CROP PRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This module unit is intended to impart knowledge and skills on crop production. The knowledge and skills
acquired by the trainee will enable he or her to effectively solve crop production related problems and
also motivate trainee to start viable crop production and post harvest handling storage processing
enterprises.

1.1 General Objectives

At the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:

Apply knowledge and skills gained to produce crops of high quality sustainable yields.

a. Participate in crop production related research programmes

b. Determine the storage of crop maturity, handle and store fresh and processed crop produce for quality
maintenance.
c. Advise other farmers on the agronomic practices of various crops suitable to different agro-ecological
zones.

UNIT SUMMARY

FLORICULTURE  Importance of floriculture

 Principles and practices
POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY  Post harvest physiology
OF HORTICULTURAL  Factors involves in the deterioration of horticultural
CROPS produce.
 Growth and development
 Ethylene physiology.
 Harvesting, handling and storage
 Marketing of fresh horticultural produce.
 Post harvest technologies used in the preservation
of horticultural commodities.
POST-HARVEST  Importance of food processing and preservation.
TECHNOLOGIES OF  Methods of food processing and preservation
SELECTED NON-  Cereals technology
PERISHABLE  Fats and oils technology
AGRICULTURAL  Sugar technology
PRODUCTS  Tubers and roots crops technology.

FLORICULTURE

Specific Objectives

At the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:

a. Explain the importance of floriculture in Kenya

b. Describe the principles and practices of cut flowers, potted greenery.
Importance of floriculture

 Definition of floriculture
 Role of floriculture in the Kenya economy.

Principles and practices

 Choice of flowers
 Physiological requirements
 Vernalisation
 Green house cut flowers
 Field cut flowers
 Potted flowers
 Fertilizer application
 Storage of maturity
 Post-harvest handling

POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY OF HORTICULTURAL

Specific Objectives

At the end to this topic the trainee should be able to:

a. Describe post-harvest physiology

b. Explain the factors involved in the deterioration of horticultural produce.
c. Describe the growth and development of horticultural crop
d. Explain ethylene physiology
e. Explain harvesting handling and storage of horticultural crops.
f. Describe the marketing of fresh horticultural produce
g. Describe post-harvest technologies for the preservation of horticultural produce.

Post-harvest physiology

 Definition
 Importance
 Characteristic of horticultural produce
 Quality components of horticultural produce

Causes of deterioration

 General catabolism  Anatomical and morphological changes

 Respiration  Biochemical and physiological changes other
 Ethylene than ethylene biosynthesis
 Senescence  Ethylene biosynthesis and action
 Environmental factors  Pathological disorders
 Physical and mechanical injuries
Growth and development

Description of
 Growth  Physiological maturity
 Development  Horticultural maturity
 Ripening senescene  Physiological importance of the
 Climacteric climacteric
 Ageing  Physiology of fruit ripening
 Maturation  Indices of maturity

Ethylene Physiology

 Biosynthesis
 Action
 Economic importance
 Control

Harvesting, handling and storage

 Definition  Refrigeration
 Methods  Modified atmosphere
 Timing of harvesting  Controlled atmosphere
 Precooling  Post-harvest physiology and
 Cooling rates technology of cut flowers
 Storage  Handling

Marketing

 Packaging
 Market specifications and regulations e.g Eurepgap Auditing

Post harvest technologies

 Controlled ripening  Juice making

 Controlled degreening  Jams
 Disinfestations  Marmalades
 Irradiation  Fruit pies

POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGIES OF SELECTED NON-PERISHABLE

AGRICULTUREAL PRODUCTS

Specific Objectives

At the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:

a. Explain the importance of food processing and preservation
b. Describe the methods of food processing and preservation
c. Explain cereals technology
d. Explain fats and oils technology
e. Explain sugar technology
f. Explain tubers and root crops technology

Importance of food preservation and processing

 Aims of processing and preservation

 Factors causing food spoilage

Methods of food processing and preservation

 Water removal  Smoking

 Thermal processing  Controlled atmosphere
 Low temperature  Chemical additives
 Fermentation  Irradiation
 Picking  Packaging
 Salting

Cereals technology

 Cereals of economic importance in  Baking process

Kenya  Bread making
 Wheat, maize, rice sorghum  Cakes
 Milling of cereals  Biscuits
 Equipment  Pasta
Fats and oil technology

 Sources of fats and oils

 Extraction of fats and oils
 Refining of fats and oils
 Modification of oil products form fats and oils

Sugar technology

 Development of sugar industry in Kenya

 Major source of sugar
 Uses of sugar

Tubers and root crops technology

 Processing  Preservation  packaging

POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGIES OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

POST HARVEST FOOD SYSTEMS.

FOOD PRODCTION

- Food production involves the following practices

i. Ploughing
ii. Planting
iii. Weeding and other management practises like gaping, fertilizer application, and pesticide application.
iv. Harvesting of the produce after maturity
- This food production involves sequence steps of operation which are usually independent of one another.
- This operations forms a systems, (a system is a group of unit which are combined to form a whole)
- The post harvest system is then a group of this units which are applied to food productions from the time
of their maturity till the time they reach the consumer. Sometimes these systems are referred to as
components of post-harvest food systems.
- In post-harvest system, the treatment/steps through which the food production passes through to
consumption will depend on the following:
i. The nature food products e.g grain crops have different post-harvest system from vegetable crops or
flowers.
ii. The culture of people e.g in West-Africa, cassava is treated differently from E-Africa.
-Sorghum is treated different across the communities in Kenya.

Significance of the post-harvest system

1. Poor handling of food products will cause huge losses of products e.g storing of grains with very high
moisture content will lead to lots of losses through rooting.
- Storing of horticultural produce on very high temperatures will lower their shelf life/vase life.
2. Post-harvest system facilitates preservation of products so as to increase the shelf life/vase life/last
longer.
3. Nowadays consumers have become much aware of the quality of the food consumed hence post-harvest
systems facilitates provision of good quality of products.

Reasons as to why post-harvest losses in developing countries are higher than those of developing countries.

i. Developing countries do lack technology to prolong shelf life/vase life or good product while in
developed countries they have technologies to do so e.g they have refrigerators and cold rooms.
ii. Developing countries are mainly located within the tropics where the weather is not conducive to prolong
shelf life of food products leading to food spoilage.
iii. Developing countries governments have not given a lot of support in terms of research in order to prevent
losses.
iv. Developing countries government have put a lot of emphasis on food production than emphasize put on
food loses reduction.
v. Farmers in developing countries takes for granted that whatever they produce, their ancestors, insects,
micro-organisms must eat some leading to losses.

Functions of the post-harvest systems

i. Processing – processing of agricultural produces into edible food products.

- Through processing it increases the food value, improves the texture and flavour the food material and
enhancing its acceptability.
- It also increases the nutritional quality hence improving the well-being of the consumers.
ii. The distribution of food products from an area of planting to an area where it’s not produced.
iii. It creates employments mainly in rural areas and also in urban areas where there are many food
industries.
iv. It adds the economic well-being of the nation since it’s a big section of food industry hence it creates
wealth of the nation.
v. It creates a climate of confidence in farmers in farmers making them to produce more.

QUALITY COMPONENT OF HORTICULTURE PRODUCE

- Quality – may be defined as fitness for use or purpose.

- In Horticulture produce, quality requirements commonly referred marketing, storage, transport, eating
and processing quality.
- In horticultural produce i.e fruits, vegetables, ornamentals, quality criteria will vary between
commodities.
- Quality criteria can be divided into;
i. Internal factors
ii. External factors
- However external criteria of greater important in terms of selling the produce since it will not destroy the
crop as opposed to internal criteria.
1. EXTERNAL QUALITY CRITERIA
- It includes the following:
a. Appearance of the produce – this involves the following
- Size – size can easily be measured by circumference, diameter, length, weight or volume. Many fruits are
graded according to their size, usually the diameter for the uniformity in package e.g apples and oranges
- Carrots are graded according to diameter and length.
- Bananas are graded according to diameter and length.
i. Shape of the produce – this is used to distinguish particular cuttivars of fruits.
- Some characteristic shapes are usually demanded by consumers. E.g a straight banana is not acceptable
to consumers hence any banana should have a curved shape.
ii. The colour of produce:
- Changes in ripening fruits have been associated by consumers with the conversion of starch to sugars.
(sweetness)
- The correct skin colour is all what is required to a decision to purchase a commodity.
b. Condition is a quality attributes referring to freshness, storage of senescence or likeness.
- It may also refer to the extent of mechanical damage and also past and disease incidences. E.g a wilted
leafy vegetable are said to lack condition and said not acceptable to consumers. Similarly shrivelled fruits
due to excess loss of water also lack condition.
c. Texture/feel (mouth)
- Mouth feel is the overall assessment of the feeling that the food gives in the mouth.
- It’s a combination of sensation derived from lips, tongue, walls of the mouth, teeth and ears.
- The lips will sense the type of surface that has been presented e.g hairy or smooth.
- The teeth are also involved in determining the liquidity of the produce.
- The tongue and walls of the mouth are sensitive to the type of particles generated following the
breakdown done by the teeth.
- Ears will sense the sound of food being chewed, sound is important in the produce e.g apples, lettuce,
celery where crispness is the quality factor.
d. Flavour
- Comprises the taste and aroma
- Taste is due to sensation felt on the tongue and therefore main sensation are:
-Sweety -Acidic
-Salty -Bitter
- Taste of fruit and vegetables are bitter due to presence of tannis and solanin that they produce.
- Aroma is due to presence of volatile organic acids.
e. Nutritional value
- Fruits and vegetables are the main sources of vitamin C and quality criteria is the least important
consideration in determining whether a consumer purchases a commodity because most of the essential
nutrients can neither be seen nor tasted.
POST HARVEST LOSSES
- Perishables are affected by factors such as:
 Temperatures
 Humidity
 Level of damage inflicted on them before during and after harvesting.
- This produce will then deteriorates during storage and this deterioration will be manifested as losses
which may include the following;
i. Loss of moisture which results in the shrivelling and wilting of the produce e.g in Kales
ii. Loss of energy and carbohydrates
iii. Loss of vitamins or nutritive value.
iv. Physical losses via pest and diseases attack
v. Greening effect especially in Irish potatoes when exposes to direct sunlight.
vi. Root growth/sprouting of shoots especially in onions stored in dump places.
vii. Seed germination from fruits.
NB. Post-harvest losses are the major source of human food losses.
- The specific conditions during the period between harvest and consumption of products will influence the
rate of losses.

PHYSIOLOGICAL STAGES OF HORTICULTURAL PRODUCE GROWTH

- Life of fruits, vegetables and flowers can be divided into four major physiological stages following
germination or after germination.
- These phases are:
a. Growth phase
b. Development and maturation phase
c. Ripening phase
d. Senescence phase
a. Growth phase
- This involves cell division and will have subsequently cell enlargement which accounts for the final size
of the produce.
b. Development and maturation phase:
- This usually commences or starts before growth ceases
- It involves different activities in different commodities e.g some fruits when mature they change their
colour.
- Some cut flowers when mature they form flowers
- Development and maturation of fruits are completed only when it is still attached to the mother plant.
c. Ripening phase
- This is a reserve for fruits and vegetables and its generally consider to begin during the latter stages of
maturation to early stages of senescence.
- Ripening is a process which transforms an inedible fruit to edible fruit with desirable qualities.
- Fruit’ ripening marks the completion of development of the fruits and the commencement of senescence
which is irreversible event.
- Ripening is as a result of complex changes within a fruit and it involves the following 5 major changes:
1. Seed maturation
- The seeds contained in the fruits become mature.
2. Change in colour
- This colour, change mainly from green to yellow, purple, orange etc. depending on the fruit, species and
the variety.
- This colour changes is due to presence of different pigment e.g
 Carotene, pigment is responsible for the yellow colour e.g in oranges.
 Lycopene – is responsible for the red colour e.g in tomatoes.
 Anthocyanin – is responsible for the purple colour e.g in passion fruits varieties.
 Chlorophyll is responsible for the green in fruits e.g some banana varieties, some avocados and apple
varieties.
- The presence of presence of green colour in most fruits before ripening is due to chlorophyll.
- Once this chlorophyll re-generates the green colour disappears.
- This chlorophyll structure regenerates because of PH changes within the fruits.
E.g PH changes within the fruit e.g from acidic – alkaline and the enzyme chlorophyllases is changed
chlorophyll regeneration.

- This regeneration is often associated with senescence or unmasking of some pigment usually ranging
from yellow-red-purple etc.
NB – some fruits e.g avocados, some banana verities kiusi fruits and some apple varieties do not change their
colour on ripening.
3. Detachment of fruits from mother plant (abscission)
- This involves detachment of fruit from their mother plant and it falls off the mother plant.
4. Softening of fruits
- This change attributed to changes in composition of peptic substances that forms middle lamella and cell
wall.
- This makes the fruits to soften on ripening.
5. Increase in carbohydrate content
- This is especially simple sugars which is associated with decrease in starch content e.g in banana
ripening
6. Reduction in acid content
- E.g in loquats
7. Development of wax in fruits skin
- E.g in apples

Fruits ripening physiology

1. Change in carbohydrate content

- Carbohydrates are polymers broken down into simple sugars and the breakdown will change alter texture
of the produce.
- Starch is broken down into fructose and glucose and they are in varying conc. In different fruits.
2. Change in organic acid
- Organic acid concentration decline during ripening because they are respired/converted to sugars that is
used as a substrate in respiration.
- The major acid in fruits are;
 Maleic acid
 Citric acid
 Tartaric acid
3. changes in nitrogenous compounds:
 During climacteric phase of many fruits, there is a decrease
 This is often reflected in increase in protein synthesis.
4. Changes in aroma
 This is due to synthesis of volatile organic ripening
d. Senescence phase
 This is the period where anabolic (synthetic) bio-chemical process gives way to catabolic (degradative)
processes leading to aging and finally death of tissues.

Causes of deterioration in Horticultural product

1. Respiration
 This is oxidative breakdown of complex materials that are present in cells.
These complex materials include:
 Starch
 Organic acids
 Simple sugars
 Which are broken down into simpler molecules like Carbon IV Oxide (CO 2) and water and energy is
produced.
C6H2O6 + O2------------------CO2 + H2O + Energy (ATP)
 This respiration can occur either in presence of oxygen or in absence of oxygen and in presence in
oxygen it’s called the Aerobic respiration and in absence of oxygen it’s called Anaerobic
respiration/fermentation.
 The respiration rate of a produce e.g fruits, vegetables or cut flower is an indicator of metabolic activities
taking place within the produce therefore, high respiration rate leads to shorter shelf/vase life of a
produce and vice versa.
 If the respiratory rate of a fruit or vegetable is measured as either oxygen consumed or carbon iv oxide
(CO2) evolved, during the course of its development until maturation or senescence, a characteristic
respiratory pattern is obtained.
 This characteristic pattern leads to two characteristic types of fruit ripening based on respiration pattern.
 The two type of fruits are:
i. Climacteric fruit
 These are fruits that when they start ripening, they are accompanied by a rapid raise in rate of respiration.
 This raise in the rate of respiration is referred to as respiratory climacteric.
 After respiratory climacteric the rate of respiratory slows down as the fruit continue to ripen until the
fruit develops good eating quantities.
 These fruits that exhibits respiratory climacteric can be shown in two ways.
a. These fruits can be harvested when they are mature and allowed to ripen e.g
b. These fruits can be left intact with the parent plant and continue to ripen on the plant itself e.g

Examples of climacteric fruits: Tomatoes, pawpaw, some varieties of passion fruits, water melons, avocados
and plums.

ii. Non-climacteric fruits

 These are fruits that can only ripen when they are only still attached in the mother plant.
 The respiration rate of these fruits starts very high then droops very slowly until they ripen and then
senescence e.g all citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, grapes, tangerines) pineapples, strawberry, pepper etc.

Response of climacteric and non-climacteric in relation to growth and development

 Commencement of respiratory climacteric coincides approximately with attainment of maximum fruits

size.
 It’s during the climacteric stage that when full ripening takes place. This is because at this stage, ethylene
is produced by the fruit which enhances ripening.
1. Ethylene
  This causes deterioration in the fact that it increases the respiration rate of horticultural produce making
them deteriorate
 It also enhances ripening the horticultural produce especially fruits hence reducing their shelf life/vase
life.
2. Metabolic stress
 This involves either normal or abnormal metabolism that leads to senescence or development of
physiological disorders e.g increased rate of respiration which induces shortage of carbohydrates in cut
flowers.
 Heat treatment which induces impairment of starch hydrolysis in mangoes.
3. Transpiration
 Transpiration and subsequent of water loss can result into rapid loss of quality as well as direct loss in
saleable way of produce.
 Water loss mainly affects appearance quality through wilting and shrivelling. There may be effect of
texture e.g lettuce where crispness is a quality criterion.
 Loss of water can also affect nutritional quality e.g loss of vitamin C in rapidly water stressed-leafy
vegetables.
4. Mechanical and physical injuries
 This will cause the loss visual quality (appearance quality)
 Its characterised by: abrasion, cuts and bruises, tears.
 Such increases metabolic rates of the produce, however some damages e.g. the damage on the cuticle
cause a natural barrier against loss of water.
5. Pathological breakdown
 Micro-organism can cause a lot of damage and suffer wastage of horticultural commodities especially in
tropical areas where temperature and relative humidity are high which favour microbial growth and
activities.
 The species of fungi which cause major post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables include:

 Alternaria spp.  Diplodia spp

 Botrytis spp  Monilinia spp
 Colletotrichum spp  Peniacillium spp

 The bacteria species includes:

i. Erwinia spp
ii. Pseudomonas spps
 Most of these pathogens are weak in that they can invade damaged produce and relationship between
pathogen and produce is reasonable specific e.g. penicilliam digtatum will cause rots in citrus fruits and
penicillium expasum will cause rots in apples.
 Primary infection is followed by a broad spectrum of secondary infections which may magnify the
damage caused by primary pathogen.
 These infections can be on before or after harvesting or during the marketing of produce.
 There are a few genre species of bacteria or fungi because of most of its fungal pathogen are tolerant to
acid condition is produce while two genre i.e Erwinia and pseudomomas bacteria spp are tolerant to
acidic conditions of the produce while the others are not.

