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Uploaded by

Shem Natulla
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‘CHAPTER 3 FUEL INJECTION DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES Alomisation ‘The break up of fuel into minute spray particles so as to ensure an intimate mixing of air and fuel oil is known as atomisation. The surface area/volume ratio of a fuel-oil droplet increases as its diameter decreases Fig. 61. The effect of this is that a smaller droplet can present a greater percentage of its molecules to contact with the available air than can a larger droplet. The smailer fuel-oil droplets then the more effective is the atomisation resulting in more rapid and complete combustion with maximum heat release from the fuel. Turbulence A swirl effect of air charge in the cylinder which in combination with atomised fuel spray gives intimate mixing and good overall combustion. Requires to be ‘designed into’ the engine by attention to liner, piston, ports, etc., details eee with air pressure- temperature: gradients. Penetration Ability of the fuel spray droplets to spread across the cylinder combustion space so as to allow maximum utilisation of volume for combustion. impingement Excess velocity of fuel spray causing contact with metallic engine parts and resulting in flame burning. Sprayer Nozzie The arrangement at the fuel valve up to direct fuel in the proper direction with the correct velocity. If the sprayer holes are 100 short the direction can be indefinite and if too long impingemeat con FRING KNOWLEDGE THE RE eiiey LATIONSHIP BETWEEN FUEL DROPLET SIZE & SURFACE AREA/VOLUME RATIO BURFACE AREAVOLUME (mente? t = * © DROPLET OMAMETER gum) ‘occur. If the hole diameters are too small fuel blockage (and impingement) can take place, alternatively too large diameters og not allow Proper atomisation. In practice each manufacturer a5 2 Specific design taking into account method of injection, Pressure, pumps, etc. Even with a particular engine different norzles may be specified for different applications. For example, engines engaged in slow Steaming, for reasons of economy, may be peed with fuel valve sprayer nozzles with smaller holes of ees Beomerry than engines at higher sowers, This measure % ‘sia the atomising and Penetration performance of fuel valves ae a due to the restoration of fuel velocity through the ee = yields impioved economy at lower lozds. The nozzles fea i anged (0 the original S12€ prior to operating at maximum EN iE Caiegmete the sprayer hole length: diameter ratio ec 4:1, maximum pressure drop ratio about 12:1 and ity through the hole about 250m/s. Viscosiry May be : ee intemal fluid molecular friction which causes a ~ Pre-heating ‘With the almost universal use of residual fuel in marine diesel engines it is important, to ensure optimum fuel injection, that correct pre-heating is carried out. If the ternperarure of the fuel is t00 low then the viscosiry will be high resulting in higher injection pressure and reduced atomising performance, excessive penetration and possible impingement on internal surfaces. Too high a ternperature also has adverse effects by reducing penetration and causing deposits to be left on nozzle tip affecting atomisation. The relationship between viscosity and temperature is shown in Fig. 62. Careful control of fuel temperature is required to ensure that the fuel viscosity at the engine fuel rail is insic- “he range specified by the manufacturers. It is modern practice tc utilise viscosity controllers to ensure that the fuel temperatures is maintained at the correct level. Although the viscosity controller manufacturer will specify that it be fined in close proximity to the engine the builders do not always do so. It is important, therefore, that the viscosity controller is adjusted so that any cooling of the fuel that takes place between the heater and the engine does not allow the fuel to move out of the optimum viscosity range for injection. This effect will be exacerbated when burning high viscosity fuels requiring much heating. Effective trace beating and insulation is an important feature of a well designed fuel system. The fuel injection system is vitally important to the efficient operation of the engine. It must: + Supply an accurately measured amount of fuel to each cylinder regardless of load. * Supply the fuel at the correct time a! all loads with rapid opening and closing of the fuel valve. + Inject the fuel at a controlled rate. * Atomise and discribute the fuel in the cylinder. Injection To achieve effective combustion the fuel must be atomised and then distributed throughout the combustion space. It is the funcnoa ‘of the fuel valve to accomplish this. Most fuel valves on marine diesel engines are of the hydraulic type. Fig. 63. The opening and closing of this type of valve is controlled by the fuel pressure delivered by the fuel pump which acts on the needle in the lower chamber. When the force is sufficient to overcome the spring, the needle lifts. LL 14 REED'S MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE, FUEL INJECTION 105 Full lift occurs quickly