratocumulus are often
mistaken. Besides altocumulus being higher up
in the sky, another way to tell them apart is by
the size of their individual cloud mounds. Place your hand up to the sky and in the
direction of the cloud; if the mound is the size of your thumb, it's altocumulus. (If
it's closer to fist-size, it's probably stratocumulus.)
Altocumulus are often spotted on warm and humid mornings, especially during
summer. They can signal thunderstorms to come later in the day. You may also see them
out ahead of cold fronts, in which case they signal the onset of cooler temperatures.
5. Nimbostratus
Nimbostratus clouds cover the sky in a dark gray layer. They can extend from the low
and middle layers of the atmosphere

sun.
Nimbostratus are the quintessential
rain cloud. You'll see them whenever
steady rain or snow is falling (or is
forecast to fall) over a widespread
area.

6. Altostratus
Altostratus appear as gray or bluish -gray
sheets of cloud that partially or totally
cover the sky at mid-levels. Even though
they cover the sky, you can typically still
see the sun as a dimly lit disk behind them,
but not enough light shines through to cast
shadows on the ground.
Altostratus tend to form ahead of a warm or
and are thick enough to blot out the
occluded front. They can also occur together with cumulus at a cold front.
 7. Cirrus
Like their name suggests (which is Latin for "curl of hair"), cirrus are thin, white,
wispy strands of clouds that streak across the sky. Because cirrus clouds appear above
20,000 feet (6,096 m)—an altitude
where low temperatures and low water
vapor exist—they are made up of tiny ice
crystals rather than water droplets.
Cirrus typically occur in fair weather. They can
also form out ahead of warm fronts and
largescale storms like nor'easters and tropical
cyclones, so seeing them can also indicate
storms may be coming. NASA's earth data site
quotes a proverb that sailors learned to warn
them of
coming rainy weather, “Mares’ tails (cirrus) and mackerel scales (altocumulus) make
lofty ships to carry low sails.”
8. Cirrocumulus
Cirrocumulus clouds are small, white patches of
clouds often arranged in rows that live at high
altitudes and are made of ice crystals. Called
"cloudlets," the individual cloud mounds of
cirrocumulus are much smaller than that of
altocumulus and stratocumulus and often look
like grains.
Cirrocumulus clouds are rare and relatively
short-lived, but you'll see them in winter or
when it's cold but fair.
9. Cirrostratus
Cirrostratus clouds are transparent,
whitish clouds that veil or cover nearly
the entire sky. A dead giveaway to
distinguishing cirrostratus is to look for
a "halo" (a ring or circle of light) around
the sun or moon. The halo is formed by
the refraction of the light on the ice
crystals in the clouds, similarly to how
sundogs form but in an entire circle
rather than just on either side of the sun.
Cirrostratus indicate that a large amount of moisture is present in the upper atmosphere.
They're also generally associated with approaching warm fronts.
10. Cumulonimbus
Cumulonimbus clouds are one of the few clouds that span the low, middle, and
high layers. They resemble the cumulus clouds from which they grow, except they rise
into towers with bulging upper portions that look like cauliflower.
 Cumulonimbus cloud tops are usually
always flattened in the shape of an anvil or
plume. Their bottoms are often hazy and
dark.
Cumulonimbus clouds are thunderstorm
clouds, so if you see one you can be
sure there's a nearby threat of severe
weather (short but heavy periods of
rainfall, hail, and possibly even tornadoes).
2.1 G. Visibility
The most critical weather element is that of visibility. Critical obstructions to
visibility include clouds, fog, smoke, haze, and precipitation.
a) the greatest distance at which a black object of suitable dimensions, situated
near the ground, can be seen and recognized when observed against a bright background;
b) the greatest distance at which lights of 1,000 candelas can be seen and
identified against an unlit background.
In extremely clean air in Arctic or mountainous areas, the visibility can be up to
70 kilometres (43 mi) to 100 kilometres (62 mi). However, visibility is often reduced
somewhat by air pollution and high humidity. Various weather stations report this as
haze (dry) or mist (moist). Fog and smoke can reduce visibility to near zero, making
driving extremely dangerous. The same can happen in a sandstorm in and near desert
areas, or with forest fires. Heavy rain (such as from a thunderstorm) not only causes low
visibility, but the inability to brake quickly due to hydroplaning. Blizzards and ground
blizzards (blowing snow) are also defined in part by low visibility.
2.1 H. Sunshine Duration
Sunshine duration is the length of time the Earth's surface is directly exposed to solar
radiation. It is also referred to as sunlight
hours and measure the amount of exposure
over a set period of time (generally in
hours per day or year.)
The amount of sunshine the Earth receives
(which is a characteristic of solar radiation)
greatly influence other elements of the
weather like ambient temperature, and
more indirectly humidity and air pressure.
Sunshine duration influence other weather elements, which can change the whole
makeup of the weather conditions.