Control of the post-harvest wastage by pathogens

i. Pre-harvest sprays with chemicals - These are mainly fungicides to control latent infections i.e mild
infections (not serious infections) that exist in produce.
ii. Care when handling produce during harvesting and post-harvest practises to reduce destructions.
iii. Take care in the time of harvesting e.g citrus fruits should not be harvested immediately after rain or
when they are wet and there is heavy dew on the fruit surface because they are prone to damage at this
time.
iv. The following reaction enhances the reduction of pathogen on the produce.
a. Non-chemical treatment
 This includes the following:

1. Heat treatment – e.g hot water treatment

 Vapour treatment
 The produce is subject to a temperature of 50-55°C for a period of 5-10 min.
 This kills the pathogen on the surface of the produce and the one inside the tissue.

2. Ionising radiations
 The produce is subject to x-rays or garmer-rays which is effectives in suppressing the growth of
microorganisms.

NB. There is the growing consumer concern about these radiations since they are said to cause cancer.

Fruits subjected to these radiations can also have irregular ripening hence this process.

3. Controlled atmosphere storage: (C/A storage)

 The level of oxygen is decreased, usually to about 6-11% generally for most fruits while that of Carbon
IV Oxide is raised to about 5-10%. And this will retard many of metabolic reactions in these micro-
organisms.
 It also reduces rate of multiplication of these micro-organisms as well as their activities.

4. Correct manipulation of relative humidity

If there is high relative humidity (when there is a lot of water in air) the store should be open. If there is too
low relative humidity, put the produce in a polythene paper to reduce water loss disease infections.

b. Chemical treatments
 Most of these pathogens cause damage to horticultural crops are mainly fungal in nature hence fungicides
are applied in number of ways which include:
 The produce (chemical treatment) may be sprayed with fungicide or it may be immersed in a fungicide
solution and this will make the chemical to be in contact with pathogen themselves.
 Impregnate wax leinel or boxes that are to transport or to store horticultural produce.
 These boxes are impregnated with fungicides

NB. Impregnating wax with fungicides, this is mainly done for the produce that is waxed.

 Most of these fungicides are of broad spectrum and they can kill large number of pathogen. Otherwise
there is a hazard. The consumer are increasingly creating pressure of the chemicals must comply with a
set of maximum residual levels hence most of them are turning to biological control methods.
c. Biological control methods
It involves use of living organisms to control diseases
i) Bacterium;
 Enterobacter cloaca that controls the rots in peaches: that is caused by the fungus rhizopus stolonifer.
 Bacillus sutliris – used to control brown rots in peaches.
 These two bacteria do produces anti-fungal substances that restrict growth of pathogens.
 They also compete for food with pathogens hence they prevent rapid multiplication of the pathogens.

ii) use of yeast

 Debaryomyces (pichia) – reduce the green moulds developments in citrus fruits.
 They also compete for space and nutrients in injured fruit hence reducing the disease manifestations.

5. Physiological disorders
 These are metabolic events leading to manifestation of these disorders and are mainly experienced in
deciduous fruits and most citrus fruits.
 Most of these disorders affect the secret areas of tissues in fruits vegetables and ornamentals.
 Some of the disorders may affect the skin of the produce but leave the underlying fresh/pulp intact. Other
only affect certain areas of the fresh or core region (centre of fruit)

Examples of physiological disorders to apple

Disorders Symptoms
Superficial scald Slightly sunken skin discolouration which may affect the whole skin
Water core Translucent area in the fresh that may turn brown on storage.
Sunburn scald This can be brown to black colour on areas damaged by sunlight during growth.

Examples of physiological disorders on other fruits

Fruit type Disorder Symptoms

Pears Core breakdown Brown marshy core especially in over stored fruits.
Pear Over storage scald Brown areas on skin on overstored fruits
Grapes Storage scald Brown skin discolouration mainly on the white green variety.
Citrus Flavocellosis Involves bleaching of rings and the bleached areas are prone to fungal attack.
Speech Wooliness Red brown areas in the fresh
Citrus Cold scald Superficial grey-brown patches on the skin surface.

NB. All those disorders require low temperatures during storage usually less than 5°C for development of these
symptoms.

Factors that influence physiological disorder/susceptibility of various fruits

o Maturity of produce when harvested

o Cultural practises during the growth of producer
o Climate during the growing season
o Size of the produce
o Harvesting practises

Method/ways of minimizing physiological disorders

1. Identify the susceptive variety and do not store them below thresh hold temperatures i.e do not store them
at low temperatures for a long time.
2. Carry out intermittent warming of produce in cold store.
3. Physical and cultural treatment of the produce e.g hot water treatment/conditioning of the produce before
storage.
4. Breeding for tolerant cultivars.
NB. Plant deprived off nutrient can also lead to disorders and improper development of crop as a whole.
Calcium deficiency is also associated with more defect disorder than any other elements.

Examples of calcium deficiency disorders

Produce Disorders
1. Apple Bitter pits/Water core
2. Avocado End rot spots
3. Cabbages Internal tip burn
4. Carrots Cavity spots (cracking of the tubes)
5. Mango Soft nose
6. Tomatoes Blossom end rot
7. Potatoes Sprout failure

Control of calcium related disorders

 Application of calcium salts as a pre-harvest spray
 Pre-harvest application of calcium containing fertilizers during growth.
Other mineral disorders
1. High level of potassium that leads to bitter pits in apples
2. Low levels of potassium associated in changes in ripening of tomatoes since it delays the development of
full red colour by inhibiting lycopene bio-synthesis.

8. Environmental factors
i. Temperature
 Poor temperature management that is subject to produce to advance low and high temperature often
results in deterioration of fresh produce by bacteria and fungi.
 Low temperatures can decrease re-generation and activities of insect pests as well as the pathogens. It’s
therefore important to keep the produce at low temperatures.
 On the other hand the rate of respiration decreases at low temperatures hence reducing the rate of
deterioration.
ii. Water loss/humidity
 Most fresh produce are predominantly compost of water hence water loss from such a produce can be
equated to loss in saleable weight especially for produce sold in weight.
 This constitute to direct loss in marketing
 Minimum water losses usually enhance profitability since less water of about 5% will make a produce
appear wilted or shrivelled.
 Some fruits may fail to ripen if they lose water. Some produce may result to undesirable changes in
quality parameters if they lose water e.g
 Colour
 Palatability
 Nutritional quality
 Excess water or free water in the produce do encourage microbial decay especially in grapes.
 Excess water in cabbages it encourages physical splitting
 In onions it encourages browning, rotting and even sprouting.

Summary on stages of horticultural produce

i. Maturity is the state of ripeness and this state of ripeness can be grouped into 2: mature stage and
immature stage.
a. Mature stage
 It involves all horticultural produce harvested at physiological maturity i.e when all the developmental
stages of a produce are complete.
b. Immature stage
 It involves horticultural produce harvested when developmental stage is incomplete.
 Such produce is said to be harvested at commercial maturity or horticultural maturity. This is still
maturity stage where the produce has maximum desirable qualities.
 The decision to harvest at this stage of development is based on market demand. E.g French beans can be
harvested after all formation if it’s to be used as a vegetable.
 If seeds are required from them, one has to wait until physiological maturity is attained.
 Tomatoes are harvested at different if it’s to be used as salad to form tomato paste, or form tomato sauce.

Maturity indices

 These are parameters used to tell whether a produce is mature or not.

 Different horticultural produce have different maturity indices.
 These maturity indices can be grouped into 3 categories.
i. Visual factors
ii. Physical factors
iii. Chemical factors
a. Visual factors
i. Colour – e.g some passion fruits varies change their colour as they mature.
ii. Appearance – state of odd leaves especially in onions and Irish potatoes. They tend to dry-up as the
produce matures.
iii. Size of produce – e.g sukuma wiki leaves/kales broaden as their leaves matures.
iv. Cracks on ridges – this is especially for crops planted in ridges e.g sweet potatoes whose ridges cracks as
they mature.
b. Physical factors
i. Firmness – cabbages will become firm as they mature.
ii. Ease of abscission form the mother plant e.g passion fruits and irish potaoes.
iii. Computation method – this is use of calendar days to calculate time duration from planting to senesces
e.g in cucumbers.
c. Chemical factors
 It’s mainly applied in food crops and it is rarely used since it will lead to destruction of the produce.

Examples of maturity indexes for horticultural produce.

1. French beans – can be harvested as immature ponds and one can use any of the following indices.
 Computation – French beans are ready for harvesting 2-3 weeks after flowering depending on climatic
factors.
 Physical means – French beans are normally harvested when they are very succulent and can snap easily
i.e breaking easily when bent. If it does not snap, then it is not mature.
2. Onions – when the lower leaves start drying, the neck is normally bent to facilitate drying of the bulbs.
 Bending the neck disrupts the nutrient to flow from the bulb to the leaves.
3. Garden peas – they are normally harvested when the seeds are flaccid green in colour ant they are fully
filled up in the ponds.
4. Straw berries – they are harvested when they turn red in colour.
5. Kales – they are harvested when the size of leaves are fully expanded.

ETHYLENE BIOSYTHESIS

 Ethylene is a plant hormone produced from methionine and this production is through a path way as
illustrated below.
SAM – S – Adenosyl ( in presence of ACC synthase)
ACC – Aminocyclo propene carboxylic acid
This is presence of a produce known as Acc synthese
 The following factors acceletates the Acc syntheses:
i. Fruit ripening
ii. Fruit senescence
iii. Auxins
iv. Physical and mechanical injuries
 There after the Acc is converted into ethylene gas.
 Methionine --------------------SAM -----------------ACC -------------Ethylene gas
 Ethylene gas enhances ripening of fruits

Ethylene

 Ethylene is of economic importance in post-harvest of horticultural product.

 Most of its effects are undesirable however some are of use.
 Those that are harmful will speed up senescence hence reducing shelf life of horticultural produce.

Beneficial effects of Ethylene in horticultural produce

1. Chlorophyll destruction – ethylene treatment is known to cause a rapid loss of chlorophyll in many plant
tissues. It is therefore degreening in citrus fruits.
2. Fruits ripening – application of ethylene to ripen the fruits enhances their ripening, however apart from
ethylene application, there are other factors to be put into considerations:
a. Temperatures – should be between 18-25°C
b. Relative humidity – should be high of about 90-95%
c. Concentration of ethylene – should be 10-100 ppm.
d. Duration i.e time of treatment and this should be 24-72 hrs depending on the type of fruit and maturity
stage. E.g for climacteric fruits that are physiologically mature, treat them for 24 hrs but if the
temperature is low, increase the treatment duration.
3. Flower and sprout induction
a. e.g Naicicus flower bulbs – if they are treated with ethylene gas it is known to reduce 100% flowering
uniformly.
b. Sweet potatoes – if treated for a short time with ethylene, it breaks their dormancy hence they sprout.
However prolonged treatment enhances their growth.

Sources of Ethylene

1. Use of Ethaphone – this is usually dissolved in H2O hence producing ethylene gas. This is strongly
acidic in water hence handle with care to avoid destructions.
2. Calcium carbide – its normally hydrolysed to produce acetylene gas with minute quantities of ethylene
gal.
3. Ripe fruits – they are mainly climacteric fruits e.g avocadoes and some passion fruits which produces
large quantities of ethylene.

Undesirable effects of ethylene gas

1) Accelerated senescence
 In green tissues, ethylene stimulates senescence which is indicated by loss of chlorophyll and due to this
accelerated senescence the fruit becomes more prove to decay.
 Ethylene pollution in vegetables store will cause yellow in leafy green vegetables.
2) Ethylene induces leaf disorders
 Exposure of ethylene in many plants results to darkening or death of portions to the leafs. e.g in legumes
it leads to formation of resettle sprouting.
3) Formation of isocumalun
 Ethylene is known to cause formation of isocumalun in carrots stored at low temperature of about 2-5°C
and high ethylene concentration.
 Isocumalun – is a bitter compound that makes carrots to be bitter to taste.
4) Shrivelling of produce e.g Irish potatoes exposed to high concentration of ethylene will lead to
undesirable sprouting and also increase water loss leading to early shrivelling of the produce.
5) Leaf and flower abscission – for cut flowers, if subjected to high concentration of ethylene. It promotes
leaf fall and flower abscission.
6) Lignification of plant tissues – e.g for asparagus ethylene stimulates lignification of the fibre element.
This leads to undesirable toughening of the fibre element. This leads to undesirable toughening of the
pears hence reducing the portion that is edible.
7) Physiological disorder – Ethylene induces undesirable ripening of fruits and this reduces the
effectiveness of control and modified atmospheric storage.
8) Shorten the shelf life of a produce – Ethylene shortened shelf life of many cut flowers.
9) Leaf epinancy – this is especially on potted plants which appears dwarf with a lot of branches.

Methods of overcoming undesirable effects of Ethylene

1. Through ventilation
 This ventilation enhances the air between the store and environment and this will reduce the
concentration of ethylene in the sore.
2. Through elimination of ethylene around the product:
 This is achieved through avoidance whereby one avoids mixed storage of produce.
 By practising vigorous sanitation by removing over ripe fruits and rotting produce which emits a lot of
ethylene gas.
 The gas pipes and cylinders should be kept away from produce storage room.
3. Through hypobaric storage/low pressure storage
 It is storing produce at a low pressure. A pump or generator will enhance diffusion of ethylene in storage.
 Storage of horticultural produce under reduced temperature overcomes undesirable effects of ethylene.
 The produce is stored in a chamber and pressure is reduced using a pump or a generator. This reduced
pressure is known to accelerate the diffusion of ethylene from the stored produce. It also lowers the
concentration of oxygen in the storage chamber. This makes ethylene to be removed rapidly from within
the produce and it is rapidly swept a lot of the storage to the environment.
 This system is expensive as it requires an air tight chamber. It also leads to higher rate of water loss from
the produce.
4. Use of compound that inhibits ethylene biosynthesis
 These includes – Amino-oxy-acetic acid (AOA)
-Amino vinyi glysin (Avg)
 These two are normally sprayed into the produce.
5. Chemical removal
 Several chemicals are used to remove ethylene and they includes the following:
a. Potassium permanganate – it has ability to oxydise ethylene to form carbon dioxide and water.
 Many porous materials have to be used to manufacture permanganet absorbers e.g bricks, pumice and
vermiculite.
b. O-zone (O3)
 This is generated using U-VL (ultra-violet light) from atmosphere oxygen.
 Two U-V lamps are used one emiting UV light of 254nm.
 The lamp emitting UVL of 185 nm converts molecular oxygen into atomic oxygen and ozone.
HO2 ----------------2O + 2O3
The lamp emits the U.V light of wave length of 254nm will convert ozone back to molecular oxygen. This
atomic oxygen is thought to be responsible for ethylene destruction/ethylene oxidation to form carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water.

Pre-cautions to be taken when using ozone.

Ozone is a reactive substance that will corrode metal pipes and fitting in refrigeration equipment.
Ozone may also react with paper materials in packaging
Ozone may cause injury to the produce.
Ozone may be toxic to human even at relatively (very low) concentration.
Activated charcoal/brominated charcoal – charcoal is air purified and if brominated charcoal may cause a
health hazard to the user as it generates bromine gas when it becomes in contact with water.

Examples of brominated charcoal.

Ethylene – Evisperlol
 Use of specific anti-ethylene compounds. This compound inhibits the action of ethylene especially in
preservation of cut-flowers e.g silver nitrate and silver thiosulphate.

POST HARVEST PHYSIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY OF CUT FLOWERS

 Cut flowers have an extreamly short post-harvest life because of their distinct characteristics which
makes them more perishable than other crops.
 The following some are some of biological properties which contributes to high perishably of cut
flowers:
i. High respiratory rate
ii. Very high surface area: volume ratio
iii. High sensitivity to mechanical damage
iv. High sensitivity to disease infection

Harvesting of cut flowers

 Maturity is a very important factor in our flower harvesting. Its determined by visual factors and its
critical to quality and shelf life/vase life.
 Flowers are normally harvested at bud stage.

Advantages of harvesting cut flowers at bud stage

1. Reduce the growing time for a single harvest

2. Increases the production packaging density
3. Simplifies temperatures management
4. It leads to reduction in susceptibility to mechanical damage desiccation/dehydration/water loss.