as the extra area of the needle seat is 4 FIG 62 exposed after initial lift. The full action of lift is limited by the VISCOSITY TEMPFRATURE CHART FOR needle shoulder which halts against a thrust face on the holder. The injector lift pressure varies with the design but may be about 140 MARINE FUELS, 4 bar average (some designs 250 bar). A fuel valve lift diagram for such an injector is given in Chapter 1. By removal of the spring cap the valve lift indicator needle can ny be assembled in the adaptor. This particular design as sketched is not cooled itself but is enclosed in an injector holder with seal (face to face) at tapered nozzle end with rubber ring at the top. : FIG 63 FUEL VALVE INJECTOR (HYDRAULIC) Serr se —> FUEL TEMPERATURE “C 106 REEDS MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDOE Coolant is circulated in the annular space between the injector holder and the holder itself. Direct cooling of the fuel valve as an alternative to this is easily arranged. Coolant connections on the main block would supply and retum through drillings similar to that shown for fuel. The choice of ail or water for cooling depends on the engine and valve design and is also affected by the type of fuel. With hot boiler oil it is necessary to cool right to the injector tip so as io attempt to keep metal temperatures below 200°C. Hydraulic fuel valves usually have a lift of about 1 mm and the action is almost instantaneous. ‘There are three broad types of injection: ¢ Jerk injection. * Common rail. + Timed injection. Jerk injection This is by far the most commor system employed on modern marine diesel engines. The fuel pressure is built up at a fuel pump in a few degrecs of rotation of the cam operating the plunger. Fucl is delivered directly to spring loaded injectors which are hydraulically opened when the jerk pump plunger lift has generated sufficient fuel pressure. Common Rail A system in which fuel pumps deliver to a pressure main and various cylinder valves open to the main and allow fuel injection to the appropriate cylinder. Requires cither mechanically operated fuel valves (¢.g. older Doxford engines) or mechanically operated timing valves (¢.g. modern Doxford engines) allowing connection between rail and hydraulic injector at the correct injection timing. Times Injection As defined above in which the fuel pump delivers to the timing valve and thence to the spring loaded injector. No lost motion siutch is required as the cam does not drive a pump plunger but Operates a valve. The cam is symmetrical with respect to engine dead cenue. Note: Many aspects of fuels are covered in Volume & (Chapter 2) and revision of oil tests as well as basic definitions relating to Specific pravity. Coaradson carbon residue, Cetane number, er. is ocgiy ahd | + FUEL INJECTION 107 EE OO Indicator Diagrams. oy : Details have been given of some typical indicator diagrams showing engine faults in Chapter 1. Aspects of fuel injection faults included late and early injection (draw card), fuel valve lift diagrams, etc., as well as related details such as compression cards. Two further typical faults are as illustrated in Fig. 64. Afterburning will show as indicated with a loss of power. increased cylinder exhaust temperature and possible discolouration of exhaust gases. Fuel restriction at filters, injectors, ete. or due to incorrect viscosity will result in a loss of power and reduced maximum pressure. FUEL PUMPS General : The physical energy demands of injection are great. Typical requirements include delivery of about 100m! of fuel in vs second at 750 bar so as to atomise over an area of 40m. A peak energy input can reach 230 kW. A short injection period at high pressure, so placed to give the desired firing pressure, is necessary. Generally pilot injection and slow injection of charge is difficult to arrange for modem turbo-charged engines. Quantity control The amount of fuel injected per stroke is usually accomplished by varying the effective plunger stroke of the fuel pump. This may be achieved by: FIG 64 EFFECTS OF DEFECTIVE FUEL INJECTION FUEL RESTRICTION 108 REED'S MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE 1. Varying the beginning of delivery. 2. Varying the end of delivery. 3. Varying the beginning and the end of delivery. Control has been arranged for regulated end of effective stroke by helical groove with constant beginning. of injection, as in the well known Bosch principle, described later. This method is regularly utilised for auxiliary engines and gives fuel injection early in the cycle at light load which gives higher efficiency but also leads to higher firing pressures. It has also been utilised with farge direct coupled engines (e.g. B.