2.2 Factors that Influence Planet’s Weather

2.2 a THE WATER CYCLE:
 Water cycle, also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that involves the continuous
circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. Of the many processes involved in
the water cycle, the most important are evaporation, transpiration, condensation,
precipitation and runoff. Although the total amount of water within the cycle remains
essentially constant, its distribution among the various processes is continually
changing.
As the sun warms the surface of the Earth, water rises in the form of water vapor
from oceans, lakes, rivers, plants, the ground, and other sources. This process is called
evaporation. Water vapor condenses into clouds and eventually returns to Earth in the
form of precipitation, and the cycle continues.
Evaporation, one of the major processes in the cycle, is the transfer of water
from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere. By evaporation, water in the liquid state
is transferred to the gaseous, or vapour, state. This transfer occurs when some molecules
in a water mass have attained sufficient kinetic energy to eject themselves from the
water surface. The main factors affecting evaporation are temperature, humidity,
wind speed and solar radiation. The direct measurement of evaporation, though
desirable, is difficult and possible only at point locations. The principal source of water
vapour is the oceans, but evaporation also occurs in soils, snow, and ice. Evaporation
from snow and ice, the direct conversion from solid to vapour, is known as sublimation.
Transpiration is the evaporation of water through minute pores, or stomata, in the
leaves of plants. For practical purposes, transpiration and the evaporation from all water,
soils, snow, ice, vegetation, and other surfaces are lumped together and called
evapotranspiration, or total evaporation.
Then water as it evaporates from the earth it shapes to condense in the atmosphere
as clouds.
Water vapour is the primary form of atmospheric moisture. Although its storage
in the atmosphere is comparatively small, water vapour is extremely important in
forming the moisture supply for dew, frost, fog, clouds, and precipitation. Practically all
water vapour in the atmosphere is confined to the troposphere (the region below 6 to 8
miles [10 to 13 km] altitude). The transition process from the vapour state to the liquid
state is called condensation. Condensation may take place as soon as the air contains
more water vapour than it can receive from a free water surface through evaporation at
the prevailing temperature. This condition occurs as the consequence of either cooling
or the mixing of air masses of different temperatures. By condensation, water vapour in
the atmosphere is released to form precipitation. Precipitation that falls to the Earth is
distributed in four main ways: some is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation, some
may be intercepted by vegetation and then evaporated from the surface of leaves, some
percolates into the soil by infiltration, and the remainder flows directly as surface runoff
into the sea. Some of the infiltrated precipitation may later percolate into streams as
groundwater runoff. Direct measurement of runoff is made by stream gauges and plotted
against time on hydrographs.
Most groundwater is derived from precipitation that has percolated through the
soil. Groundwater flow rates, compared with those of surface water, are very slow and
variable, ranging from a few millimetres to a few metres a day. Groundwater movement
is studied by tracer techniques and remote sensing.
Ice also plays a role in the water cycle. Ice and snow on the Earth’s surface occur
in various forms such as frost, sea ice, and glacier ice. When soil moisture freezes, ice
also occurs beneath the Earth’s surface, forming permafrost in tundra climates. About
18,000 years ago glaciers and ice caps covered approximately one-third of the Earth’s
land surface. Today about 12 percent of the land surface remains covered by ice masses.