Harvesting time of cut flowers

Harvesting time of cut flowers is dictated by the following factors:

 Labour availability
 Transport availability
 Market demand of the produce
 Type of crop being harvested
 Prevailing weather conditions

NB – The time a flower crop is harvested influences the final quality and shelf life of a produce hence, cut
flowers should be harvested during cool parts of the day e.g.
Morning and evening
 These cut flowers are largely harvested by hand hence one has to ensure that the right quality for every
species is harvested.
 This harvesting is done with sharp secateurs which ensure a clean cut since brunt tools may cause pushing
of vessels which increase the rate of deterioration due to reduced water uptake.
 When harvesting cut flowers one has to take care of bud sizes before the flowers are taken to the grading
room or pack house. This is because bunch with too many stems may cause rapid deterioration in quality
due to high respiration and ethylene production which mainly results from bruising of the flowers.
 The harvested cut flowers are normally deeped in acidified Ammonium Sulphate which normally cleans
water and retards microbial activities.
 A fungicide such as dio benzanone can also be added in the solution to reduce fungal attack.
 These cut flowers are then transported to the pack house under shade and they should not be left in
solution for more than 30 mins.
 At the pack house, the cut flower should be placed in a holding room (cold room) set under temperatures
of 4-8 °C and relative humidity of 90-95%.
 This holding room is aimed at removing the filed heat from the cut flowers.
 After this the cut flowers are taken in grading room where they are graded, packed and put in storage room
where temperatures are relatively lower at a range of 2-4°C.

HARVESTING, HANDLING AND STORAGE OF HORTICULTURAL PRODUCE HARVESTING

These are all activities involving identification, removal and transportation of produce from the field to the
pack house/grading house. This harvesting which is the detachment of the produce from the mother plant
can be done in several methods:
i. Hand harvesting
 It’s commonly used in fruits e.g straw berries, rasp berries which are harvested when ripe.
 This can be cut from mother plant using secateurs to enhance a clean cut.
 It’s also used in harvesting vegetables and cut flowers.
ii. Mechanical harvesting
 It’s mainly done to fruits and vegetables destined for processing and rarely for flesh market produce.

Produce cooling

 Once you harvest the produce, the field heat should be removed so as to slow down the rate of
deterioration.
 Field heat is close to temperature of ambient air or environmental temperature.
 It can be as higher as 40°C
 It’s mainly due to exposure of produce to sunlight which increases the rate of respiration which reduces
the storage duration of a produce significantly.
 Harvesting the produce early in the morning takes advantage of low temperatures at that time. In some
cases, harvesting can be done when temperatures are relatively low e.g. harvesting of melons in August is
done at night.

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN COOLING

1. PRE-COOLING
 This involves a rapid or a fast cooling after harvesting. Those commodities that respire rapidly they do
have a short shelf-life and they should be quickly cooled after harvesting e.g cut flowers.
 Commodities with larger shelf life don’t have to be cooled rapidly but they should be cooled as soon as
possible.
 Produce sensitive to chilling injuries (freezing injury) should be cooled according to their individual
requirements e.g. bananas cooled at temperatures less than 10°C are more damaged than avocados cooled
at the same temperature.

2.Cooling Rates
 Rates of cooling of a produce depends on rate heat transfer from the produce to rate of cooling media.
 Rate of cooling varies over time and to parameters have been adopted to describe the cooling rates:
 Cooling co-efficient
 Cooling times
 Cooling co-efficient
 It calculated by: C=R/T
 This gives the rate of change produce temperature/per unit time at any moment at = to the difference in
temperature between the produce and the coolant at the same moment.
 The ratio of change on temperature of produce/products is represented by (R)
 Difference between the produce and the coolant is presented by (T)
Example
Assuming a produce is harvested at 40°C and it is subjected to a coolant of 15%. It takes 15 minutes to lower it
temperatures to 10°C. determine the cooling co-efficient.
C=R/T =
Rate – original – present temperature = 40 – 10 = 30
Delta = 40-15 = 25 = 30/25 = 12
The original temperature of produce was 40°C and final temperature was 20°C. the coolant temperature is
15°C. Cooling co-efficient will be
40-20=0.8
40-15=25
i. Cooling times
a. Half cooling time
b. 7-8 cooling time
1. Half cooling
This involves time required to reduce temperature difference between the produce and cooling media.
 In half cooling time, it’s the time required to reduce temperatures difference between the produce and
cooling media by ½ e.g
Assuming a product temperature of 30°C. if the coolant temperatures is 10°C calculate the half cooling time.
Solution
Temperature difference between product and coolant is
30-10 = 20°C
Half cooling time is = time required to reduce 20°C by ½ (half) 10°C.
 This is normally done using timers in cooled rooms.

2. 7-8 Cooling Time

 It’s the time required to reduce the temps difference between the produce and cooling medium by 7-8°C,
 This 7-8° cooling time is more practical in commercial operation because the temperatures of the produce
at 7-8 cooling time is acceptably close to the storage or transport temperatures.
 However in systems where cooling rate is so fast, the temperatures change in interior of produce lies the
change in surface temperatures.
 This is especially so in bulky products e.g.
 Water Melons
 Sweet Melons

In such cases, coolants at very low temperatures are required.

METHODS OF COOLING AND STORAGE

1. Room Cooling
 Involves keeping produce in cold room and cold air is made to flow through the produce.
 Its common in pre-cooling produce methods
 The produce maybe cooled and stored in the same store hence reducing re-handing of produce.
 Room cooling is slow and requires more space and also condensation may take place on the produce
making the produce rot.

2. Water/Hydro-Cooling
 Water is the heat transfer medium hence both the produce and the container must be tolerant to the
wetting.
 This water cooling is faster than air cooling because water has a higher specific heat capacity than air.
 It involves passing the produce under cold showers or continuous water conveyors.
 Heat is normally transferred from the produce to the water.

Advantages of Hydro Cooling

i) Help to clean the produce however it poses a great danger of contamination of produce with spoilage by
micro-organisms especially if the soil and tissue debris are not removed from the system and when water
is not renewed, replaced or disinfected.
ii) The commodity will lose very little water. This is especially for crops that are sold in terms of weight.

3. Ice Cooling:/Ice Seal

 It normally employed as a supplement to other forma of cooling ice slurry is used which consist of 40%
ice and 60% cold water.
 Its normally spread on top of produce container or in between the produce
 It can also be used in road and rail transit vehicles.

Disadvantages of Ice Cooling

i) It promotes soft rot which is common in harvested produce.

ii) Melting ice forms water which has to be removed from time to time making it labour intensive.

STORAGES
 This is the preservation of produce for future use.
 Its governed by 3 parameters these are;
i) Produce will keep better when cold
ii) Produce is damaged by freezing
iii) Produce will be shrivelled/wild when/if kept in dry air.

METHODS OF STORAGE:

a) Underground Storage
 This may involve pit storage on farm where storage hard vegetables like cabbages and irish potatoes can
be done.
 The produce is normally piled into the pits dug in a hill side or in other some other well drained ground.
 These pit so dug, are lined with straw/hay when the produce is to be put in.
 They are then covered with straw at the top, followed by 10-20cm thick earth soil.
 Soil is mainly for protection against freezing or excess heat. It also reflects rain.
 Underground caves can be used for storage of produce, mainly in Europe and China especially for hard
vegetable storage and long keeping of fruits.
 Good drainage and protection from sun are essentials.

b) Air Cooled Stores:

 Its simple insulated structure partly underground or above the ground.
 The produce is cooled by circulated air by mechanical means through bottom inlet and it exits through
the top outlets.
 The fans can also be used which are controlled by thermostats.

c) Ice – Refrigeration
 It involves use of natural ice as refrigerant.
 Melting of 1kg ice absorbs about 325 kj of heat.
 This is effective in cooling the produce, however a considerable bulk of ice is required and disposal of
melted water is Labour intensive.

Examples of commodities storage requirements:

1. Leafy Vegetables e.g. Kales, spinach

 This produce has a high transpiration rate due to high surface area to volume ratio.
 They also have a high respiration rate hence they need to be cooled at temperatures of zero (0°) as soon
as possible after harvesting.
 This low temperature should be maintained throughout the storage and preferably during marketing.
 They should also be kept in a relatively high of 95% to prevent wilt.

2. Immature and Unripe Vegetables and fruits. E.g. tomatoes, brisal, cucumber, pepper, peas, pumpkins.
 Peas can be stored at 0°C but most of the other immature vegetable, fruits are susceptible to low
temperatures injury.
 Freezing injury to some extent, may affect this produce hence they should be stored at temperatures rang
of 3-5°C.
 Pumpkins should be stored under temperatures ranges of 10-15°C.
 Climacteric vegetable fruits like tomatoes are more tolerant to low temperatures when ripe and can be
stored at low temperatures of 3-5°C and high relative humidity of 95% and above.

3. Berries e.g. strawberries

 They are the most perishable of all the fruits and vegetables with high respiration rate.
 The soft texture makes them to be more susceptible to physical damage leading to senescence and
rotting.
 Recommended temperatures for berries is -1°-0°C and relative humidity of 95% and above.

4. Citrus Fruits
 All citrus fruits are prone to developing a wide to physiological disorders.
 The storage temperatures for most of them is 4°C, However, grape fruits should be stored in 15°C
because they are highly susceptible to cooling or freezing injuries.

5. Cut Flowers
 They have a high respiratory rate and a high surface area to volume ratio.
 They can be kept at temperatures rate of 0.5°C-4°C and the relative humidity of 95% and above.

INJURIES DURING HANDLING AND TRANSPORTING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE

 Some produce e.g. vegetables like asparagus and some cut flowers can be packed in bundles.
 Cut flowers and fruits can also be placed in a pattern pack where each piece is placed in specific position
by hand so as to maintain net weight and also maintain a tight pack and present the produce attractively
when the pack is opened.

THE PACKAGING OF HORTICULTURAL PRODUCE

 There are 2 main uses of packaging horticultural produce.

(1) Assembling of produce in convenient units of handling (unitization).
(2) Protect the produce during distribution, storage and marketing.
 Earlier packages used to be constructed from plant materials e.g. \
 Woven leaves
 Reeds
 Grass stems.

These are well designed to be carried by hand.

 Nowadays the produce is transported and sold in a wide range of packages mainly constructed from
 Wool
 Fibre board
 Plastics
 These are very few packages that can be re-used (recycled and this has caused waste disposal and
environmental problems.
 Packages are often assembled into large unit for mechanizations handling (palletisation)

NB: Modern packages and packaging of fresh produce is expected to meet the following basic requirements;

- Sufficient mechanical strength so as to protect the produce during handling, transportation and
marketing.
- It should be a largely unaffected in terms of mechanical strength by moisture when we or when there is
high humidity.
- The materials should stabilize and secure the product against movement within the package during
handling.
- The materials should not contain chemicals that could be transferred to the produce or be toxic to
producer and consumer.
- Packages material must meet handling requirements in terms of size, weight and shape.
- Package should allow rapid cooling of produce by offering a degree of insulation against external heat or
internal cord
- It should be easy to open and close.
- It should have enough ventilation to allow permeability of respiratory gases so as to avoid gases
accumulation.
- In some cases it should exclude light e.g. in Irish potatoes or it should be transparent to allow light in.
- It should facilitate easy disposal or re-use or recycling.
- It should identify the content and also provide handling instructions through comprehensive and accurate
labelling.

NB:

 A desirable package for most fruit and vegetable is one which the packages is tightly fix i.e. without
under-filling or over-filling.
 The package should bear the weight of produce and package should not move and sustain vibration.

MARKETING OF HORTICULTURAL PRODUCE

 Activities involving the sit moving. The produce from site of production to site of consumers.
 It also involves the series of services that are involved in the moving the produce from production site to
the point of consumption.

Factors Influencing Marketing

i) Changing the living standards accompanied by demand of better quality produce.

ii) Market regulations that influences fluctuation in supplies and prices.
iii) Liberalization of trade.
iv) Seasonality and variation in value throughout the year.

Market Systems or the Fresh Produce

1. Selling Directly to the consumers by the producers e.g. the farm, shops, individual picking his own
2. Through the middlemen – They do purchase from growers and sell to the whole sellers or retailers.
3. Large scale farmers selling directly to supermarket in contracts bases.
4. Whole sale markets in towns, cities and urban centres- This method has reduced a number of transactions
by standardizing the quality.
5. Dulch auction- A whole sale auction owned by growers since they will produce, harvest, grade, pack and
sell to the auction.
 The auction staffs are responsible for quality control and assembling the produce into suitable qualities
for sale. The produce is put in lots and these lots are offered for sale by movement of a clock arm which
moves from highest price, progressing at lower prices.
 As the clock moves, prospective purchasers can stop the clock any time and become the owners of the
produce.
 Nowadays, computers have made it easy to control the auction.

MARKET SPECIFICATIONS AND REGULATIONS

 The liberalization of International Market has led to a much stronger emphasis on quality assurance so
that the buyers can rely on certain criteria
 Each market has its own criteria for home consumption and export consumption depending on local
circumstances but generally only high quality produce are exported since good quality produce survive
for long period.
 Before consumption fresh produce moving between countries need to be guaranteed of free of certain
pests and diseases especially notifiable diseases and pests.
 The governments of exporting countries is therefore responsible for providing an inspection service and
issuing the necessary phytosanitary certificates required by importing countries as well as ensuring that
imported countries does not break domestic quarantine. E.g. any fresh produce does not contain harmful
level of pesticides and should also be free of micro-organisms that cause human diseases.
 In Kenya the inspection is done by KEPHIS (Kenya Plant Inspectorate Service)

Quality Systems in the Market

 These are two (2) in number:

1) Quality Assurance
2) Quality Control
 These two refers to concept/approaches of total quality management.
 The application of this concept requires development of a written description of necessary standards of a
given produce.
 These standards are largely borrowed in food processing industries which utilizes the HACCP system i.e.
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point.

Characteristics of HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point

 HACCP is characterised by the following 7 principles.

1) Identify and access all the possible hazards.
2) Identify the critical control point for the hazards.
3) Identify the critical limitation for the control.
4) Establish monitoring procedures
5) Establish corrective action
6) Establish a record keeping system
7) Establish verification procedures.
1. Conduct Hazard Analysis
Plants determine the food safety hazard and identify the plan can apply to control this hazard.
A food hazard safety is any biological, chemical or physical that may cause food to be unsafe for human
consumption.

2. Identify Critical Control Point

A critical control point, is a point, step or procedure in a food manufacturing at which control can be applied
hence prevent a food safety hazard which can be prevented, eliminated or reduce to an acceptable level.

3. Establish Critical Limit for each Critical Control Point.

A critical control limit is the maximum or minimum value to which a physical, biological or chemical hazard
must be controlled at a critical point so as to prevent, eliminate or reduce to an acceptable level.

4. Establish Critical Control Point, Monitoring Requirements.

These monitoring activities are necessary to ensure that the process is under control at each critical point.

5. Establish Corrective Action

These are actions to be taken when the monitoring indicates a deviations from an established critical limit
corrective actions are intended to ensure that no products injurious to health as a result of deviation enters
the market.

6. Establish Procedures for ensuring HACCP system is working as Intended (Verification Procedure)
This involves validation and verification of plants (manufacturing Industries do what they were desired to do
with regard to production of safe produce/product.
Verification ensures that the HACCP plant is adequate and working as intended.

7. Establish Record Keeping Systems.

HCCP regulation requires that all plants maintain certain documents including HACCP plants monitoring
documents and verification activities.

NB:

 HACCP is a systematic preventive approach to full safety that identifies physical, allergic, chemical and
biological hazards in production process that can cause the finish product to be unsafe and decides
measurements to reduce the risks to a safe level.
 A separate HACCP system is required for each product since production activities are different in each
case.

QUALITY SYSTEMS IN THE MARKETS

i) Quality Assurance
 Quality assurance is left to growers and people involved in market system of the fresh market.
 Retailers in many countries are driving to development of quality assurance system since they are usually
final point of contact with consumers.
 Currently the horticultural industries have adopted a system in which quality is managed along the whole
distribution system from the farmer to the final point of sale.

ii) Quality Control

 This determines acceptability of the produce by inspecting it against the standards of specification set for
it.
 It’s done either during, after production or during delivery of a given produce.
 This is aimed at accessing if the required standards have been met.

POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGIES OF VARIOUS HORTICULTURAL PRODUCE

1. Controlled Ripening
 Climacteric fruits particularly tropical and sub-tropical are harvested when less than fully ripe i.e. when
mature and not ripe and not ripe and transported to over considerable distance to areas of consumption.
 These fruits are often ripened to optimum quality under controlled condition of temperatures and relative
humidity.
 For some fruits like bananas, addition of Ethylene and Acetylene gas promotes ripening. This controlled
ripening improves the uniformity of ripening among fruits.
 The use of relatively high temperature may minimize the development of rots in light tropical fruits.
2. Controlled Degreening of Citrus Fruits
 The pulp of many early season citrus cultivers becomes edible before the green colour of the skin as
completely disappeared.
 Exposure of citrus fruits to low temperatures during maturation is very necessary for development of
orange colour peel/ this explains why the peel of citrus grown in low attitudes where temperatures are
very high fail to be green completely.
 Post-harvest treatment ethylene under controlled condition hastens the loss of chlorophyll. This process is
called degreening and it’s done in 2 ways.
1) Batch Degreening
 Where a given group of fruits are selected, degreened and the next batch is selected degreened and
continuous.
2) The trickle degreening
 Involves a continous degreeining of fruits which could be in a conveyor.
 The condtions of batch degreeining are:
Temperatures of 25-35°C
Relative humidity of 90-95%
Ethylene concentration of 1-10ppm

3. Disinfestation against some pests

 Some insect species like fruit flies that infest a wide range of horticultural food crop have been known to
disrupt a produce trade or movement within a country or between countries due to the quarantine
restrictions.
 Importing countries place quarantine barriers against produce originating from an area in which insect
species of concerned is known to occur.
 In order to market the produce, exporting countries with quarantine insect pest must develop an effective
disinfection, process that satisfy the importing nations.
 In most insect pests, it’s the larvae stage that is most destructive.

