BRANCHES OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

Compiled and Edited by:

Ms. Urvashi Attri

LL.M, 2022-2023
MNLU, Nagpur.

Prof. Karishma B. Gavai

Asst. Prof of Law,
MNLU, Nagpur .
 BRANCHES OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

Forensic Science with its multi-disciplinary approach is that essential link that helps glue together all kinds of
evidence in any form of investigation. It involves the application of the principles and methodologies of
various disciplines of science to legal matters. Following are the different branches of Forensic science-

1. Trace Evidence Analysis

According to this branch, traces that have been left in crime scene can be analysed. Edmond Locard said that
“everything leaves a contact”. Every trace can be traced back and identified. Any evidence that is transferred
during commission of crime.

The word 'trace' means small or minute. To a forensic scientist, trace evidence refers to evidence that is
transferred from one person to another person or place. In the forensic world, this concept is known as Locard's
Exchange Principle. The man running through the woods may have taken precautions not to be seen by
anyone, but there are several different kinds of trace evidence that can be collected from a crime scene that
could lead to his arrest.

Trace evidence types commonly collected from crime scenes include:

• Hairs
• Fibers
• Glass
• Plant material
• Paint chips or transfers
• Soil
• Fingerprints

For example- If hair has been found at crime scene. Forensic Scientists can also examine hair for different
characteristics to determine what part of the body it came from. For example, they can determine if a hair
came from someone's head or from a different part of the body, like a beard. The examination of hair can also
determine if it came from an animal or a human. If a hair is forcibly removed, yanked or pulled out, the entire
hair follicle may be present. The follicle may have blood and tissue attached to it, which could be examined
for possible DNA evidence.

2. Forensic Toxicology

Forensic toxicology is the use of toxicology and disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology and
clinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use. The primary concern
for forensic toxicology is not the legal outcome of the toxicological investigation or the technology utilized,
but rather the obtainment and interpretation of results. A toxicological analysis can be done to various kinds
of samples. A forensic toxicologist must consider the context of an investigation, in particular any physical
symptoms recorded, and any evidence collected at a crime scene that may narrow the search, such as pill
bottles, powders, trace residue, and any available chemicals.

Following are the ways in which certain substances affect the body of an individual-

Marijuana- Marijuana, like alcohol, is also absorbed into the blood stream and passed through the blood brain
barrier. However, the THC that is released from marijuana attaches to the CB-1 cannabinoid receptors which
causes all of the effects experienced. These effects include, but are not limited to, mood changes, altered
perception of time, and increased sensitivity.

Cocaine- Cocaine is a stimulant unlike Marijuana or Alcohol. As soon as cocaine enters the bloodstream it
reaches the brain in minutes. Dopamine levels are increased intensely and the effects can last up to about 30
minutes. The most common way to use cocaine is by snorting it through the nose but other methods could be
by smoking it in a crystal rock form. But because dopamine levels are increased at such a rate this leads to an
even worse come down leading to needing a higher dose to get the same effect as the time before if taken
again. This is how some addictions begin. Some effects when taken are an increase of energy and happiness,
paranoia, rapid heart rate, anxiety, etc.

3. Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychology is the development and application of scientific knowledge and methods to help answer
legal questions arising in criminal, civil, contractual, or other judicial proceedings. Forensic psychology
includes both research on various psychology-law topics, such as jury selection, reducing systemic racism in
criminal law and eye witness testimony, as well as professional practice, such as evaluating individuals to
determine competency to stand trial.

Brown v. Board of Education was the first case in which Supreme Court of United States referenced expert
opinion by psychologists.

Ted Bundy- A psychologist could spend a lifetime examining the twisted mind of Ted Bundy, one of America’s
most notorious and charismatic killers. Luckily, several forensic psychologists used their expertise to crack
this famous case. Over time, Ted Bundy’s brutal attacks and killings became less careful and more frequent.
Their psychological profile, which benefited greatly from a former girlfriend’s information, eventually ended
the nationwide manhunt for Bundy and even linked him to other unsolved murders.