There are several factors that affect a planet’s weather: the tilt of the planet's
axis, the shape of its orbit around the sun, its average distance from the Sun, and the
length of its day and its atmospheric pressure.

a. Earth's axis is tilted by

approximately 23.4 degrees. In other
words, Earth's daily rotation is shifted
by 23.4 degrees with regard to its
yearly revolution around the sun. The
direction of Earth's tilt nearly doesn't
change – the two hemispheres point
toward the same position in space
through the entire year. What does
change, as Earth revolves around the
Sun, is the position of the hemispheres
in relation to the Sun – the Northern
Hemisphere points
toward the Sun during the northern summer and away from the Sun during the northern
winter. Because of Earth's axial tilt (obliquity), our planet orbits the Sun on a slant which
means different areas of Earth point toward or away from the Sun at different times of
the year.
 b. The shape of the earth’s orbit
around the sun and its distance.

The shape of the earth’s orbit around

the sun is not circular, nor is the Sun
situated at the center of this path. Instead,
Earth's orbit is elliptical, with the Sun
closer to one end of the orbital path than
the other. This means that Earth’s distance
from the Sun varies throughout the year. Around the June solstice, the North Pole is
tilted toward the Sun and the Northern Hemisphere gets more of the Sun's direct rays.
This is why June, July and August are summer months in the Northern Hemisphere.

c. Length of Days
At the fall and spring equinoxes, in mid-September and mid-March, the axis is
pointed neither toward nor away from the sun, and the Northern Hemisphere and
Southern Hemisphere receive the same amount of sunlight. Day and night are of equal
length at these times. After the equinox, the days begin to get shorter in one hemisphere
and longer in the other. At the summer and winter solstices on the 21st or 22nd of June
and December, the days are at their longest or shortest, respectively. The summer
solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, June 21st or 22nd, is also the winter solstice in the
Southern Hemisphere, and vice versa.
d. Atmospheric Pressure.
An important characteristic of the Earth's atmosphere is its air pressure, which
determines wind and weather patterns across the globe. Gravity exerts a pull on the
planet's atmosphere just as it keeps us tethered to its surface. This gravitational force
causes the atmosphere to push against everything it surrounds, the pressure rising and
falling as Earth turns.
By definition, atmospheric or air pressure is the force per unit of area exerted on
the Earth’s surface by the weight of the air above the surface. The force exerted by an
air mass is created by the molecules that make it up and their size, motion, and number
present in the air. These factors are important because they determine the temperature
and density of the air and, thus, its pressure.

2.3 Weather Forecasting

2.3a. Importance of Weather Forecasting

It is important to know by some means the coming weather in advance. You may be
planning to go on a hike
without knowing that the
particular day may be rainy.
Farmers, sailors, aviators,
tourists and many others are
interested to know the weather
conditions in advance for their
own benefits. That is why
newspapers publish weather reports and weather forecasts along with a map showing
this information. Now, better weather forecasts are available with the use of weather
satellites. Weather conditions are televised every day. When a cyclone or dangerous
weather is expected, warnings are issued over the radio, television and newspapers so
that people can prepare to save themselves and their property from its hazard. The
weather office collects data on temperature, wind, cloud cover, rainfall and other
atmospheric phenomena through its numerous observation centres. These centers are
scattered all over the country. Similar information is also received from the ships sailing
in the high seas. The analysis of these data thus collected, helps in forecasting weather
conditions for the next 48 hours or even for a week. The significance of a weather
information supplied through a map and its forecast is better utilised in a country like
the Philippines where weather changes are very rapid.
Every satellite image tells a story. And satellite images are everywhere, on the Internet,
the evening news, and even in some newspapers. The ability to interpret weather
information from satellite images enables people to make informed decisions about their
day. By learning a few basic weather rules, anyone can use satellite images to predict
the weather for their location for the upcoming afternoon or the next day.
A meteorologist can take one look at a satellite image and tell where the mild
air is, where the cold fronts and warm fronts are, and even identify stormy weather. By
looking at a series of images and some additional information such as wind speeds and
directions or pressure patterns, meteorologists can quickly develop a general forecast
for what direction the storm is heading and whether it might grow stronger or dissipate.
Forecasting weather is one of the hardest and most complicated things scientists
do on a daily basis. Meteorologists use many tools to tackle the job of weather
forecasting. Many start by looking at images provided by weather satellites. A single
satellite image holds tons of information.