Methods of disinfestation

 There are various methods and any method chosen must not harm and the…… or the consumers and
should be economical to apply. It includes the following methods;
a. Chemical methods e.g
 Use of ethylene dibromide - Insect pest can also be fumigated by use of gaseous sterilants e.g hydrogen
cyanide though it has high mammalian toxicity.
 Carbon disulphide even though it’s high flammable
 Methane bromide – this will damage the atmospheric ozone layer

NB. In most countries, chemical treatments as a way of disinfestation, they do specify the maximum
permissible residues of the chemical disinfectants. The fumigation is normally applied in permanent
fumigation chambers or in temporally gas or air tight rooms.

b. Physical treatment
Involves subjecting the either high or low temperatures e.g
 Many insects may not tolerate exposure to low temperatures for a long time e.g in US quarantine
authorities can use the following cold reactions for the produce from areas infested by the Mediterranean
fruit fly.
 The produce can be project to 0.6°C or below for 11 days
 The produce can be subjected to 1.1°C for 12 days
 The produce can be subjected to 1.7°C for 13 days
 The produce can be subjected to 2.2 °C for 16 days
 This shows that the higher the temperatures the longer the exposure time to kill the pest.
 Produce can also be successfully be disinfected by exposing to high temperatures e.g. hot air or hot water
treatment it normally apply to fruits citrus, mangoes, apples and vegetables.
 The produce is normally subjected to temperatures of 47°C for a specified period of time depending on
the produce size until the core temperatures reaches 47°C.
 This core temperature is maintained for 10-15 minutes especially to kill the larvae or pupa stage for most
insect found at The core of fruits.
 Small mangoes can be subjected to 47°C up to 60 minutes, while slightly bigger fruits are subjected to
high temperatures of 47°C for 90-120 minutes.

c. Irradiation
The potential benefit or gamma and x-ray radiation in post-harvest handling of fruits and vegetables lies in
both insect disinfestation and disease disinfection and also retarding aspects of produce development e.g
 Fruit ripening
 Sprouting
 Rooting of some underground organs
Before this potential can be realized, several criteria must be met and they include the following.
i. The produce must bare a considerable high tolerance to radiation than the organisms in it or metabolic
system causing deterioration of the produce.
ii. The required radiation treatment must be economical than chemical and physical reactions.
iii. The radiation reaction must be acceptable to both health and authorities and consumers.

4. Packaging
Objectives:
i. Physical protection - The food material enclosed in the package is protected against compression,
temperatures and vibrations.
ii. Barrier protection - A package material is a barrier from contaminants, modified in some food packages
keeping the contents clean fresh and safe for increased shelf life.
iii. Containment aggregation - Small items are typically grouped together in one package for reasons of
efficiency powders and granular materials made containment for convenience of handling.
iv. Information transmission - Package and labels communicate low to use transport, store or dispose off the
product.
v. Marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential buyers to
purchase the product since the packages design is an important element of marketing.
vi. Security - Packaging and can play important role in reducing security risks of shipment. Packages can be
made with tamper evidence features to help indicate tampering.
vii. Convenience - Packages have the features which add convenience in distribution handling, staking,
display opening, re-closing and re-use of a product.
viii. Portion control - Packaging has a précised amount of content to control usage, bulk commodities such as
salt can be divided into packages that are more suitable sizes for individual households or for particular
pricing.

5. Waxing
It involves applying a thin layer of wax onto the horticultural produce after harvesting.

Role of waxing;
a) Preservation - Applying of artificial works seals off the opening on the skin of the fruits thus preventing
micro-organism such as bacteria from gaining entry into the fruits. These reduce the cases of fruits
deterioration and prolong their shelf-life.
b) Aesthetic/Appearance - Application of artificial wax enhances the glossiness of the fruit and this
increases the customers appeal hence increasing demand for the fruit.
c) Water loss reduction - Artificial waxing replaces natural wax removed during washing of fruit and this
slows down the process of water loss by transpiration and this maintains the crispness and juiciness of the
fruit. It also prevents the fruit from shrinking and becoming hard.
d) Coating of fruits with wax slows down the ripening process and this made it possible for fruit to be
transported to far distance without deterioration fast due to ripening.
e) Bruises - Artificial wax application protect the fruit from bruises hence maintaining quality of fruit.
 f) Prevent disease infection and pest infestation - Wax can be impregnated with chemicals that prevent the
fruits from being infected by pathogens and infested by the pests.

GUIDELINES TO REDUCE LOSSES DURING TRANSPORTATION OF HORTICULTURAL PRODUCE

i. Make sure that transport is available on time hence no delays whatsoever that may lead to loss of
produce.
ii. When loading and unloading, do it carefully to avoid brushing of the produce which facilitates
deterioration of the produce.
iii. Use proper packing materials to avoid dropping the produce when loading and unloading.
iv. Keep transit time very short i.e. to unnecessary stop overs for too long.
v. Protect the produce well i.e don’t overload the vehicle but place the containers nicely and distributed
them evenly in the vehicle.
vi. Reduce the movement of containers in the vehicle as much as possible. This is enhanced by use of
braises and chains to secure them.
vii. Avoid overheating of the produce by providing air regulation.
viii. Reduce water loss by transporting the produce by the atmosphere which is relatively high i.e. very
high relatively humidity.
ix. When loading, provides gaps for ventilation
x. Do not mix the produce during transportation since some of the produce will emit ethylene gas that
will enhance the deterioration.

CHOICE OF MATERIAL

The choice of the package material is influenced by an individual interest e.g whether to prevent the produce
from external heat, reduce water loss, market the produce e.t.c. The material used may include:

Carton made cotton/wool

Polythene made of petroleum material
Glass e.t.c

Advantages of glass as a packaging material

1. Glass is able to withstand heat treatment such as pasteurisation and sterilization.

2. Glass does not react with food to induce unwanted reactions leading in change in flavour and
deterioration.
3. Glass is impervious to moisture, gasses, odour and micro-organism hence food material packaged with it,
will not deteriorate fast.
4. Glass is rigid hence it protects the food from physical damage such as bruising and crushing.
5. Glass can be re-used, re-sealed and recycled.
6. Glass is transparent which allows the product to be displayed however glasses can also be coloured so as
to attract the customers.

Disadvantages of glass as packaging material

1. Glass is heavier than much other package material and this may lead to higher transport costs.
2. Glass is easy to fracture, scratch or break if heated or cooled faster, making it unsafe at times as package
material.
3. Glass as package material is potentially a serious hazard that it may arise from glass splinters or glass
fragments in the food material.

PRESERVATION OF HORTICULTURAL PROCEDURE

 Fruits and vegetables in the natural cycle of life will grow mature and then decay and return to the soil,
where they enrich the soil so that other plants may grow.
 If this produce is to be preserved for use of their normal season this cycle must be broken to prevent
decay.
 Decay is caused by enzymes in both fruit and vegetables and further hastened by yeast and mould.
 In some cases it may be hastened by bacteria which…..
 To preserve food these enzymes must be destroyed, denatured or lended inactive.
 In the process of preservation, the flavour, colour and nutritive value of the produce must be retained as
much as possible and the produce so ….. in such a way that the micro-organisms cannot be……

Method by which food may be preserved

1. Drying
 When food is dry it no longer gives room for growth of micro-organisms.
 Drying can be used in preservation of fruit like plums, apples and pears.

2. Heat treatments
 Sufficient heat must be applied to destroy or denature the micro-organisms without cooking the food to
be preserved and the food must be sealed in air tight can or in a bottle which is air tight before or
immediately after heating to prevent re-infection.

3. Canning
 This method though easy isn’t practical for most produce since it requires an expensive can sealing
machine and those cans that are used once.
 Fruits can be preserved safely by heating it with temperatures of 75-77°C and then canning them to
prevent re-infection.
 Most of fruits do contain some acids which prevents growth of bacteria lendere both yeast and mould in
active even at low temperatures.
 Most vegetables mainly collect most of their bacteria from the soil and since they have no acid, they
handly resist the growth of bacteria and hence they are preserved in acid solution or subjected to heat
treatment so as to denature the bacteria. This high temperature can be achieved by use of pressure
cookers.

4. Deep freezing
 Most foods will freeze at 0°C or just below that and most of the micro-organisms will be rendered
inactive or dormant at this low temperatures.
 However some micro-organisms can cause some damage to the produce at even low temperatures of -
10°C. Such low temperature of 0°C- -10°C will lead to formation a=of large ice crystals on the food
which will lead to spoiling of its texture.
 To preserve food material by freezing it may require -18°C -23°C especially preserving food at home but
for commercial food freezing relatively lower temperature of -30°C is required first followed by a storage
temperature of -18°C.
 In deep freezing storing micro-organisms will not be destroyed but they are only rendered inactive and
they can readily be into an active life again as soon as iced food is thawed/defrost, hence the food
material is used as soon as it is defrost.
 The deep freezing at home requires a deep freezing cabinet in a refrigerator with a deep freezing
compartment.
 This equipment for deep freezing is expensive though it is simple and effective way of preserving food
material whether cooked or raw.

5. Chemical methods
This involves use of various materials, some of which are edible and it may include the following:
 Salt
Used as brine (salt solution) or dry and it preserves a food material by dehydrating or drawing water from
micro-organisms hence inducing their growth rate and multiplication. This in turn improves the keeping
quality or the shelf life of the food material.
 Pickling
Both salt and vinegar are used in pickling fruits and vegetables. Salt is used as preliminary treatment which
may last for 24 hours only for several weeks and then vinegar as the liquid in which vegetables and fruits will
be immersed for storage. This vinegar for pickling should contain acetic acid which prevents development of
harmful micro-organisms.
In most cases 1 or 2 methods are used e.g salt may be added to vegetables store in a freezer or sugar may be
added to fruits store in deep freezer. In bottling and canning, sugar syrup may be added to the fruit etc.
In some cases the chemicals which aren’t food may be added to the food. However they should have no harm
to the consumer. E.g sulphur dioxide which is chemically used to keep the colour in dehydrated fruits and
some canned fruits.
This is normally brought in tablet form for use at home. However it may alter or bleach some food colour.
It also has a strong flavour which must be removed by boiling food before eating it. This boiling removes some
vitamin C.
 Use of sugar
Sugar solution of 40-50% can be used to prevent spoilage by most of micro-organisms, however, certain yeast
and moulds require a higher concentration of 65% if the food containing them is kept well.

CEREALS TECHNOLOGLY

 In USA, and Canada wheat is the main cereal crop. In Kenya wheat, barley and maize are the main cereal
crop.
 Cereals provide 47% of the dietary, protein worldwide.

Processing cereals for markets

1. Milling
This is the main method of processing cereals and before mailing the cereals must dry to a moisture content of
12%.
Methods of drying
There are 2 main methods of drying;
1. Natural/solar method
 This uses available sunshine occurs naturally. The farmer using methods have the advantage in that it is a
cheap method since they obtain sunshine for free. However it can only be used when drying small
quantities of cereals.
 Before drying the seeds are normally threshed and spread on a thin layer over a convas or polythene
sheet, clean floor or any other clean surface.
 When these seeds are exposed to sun for a prolonged period in the sun, it reduces germination capacity
since they have U.V light will destroy the embryo.
They are of 2 types:
a. Batch driers
 A dry air blown through a large of seed until dryness is achieved.
 These seeds after drying they are removed and another batch is brought in for drying.
 This method is simple and suitable for small scale drying.
b. Continuous flow dries
 Seeds move through a drier on a continuous basis through form of conveyor.
 Both of these driers can either be vertical or horizontal.
2. Deep layer of drying grains
 This utilizes a heated atmospheric air which is force through grains by a mechanical fan. It consist of silo,
bin or warehouse filled with grains of air is distributed and blown through the grains.
 The grains can be in heaps of up to 8.5cm thick or deep.
 The grains are heaped at the point where the air enters driers faster than those heaped at the point where
air leaves and it forms a kind of dry point which passes through the mass grain in the direction of air
movement.
 The grain at the air discharge location normally dries last.
 High amount of added air that the recommended one may result to spoilage of grains at the point of
discharge due to high moisture content that will result to the rotting of grains.
 In some cases the dry air may not dry the mass of grains uniformly.
 On the other hand insufficient air flow will also lengthen the drying time causing the spoilage at the point
of air discharge.

Reasons why cereal grains are stored at low moisture content:

1. To increase the shelf life: Cereal grains will stay and keep well for a longer period of time if the area
stored at low moisture content.
2. Low insect or pest infestation - This reduces the extent of grains eating due to unfavourable environment
for the pests.
3. Low fungal growth - Reduction in moisture content also reduces the fungal growth. It also reduces the
poisoning of the grains e.g. aflatoxin poisoning.
4. Reduces losses due deterioration - High moisture content in cereals will lead to rotting and fungal growth
leading to deterioration of cereals.
5. Increases germination percentage - Viability of given cereal grain is maintained for a long period if the
cereal grain are kept at low moisture content.
6. Reduction in the level of respiration - When respiration is reduced that in turn reduces deterioration of
cereal grains hence there is less loss in weight.

PASTERY PRODUCTS

 These involves products processed from wheat flour e.g cakes, spaghetti, biscuits.
 These are made form the it ingredients e.g wheat flour, salt, sugar, fat/oil.

Factors influencing pastry quality

1. Colour – must be appealing to the customers.

2. Surface smoothers
3. Tenderness
4. Flakiness
5. Mealiness
6. Taste/flavour.

MILLING PROCESS

Although it’s possible to cook and heat the whole cereal grains its not common. Cereals will not keep well
when the germ is left on it and people consider them palatable without the outer branny layer.
Also the time required for cooking the whole grain is long hence cereals are milled before they can be put on
market. Milling involves sub-division of the cereal gains into:
 Coarse cracked wheat
 Finned granule wheat
 Finner whole flour.
 In some cases, milling the whole grain may not be possible but it may be divided into 3 parts.
 Endocarp
 Mesocarp
 Pericarp

Ie. The outer covering (bran) may be removed by abrasion. This may result into fielding white rice or polished
rice in case of rice production.

 Bran in barley is also removed the same way and it gives the pearl barley which can be used in some
canned vegetable soup and scotch broth.
 To separate the bran and the germ from the endosperm of wheat the kernels are passed between rollers
operating at a high speed. Heat from these rollers will cause the fat in the germ to melt and the germ and
bran fall off.

Process of wheat milling

Milling is a technology in which the grains are ground in successful steps that gradually separate portions of it
namely:
  Bran
 Germ
 Endosperm
 The bran is broken off and flattened. The germ is pressed into a flake and the endosperm is powdered.
 Clean wheat is tempered before grinding by treating it with water so that the bran can be tuff and readily
separated from the endosperm. This tempered wheat is crushed between corrugated rollers which are
called break rolls.
 The first break rolls are set relatively far apart and they normally grind lightly while the successful breaks
will yield finer and finer products.
 The products here are:
 The finest portion
 The middlings/intermediate particles
 The chop/stock
 The coarse particles
 These are separated by sieving or bolting. The chop and midlings are sent back to the break rolls and this
process may continue through 5-6 breaks for the process to be complete forming the final product the
flour and bran.
 The latter (bran) is used animals feed and this milling process can be enhanced by separating the parts of
wheat so that they can be blended into flour with other chemical composition so as to offer desirable
making qualities.

THE REACTIONS OF YEAST IN BREAD MAKING PROCESS

Yeast is included in bread dough since it metabolizes the fermentable sugars under anaerobic conditions that
prevail in dough giving out carbon dioxide as a waster product.

The released carbon (iv) oxide due to the metabolism of yeast cells, is utilized in the dough as a leaven. This
carbon (iv) oxide is responsible for leavening the dough (swelling) so that it can be baked into bread.

Leaven is a substance that the baking dough to swell hence forming a bread.

Yeast cells contain the enzyme invertase/sucrose which act as a catalyst for hydrolyses of disaccharide in this
case to single fermentable sugars as indicated in the below equation.

C12H22O12 + H2O --------------- C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Sucrose water glucose fructose
- This is followed by fermentation of maltose which is found in wheat dough, however its relatively slow
reaction and this fermentation will only take place after the supply of glucose and fructose has been
exhausted in the dough.
- Yeast produced carbon (iv) oxide that inflates the baking dough or leavens the baking dough.
- Yeast also produces other substance that enhances/modifies elasticity, stickiness and the flow properties
in the dough.
- The fermentation product of the yeast normally contributes to the sweet aroma found in the bread.
NB. Before milling and then processing of cereal grains, proper drying of the grains is necessary. One ensures
that the grains are properly dried after they attain a particular given moisture content.
Moisture content of dried grains can be expressed on dry basis or wet basis.
Example
A batch of wheat grains weighs 2.4 tonnes before drying. It was subjected to a drying process for 3 hours and
recorded 2.175 tonnes upon re-weighing calculate the moisture content:
i. Wet basis (M.CW)
ii. Dry basis (M.cd)
a. Mcw = weight of moisture x 100%
Weight of wet grains
2.5 – 2.175 x100% =
2.5
0.325 x 100% = 13%
2.5
M.cw = 13%

b. M.cd = weight of moisture x 100%

weight of dry grains

0.325 x 100% = 15%

2.175

M.cd = 15%

Problems associated with partial drying of grains

1. Damp grains may attract fungi that may lead to afflatoxin bullder.
2. Dampness in grains favour bacterial growth leading to rotting just like in fungi.
3. Dampness reduces quality of grains e.g it may lead to discouration of the grains.
4. Dampness reduces the shelf-life of grains.
5. Dampness and bacterial attack lead to change of flavour and smell of grains.
6. Wet or partially dry grains cannot be milled to flour production.
7. Wet grains may continue with physiological process for long period and hence not viable for seed
production.
8. Fermentation of starch and sugar yield other unwanted products of alcohol.

