Steels for Aerospace

Engineering

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Seksak Asavavisithchai

Department of Metallurgical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Chulalongkorn University
E-mail: [email protected]
 Steels for Aircraft
 The use of steel in aircraft and helicopters is often limited to just 5–8% of the
total airframe weight (or 3–5% by volume).
 The use of steel in aircraft is usually confined to safety-critical structural
components that require very high strength and where space is limited.
 Steels used in aircraft have yield strengths above 1500–2000 MPa.
 In addition to high strength, steels used in aircraft have high elastic modulus,
fatigue resistance and fracture toughness, and retain their mechanical
performance at high temperature (up to 300–450°C).
 Aircraft structural components made using high-strength steel include
undercarriage landing gear, wing-root attachments, engine pylons and slat track
components.
 The greatest usage of steel is in landing gear where it is important to minimise
the volume of the undercarriage while having high load capacity. The main
advantage of using steel in landing gear is high stiffness, strength and fatigue
resistance, which provide the landing gear with the mechanical performance to
withstand high impact loads on landing and support the aircraft weight during
taxi and take-off.
Aircraft Applications of Steel
 Landing Gear System

Mass and complexity of F/A-18 landing gear

Landing Gear System
 Ferrous Alloys
 Produced in the largest amount quantities.
 Three main factors for widespread use of iron:
 Exists in abundant quantities within the earth’s crust.
 Produced using relatively economical extraction, refining, alloying
and fabrication techniques.
 Extremely versatile (tailored properties).
 The principal disadvantage:
 Susceptibility to corrosion
 High density
 Ferrous Alloys
Metals

Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals

Steels Cast Irons

Plain carbon steels Grey Iron

Low carbon steels White Iron

Medium carbon steels Malleable & Ductile Irons

High carbon steels

Low alloy steels

High alloy steels

Stainless & Tool steels
Fe-C Phase Diagram
 Phases in Fe-C Phase Diagram
 Ferrite (): Solid solution of carbon in BCC iron
 Austenite (): Solid solution of carbon in FCC iron
 -iron: Solid solution of carbon in BCC iron
 Cementite (Fe3C): Intermetallic compound of iron and carbon with a
fixed carbon content of 6.67 wt.%
 Pearlite (+Fe3C): It is a two phased lamellar (or layered) structure
composed of alternating layers of ferrite and cementite
Fe-C Phase Diagram: Eutectoid
Fe-C Phase Diagram: Eutectoid
Pearlite
Fe-C Phase Diagram: Hypoeutectoid
Fe-C Phase Diagram: Hypoeutectoid
Fe-C Phase Diagram: Hypoeutectoid
Fe-C Phase Diagram: Hypereutectoid
Fe-C Phase Diagram: Hypereutectoid
Steel Metallurgy
Steel Metallurgy
Steel Metallurgy
Mechanical Properties
What Happens During Rapid Cooling?
Martensite (’)
Martensite (’)
Martensite (’)
Producing Quenched and Tempered Steels
Mechanical Properties of Martensite
Tempered Martensite
Summary of Processing Options
 Heat Treatment

 The major objective of heat treatment is to increase mechanical

properties of the material.
Heat Treatment of Steels
Annealing
 Normalizing
 To eliminate coarse grain structures obtained in previous working
(rolling, forging or stamping)
 To increase the strength of medium carbon steels to a certain extent (in
comparison with annealed steel)
 To improve the machinability of low carbon steels
 To improve the structure in welds
 To reduce internal stress
 To eliminate the cementite network in hypereutectoid steels
 Steel
 Steels: iron-carbon alloys
 Mechanical properties: vary with C concentration
 Common steels: classified according to C content; low-, medium- and high-
carbon groups
 Plain carbon steels: contain only residual concentrations of impurities other
than C and a little Mn.
 Alloy steels: more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific
concentrations.
 Carbon Steel
 The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) defines carbon steel as
follows:
 Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is
specified or required for chromium, cobalt, columbium [niobium],
molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or
any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect.
 Steels whose alloying elements do not exceed the following limits:
 Low-carbon Steels
 The greatest quantities produced in all steels.
 Typically carbon contents < 0.25 wt.%
 Strengthening by cold work (unresponsive to heat treatment)
 General properties:
 Ferrite and pearlite constituents
 Soft and weak but ductile and tough
 Machinable and weldable, least expensive of all steels
 Applications: automobile body components, structural shapes (I-beams,
channel and angle iron) and sheets.
Low-carbon Steels
Low-carbon Steels
 Medium-carbon Steels
 Carbon contents: 0.25-0.60 wt.%
 Heat treated by austenitizing, quenching and tempering to improve
mechanical properties.
 Low hardenabilities but stronger than the low-carbon steels
 Alloying additions: Cr, Ni and Mo
 Applications: railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts and other
machine parts.
Medium-carbon Steels
Medium-carbon Steels
 High-carbon Steels
 Carbon contents: 0.6-1.4 wt.%
 Hardest, strongest and least ductile of the carbon steels.
 Capable of holding a sharp cutting edge.
 Alloying additions: Cr, V, W and Mo to form very hard and wear-resistant
carbide compounds (e.g. V4C3, WC).
 Applications: cutting tools and dies, knives, razors, hacksaw blades, springs
and high-strength wire.
High-carbon Steels
 Alloy Steel
 Alloy Steels are irons where other elements (besides carbon) can be added
to iron.
 Elements added to steel can dissolve in iron (solid solution strengthening):
 Increase strength, hardenability, toughness, creep, high temp resistance.