2.3 b. Station Weather Plots and Symbols

1. Station Weather Plots
Satellite images, fronts, isobars, highs and lows show large scale weather
features and help us see the big weather picture. However, meteorologists need to
look closer at the weather data with more
detail. One common way is with station
weather plots. The station weather plot
shows the current weather conditions, cloud
cover, wind speed, wind direction,
visibility, temperature, dew point
temperature, atmospheric pressure, and the
change in pressure over the last three hours.
Here is an example of a surface station
weather plot with labels explaining the data.

2. Sky Cover
The amount that the circle at the center of the station plot is filled in represents
the approximate amount of total cloud cover. In above case, the sky cover is
overcast. Below are the common sky cover depictions.
 Partly Mostly
Scattered Sky Data
Clear Cloudy Cloudy Overcast
(25%) Obscured Missing
(50%) (75%)

3. Wind
The longer line, extending from the sky cover plot, points in the direction that
the wind is blowing from. The shorter lines, called barbs, on the outer end of the
direction line indicate the wind speed in knots (kt). Each long barb represents 10 kt
with short barbs (half-lines) representing 5 kt, and each flag represents 50kt. In
above case, the wind is blowing from the northeast and the wind speed is 25 knots.
Below are some more examples of wind plots.

Calm winds 5 knots 15 knots 20 knots 35 knots 65 knots

4. Pressure & Pressure Trend

Sea-level pressure is plotted to the nearest tenths of millibars(mb), with leading
9 or 10 omitted for example:
- if the pressure was plotted as 028, the complete sea-level pressure
value is 1002.8 mb;
- if the pressure was plotted as 462, it would be 1046.2 mb; - if the
pressure was plotted as 867, it would be 986.7 mb.

When trying to determine whether to add a 9 or 10 use the number that will
give you a value closest to 1000 mb
The pressure trend has two components, a number and symbol, to indicate
how much (in tenths of millibars) in the past 3 hours and the trend in the change of
the pressure during the same period. In above case, the pressure was falling after
steady or slightly rising and becoming 3 mb lower than it was three hours ago.
Below are the meanings of the pressure trend symbols.
Rising, then Falling, then
Steady
steady steady
Rising after Rising, then
Continuously slightly slowly
Rising falling falling
 Falling after Falling, then
Continuously slightly slowly
Falling rising rising

5. Weather Symbols

References:
1. Rafferty, J.P. (n.d.). The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/science/water-cycle.
2. How to identify and name clouds?(n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.youtube.
com/ watch?v=pOwPs4kNSwc
3. The Making of Clouds (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=UZEETyzql0Q

CHAPTER ACTIVITIES

Activity 2.1 Elements Affecting Weather Condition

Create or compose a poem in English or Filipino using the different elements
of weather
Activity 2.2 Factors Influencing Weather
Multiple Choice: Write the letter of your correct answer on the answer sheet
provided.
1. What causes changes in weather?
a. Air masses move and meet. c. Water evaporates.
b. The air gets more humid. d. Clouds form.
2. Which of the following explains why one side of a mountain usually has more
precipitation than the other side?
 a. Mountains force air to rise, and air cools and releases moisture as it rises.
b. The atmosphere gets denser as elevation increases.
c. Temperatures are higher on one side of a mountain than on the other.
d. The land on one side is more green and lush than the other.
3. Why does the equator experience about the same temperatures year-round?
a. It tilts toward the sun and gets much more direct solar energy.
b. It has no prevailing winds.
c. It has no mountains to affect its climate.
d. The sun’s rays strike the equator at about the same angle all year.
4. What phenomenon does the Coriolis effect arise from?
a. curvature of the earth’s surface b. rotation of the earth around its axis
c. rotation of the earth around the sun d. Effects of winds high in the atmosphere
5. As you go to the top of a mountain, what happens to temperature?
a. Nothing b. It increases c. It decreases d.It goes up and down
6. The constant movement of water between Earth and the atmosphere is called the...
a. sleet b. water cycle c. precipitation d. humidity