SUGAR TECHNOLOGY

Sugars are valued for their sweet taste impact on food. The relatively sweeting power of ripe fruits comes from
sugar present in them. They come in various forms e.g

 Fructose
 Glucose
 Sucrose

Sources of sugar
- Sugar cane
- Sugar beets
- Underground storage organs

Sugar processing

- Stalks of sugar cane from which the leaves have been removed are crashed between rollers to extract
juice. This juice contains 10-15% sugar.
- The juice is then treated with lime and impurities are removed via infiltration.
- The treated juice is the evaporated under vacuum until the sugar is concentrated sufficiently for
crystallization to take place.
- The light molasses are separated from crystals by spinning in centrifuge.
- The brown crystals of sugar formed are coated …. Molasses removal of these molasses and other
impurities leads to production of white granulated sugar a process called refining
- This refining involves:
i. Washing the crystals and putting them in a centrifuge.
ii. They are centrifuged to remove the molasses and then dissolved in warm water.
iii. The syrup so formed is made crystal clear by passing it over charcoal and this syrup is then concentrated
in vacuum pans at low temperatures so as to precipitate the sugar.
iv. After the last traces of moisture are removed from the crystals, they are them separated by sieving using
sleeves of various gauges or according to size.
v. The granulated so obtained and dried and crystals are rather coarse.
vi. The size of these crystals can be altered by changing the conditions under which sugar is crystallized.
vii. The crystals of refined white sugar contains not more than 0.05% impurities.
- Brown sugar is made by adding care molasses to refined sugar so as to act as a source of calcium, iron
and phosphorous.

Uses of sugar

1. Used as food preservative in food industry

2. Normally added to tea to add sweetness
3. Conventionally its used to baking cakes, biscuits, e.t.c

Importance of processing non-perishable crops

i. To increase the shelf life of a produce e.g in pasta it will have a longer shelf-life relative or unprocessed
wheat grains.
ii. To make farm produce to have a variety of uses (value addition) e.g ground sorghum can be used for
brewing and porridge making. Wheat when ground and process will give like bread, past cakes, biscuits
e.t.c that are more valuable than intact wheat.
iii. Processing of farm produce can yield different individual products e.g cereals gains like maize, rice and
wheat can yield sugars, gluten (proteinous sticky substance) oil.
iv. Processing of farm produce adds value to the products e.g potatoes, crisps can be processed from Irish
potatoes.
v. Processing reduces bulkiness e.g processing of sugar cane when sugar is the intended product will reduce
the bulkiness.
 Sources

- Coconut - Maccadamia
- Castor oil - Geotropha
- Sunflower - Maize

Importance of greenhouses in flower production

i. Efficient utilization of water

ii. Efficient utilization of plants nutrients
iii. Effective pest and disease control
iv. High quality flowers are got
v. High yields can be obtained
vi. There is controlled flowering and maturity
vii. Horticultural schedules can be adjusted to match market demand
viii. There is controlled conditions
ix. Techniques e.g tissue culture can be used in production
x. There is automation of practises are achieved.
xi. Several practises can be carried out at the same time e.g fertigation, water, nutrients and pesticides can be
done at the same time.

Factors used in quality evaluation in fruits and vegetables

i. Appearance – visual assessment in terms of colour shape and size

ii. Conditions of the fruit – e.g absence of defects e.g freshness and stage of ripeness of fruits.
iii. Texture of fruits – overall assessment feeling of the fruit and vegetables.
iv. Flavours of the fruits – tastes and aroma of the fruits and vegetables.
v. Nutritional value – nutrient content of the fruits.

Describe downy mildew disease in Brassicas

Atiology – fungus peronospora parastica

Symptoms

Predisposing factors – high elevations, cold, over watering, over shading

- Fluffy fungal growth under side of the leaf

- Brown to black spots on upper surface
- Spread by rain and wind control.

Control

- Crop rotation
- Nursery hygiene
- Spray with fungicides

Differentiate between vegetables and fruits

Vegetables Fruits
1. Contain more starch than sugars 1. Contains more sugars than starch
2. Have lower acids 2. Have higher acids
3. Grown as herbs and shrubs near ground (high 3. Tree-distance from the ground, less
contamination from soil) contaminations
4. Majority are grown as annual crops-easily grown, 4. Are perennial crops (take longer to mature)
supplied
5. Canning involves wilting and blanching to remove 5. Canning does not involves blanching
flavours
6. Processed at temperature above 100°C 6. Processed at temperature of 100°C.

Explain climatic requirement for carrots production

- Grows best at temperatures between 5°C and 21°C.

- Relatively cool conditions are condusive to produce roots of normal shape and colouring.
- Does well in high altitude 1200-2000m optimum temperature of 13-18°C.
- High temperatures above 25°C results in slower growth and pale yellow poor quality roots.
- Provide crop with regular supply of water to minimise roots splitting or deforming.
- Crops grows best in light, deep rich moist soils.
- Heavy soils or stoney soils or insufficient decomposed manure, produces a high proportion of forked
roots.
- Has average tolerance to acid soils.

Explain the importance of pruning in tomatoes production

- Pruning is the practice of removing side shoots and leaves growing tomatoes towards the ground. Plants
are pruned leaving one shoot.
- It improves tomato yields
- Encourages production of clean fruits
- Opens the plants to maximum photosynthesis
- It allows for easy chemical penetration of spraying
- It is economical to avoid wastage of pesticides
- Allows easy harvesting of tomatoes.
- Allows for early ripening of tomatoes

Characteristics of tomatoes varieties for processing

- Smooth skin
- Good flavour
- Red colour (yellow or purple not ideal)
- Small portion of seed cavity (flesh filled and firm)
- Uniform in ripening
- High yielding and profitable/early ripening
- Regular shape

Explain downy mildew disease in Brassicas

Atlelogy – caused by fungus –peronospora parastica

Symptoms

Pre-disposing factor – high elevation, colds, over watering, over shading,

Fluffy fungal growth on undesirable of the leaf

- Brown to black spot on upper surface

- Spread by rain and wind
Control
- Crop rotation
- Nursery hygiene
- Spray with fungicides

Blossom end rot disease in tomatoes

Causes – physiological disease caused by environmental factors like high rainfall and deficiency.

Symptoms

- Bottom of the fruit develops dark scars when half grown

- The fruit dies

Control

- Disposal of affected fruits

- Spray with calcium foliar feeds.

Physical characteristics of onion plants

- Is a herbaceous biannual monocotyledonous plant.

- Stem consist of a base from which the elongated, cylindrical hollow/leaves and adventitious root grow.
- Leaf bases swells to become/form a bulb topped by a false stem or collar.
- Plant develops root system that extent to an extent to a depth of 30-50cm.
- Bulb is composed of fleshy scales with an internal covering of tunica.
- Bulbs have numerous shapes, cylindrical symmetrical or cone shaped.
- Have a pungent smell.

WAYS BY WHICH VASE LIFE OF FLOWERS CAN BE PROLONGED

1. Hydration
- This makes water to move up the stem.
- PH of 3-3.5 improves water flow
2. Holding solution
- This contains sugars that feed the flower to continue opening.
3. Pulsing
- This contains sucrose and biocide that inhibit bacterial growth.
- Ethylene is removed by specially formulated products.
4. Control draughts – wind

Factors to CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING CUT FLOWER TO PRODUCE

1. Ecological requirements – local conditions such as Altitudes, soils and rainfall is considered.
2. Consumer demand – colour, fragrance e.t.c
3. Flowering season – this should match with market demand
4. Flower vase life – ability to stay (open before reaching the market
5. Ease of cultivation and handling – consider the required management practices e.g pest control, fertilizer
application e.t.c.
6. Stem length – its an important quality requirement used in grading
7. Cut flower use – building bouquets, synchronised e.t.c.
8. Experience in flower production – experience that one has in cut flower production.

Important rules for cultivation of temperate fruits in Kenya

1. Chilling requirement – where the production should meet chilling requirements.

2. Suitable pollinators should be grown.
3. Provides protection (shelter) against birds - They feed on buds and developing fruits
4. Fertile soil - Encourages excessive vegetative growth. Tie the shoot down in curve to encourage fruit
production
5. Correct pruning is important
- Wrong pruning encourages poor fruit production.
6. General fertilizer application
- This is important especially high nitrogen application induces vegetative grow thus altering fruit
production.

IMPORTANCE OF STORAGE OF CEREAL GRAINS

i. Ensure there is steady supply of food to the market

ii. Storage is done for the purpose of processing
iii. Pest control
iv. Done for post-harvest handling practices e.g drying
v. It improves the market prices
vi. It leads to reduction in post-harvest losses e.g spilling, aflatoxin poison
vii. Provision of proper storage conditions.

ADVANTAGES OF DRIED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

1. They are in more concentrated form (highly nutritional value/content)

2. Less costly than canned products no sugar additions.
3. Requires less storage space (reduces volume) less weight
4. Lower cost of transportation (less weight)
5. Cheaper to consumers
Reasons why cereals grain are stored

- Longer storage life

- Low insect infestation
- Low fungal growth – minimal aflatoxin poisoning
- Low loss due to deterioration – high moisture leads to rotting
- No germination is permitted at low Mc, viability is maintained
- Low levels of respiration – less loss in weight.

Advantages of using inorganic mulch in pineapple

- They help pineapple by reducing evaporation of water from the soil thereby conserving water/moisture.
- They increase the soil temperature around the roots of the plant thereby accelerating growth.
- Inorganic mulch reduces splashing hence contributing to clean fruits.
- The polythene improves the desired effects of fumigation by retaining the fumigant that would otherwise
escape by volatilization.
- Polythene mulches control weeds by denying them light.

Disadvantages

- Are expensive to buy thus high cost of production

- They do not decompose

Importance of blanching in vegetables

- It cleans the produce

- It decreases the volume of products
- It removes the disagreeable odours or flavours
- It leads to degreening and encourages yellow colour fixation
- It sterilizes the product
- Facilitate peeling of the outer skin
- Facilitate drying/preservation of the vegetables
- Denatures enzymes
- Total microbial load is reduced
- Removes air bulds

Explain steps involved in canning of vegetables

- The food materials is cleaned and unedible parts removed

- The vegetable are blanched by either immersing them in boiling water or exposing them to steam.
- Blanching inactivates enzymes in the vegetables and removes air bubbles
- The cans are automatically filled with blanched vegetables
- The cans are topped up with liquids like brine syrup
- The cans are exposed to steam or hot water. This drives out air from the cans.
- The cans are sealed with automatic machines so that they are tight.
- The cans are sterilized
- The cans are cooled gradually
- The cans are labelled and packed ready for marketing
 OIL TECHNOLOGY

SOURCES OF OIL

- Coconut oil
- Castor oil
- Macadamia nuts
- Geotropha
- Maize

Methods of Oil Extraction from Bearing Seeds and Nuts

1. Rendering
- During rendering oil bearing tissues are chopped into small pieces and boiled in water.
- The oil floats in surface of water and it’s skimmed. Water, carbohydrate, proteins and phospholipids
remain in aqueous phase and are then removed from the oil.
2. Mechanical pressing
- This method is often used to extract oils from seeds and nuts prior to pressing.
- Shells and hulls should be removed and the kennel is ground to rapture the cellular structure.
- The coarse meal is then heated in hydraulic or screw presses to extract the oil.
- In some cases oil is pressed without heating and such oil is called the cold-pressed oil/virgin oil.
3. Solvent extraction
- This is used for seeds and nuts containing higher oil content since not all of it will be removed during
pressing.
- Organic solvent such as petroleum ether and hexane can be added to the pressed cake to remove the
residue oil.
- The oil solvent solution is then separated from the meal and the solvent is evaporated from the oil.

Method of Refining Oil

i. Neutralization
ii. Bleaching
iii. Deodorization

i. NEUTRALIZATION
- Free fatty acids, phospholipids, pigment and waxes exist in extracted oil and they promote oxidation
which may lead to undesirable properties of final products.
- Many of these impurities can be removed by treating facts at 40◦C - 80◦C with caustic soda. (Sodium
hydroxide) or soda ash. (sodium carbonate)
- The impurities settle at the bottom and they are blown off.
- The refined oil is lighter in colour and less viscous.
ii. BLEACHING
- The purpose of breaching is to remove undesirable colour materials in the oil.
- Heated oil at 85◦C may be treated …. Various bleaching agents
 E.g fullers earth
 Activated clay
 Activated carbon
- Many of these impurities includes the following
 Chlorophyll
 Carotenoid
- And they are absorbed into such agents and later removed by filtration.

iii. DEODORIZATION
- This is normally the final step in oil refining and it involves the use of steam distillation under reduced
pressure but at deodoration pressure of 235◦C - 250◦C.
- Volatile compounds with undesirable odours and tastes can be driven off resulting in odourless products.
- The product so formed is referred to refined oil that can be consumed or used to manufacture other
products.

HYDROGENATION IN OIL PROCESSING

- Hydrogenation – is the addition of hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids converting to saturated fatty acids.

CHALLENGES FACED BY MANUAL OIL PRESS PROCESSSORS

a. Lack of back up services.

Often the equipment they use they break despite the fact that in rural areas there are no back up services to
provide spear or repair the machine.
As a result the entry renewal may take long before processing.

b. Lack of skills
- Most entrepreneurs lack the necessary skills in processing and this will greatly affect the quality of their
products.

c. Droughts
- In most areas rainfall have become reluctant leading to unreliable rainfall hence reducing the production
of raw materials.
- This affects the quantity/quality of raw materials available for process.

d. High cost of raw materials

- Inputs such as seeds for planting and fertilizers are expensive.
- This raises the costs of production as a result increases the cost of raw materials. Which affect the profit
margin for the farmers.

e. Lack of funds/loans
- Difficult in accessing credit affect the capacity of production
- Some could be entrepreneurs but cannot afford equipment for processing.
- Loans are offered at high interest rates and often require collateral which may be lacking.

f. Its labour intensive

- Manure oil pressing is laborious and it rely on human labour and this may be a challenge in situations
where labour is limiting.

PROCESS OF VEGETABLE OIL REFINING

- There are 8 steps in vegetable oil refining

- Oil refining aims at purifying oil by removing fatty acids and other impurities
 e.g carotenoids
 chlorophyll
 proteins
 glucose

It involves the following 8 steps:

STEP 1 - The melted fatty acids and oils are heated with required amount of acquires caustic soda (sodium
hydroxide)

STEP 2 - The oil and alkali solution are stirred thoroughly and this converts free fatty acids into soap.

STEP 3 - The mixture is allowed to separate with soap separating the top layer and then the oil is removed.
STEP 4 - This removes the oil and makes it free from fatty acids since soap and other impunities are washed
off with water. This soap can be used for washing

STEP 5 - Discolouration and breaching. This crude oil is deeply coloured and is agitated with fullers earth
(carbons) are passed through filters which will allow the breached oil to pass through and the remaining
oil is removed by steam forced by high pressure.

STEP 6 – Deodorization, Disagreeable odours are removed by blowing steam through the oil and this stem
removes the volatile substances.

STEP 7 - Winterization

- It’s the process by which oil is slowly chilled in large tanks to a temperature which oil is allowed to stand
for a considerable period of time to permit separation of solid crystalline from liquid.
- The oil is then pumped through filter plate which retains the solid matter 9stearin). And these are glycerin
of steric acid.
- These glycerin are used to manufacture candle and soap.

STEP 8 -Hydrogenation

- It’s a chemical process which adds hydrogen to unsaturated oils.

- In presence of a catalyst nickel that makes the oils to change to solid form.

FLORICULTURE

- Its parts ornament horticulture that deals with cultivation of ornamentals and flowers plants.
- Ornamental horticulture deals with cultivation and use of plants to beatify or improve the environment.
- It also involves those activities concerned with growing arranging marketing, management and maintain
of flowers, grasses, shrubs and even trees.

Role of floriculture in Kenya economy

i. Cut flowers and ornamentals have been used for a long time for decoration in occasions like weddings,
funerals and also to express emotions.
ii. Floriculture industry has been fast growing subsector in Agriculture which has led to strong contribution
of food and foreign exchange. In 2002 Kenya was the leading flower exporter to European Union with
26% of all the sales a head of Colombia with 17% and Israel with 16%.
- The best are the roses which are mainly exported to Netherlands, Holland and United Kingdom.
- Since 1990, horticulture has been the most important foreign earner. In 2004 kenya exported more than
60, thousand tons of cut-flower.
- Currently there are several local Kenyan investors that are involved in flower production e.g Oserian,
Sain roses, Home grown, Savanna etc.
iii. It helps to provide market for processed products form industry e.g chemicals, polythene bags, fertilizers
e.t.c.
iv. Has led to development of infrastructure in the areas involved e.g good roads, electricity, social
amenities, hospitals. Etc.
v. Has increasing family income which has led to higher standards of living.
vi. Floriculture industries offers employment opportunity to the florists in planning, growers, designers,
auctioneers in the Dutch auction. E.t.c.