 Alloy steels grouped into low, med and high-alloy steels.

 High-alloy steels would be the stainless steel groups.
 Most alloy steels you’ll use fall under the category of low alloy.
 Alloy Steel
 Most common alloy elements:
 Chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, boron,
and copper.
 Low alloy: Added in small percents (8%)
 Increase strength and hardenability
 High alloy: Added in large percents (>8%)
 i.e. > 10.5% Cr = stainless steel where Cr improves Corrosion
resistance and stability at high or low temps
 Alloy steels are, in general, with elements as:
 > 1.65%Mn, > 0.60% Si, or >0.60% Cu.
 High-strength, Low-alloy Steels (HSLA)
 Containing other alloying elements (Cu, V, Ni and Mo) in combined
concentrations up to 10 wt.%.
 Higher strengths and more resistant to corrosion than the plain low-carbon
steels.
 Applications (where structural strength is critical): bridges, towers, support
columns in high-rise buildings and pressure vessels.
 Alloy Steel
 Most common alloy elements:
 Chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, boron,
and copper.
 Low alloy: Added in small percents (8%)
 Increase strength and hardenability
 High alloy: Added in large percents (>8%)
 i.e. > 10.5% Cr = stainless steel where Cr improves Corrosion
resistance and stability at high or low temps
 Alloy steels are, in general, with elements as:
 > 1.65%Mn, > 0.60% Si, or >0.60% Cu.
 Stainless Steels
 Highly resistant to corrosion (rusting)
 Main alloying element: Cr (at least 11 wt.%)
 Enhanced corrosion resistance: addition of Ni and Mo
 Upper temperature limit in oxidizing atmosphere: ~1000C
 Applications: gas turbines, high-temperature steam boilers, heat-treating
furnaces, aircraft, missiles and nuclear power generating units.
 Stainless Steels
Three classes (predominant phase) of stainless steels
 Martensitic stainless steels:
 Heat treatable
 Magnetic
 Ferritic () stainless steels
 Not heat treatable
 Hardened and strengthened by cold work
 Magnetic
 Austenitic () stainless steels
 The most corrosion resistant, high Cr and Ni contents
 Largest quantities
 Not heat treatable
 Hardened and strengthened by cold work
 Not magnetic
Stainless Steels
Classification of Alloy Steel
Alloying Elements Used in Steel
Alloying Elements Used in Steel
Alloying Elements Used in Steel
 Effect of Carbon on the Properties of Steel

 Carbon has a major effect on steel properties.

Effect of Carbon on the Properties of Steel
 High Strength Steels
 Used for critical parts  landing gear components, control surface hinges
and helicopter transmissions
 Account for 5-15% of the airframe structural weight
 Main advantages;
 Extremely high strength (minimum yield strength 300 ksi)
 High modulus of elasticity (28-29 msi)
 Main disadvantages;
 High densities (0.29 lb/in3)
 Susceptible to brittle fracture
 Susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement and stress corrosion cracking
 Landing gear steels;
 Account for 2.5-4% of the airframe weight
 Operate in the range of -70 to 210F
 For emergency braking operations  up to 750F
 High Strength Steels
 The requirements for landing gear steels;
 High static and fatigue strength
 High stiffness to resist deformation
 Resistance to stress corrosion
 Adequate toughness
 Wear resistance

 Four types of high strength steels;