4. Forensic Podiatry

Forensic Podiatry has been defined as the application of sound and researched podiatry knowledge and
experience in forensic investigations, to show the association of an individual with a scene of crime, or to
answer any other legal question concerned with the foot or footwear that requires knowledge of the functioning
foot. Forensic Podiatry is a subdiscipline of forensic science in which specialized podiatric knowledge
including foot and lower limb anatomy, musculoskeletal function, deformities and diseases of foot, ankle,
lower extremities, and at times, the entire human body is used in the examination of foot-related evidence in
the context of a criminal investigation.

Within forensic podiatry, there are three main domains in which each focused primarily on providing analysis
and criminal identification -footprints, footwear and gait pattern.

Forensic podiatry techniques include identification of human footprint, footwear and gait patterns which are
seen or captured on CCTV. Footprints or footwear prints are sometimes encountered in primary or secondary
crime scenes and are important evidence which will lead us to the culprit.

5. Forensic Pathology

Forensic pathology is pathology that focuses on determining the cause of death by examining a corpse. A post
mortem examination is performed by a medical examiner or forensic pathologist usually during the
investigation of criminal law cases and civil law cases in some jurisdictions.

A forensic pathologist will examine the human remains (post-mortem examination) and consider death scene
findings.

The forensic pathologist examines and documents wounds and injuries, along with the possible causation of
those injuries, at autopsy, at the scene of a crime and occasionally in a clinical setting, such as rape
investigation or deaths in custody.

Forensic pathologists collect and examine tissue specimens under the microscope to identify the presence or
absence of natural disease and other microscopic findings such as asbestos bodies in the lungs or gunpowder
particles around a gunshot wound.

6. Forensic Linguistics

Forensic linguistics, legal linguistics, or language and the law, is the application of linguistic knowledge,
methods, and insights to the forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial
procedure. It is a branch of applied linguists.

There are principally three areas of application for linguists working in forensic contexts:

• understanding language of the written law,

• understanding language use in forensic and judicial processes, and
• the provision of linguistic evidence.
The discipline of forensic linguistics is not homogeneous; it involves a range of experts and researchers in
different areas of the field.

This branch of Forensic Science help in drawing Inferences about the offender’s age, gender, age, education
level, culture, ethnicity, socio-economic and geographical background, spiritual and religious beliefs.

For example- Forensic Linguist help in checking out ransom notes, calls, suicide notes, social media.

7. Forensic Geology

Forensic geology is the study of evidence relating to minerals, oil, petroleum, and other materials found in
the Earth, used to answer questions raised by the legal system.

The main use of forensic geology as it is applied today is regarding trace evidence. By examining the soil and
sediment particles to be able to link a suspect to a particular crime or a particular scene. Other uses in this field
of science can include theft, fraud, locating a gravesite etc.

Forensic Geology help in drawing inferences about the place, time and cause of the incident and to obtain
other relevant information as a part of the investigation.

Examples of Forensic Geology are Soil, Petroleum, Minerals, Rocks, etc.

8. Forensic Entomology

Forensic Entomology is application and study of the biology of insects and other arthropods (organisms found
on decomposing ruins) such as arachnids, centipedes, millipedes, and crustaceans to solve criminal cases.

Forensic Entomology is primarily used for death investigations, determination of the location of an incident,
postmortem interval and to arrive at the precise time of the infliction of wounds.

This includes the study of insect types commonly associated with cadavers their respective life cycles, their
ecological presences in a given environment, as well as the changes in insect assemblage with the progression
of decomposition.

9. Forensic Engineering

Forensic Engineering is the application of engineering principles for the investigation and analysis of such
mechanical and structural failures. Forensic engineering has been defined as "the investigation of failures -
ranging from serviceability to catastrophic - which may lead to legal activity, including both civil and
criminal".
Generally, the purpose of a forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a
view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident.
It includes the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or
function as intended, causing personal injury damage to property or economic loss.

10. Forensic Serology-

Forensic serology is the detection, identification, classification, and study of various bodily fluids such
as blood, semen, saliva and urine and their relationship to a crime scene. A forensic serologist may also be
involved in DNA analysis and blood stain pattern analysis. Serology testing begins with presumptive tests
which gives the analyst an indication that a specific bodily fluid may be present, but cannot completely confirm
its presence.

For Example-

Semen Detection- A common presumptive test for detecting semen is called the acid phosphatase (AP)
test.[3] The AP test detects the enzyme acid phosphatase that is secreted from the prostate gland.[4] However,
this test is only presumptive because acid phosphatase is found in other bodily fluids.