Factors to Consider when Establishing a Floriculture Enterprise

1. The choice of flower variety – an investor should choose the most appropriate flower variety to grow
since different varieties performs differently with respect to yield quality and adaptability.
A good variety should be:
 High yielding
 Adaptable to the region that one want raise the industry.
 Flower variety chosen is also influenced by Market demand.
2. Climate – different varieties do require different environmental factors with respect to soil, temperature
and rainfall requirement.
- Environment factors will therefore influence the choice of varieties and the technology to employ inorder
to offer a remedy for any short coming and this is especially so on outdoor flowers i.e not growing in
green house.
3. Water availability – quantity of water available for irrigation should be considered.
- Most horticulture enterprises are not rain-fed hence they rely on irrigation therefore the quantity and
quality of irrigation water has a direct influence on the level of quantity and quality of the flowers so
produced.
4. Market availability – one should consider the market outlets for their produce since flowers are highly
perishable and they should be sold away immediately after harvesting.
- The market should be reliable and should offer competitive prices.
- The market demand dictates the type and quantity of flowers to be produced.
5. Infrastructure – there should be good roads to facilitate transportation of the flowers so produced.
- Electricity supply should also be available since some production activities and post-harvest activities
require electricity for them to be mechanized.
6. Labour – floriculture is labour intensive and there should be a good source of labour especially the causal
labour force for the various activities in the farm ranging from production, post-harvest activities as well
as marketing.
7. Technical knowhow/skills – floriculture do require technical skill for different production areas. These
skills includes:
 Land preparation
 Flower establishment
 Management of flowers during growing
 Post-harvest handling activities of those cut flowers
8. Capital availability – floriculture enterprise is an expensive undertaking for good quality and flower
production, one require structure like:
 Green houses
 Pack houses
 Expensive mechanization machines
 Expensive inputs.

Factors that favour cut-flower production in Kenya

1. High fuel cost

- High fuel cost leading to high cost of maintaining of greenhouses in temperate countries making them
import flowers in Kenya during winter since Kenya can produce flowers throughout the year.
- The best period of flower production coincides with winter i.e September to April during which the
Western countries the production is very low and very expensive.
2. Favourable Climate in Kenya
- Most flowers will do well in Kenya due to a wide range of altitude of 1000-3000m a.s.l.
- There is also adequate rainfall, good soils, and good sunshine for most of the year without the need for
heating.
3. It easy to access European market through direct flight to Europe.
4. The cost of flower production is easily met due to tropical climates hence no need of heating.
5. In Kenya there is availability of cheap labour.
6. Warm tropical climate will offer high quality flowers
7. Flowers grown in Kenya are resistant to diseases
8. Availability of planting materials – currently there are a number of flower breeders in Kenya that do
provide planting materials and those that are not available in Kenya can easily be accessible abroad.
9. Ability to meet international quality standards – through sensitization the flower producers can produce
that are of high quality that meet the international standards of quality through EURE-GAP.

Factors limiting expansion of cut flowers in Kenya

1. Lack of cut flower production skill among the rural small scale farmers.
2. High priorities given to phytosanitary requirements by importing countries and this leads to some of the
flowers being rejected in the markets.
3. EURE GAP regulators, sets the standards that the produce should meet
4. Lack of air space and unreliable local air lines which may lead to wastage due to fast deteriorating of
flowers hence low quality flowers offered in market sale.
5. Limited local market for the cut flowers
6. High pest and disease incidences in the tropics due to the warm climates and cost of pesticides and
fungicides increases the cost of flower production infected flowers not only lower yield but also lower
the quality of the flowers produced.

CONSTRAINTS OF CUT-FLOWER PRODUCTION

1. Lack of planting materials

- Flower growers lacks high quality and pure planting materials and if they are available they are small to
medium size flowers.
2. Inadequate land suitable for flower production
- The little land available is mainly used for other crop production especially the food crop.
3. Lack of information on diseases and pests managements
- New flower varieties with better production qualities are lacking
- There is also lack of flower preservative hence getting to the market with low quality.
4. Lack of market
- Especially in rural small scale farmers who may not afford to export their small quantity flower produce.
5. Poor and inadequate infrastructure
- This affects transportation since most of the roads leaving the flower farms are not accessible.
6. European Union strict regulations. This is especially in chemical residue level and zero tolerance to
notifiable insect pest presents.
7. High cost of air flight during transportation of flowers to the European markets.
8. There is labour health hazard in the green house.

Pre-harvest factors that affect the cut-flower quality and shelf life.

1. The use of good quality disease free planting materials

2. The current growing temperatures and light intensity – each flower variety requires the maximum and
minimum temperature for optimum growth.
- They also do well in a given range of light intensity. Anything outside these to range will influence the
post-harvest quality of flowers so produced.
3. Proper fertilizer application
- fertilizer are applied at different growth stages and the quantity and quality or fertilizer so applied
influences the post-harvest quality or flowers produced.
4. Water supply
- The quantity and quality of water applied will influence the post harvest quality of flowers so produced.

FLORICULTURE CASE STUDIES

MATER FLOWERS GROWN IN KENYA

1. Rose (Rosa hybrida)

2.
Family – Rosa ceae
Origin – china
- Most of the varieties produced in Kenya are hybrid and are delivered from crosses between rose gigantae
and is closed with Rosa chinensis.
- Commercial rose grown in Kenya started in mid 80s and most of them are grown in greenhouses with
exception of few verities which are grown in open fields.
- The area Rose production is increasing every year.
- The main markets for Kenya roses is – Europe. The masority of cut flowers are sold to the dutch
auctions from where they are exported all over Europe.

Botany of Rose Flower

- Roses are woody perennial plants with either Upright habits or Climbing habits
- They have thorny stem and compound leaves consisting of 3,5, of 7 leaf lets depending on their ages.
- Flowers are formed at the tips of the shoots
- Flower colour vary depending on the variety and colour in each variety may include; Red, Orange, Pink,
White or Mixture
- These flowers may be born solitary as in standards or in multiples as in spray type of flowers.
- These flowers when fertilized they form known as hips which are very rich in vitamin C and they
produce these flower 2-3 months after planting.

Types of Roses and their uses:

- Rose can broadly categorised into 2:

a. Climbing roses
- Bushy roses
- These have a climbing growth habit
- They can be trille/coil on a building, post or along the fences.
- They produce large cluster of flowers
- Have a vigorous growth habit and produce bright green leaves
- Are mainly used for land scaping

b. Bushy Roses
- These were developed for land scaping as well as for cut flower production. Examples : Rosa rugosa,
Rosa lucida
- Those were development for cut flower production includes:
 Sweet heart varieties
 Hybrid tea varieties
 Floribunda rose varieties

Hybrid Tea Roses and Sweet heart Roses

- They are the standard type i.e they form one terminal flower and if they form more than one flower,
they should be dis-budded.
- They are thus produced with only cut flower per stem.
- These sweet heart varieties, produces short stem and small to medium sized flower heads.
- Hybrid tea varieties produces long stem and big flower heads.
- Sweet heart varieties includes:
 Golden times - coco
 Souvent - champagne
 Kiss - gendo
 Jaguar - Rosetta
 Europa - Florence
 Frisco - Disco
 Vicky - brown
 Merlland

Hybrid tea varieties

 Aismeer gold - Firtled

 Astra - Vivaldi
 Darling - Tineka
 Dollas - Medalon
 Islanol - Jacaranda

Floribunda Rose varieties

- These are the spray types and they produce medium steam length with four or more flowers or more.
- Flowers are small in size
- They produce more cut flower stem per plant as compared to the standard types and they are less popular
in the market compared to the standard type.

Examples
- Porcelina - Joy - White dream
- Rumba - Mini Rose - Redace

NB- The choice of the variety for cultivar to be grown is determined by the market demand, production
skills and to some extent availability of planting material.

Root stock variety

1. Rosa canina
2. Rosa manetti
3. Rosa indica

NB. The most suitable and most common root stock variety in Kenya is Rosa Indica.

Suitable growing areas of Roses in Kenya

- Most areas in Kenya are within altitude of between 1500-2500m asl and they are suitable for growing
roses.
- Access to labour, suitable irrigation water and markets are the key limiting factor.
- Currently production is mainly located in Naivasha, Athi River, Kiambu, Karen, Nyeri, Embu, Kericho,
Nanyuki, Eldoret etc.

Ecological Requirement of Roses

1. Soils
- In Kenya most roses whether in a greenhouse/or open field will grow up. They are planted directly to the
soil hence soil properties for the side chosen are critical.
- A free draining soil. High in organic matter, are most suitable for commercial rose production.
- Roses are usually planted on raised beds to improve on drainage.
- A thorough soil analysis should be encouraged to establish a commercial rose unit
- Any area with either high soil PH of a high electrical conductivity should be avoided.
- The ideal PH should be 5.8 – 6.5
- Since roses will remain for 6-8 years, it’s important to loosen the soil before planting to ensure good
drainage.
- Deep soils are preferred to shallow soils because they hold water for long.
2. Temperature
- Bud sprouting, shoots growth after pruning and flower production are greatly influenced by temperatures.
- The best production of cut flowers is achieved in areas of 20-35◦C
- Bud sprouting occurs better when the temperatures are maintained at the rate of 15 - 28◦C.
- With better sprouting experienced at even higher temperatures e.g research as shown at 25◦C buds
sprouting occurs in 3 days but at 10◦C it occurs in 21 days.
- The day and night temperatures also influences teh growth rate, shoot length and flower formation.
- In general an increase in diurnal temperature it causes reduction in quality. E.g A variation of about 15◦C
has been shown to cause the petal of red roses to darken. It has been shown that night temperatures
should be 2-3 ◦C lower than the day temperatures for optimum growth.
- Flower formation and development in roses is strongly influenced by temperatures with optimum level
being between 19-22◦C.
- Under very high temperatures, flowers are small in size, pale in colour and they tend to have fewer
petals.
- Lower temperatures below 15◦C on the other hand will reduce growth (slow down) it will also lead to
increase in physiological disorders.

3. Light
- Growth and development in Roses is directly affected by light intensity. Flowering is optimum under
high light quality conditions.
- An enlongated dark period, during growing period causes a brake down in translocation of a assimilate to
the shoot tips leading to abnormal shoot development.
- Generally Rose growth and quality increases with increasing light up to 1200m/mole-1 active radiation.
- It must be however be noted that higher light intensities are usually accompanied by higher temperatures
hence.
- During period of very high intensities its necessary to cover Rose crop with shading materials.
- Day length has low length effect of growth and production or roses and therefore they can be grown
either under short or long day period.
4. Relative humidity
- Excessive relative humidity of more than 90% for periods longer than 8 hrs, can lead to severe disease
outbreak.
- Rose flowers therefore requires good ventilation to allow free air movement.
- Areas –C relative constant relative humidity or high rainfall are less suitable than relatively dry areas.
- Ideally, relative humidity should be at fairy constant range of between 65-80%, however at times, the
relative humidity fall considerably e.g during the hottest parts of the day.
- In this case humidity has increased by artificial means e.g sprinkling water using propagaters or musts.
5. Rainfall
- A good irrigation system is required under unreliable rainfall receiving areas.

CULTURAL PRACTICES

i. Propagation
- Rose flowers can be propagated by use seeds, vegetative propagation through use of stem cuttings,
budding, grafting or micro-propagation i.e. seeds, vegetative, micro-propagation.

a. seed propagation
- Mainly used by rose breeders for develop of new cultivars or for improvement of the extesting cultivars.
- Rose seeds have in impervious seed coast it requires a period of ripening before germination.
- These seeds should be obtained from mature fruits (hips)
- Extracted seeds are sown in seed boxes contain a good rooting media e.g shredded slagnum moss is
preferred.
- These seeds should be kept under 4◦C for at least 3-4 weeks or until 5% of the seed have shown the
germination.
- The seed boxes then are transferred to a temperature of 18-21◦C where final germination takes place
which takes 2-3 weeks.
- These seedlings are later transplanted to a good growing media either in green house or field for growth
until bloom the flower develops.

b. Stem cuttings
- This can be done at anytime of the year and they should be obtained from shoot that have flowered so
that you can be sure that they are true to type/variety type.
- The shoot should have mature foliage so as to act a source of photosynthetic for the cutting roots.
- Cuttings with 1-3 buds/eyes should be preferred such that in case one eye dies then other remains.
- The base of cutting is slightly dusted with a rooting media preferably seradix.
- After treatments cuttings should be stuck in a rooting media with good water holding capacity e.g coarse
sand mixed with manure.
- These stem cutting are stuck into a depth of 5cm into the media at a spacing of
15cm x 75cm.
- Temperatures should then be maintained at 18-21◦C where it last for 4-8 weeks for the roots to form.
- During tooting these cuttings, moisting should be applied to reduce water loss from the cuttings.
- This moisting should decrease frequently when fruiting are observed so as to harden the plants before
planting then out door.
c. Grafting
- Its rearly used in commercial flower production because grafting requires alot of greenhouse space and
time factor.
- Incase wher grafting is to be used, the most common root stock used varieties are
 Rosa Indica
 Rosa Manetti
 Rosa Canin
- First select a suitable scion for given cultivar. The length of scion should be atlest one bud long.
- The scion is then placed on rootstock where the grft is tied with a budding tape to hold the union tighltly
and prevent water entry.
- Temperature of 24◦C should be maintained misting/moisting should be maintained and once the graft has
healed the budding tape should be removed.

Land Preparation

- Before beds preparation, the land is deeply ploughed to a depth of atleast 6cm.
- Materials such as coarse sand, rice husks, pumice are then but separated by a path of 50-70cm width.
- These beds should be raised to about 15cm above soil level to facilitate drainage.
- Follow recommendations after soil analyse a base fertilizer should be used and well decomposed manure
is added.
- Before planting the beds should be thoroughly soaked with water to ensure that ther is enough moisture
throughout the whole profile of bed.
- This can be achieved by drip irrigation.

Spacing

- Recommended spacing should be 20cm by 40cm, 30cm by 40cm or 30cm by 30cm.

- The highest spacing is normally used for cultivars that produce high yields or big in size.
- When using the grafted varieties, ensure that the graft union is above the soil line.

Fertilizer Application

- Roses need a lot of fertilizers during their production cycle.

- There is need for regular soil and leaf analysis so as to determine the current rate of fertilizer application
for both major and minor element.
- The soil analysis should be done once every month.
- Incorporate well rotten manure in beds every 2years so as to improve soil structure and human content.
- Foliar feeds with bay folan/green lit twice a week is recommended.

BENDING OF ROSES
- Bending is a form of training the bush type roses to facilitate higher flower production and it involves the
following procedure.
- The newly planted shoots are left to grow until the buds starts to flower. Once the flower buds shows
colours the flowers are removed and stems are left to grow for 2 days before bending.
- Bending is done in such a way that the grafting point becomes the highest point of the plant.
- That breaking of the flower bud breaks the apical dominance allowing the auxins to accumulate at the
grafting point.
- That in terms facilitates production of strong lateral shoots or bottom shoots and those bottom shoots
originating from grafting point will give rise to long and thick stems.
- A newly and several thin shoots from the base of stem.
- The basal shoots gives rise to small side shoots since they attract high concentration of plant resources
like water and nutrients from the soil.
- The basal shoots are therefore more productive and should be encouraged to grow.
- This bending is also done to maintain vegetative growth which supplies photosynthates to the plants.
- When good quality stems are harvested, then an exportable stems are bent in stems. This maintains
vegetative growth due to photosynthesis.
- Availability of vegetation also maintains good soil cover there by reducing the rate of evaporation from
the soil.
- However, bent stems are difficult to maintain clearness and this makes them highly susceptible to
diseases there by increasing the cost disease control.
- Some rose varieties are brittle and they easily break during the process of bending. To avoid breakages,
before bending the stems are normally twisted and then bent.

Methods of pinching in cut roses:

i. Roll out pinching

ii. Soft pinching
iii. Hard pinching

i. Roll out pinching

- This involves the removal of tip of the shoot in newly planted cut roses when the shoot is approximately
15cm.
- It’s normally done just above the 2nd, 3rd or 5th leaflet when the leaves are opening.
- This pinching increase the diameter or thickness or shoots.
- It will also delay the flowering.

ii. Soft pinching

- It’s done above 5th leaflets when the flowers are visible and it’s less than the pea size.
- This increases the length of flowering shoots and delays flowering to marketing time.

iii. Hard pinching

- It’s done when flower bud develops to pea size or larger.
- It’s done to increase the thickness of shoots and also delay flowering.
PRUNNING OF ROSES

- Pruning in Roses is cutting done to control various kinds of plant growth.

- The main objective is to achieve production of stem and flowers that will fetch high prices.
- After planting, the main branch is cut and it’s shorted so as to have 4-6 buds.
- The weaker ones are removed; the shoots are then allowed to grow until the young flower buds are 5mm
long. These are then nipped off and 3 weeks later the plants should be producing basal shoots and these
are again allowed to grow until the apical bud is 10mm long.
- The shoots are then nipped back to the level below the 2 nd full leaflets from the top. These shoots are
expected to flower 3-4 months after.
- The second flash of basal shoots are pinched back to form a table of maintenance leaves at a height of
approximately 50cm.
- In some varieties which produce side shoots in axil of the leaves these shoots are pruned when they reach
a height of 2cm.
- Hand pruning is done to allow a return to production when the crops seem to be dormant.

Propagations of tuberoses

- Tuberoses are mainly propagated vegetatively by means of bulbs.

- Seeds can also be used for propagation though they are rarely used for commercial production.
- The bulbs should be carefully lifted from the soil to avoid injuries hence no access to pathogens.
- Selection of good quality bulbs should be carried out to enhance high quality flower production.
- Bulbs that have 1.5cm diameter and above should be selected.
- These bulbs so selected should be then sorted out according to their sizes.
- The damage and rotting bulbs should then be discord.
- The bulbs so selected should be dried and placed in a cool semi-ventilated storage for one month before
planting.
- After drying the selected bulbs, dip them in a fungicide for 2 days before planting and place in a rack to
dry.
- Treated bulbs should be placed upright 6cm deep and covered with soil. These bulbs will sprout after 15
days.