& W.). Control in valve type pumps for large engines was usually with constant end and . regulation of the start of injection by varying the suction valve closure (¢.g. Sulzer and Doxford). Engine performance at low load with later injection is a compromise between economy and firing pressure. With turbo-charged engines the disadvantage of the constant end pump control is more noticeable as teduced firing pressure and efficiency is more marked at low loads due to reduced turbo-charger delivery and pressure. Because of the limitations of varying the fuel quantity delivered by only varying the beginning of delivery Sulzer redesigned their fuel pumps to include a suction valve and spill valve. Initially the spill valve only was controlled resulting in constant beginning with variable end of delivery. Latterly, however, in the interests of fuel economy and in common with other manufacturers, both valves are controlled to give variable beginning and end of delivery. Injection Characteristics The diagram given in Fig. 65. illustrates some features of fuel injection based largely on Sulzer RND practice. ‘The fuel valve injector lift diagram is shown with lift of about 1-3 mm and injection period at full load approximately 6 degrees before to 22 degrees after. High firing pressures at full load in the high powered turbocharged range of engines can be reduced with 4 constant beginning method of injection. The ideal injection la corresponds to a rectangle with almost constant fuel pressury before the injector during injection. The practical curves show/ show almost constant pressure at a reasonable maximum (750 bart The last sketch of this Fig. 65. shows the effect of earlier spill Gelivery for reducing load with a constant start of injection. The + ke PUEL INJECTION FIG 65 INJECTION CHARACTERISTICS plunger at first moves very rapidly to build up pressure but is slowed. during injection so giving minimum injection pressures at full load. The constant beginning of injection gives a fet combustion pressure over the full power range. At low loads the fuel pressure is higher than is usually the case because the plunger is delivering more in its maximum speed range, this gives bener atomisatiion. Variable Injection Timing (WIT) The previous section dealt with only variable and with constant beginning of injection. It is modern practice for economy considerations to now vary both the beginning and end of injection. With constant beginning of injection the maximum finng 110 REED'S MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE FIG 66 FUEL SAVINGS AVAILABLE BY UTILISING VARIABLE INJECTION TIMING (VIT) POSSIBLE GAVINGE OF SPECIAC FUEL CONSUMPTION prone te ~~ 4 POSSIBLE Pras WITH WIT Pe ee MARGIN TO INCREASE Pass FUEL SAVINGS AVALASLE @¥ MAINTAINING Phase WITH WIT FIG 67 INJECTION TIMING VARIATION WITH ENGINE LOAD VAFUABLE BEGS@eND (OF BUECTION (vIT) pressure of the engine will fall almost linearly as the power of the engine is reduced. The b.m.ep of the engine, however, reduces at a slower rate and since the thermal! efficiency of the engine varies 2s the ratio of Puar/Prar then a reduction of firing pressure ~ill result in a reduction of thermal efficiency of the engine. In order that the thermal efficiency and hence the specific fuel consumption can be maintained at optimum it is therefore necessary to maintain maximum firing pressures as the engine load is reduced. This is accomplished by advancing the timing of the furl injection as the engine load is reduced Fig. 65, The advancement of the injection timing continues until about 65%-70%, thereafter the injection is retarded. Fig. 67. It can be scen that at about 25% engine load injection is retarded in relation to full load timing. This will reduce the “diesel knock™ at low engine loads that is sometimes experienced oa engines without variable injection timing [VIT]. Se a Me Thee kee y2 REED'S MOTOR ( NGINEERING KNOWLEDGE en ee FIG 68. BOSCH TYPE FUEL PUMP OPERATION ‘SUCTION PORT =} SPLLPORT | v LONGITUDINAL GROOVE & PLUNGER CONTROL LOROTTUONAL ad HELICAL EDGE UNCOVERS SPL |PORT. FUEL PUMP PRESSURE => SUCTION PORT or Port 4 5 Bosch Jerk Pump Principle Fig..68. shows a Bosch type fuel pump set at approximatcly 75% load. The sketch numbered | show the plunger moving down. The Pressure in the barrel falls and as the suction and spill ports open to the fuel rail the fuel flows into the barrel. In Sketch 2 the plunger is moving upwards. The fuel is from the barrel through the spill and suction ports. This _ displacement will continue until the plunger completely covers both ports. “Sketch 3 shows the plunger continuing to move upwards and just covering the spill and suction ports. This is the effective beginning of delivery and any further upward movement of the plunger will pressurise the fuc! and open the fuel valve injecting fuel to the engine. Sketch 4. The plunger continues to move upwards. Injection continue? until the paint when the helical edge of the groove on the _ plunger uncovers the spill port. The high pressure in the barrel is immediately connected to the low pressure of the fuel suction. “There is no longer sufficient pressure to keep the fuel valve needle ‘open and injection ceases. Sketch 5 shows the plunger turned by means of the rack and pinion so that the longitudinal groove of the plunger is aligned _ with the spill port. In this position the plunger is unable to deliver __ any fuel since the spill port does not close during the cycle. Sketch 6 shows a sectional plan view to illustrate how the