Saliva Detection- A presumptive test to detect saliva is the alpha-amylase test also known as the Phadebas
Test. This detection technique is based on the activity of the enzyme alpha-amylase which breaks down
starches from food into smaller oligosaccharide molecules, starting digestion in the mouth.

11. Forensic Botany-

Botany, in its simplest use, is the study of plants. Forensics is the application of scientific techniques to
the investigation of crime. Forensic botany is thus defined as the use of plants and plant parts -- including
as pollen, seeds, leaves, flowers, fruits and wood -- in the investigation of criminal cases, legal questions,
disputes, or, in non-criminal cases, to ascertain cause of death or former location.

Wood-Wood variety as well as wood grain and knots can also act like a fingerprint in the solving of a crime.
It was the wood of a ladder that led to the conviction in 1935 of Bruno Richard Hauptmann for the 1932
murder of the Lindbergh baby.

Leaves-Of course the shape of a leaf can lead to its being identified, but the type of tree a leaf comes from
isn’t the limit to its usefulness. In some instances, DNA analysis can establish a leaf associated with a
criminal suspect comes from a specific tree at the scene of a crime. It is of special interest that, not only
fresh, but dried leaves can be used in forensic biology for DNA.

12. Forensic Archaeology

Forensic archaeology is a field of forensic science which involves application of archaeological methods in
investigation of a crime scene in order to identify evidence and reconstruct crime scene, usually a murder.
Forensic archaeologist are employed to excavate and recover human remains, personal items, weapons, etc.
as well as eliminate non-related objects. The process of forensic archaeology is very similar to that used by
traditional archaeologists when recovering remains from the past.

13. Forensic Anthropology

Forensic Anthropology is the application of the anatomical science of anthropology and its various subfields,
including forensic archaeology and forensic taphonomy in a legal setting. A forensic anthropologist can assist
in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise
unrecognizable, as might happen in a plane crash. Forensic anthropologists are also instrumental in the
investigation and documentation of genocide and mass graves. Along with forensic pathologists, forensic
dentists, and homicide investigators, forensic anthropologists commonly testify in court as expert witnesses.

In addition to identifying physical characteristics of the individual, forensic anthropologists can use skeletal
abnormalities to potentially determine cause of death, past trauma such as broken bones or medical procedures,
as well as diseases such as bone cancer.

14. Digital Forensics

Digital forensic science is a branch of forensic science that focuses on the recovery and investigation of
material found in digital devices related to cybercrime. The term digital forensics was first used as a synonym
for computer forensics. Since then, it has expanded to cover the investigation of any devices that can store
digital data. Although the first computer crime was reported in 1978, followed by the Florida computers act,
it wasn’t until the 1990s that it became a recognized term. It was only in the early 21st century that national
policies on digital forensics emerged.

Digital forensics is the process of identifying, preserving, analyzing, and documenting digital evidence. This
is done in order to present evidence in a court of law when required.

15. Blood Pattern Analysis

Bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA) is the field of forensic science that consists of the study and analysis of
bloodstains at a known or suspected crime scene with the purpose of drawing conclusions about the nature,
timing and other details of the crime.. It is used mostly to study homicide or other violent crimes in which
blood is present and can help in crime scene reconstruction. Since the late 1950s, BPA experts have claimed
to be able to use biology, and mathematical calculations to reconstruct with accuracy events at a crime scene.

Bloodstain pattern analysts consider the angle of impact to determine its origin and the amount of force behind
it, variations in external forces can cause satellite drops
16. Forensic ballistics
Forensic ballistics is that branch of forensic science which deals with the examination of the firearm and
related evidences encountered at the scene of crime in a shooting incident, and their linkage to the firearm,
and Identification of the shooter.

A ballistic expert need to answer the following questions:

1.Type of The Firearms used

2.Identification of the Firearm
3.Individual Characteristics of Firearm
4.Range of Firing
5.Direction of Firing
6.Identification of the Shooter
7.Medico legal aspects: - Suicide/Homicide/Accident

FIREARM
Any instrument which is designed or adapted to discharge a projectile or hurl a projectile with the help of
force applied by the expanded gases of main charge (propellant). Firearms can be smooth bore, rifled bore,
manual/semi-automatic/automatic, handguns, shoulder guns etc.