MANAGEMNT PRACTICES OF CARNATIONS

1. Pinching in Carnations
- It’s a standard practices in carnations which involves removal of stem tip in order to promote lateral
shoot development. It’s done when plants are 4-6 weeks old.
- The stems are pinched at the 4th or 5th node.
- It promotes lateral shoot development.
- It delays flowering
- It increases flowering and yields.
- It also encourages uniform flower formation in a farm.

2. Disbudding
- It’s a management practice in carnations, where terminal flower head is removed before it opens.
- It’s done down to about 6 nodes below the terminal flower bud.
- It’s normally done before flower buds open and when they are the size of pea.
- Buds should be twisted to avoid damaging the plant.
 It promotes uniform growth for lower flower buds and subsequent flowering.

PACK HOUSE OPERATIONS IN CARNATIONS

- The following management practices should take place in pack house.

1. Sorting
- Harvested flowers are placed on a grading table in a cold room
- Those flowers that are malformed, diseased and short stemmed are removed.
- The rubber band is place around the calyx/sepals to avoid splitting.
2. Cleaning
- The lower leaves which are normally dirty are removed so as to ease the bunching.
3. Pre-treatment
- The cut flowers are placed in a solution containing STS and 10% sucrose overnight in a cooler area to
extend the vase life/shelf life.
- Chemical preservatives that are containing Florissant are used to reduce ethylene production e.g.
 Aluminum sulphate (AL2(SO4)3
 Sugar
 Bactericide
4. Grading
- It’s done according to stem straightness, stem length and bloom diameter and freedom from defects.
- Grades includes
 Class one – have longer stems
 Class two – are flowers with shorter stems and incidences of head splitting.
5. Bunching
- Flowers are bunched into tens, twenties and wrapped in plastic sleeves.
- Room temperatures for bunching is 7-8◦C and stems are placed in buckets with preservatives and placed
in cold room set at 2-3◦C and relative humidity of 90-95%.
6. Packing
- The flowers are placed corrugated fibre boards cartons, 24 bunches per box of 14 kgs.
- The packing should minimise damages.
7. Pre-cooling
- Flowers are then taken to pre-cooling unit set at temperatures of 1-2◦C and relative humidity of 90-95%
and proper ventilation.

Pack house operations for chrysanthemums

1. Sorting
- It’s done on a grading table in order to remove short, diseased or malformed or those with long or split
petals.
- The damaged flowers are also sorted and removed.
2. Cleaning
- Involved manual removal of lower dry, excess and dirty leaves.
- The lower end of stem that may be with soil is chopped off in order to avoid dirty contamination during
grading.
3. Grading And Bunching
- Stems are graded by average weight of stem in the box.
- They go in steps from minimum of 25g to maximum of 100g in steps of 5g.
- All stems must not be less than average weight of bunch.
- Flowers are bunched in 10s, 12s, or 20s depending on the markets.
- Each bunch is wrapped in corrugated cardboard paper or plastic sleeves.
- The wrapped bunches are placed in the box.
4. Pre-cooling
- Bunched stems are put in a clean water containing preservative solution and are stored in a cold room set
at 2-4◦C.
5. Packing
- A total of 150 stems are packed in a carton weighing 13kgs.
6. Storage
- The packed flowers can be stored for 3-4 weeks at 5◦C awaiting transportation.
- These flowers are transported during the cool hours of the day. i.e either early in the morning or late in
the evening.

Pack house operations for Alstroemeria

1. Sorting
- Flowers are sorted
- Flowers placed on a grading table where diseased, deformed short long, damaged flowers are discarded.
2. Cleaning
- Lower leaves are removed, stems trimmed to remove solid/soil particles.
3. Grading
- Flowers are graded according to stem length, symmetrical flower heads of 7-10 florets.
- Graded flowers are bunched into 10s or 20s.
- Bunched flowers are rapped with a paper or plastic sleeves.
- The rapped flowers are placed in a bucket with water and chemical preservatives to prevent the
yellowing.
- Flower bunches remain in the preservatives for one hour after packing.
4. Packing
- Sleeved flower branches are packed in ventilated carton boxes
- The numbers of stems depends on their length and also market requirements.
- Flowers are parked firmly in the boxes so as to minimize damage during transportation.
5. Storage
- Forced air cooling of flowers at temperatures of 2-4◦C and this is aimed at removing the field heat.
- Flowers are then kept in cold rooms set at temperatures of 2-4◦C and relative humidity of 90-95%.
6. Transportation
- These flowers are transported to the airports in refrigerated or insulated tracks.
- In airports they are stored in cold rooms awaiting air flight.
Ways by which vase life of flowers can be prolonged.

1. Hydration
- This makes water to move up the stems and if this water is made to have a PH of 3-3.5 improves the
water flow.
- This is achieved by making water slightly acidic.
2. Holding solution
- This contains sugars that feed the flowers to continue opening.
3. Pulsing
- This involves putting the flower in a solution of glucose and bactericide so as to inhibit bacterial growth.
- Ethylene is also removed by specially formulated products.
4. Control draughts
- Avoid exposing your flowers to excess wind which may dehydrate the flowers.

Factors that influence the keeping quality/shelf life cut flowers

a. Handling
- Cut flowers should be handled gently to avoid physical damage from bruises, floral and stem destructions
as this could allow entry of micro-organisms leading to reduced shelf life and ethylene production.
b. Hydration
- Cut flowers should be quickly placed in water after harvesting since air moves rapidly into xylem tissues
and plugs the cells which prevents uptake of water hence reducing the shelf life of flowers.
c. Pulsing
- Commercial floral preservatives increase the life of cut flowers and should always be used.
- A preservative is a mixture sucrose, acidified which inhibits micro0organism activities and it’s also a
respiratory inhibitor hence increasing the shelf life of a flower.
d. Cleaning of flowers
- The flower vase should always be clean so as to slow down the growth of micro-organism and also
extend the life of cut flowers.
- All the leaves on the stem of cut flower below the water surface should be removed as soon as they rot
away since they reduce the shelf life of flowers.
e. Proper storage
- Place the cut flower in a cool location in a house for an hour or two since cut flowers placed in cool
temperature loose less water.
f. Maintain the level of water
- The water level of vase should be checked diary add water plus a preservative when heeded to prevent
wilting and provide nourishment to the cells.
g. Ventilation
- The cut flower should be left to get good amount of ventilation since this will drive away heat and gases
such as ethylene build-up is prevented hence increasing shelf life of cut flowers.
h. Control draughts
- The cut flower should be kept away from cold air draughts and hot spots such as radiators, direct heat on
top of television sets etc. Since these heat increases rate of respiration hence reducing the shelf life of cut
flowers.
i. Avoid mixed storage
- Never store fruits and cut flowers together
- Fruits produce ethylene gas which enhances scene or aging in cut flowers which in turn reduces the shelf
life of cut flowers.

Causes of deterioration in cut flowers

1. Normal respiration
- Stored foods in cut flowers particularly carbohydrates are depleted through normal respiration hence the
vase life of the cut flower is determined by utilization of these food reserves during storage.
- Refrigerated storage of flowers retards respirations thus preserving the food supplies.
2. Post-harvest diseases.
- Attack by post-harvest diseases reduces the shelf life of cut flowers.
- Proper handling treatment and storage is important after cutting flowers in order to avoid attack by
disease causing micro-organism like fungi.
3. Maturation and aging
- Normal maturation and aging may limit storage and vase life of cut flower.
- The age of maturing at times of cutting is very critical.
4. Excessive moisture loss
- Wilting due to excessive moisture loss may also limit storage and vase life of cut flowers since it leads to
loss of condition of flowers.
5. Mechanical damage/bruising
- Bruising of cut flowers will shorten the vase life of the cut flower and also reduce their marketability.
- Blooms should therefore be handled carefully to reduce bruising them.
- Bruised blooms/damaged by careless handling leads to increased respiration which in terms reduces the
vase life of flowers.
6. Elevated temperatures
- Elevated temperatures leads to wilting and colour changes such as:
 Fading of carnations
 Bluing of roses
- This leads to reduced marketability
- Refrigeration or cold storage is desirable for preserving the flower colour and maintaining their fresh
colour.
7. Ethylene gas
- Ethylene gas accumulation in storage room will accelerate the rate of development and aging of cut
flowers.
- This in some cases may cause abscission florets
- The cut flowers produce ethylene gas as they continue to mature after harvest.
- Mix storage of cut flowers and fruits is detrimental to their storage
8. Shilling injuries
- Storing flowers at temperature of below 3◦C may cause chilling injuries in some flowers.
- Some flowers may fail to open after removal from storage therefore flowers should be stored at desired
temperature.
9. Poor ventilation
- Poor air circulations leads to accumulation of carbon(iv)oxide and reduced oxygen levels hence lowering
the shelf life flowers.

General pack house operations for cut flowers

1. Keep pack house environment clean and various equipment used:

e.g grading knives
 Thorning knives
 Cold room
2. Room temperature of 6-8◦C and relative humidity of 80-95%.
- For rapid cooling and removing of field heat.
3. Sorting
- Remove weak, malformed, diseased flowers on the sorting table.
4. Cleaning of flowers
- Clean leaves and rethorn the flower if necessary
5. Grading
- Grade the flowers according to straightness, flower maturity, forage quality, flower openness, stem
length.
6. Bunching
- Bunch the flowers in 10s,12s, 20s according to market demand
7. Flower preservation
- Bunching flowers should be placed in preservative e.g aluminium sulphate.
8. Storing
- Store in a cool room temperatures of 0-2◦C overnight
9. Packing
- Pack the flowers into standard boxes as per the market demand.
10. Storage after packing
- Store the flowers after packing at temperatures of 2-4◦C before taking them to airport.
11. Transportation to airport
- Transport the packed flowers in insulated/refrigerated tracks and in the airport store them in a cold room
as they await the air flight.

Flower preservative ingredients

1. Silver nitrate
2. Citric acid
3. Silver thiosulphate
4. Hormones e.g cytokinins, gibberellins, auxins
5. Sugars/sucrose
6. 8-hydroxy-quinoline sulplate
7. Alminium sulphate
8. Amphyl
9. 8-hydroxy quinoline citrate

EUROPEAN UNION REQUIREMENT ON FRESH PRODUCE FOR EXPORT.

1. Traceability
- All long the production chain, it’s necessary to trace the source of the products from the grower to the
exportation.
- This is an important aspect of marketing, fresh horticultural produce and it’s a legal requirement within a
European Union countries.
- Super markets and other importers regularly visit their suppliers to confirm this aspect.
2. Controls
- This are measures to regulate each stem of production.
- The control covers the input acquisition, cleanness of the field cleanness of irrigation water, of tools and
equipment used in production, application of pesticides, harvesting, packaging and transportation.
- Records of all these steps are kept to prove reasonable precautions were exercised.
3. Training and commitments
- All persons involved in production process must be aware of required standards in production of fresh
horticultural produce.
- They should be involved in meeting the responsibilities and achieve this.
- They should also aim achieving environmental safety e.g avoid pollution of environment.
- The production should also take care of workers welfare
- Observe cooperate social responsibility.

EURE GAP guidelines in production and marketing of Horticultural produce.

1. Risk assessment
- Risk assessment for safe and health working, surveys should be carried out and action plan developed so
as to promote safe and healthy working conditions.
2. Training
- Formal training should be given to all workers and record of training kept.
- These workers have to be trained on first aid and accident procedure should be displayed.
3. Facilities and equipment
- First aid boxes must be provided and hazards clearly identified by warning signs.
4. Pesticides handling
- Workers undertaking pesticides applicators in the farmers should have annual health checks to ascertain
that their health is not at risk.
5. Hygiene
- Workers must be given the basic hygiene training
- Premises should have adequate provisions for waste disposal
- The premise should be clear of wastes.
6. Welfare
- Employment conditions should comply with local and national regulations with regard to wages, working
age, working hours, working conditions, job security, pensions, trade unions and all other legal and
health requirements.
- On site living quarters should be habitable with all basic services and facilities.

PROCEDURE FOR MAKING MARMALADE

- It is made from citrus fruits like oranges and lemons. It involves:
1. Receiving the fruits
- Oranges and lemons are weighed and taken to processing.
2. Cleaning
- The fruits are cleaned to remove soil dire.
3. Slicing the fruits
- The oranges and lemons in the ratio of 4:1 are sliced to 3/16 inches in thickness using special machines.
- The whole fruit is hereby used i.e fruit and the peel.
4. Boiling
- Sliced fruits are combined and mixed with 2-3 times of water and boiled at
219-220◦f for 1 hr.
- This boiling makes the fruits to be tender for extraction of juice and pectin.
5. Filtration
- Juice extract is cleaned by filtration and this is to make the extract clear and its made further clearer by
centrifuging to separate the components and the extract is then tested for pectin and acidity using pectin
test and balling test respectively.
6. Addition of sugar
- Equal amount of sugar to the required level and its tested using the brix mater.
7. Addition of pectin
- Pectin is added to improve consistency and ensure products of uniform quality and appearance.
8. Boiling
- The juice extract and sugar are subjected to boiling so as to dissolve sugar and allow uniform union of
sugar, acid and pectin.
- This boiling increases sugar concentration and it also allows jelly formation (jelling to occur)
9. Cooling
- Marmalade should be allowed to cool partially permit absorption of sugar so as to form syrup.
10. Flavouring
- Small amount of orange extract is added and mix thoroughly to improve the flavour.
11. Pasteurizing and packaging
- Marmalade containers should be sealed at temperatures of 150-180◦f (65.6-82.2◦C) and cooled
afterwards.

STAGES OF WET MAIZE MILLING PROCESS

1. Cleaning
- Involves removal of foreign materials like dirt, soil, etc. form maize.
2. Husking/Hulling
- Involves removal of outer seed coat from the grain Kernel.
- The husk is removed from the grain while retaining the original shape.
- The principles employed includes:
 Compression and shear abrascion
 Friction and impact
3. Conditioning
- Its hydrothermal treatment to cereal grain inform of hot, cold or steam with appropriate tempering
temperature ranging from room temps to 50◦C.
- About 20-25% moisture content is added to the grains.
4. Degerming
- Involves removal of the hull tip cap and germ leaving the endosperm and this is to ensure there is low fat
contents in the flour.
5. Drying and cooling of degermed product
- Degermed stalk are dried to moisture content of 15-18%
6. Boiling and grading
- Endosperm is ground by use of roller mills and this is followed by sleviting.
- The sleves separates teh fine flour particles
- The flour is packed in different weight sizes ready for marketing.

CONE WET MILLING PROCESS

1. Cleaning
- All impurities such as dirt, chaff, stalks, stones, and insect infested grains are removed from the cone by
screening and aspirating. The clean grains are then conveyed the storage bins.
2. Steeping
- This is also called Hydrothermal treatment where cone is soaked in acid diluted water. (acidulated)
- It’s mainly treated with dilute hydrochloric acid at tem[s 50◦C for 28-48 min. It’s aimed at softening the
kernel for grinding.
- It also facilitates separation of germ and separation of gluten from starch granules and also to remove
soluble materials from the germ.
3. Germ recovery
- The wet and soften cone contains about 45% moisture
- It’s then passed to regerming unit that tears the softened kernel apart making the germ free without
grinding them.
- The pulpy mixture containing the germ, husk, starch and gluten is passed through Hydeoclenes where the
germ being lighter is separated from heavier gradients by way centrifugal force.
4. Milling and fibre recovery
- After separation of the germ, the remaining material in the slurry contains starch, gluten and hulls.
- These materials enter the mill which considerably reduces the particle sizes.
- The mill slurry containing ground, starch, gluten and hully is passed through a series of hexagonal reels
where the coarse hulls and fibres are removed.
5. Starch, gluten separation
- The slurry containing starch and gluten is concentrated and the n the lighter gluten particles are separated
from the relatively heavier starch particles in high speed centrifuge.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEPERATORS

a. Width and thickness of the grain

- It’s used for sieves, screens sifters and thickness graders.
b. Length of the grain
- This is important for indented type of disc type, pocket separators.
c. Aerodynamic properties
- E.g density and weight are important for husk aspirators and cyclone separators.
d. Form and state of surface of the grain for separators of course
 - Grain, spiral separators or felt type separators are used.
e. Specific gravity and co-efficient of friction for separating tables and stone separators.
f. Ferromagnetic and electromagnetic properties
- This is important for electrostatic separators
g. Colour separators
- Involves use of electronic separators.
RICE PROCESSING

1. Pre-cleaning
2. Dehusking or dehulling
3. Paddy separation
4. Whitening or polishing
5. Grading and separation of white rice
6. Mixing
7. Mist polishing
8. Weighing of rice
- Generally speaking, rice is best known as a lowland crop grown in flooded fields or paddies. This
covers all types of rice cultivation in which the soil is covered with water to a variable depth, and
over a lengthy period of time that may encompass the complete rice production cycle. The amount
of water supplied may range from several metres (deep water or floating rice) to just few inches.
Mangrove rice cultivation is a highly specific type of lowland rice production in which rice is
grown in mangrove forests in river estuaries or along the coastline.
Among the most modern methods of wet paddy cultivation, irrigation is the most expensive means
of rice production. In areas of restricted water supplies, farmers have developed the ‘age-old’ art of
‘upland’ rice farming. For upland cultivation of rice, the crop is grown with limited irrigation over
specific short periods, dictated by water availability and stage of crop development (e.g. grain
filling).
‘Dryland’ rice farming does not use irrigation and the crop relies solely on rainfall for its growth
and development. ‘Dryland’ rice farming takes place on well-drained soils above the flood line,
where seasonal rainfall and the ability of the soil to retain water are the sole determinants of crop
growth and development.
Differentiation of rice with respect to water does not stop at production because rice may be
processed in a completely dry mode or alternatively using copious quantities of water to pre-cook
the grains.
- Dry Processing
Harvested rice grains are enclosed in glumes that are in close contact with the grain. Prior to
consumption as grain, or further processing into flour, snack foods and beverages, the glumes are
removed by hulling.
The first secret to successful processing and storage of post harvest rice is drying the grain to an
optimum moisture level of 12-14 per cent weight/weight (w/w). Moisture contents within this range
are sufficiently low to inhibit enzyme action and microbial activity in store. In addition, it facilitates
the easy removal of the outer covering (bran or husk) by hulling with minimum breakage of grains
to give good quality shelled rice. Rice bran is rich in oil so hulling also extends shelf life of grains
by eliminating the source of rancidity.
- Hulling followed by polishing has been carried out for thousands of years using traditional village
methods and during the last 200 years by the use of small manufactured metal rice hullers.
International organisations advise against rice polishing as it removes too much of the Vitamin B’s
leading to an increase in deficiency diseases such as ‘Beriberi’.
- The world’s expanding rice harvest is increasingly processed within an integrated ‘rice milling’
operations, available in a range of capacities from small (75-100 tons/day) or massive (1000plus
tons/day) installed as turnkey operations with fully computerised control. The operation involves
various steps like cleaning, hulling, bran separation from shelled rice, pearling, polishing
classification (whole/broken grains etc) and bagging.
- Irrespective of the scale of rice processing, paddy rice must be harvested at full maturity and timed
carefully. Delay during harvest leading to alternating wet and dry period is responsible for the
development of stress in the kernel, which in turn results in high levels of grain shattering during
milling further down the processing line. Grain shattering during milling can additionally become a
real problem if grains become overheated during the post harvest drying period, whether it remains
too long in the hot sun or inside a mechanical dryer.
- Threshed grain needs to be sorted to remove stones and insects and winnowed to eliminate light
material such as stalks, leaves and dust particles. Storage in well-aerated rooms avoids absorption
of moisture, leading to the growth of surface mould and grain discolouration. But rooms must be
sufficiently sealed to exclude insects, rodents and birds. Threshed grain can be kept in good
condition until milling, provided these measures are properly implemented.