Plunger can be rotated so as to vary helix height relative to the spill Port. The plunger base is slotted into a control sleeve which is _ Totated by quadrant and rack bar. With both valve and helical spill designs there can be problems _ Of fuel cavitation due to very high velocities. Velocities near 200 mys can create low pressure vapour bubbles if pressure drops > Sollapse during pressure changes which results in shock waves and Stusion attack as well as possible fatigue failure. A spring loaded _ Piston and orifice design can absorb and damp out fluctuation. ‘Gotaverken, Stork, MAN and B & W. engines utilise a form of the ump. a ‘The adjustment of injection timing is carried out on Bosch type fuel pumps by varying the relative height of plunger and 3 ill ports in the barrel. This may be accomplished in a ‘Sumber of ways: i C gee £ the height of plunger relative to the barrel. 2 Bciening the height of the barrel relative to the plunger. _ below-the vapour pressure. These bubbles can subsequently _ FUEL INJECTION 1s po es FIG 69 ADJUSTMENT OF FUEL INJECTION TIMING BY VARYING RELATIVE POSITION OF PLUNGER AND BARREL —=_— == awe aoe = ee ee 116 REED'S MOTOR ENOINEERING KNOWLEDGE _ Adjustment of plunger height canbe accomplished in some "installations by adjusting the cam follower. Lowering the plunger has the effect of retarding the injection. Raising the plunger advances the injection. In earlier B & W. designs adjustment of injection timing was carried out by raising the fuel pump barrel in relation to the plunger. In this design the fuel pump top flange has an external threaded portion projecting towards the barrel Fig. 70. This thread maiches with the external thread of the adjusting ring. The adjusting.ring has external gear teeth cut on its upper part which are engaged by the adjusting pinion. To adjust the injection timing the pinch bolts are released and the adjusting pinion tumed to __ ‘either raise or lower the barrel. Lowering the barrel will advance the injection timing while raising the barrel will retard the injection timing. Jerk Fuel Pump [valve type fuel pump] Detail ‘The detail in Fig. 71. is based on an earlier Sulzer design. The fuel- Pump delivery is contolled by suction and spill valves. Sketch | shows the plunger moving down, the suction valve ‘Open and fuel-oil being drawn into the barrel. Sketch 2 shows the plunger moving upwards and fuel being displaced through the still open suction valve. __ Sketch 3 shows the delivery commencing as the suction valve Sketch 4. As the plunger continues to move upwards injection eases when the spill valve opens. . From Fig. 71. it can be seen thar the valve type fuel pump design lends itself quite readily to control on suction valve and spill valve. However, scroll type, or Bosch fuel pumps require a Sifferent method to control the beginning and the end of injection. The beginning of injection is carried out by adjusting the height of fuel pump barrel. Referring to Fig. 72. the pump barrel has an Outside threaded lower portion which engages into the timing Buide operated by a toothed rack. Movement of the rack causes the Pump barrel to move vertically up or down relative to the pump Plunger. In this way the moment the plunger covers the spill port, and so commences injection, can be adjusted while the engine is in _ SPeration. The pump barrel is prevented from turning by a locating = FUEL INJECTION nT fa a ae ree a FIG 70 ADJUSTMENT OF INJECTION TIMING BY RAISING OR LOWERING FUEL PUMP BARREL aon a ee. Te eee i eee 118 REED'S MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE FUEL INJECTION 119 ee a eee i ~ FIG 71 FIG 72 SULZER VALVE TYPE-FUEL PUMP VIT BOSCH TYPE FUEL PUMP ‘SPU VALVE “A sueTION > oy 1 SUCTION VALVE OPEN: FUEL B Cl | Beene aca suecTion Taina ‘ « ADWUSTED wT SUCTION VALVE FUEL QUANTITY REGULATED aa POSITION OF SPLL VALVE 2 FUEL DISPLACED THROUGH iF SUCTION VALVE o ” FUEL PUUr SARE 3 SPLLASUCTION VALVE Br INJECTION COMMENCES: f (a : w ‘Tua GUIDE ———— ! & WTH Taam OUDE SPILL VALVE OPENS INJECTION CEASES re ei ee a aes | aaa 120 REED'S MOTOR ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE plug. The end of injection, and therefore the quantity of fuel delivered, is regulated by rotating the plunger which varies the position of the helix edge relative to the spill port. * ‘Two Stage Fuel Injection Efforts are continually being made to improve the reliabiliry and economy of medium speed engines. which operate on heavier grades of fuel. One way of achieving this is by having a carefully controlled, reliable combustion process. This requires good atomisation with short injection periods but this results in high injection rates at high engine loads with commensurate high rates at imermediate and low loads where increased ignition delays may be experienced. Indeed, research has shown that, at low loads, the | injection process may be completed before ignition commences. | Because the fuel is well mixed with the air, the combustion is very intense and almost instantaneous when ignition docs eventually | occur. This uncontrolled

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