7. Nimbostratus clouds are found at _____ altitudes and indicate _____ weather.
a. low, rainy b. high, rainy c. high clear d. low, clear e. middle, rainy
8. Which of the following increases air’s ability to hold water vapor?
a. increase in wind speed c. decrease in temperature
b. increase in temperature d. decrease in air pressure 9. What causes changes in
weather?
a. Air masses move and meet. c. Water evaporates.
b. The air gets more humid. d. Clouds form.
10. Which of the following explains why one side of a mountain usually has more
precipitation than the other side?
a. Mountains force air to rise, and air cools and releases moisture as it rises.
b. The atmosphere gets denser as elevation increases.
c. Temperatures are higher on one side of a mountain than on the other.
d. The land on one side is more green and lush than the other.

2.3 Water Cycle Crossword Puzzle

Across Down
3. A large collection of tiny droplets of water or 1. When water turns into water vapor.
ice crystals. 2. When water falls from the atmosphere back
5. Depending on _______________________ to land.
precipitation could be rain, snow, sleet, or even 4. The water cycle helps regulate
hail. ___________________________.
9. When plants release water on to their leaves 6. Water is a basic
that then evaporates into vapor. _______________________ of nature.
10. The journey of water from the Earth's 7. Covers 70% of the Earth.
surface to the atmosphere, and back again. 8. When water vapor turns back into a liquid.
11. When water does not get absorbed into the soil.

Activity 2.4 Weather and Clouds

Fill in the blanks: Write your answer on the answer sheet provided.
Using what you learned about clouds in the lesson and your own personal
observations, fill in the blanks in the following paragraphs. Choose the correct words
from the given choices.
movement black white gray good high poor direction

rain satisfactory upwards and vertical down

The shape, color and __1___ of clouds can help predict the weather. _2____ or
brown clouds usually mean a storm is coming. ___3__ clouds mean pleasant weather.
___4__ clouds usually mean a widespread storm is approaching.
 If there aren't any clouds in the sky, then the weather is _5____. Assuming there
are clouds in the sky, if you can see the sun or moon through the clouds, then you are
looking at __6___ altitude clouds. If the clouds are thick, then there may be a chance
of ___7__ weather within a day or two. You can tell which way a storm is moving by
the __8___ in which the clouds are moving.
If the clouds are covering the entire sky and appear to be grey with a blue tint or
fluffy white/grey with a lot of contrast between the light and dark areas, you should
prepare for __9___ within half a day. If the clouds are low and lumpy or low and
fluffy and resemble white cotton balls, you can expect __10___ weather.
Any _11____ growth of the clouds (anvil shapes) may indicate thunderstorms.
Dark clouds with a funnel extending _12____ to the earth (or ocean) and signs of
rotation or flying debris could be a tornado.

Activity 2.5 Weather forecasting Direction: Fill in the table based on the
given figure
1. 2.

Temperature Temperature
Wind Direction Wind Direction
Cloud Cover Cloud Cover
Pressure Change Pressure Change
Dew Point Dew Point
Wind Speed Wind Speed
Pressure Pressure
Current Weather Current Weather

EVALUATION

Cloud watching and predicting the weather of the day

Instruction:
Everyday take a picture or sketch the cloud you observe anytime of the day, give
a short description and name it. Then predict the weather the rest of the day based on
the cloud observed. This should be done in five consecutive days of observations. You
should be able to present your data in a tabular form.

Day Picture/Sketch of Cloud’s Name and Weather

the Cloud Description

 Prediction(sunny,
cloudy, rainy,
fair)