 The medium carbon low alloy steels
 High fracture toughness steels
 Maraging steels
 Precipitation hardening stainless steels
Compositions of selected
high strength steels
Selected Steels Used in Aircraft
 High Strength Steels
 Steels  Alloys of iron and carbon that contain the BCC crystalline structure at
room temperature
 Transformation of structure (phase)  The basis for heat treatment by quenching
and tempering
 If the steel is austenitized at a temperature sufficiently above 1333F for some
period of time and then quenched to room temperature, it does not convert to the
normal BCC structure. Instead, it converts to a body centered tetragonal (BCT)
structure called ‘martensite’.
 BCT martensite structure  Brittle  A BCC structure distorted by interstitial
carbon atoms into a tetragonal structure.
 The distortion severely strains the crystalline lattice and dramatically increases the
strength and hardness.
 Re-heat treatment of BCT martensite at intermediate temperatures  Restoration of
some ductility and toughness
 Important parameter in heat treating alloy steels  The cooling rate during
quenching  Desired hardness for a given thickness
 Alloying additions determine the quench rate.
Isothermal transformation
diagram for 4340 steel
Heat Treatment for Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels
Body Centered Tetragonal Structure of Martensite
 Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels
 Contain carbon in the range of 0.3-0.5%
 Typical alloying elements  Magnanese (Mn), silicon (Si), nickel (Ni),
chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), vanadium (V) and boron (B)
 Identification of medium carbon low alloy steels by the American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI)  Four digit system of numbers
 The first two digits  The specific alloy group
 The last two digits  The approximate carbon content in hundredths of
a percent
 The important medium carbon low alloy steels  4340
 Typical applications  Landing gear components, shafts, gears and other
parts requiring high strength
 Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels
 Improvement of medium carbon low alloy steels by alloying elements;
 Chromium  Increasing hardenability and strength, but susceptible to
temper embrittlement
 Nickel  Improving strength and hardenability, higher impact strength
and better fatigue resistance
 Silicon  Deeper hardenability, increasing solid solution strengthening
and better higher temperature resistance
 Vanadium  Grain refinement
Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels

Typical properties of medium carbon low alloy steels

Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels

Effects of tempering temperature

on 4340 steel
Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels

Heat treatment for medium carbon low alloy steels

 High Fracture Toughness Steels
 Common high fracture toughness steels  HP-9-4-30, AF1410 and
AerMet 100  Have low carbon content
 Lower carbon content  Better ductilities and higher fracture toughness
 High nickel content is commonly added  Deep hardening and toughness
 Cobalt addition  Prevention of retained austenite
Heat treatments for high
fracture toughness steels
 Maraging Steel
 A class of high strength steels with very low carbon contents (0.030%
maximum) and additions of substitutional alloying elements that produce
age hardening of iron-nickel martensites
 ‘Maraging’  The combination of the words martensite and age hardening
 Mechanical properties  High hardenability and high strength combined
with good toughness
 A nominal composition: 18% nickel, 7-9% cobalt, 3-5% molybdenum,
<1% titanium and very low carbon contents
 Carbon is regarded as an impurity  Kept to as low a level as possible to
minimize the formation of titanium carbide (TiC) (lowering strength,
ductility and toughness)
 During air cooling from the annealing or hot working temperature,
maraging steels transform to a relatively soft martensite (30-35 HRC), then
aged to high strength levels at 850-950F for times ranging from 3 to 9 h.
 Maraging Steel
 Maraging steel offers an unusual combination of high tensile strength and
high fracture toughness.
 Maraging steel is strong, tough, low-carbon martensitic steel which
contains hard precipitate particles formed by thermal ageing.
 The term ‘maraging’ is derived from the combination of the words
martensite and age-hardening.
 The rare combination of high strength and toughness found with
maraging steel makes it well suited for safety-critical aircraft structures
that require high strength and damage tolerance.
 Maraging steel is essentially free of carbon. The carbon content is kept
very low to avoid the formation of titanium carbide (TiC) precipitates,
which severely reduce the impact strength, ductility and toughness when
present in high concentration.
 Maraging Steel
 The commercial maraging steels  18Ni(200), 18Ni(250), 18Ni(300) and
18Ni(350)
 Higher fracture toughness than the conventional high strength steels
 More resistant to hydrogen embrittlement and stress corrosion cracking
than the medium carbon low alloy steels

Typical properties of maraging steels

Effect of Ageing Temperature
 Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels
 Important properties of the precipitation hardening stainless steels;
 Ease of fabrication
 High strength
 Good ductility
 Excellent corrosion resistance
 Two main types of PH stainless steels;
 Semiaustenitic
 Martensitic
 The semiaustenitic grade:
 Austenitic in the solution annealed condition. After fabrication operations are
completed, they can be transformed to martensite by an austenite conditioning
heat treatment that converts the austenite to martensite followed by
precipitation hardening.
 The martensitic grade:
 Martensitic in the solution annealed condition and only require precipitation
hardening after fabrication.
Thank You for Your Attention