Control of processing, sacking and storage

- Primary process control points during milling are:
• Maintenance of grain moisture at 12-14 per cent to facilitate optimum de-husking (hulling) and
storage quality
• Proper selection of holding times for grain in de-husking and polishing machines. This ensures
optimum balance between level of grain breakage and per cent of de-husked grain in the finished
rice product. Length of time in these machines also determines whether the end product is white
rice or brown rice. Brown rice is de-husked less and is richer in Vitamin B complex. The average
amounts of vitamins in the B complex within rice are thiamine (B1) – 4 g/g; riboflavin – 0.6 g/g
and niacin – 50 g/g.
- Equivalent primary control points during the following packaging, storage and marketing phases
are:
- • Usage of only clean and dry (preferably new) jute or sisal sacks. This avoids risk of contamination
and moisture absorption by the grain. If grain is earmarked for transit to a more humid zone then it
should be packaged in polythene sacks. However, only optimally dry grain should be packed in
polythene sacks, or paper sacks with polythene liners. Polythene not only stops moisture getting
into the bag but also any excess moisture in the grain from getting out.
• Strict control of sack or bag filling using accurate scales.
• Maintaining well ventilated and insect and rodent free storage conditions prior to retailing
• Re-packing in paper packets for short-term storage and retail and heat-sealed polythene for longer-
term storage prior to retail.
- Because the rice stays dry throughout and does not undergo any pre-cooking or contact with water
there is a minimal risk of contamination with pathogenic microbes. Standard hygiene practices in
relation to food production and handling are deemed sufficient.
- Wet processing and parboiling
 - Parboiling is pre-cooking of rice in water prior to milling. To be more precise, parboiled rice is the
rice in which starch in kernels has been gelatinised by steeping in water, steaming and drying paddy
before the husks are removed. In India, the term ‘raw’ rice is used to describe rice that has not
received any heat-treatment such as par boiling.
Key process control points to look out for, during parboiling include:
• Grain to be soaked at a constant fixed temperature for a specific period of time to produce a
consistently high quality product of a type required by local consumers
• Soaked grains to be steamed for the allotted time at the correct temperature so that fermentation,
promoted by soaking, is brought to a rapid end. This is particularly important if the grains have
been steeped in hot water for a long period of time.
• Final grain drying to a moisture content of 12-14 per cent w/w to stop any growth of fungi
(mould) and bacteria and to facilitate trouble free de-husking.
• From de-husking onwards, the key process control points are the same as for dry processed rice

Value-added rice products

- The various components of the rice harvest including ‘waste’ products can be put to a huge variety
of uses. Rice grains can be further processed into flour (usually broken grains) biscuits, snacks,
breakfast-cereals, beers, wine and distilled spirit. Rice meal is used for animal feed while the
valuable rice bran oil can be extracted from the bran. Rice starch is used in a variety of industrial
processes. Rice hulls with their high silica content have been used in a wide variety of situations
including the manufacture of pressed insulation board, cement tiles and cement breeze blocks, in
the glass industry and for road surfacing. Rice straw is used in the manufacture of ‘straw-board’ for
the building industry.

About the rice-polishing machine

Thin skin and to remove the germ portion of the surface with brown rice, said to be polished to be a tasty
white rice.
It had eaten rice like the brown rice before Edo period. In the brown rice, vitamin B1 etc. are very good
abundance, and healthy foods. After it became the Meiji era, the taste was improved by cleaning rice in white
and it came to eat the brown rice.
The sickness of beriberi came to increase from vitamin B1 lack before because it removed the part of a
nutritious embryo bud when rice was cleaned. It is called rice with germs by a healthy aim recently and the
person who eats the one, the brown rice, and five amount rice that leaves the part of the embryo bud and
cleans rice has increased, too.
The number of those who clean rice at home has increased recently though there is coming without
thinking doing in the ordinary family by what rice store does rice cleaning, too.
And polish rice just before cooking in one time through, you can eat tasty rice. In my house we use this
method primarily.
Method of rice-polishing machine(circle method and one time passing type)
In the rice cleaning method of the rice-polishing machine, there are a circle method and one time passing
type. In general, the passing type has increased once recently though it is a circle method rice cleaning
machine that it was widespread. The coin rice cleaning machine is mostly one time-passing type rice cleaning
machine.
Feature of circle method rice cleaning machine
 This photograph is a silver rice cleaning machine of the [mizuta] industry. The one used by my home of
the country, and it is the same manufacturer, and same capacity. The rice of about 15kg is treatable. Motor
(250-400W) and V belt are installed outside.
The circle method rice cleaning machine is rotating the axis of the corkscrew shape in a thin cylindrical
cylinder. The brown rice is rubbed mutually turning the heat to the brown rice by passing the brown rice in
this, it matches, and the film and the embryo bud part on the surface of the brown rice are removed little by
little.
The brown rice put in the hopper above passes from the right to the left from among the form of a cylinder
below and it circulates as shown in this photograph. A left lever adjusts extent in which the exit of the
cylinder is closed, and puts resistance on the movement of rice.
I make it not take by always complete ..this lever.. resistance and am cleaning rice. Then, there might be a
person who thinks that rice cannot be cleaned, too. However, rice can be cleaned neatly though it hangs for a
moment.
Thus, rice can be cleaned without so dropping the embryo bud. Moreover, the axis where the rice-polishing
machine rotates might lock when resistance is put too much, and the motor be burnt.
Most people are burn the motor once. I have never failed after it makes it to this method. The temperature
rise of rice can be suppressed.
There is no too small one because the circle method rice cleaning machine should process limited amount
of brown rice. As for this rice-polishing machine, about 15kg(one 'to') is treatable.
When rice is cleaned, the brown rice is separated to cleaned rice and the rice bran. Therefore, when the
brown rice becomes cleaned rice, it decreases by about 10 percent or more. Cleaned rice decreases by raising
the refinement level.
The circle method rice cleaning machine should make it to cleaned rice though it can clean rice even like
the paddy. Because the one like the paddy still remains when making it to five amount rice, it is not possible
to do in amount of rice. Because it is a state that the rice bran mixes, it is necessary to select it by old ([furui]
and sifter) though it is possible to make to five amount rice if it is a brown rice.
One time feature of passing type rice cleaning machine

In a domestic small rice cleaning machine (rice cleaning machine) and the coin rice cleaning machine, it is
usual that it is a rice-polishing machine of the passing type once. The number of passing type rice cleaning
machines has increased once recently.
The temperature of rice rises because the passing type rice cleaning machine puts a big load on rice once.
Moreover, it is noted that the motor doesn't lock because the load put on the motor is large. When rice is
damp, it especially notes, and it is made not to clean rice if possible.
When a large amount of brown rice is processed, it is necessary to note it because in such a domestic small
rice cleaning machine (The hopper capacity : by about five combinations), there is something that it is not
possible to use it continuously. In a word, after they are made to take a rest for a while, it uses it when using
it for 15-30 minutes. (There are a lot of one of ratings for 30 minutes. )
How to use the device of the circle method rice cleaning machine
Set up a rice milling machine on the stand as well, so do not play. Keep outlet shutters closed rice. White
rice will spill forget it.
The brown rice is put from the hopper above. About 15kg can be put at a time. 30kg is treatable according
to the model.
 Moderate resistance is put on rice by operating the lever after it turns the power switch on. It resists few. It
is confirmed that rice circulates well. When rice cleaning is completed, the container is received to the exit of
rice, and rice is taken out completely. It turns off power afterwards.
Meanwhile, observing the state of the rice-polishing machine for a long time mostly does other things of
time while cleaning rice because it is useless. Then, rice is cleaned too much and rice becomes small rice. To
avoid this, I am putting up the timer to the rice-polishing machine outside. It usually completes at 40 minute-
about 60 minutes.
Next, the rice bran is taken out and processed. I am making rice bran the fertilizer of the field. The maize
weevil (rice weevil) boils when it is left to put it...the rice-polishing machine of the rice bran.. ..the rice
bran...
Attention and maintenance when rice-polishing machine is used
 Whenever using it every time, the cleaning and the check of each part are done. Especially, let's often
check before it uses it.
 Oiling or grease improves to the place that is not rubber in the part that moves mechanically.
 The rice-polishing machine is horizontally set up.
 In the small rice cleaning machine, there is something not continuously used. The ratings duration is
defended and used.
 Rice is prevented from remaining internally about the rice-polishing machine cleaning each part after use.
If rice and the rice bran are left internally, the maize weevil (rice weevil) boils, and the rat enters.
 The motor corresponding to the load of the rice-polishing machine is used. Especially, a too small motor
might put the extra strain on the motor.
 Each part is sometimes checked in addition, and a wrong place is repaired.

EXTRACTION OF AVOCADO OIL

The process for recovering oil from ripe avocados is a mechanical extraction, similar to olive oil extraction,
with the additional step of removing the skin and stone (seed). After this, the flesh is ground to a paste and then
malaxed for 40-60 minutes at 45-50°C. This is a higher malaxing temperature than used for olive oil
extraction, but it is still considered to be cold-pressed extraction for avocado oil.

The slightly higher temperature aids the extraction of the oil from the oil-containing cells and does not affect
the quality of the oil. The oil and water phases are separated from the pulp using a high-speed decanting
centrifuge, and then the oil is separated from the water in final polishing centrifuges. The pulp from the
decanting centrifuge and waste skin/seeds are returned to orchards for soil conditioning and mulch, or used as
animal feed.

Avocado oil, if extracted from sound fruit (no rots, physiological disorders, or damage), will result in oil with a
very low percentage of free fatty acids (%FFA) (<0.5% as oleic acid). Also, the peroxide values (PV) can be
very low (<2 meq/kg). Recommended standards for extra virgin avocado oil have proposed a maximum PV of
4 meq/kg (Table 1).

In sound, ripened fruit, the level of lipolysis that occurs is low, resulting in low %FFA. The fruit does not need
to be processed immediately after ripening, but long delays should be avoided. Generally a higher %FFA is
due to poor-quality fruit, delays in processing ripened fruit, or poor manufacturing practices.
PROPERTIES OF AVOCADO OIL

Extra virgin avocado oil from the ‘Hass' cultivar has a characteristic flavor, is high in monounsaturated fatty
acids, and has a high smoke point (≥250°C), making it a good oil for frying. ‘Hass' cold-pressed avocado oil is
a brilliant emerald green when extracted; the color is attributed to high levels of chlorophylls and carotenoids
extracted into the oil.

Cold-pressed ‘Hass' avocado oil has been described as having an avocado flavor, with grassy and
butter/mushroom-like flavors. Other varieties may produce oils of slightly different flavor profile as has been
seen with ‘Fuerte,' which has been described as having more mushroom and less avocado flavor.

The fatty acid profile is very similar to olive oil, in that it is very high in oleic acid. A typical avocado oil has
76% monounsaturates (oleic and palmitoleic acids), 12% polyunsaturates (linoleic and linolenic acids), and
12% saturates (palmitic and stearic acids); these values are given as percentage of fatty acid/total fatty acids.
The main antioxidant in the oil is a-tocopherol, which is present at levels of 70-190 mg/kg oil. b-, g-, and d-
tocopherols are only present in minor amounts (<10 mg/kg oil). Other nonlipid components present in the oil
include chlorophylls (11-19 mg/kg oil) and carotenoids (1.0-3.5 mg/kg oil).

The chlorophylls from the flesh and the skin contribute to the characteristic emerald green color of the oil.
Depending on the location in the mesocarp, the chlorophyll content varies, but the majority of chlorophyll and
carotenoids are present in the greener layers of flesh next to the skin. If avocado skin is included in the pulp
during malaxing, then the likelihood of extracting more pigments is greater. Chlorophyll does not contribute to
oil stability but can be a problem, as chlorophyll can act as a sensitizer for photo-oxidation to occur. Therefore,
it is important to store the oil away from light.

Carotenoids in avocado fruit have long attracted attention for their potential anti-carcinogenic effect; these
same carotenoids are subsequently extracted into the oil. The most significant carotenoid present in the oil is
lutein (0.5-3.3 mg/kg oil). Lutein is beneficial for eye health by reducing the progression of age-related
macular degeneration. The cold-pressed avocado oil also contains high levels of phytosterols (b-sitosterol
being the main sterol present), at 2.23-4.48 mg/g oil. Based on its fatty acid makeup and the presence of these
phytochemicals, extra virgin cold-pressed avocado oil is considered to be a healthful oil.

Refined avocado oil may be obtained from virgin avocado oil or unrefined avocado oil using conventional
refining processes such as those generally carried out to produce conventional salad oil, for example sunflower
oil, soya oil, or rapeseed oil. Said refining comprises is the following operations:


o demucilagination (mucilage removal);

o neutralization;

o decolorizing;

o winterizing;

o deodorizatio

12 Steps
The Twelve Steps of Bread Baking
Step 1: Scaling
All ingredients are measured. We would like to recommend two things for this step:

1. Measure all wet and dry ingredients by weight.

2. Use a formula that is expressed in "baker's math" or "baker's percentages."
(more about this in a future post)

This step concludes when all ingredients are accurately measured and lined up in order of use, as well as all
tools and equipment are ready for the second step in the bread-making process.

Step 2: Mixing
Ingredients are combined into a smooth, uniform dough; the yeast and other ingredients are evenly distributed
through the dough, the gluten is developed, and fermentation is initiated.

Step 3: Bulk or Primary Fermentation

The dough is allowed to ferment. Fermentation is the process by which the yeast acts on the sugar and starches
and produces carbon dioxide and alcohol.

Step 4: Folding
The purpose of this step is to degas the dough, and we do that for four reasons: to expel some of the carbon
dioxide, and avoid by that chocking the yeast; to allow the gluten to relax a bit; equalize the temperature of the
dough; and to redistribute the nutrients necessary for the yeast’s continued growth.

Step 5: Dividing or Scaling

The dough is divided or scaled into the desired individual portions.

Step 6: Pre-shaping or Rounding

The portioned dough is loosely shaped into smooth, round balls. This organizes the dough into consistent
pieces and makes the final shaping easier and more efficient. It also stretches the gluten on the outside of the
dough and forms a skin that helps it retain the gases produced by the yeast.

Step 7: Resting
The benching or resting lasts approximately 20 to 30 minutes and relaxes the gluten, making the final shaping
of the dough easier.

Step 8: Shaping and Panning

The dough is formed into its final shape and placed in the pan or mold that it will be baked in. Hearth breads
that will be baked directly on the oven deck are placed in bannetons or between the folds of baker’s linen.

Step 9: Proofing or Final Fermentation

The dough goes through one final fermentation. The dough should be placed in a temperature and humidity
controlled environment to allow the bread to rise to the desired volume before baking. Optimum rise for this
stage is 80 to 85 percent of the dough’s overall volume.

Step 10: Baking

The dough is baked. The dough is often scored with a sharp knife prior to baking. This allows the bread to
expand without bursting.
Some of the important changes that occur during the baking process are:

 Ovenspring: The initial, rapid expansion of loaf volume that is caused when the trapped gasses in the
dough expand as a result of the high heat of the oven. The yeast remains active in this final fermentation
process until it is killed at a temperature of about 145°F (63°C).
 Coagulation of proteins and gelatinization of starches: This contributes to the formation of the crumb
and sets the structure of the loaf. This begins at approximately 140°F (60°C) and continues until the
temperature reaches between 180°F and 194°F (82°C and 90°C).
 Formation and browning of the crust: This begins when the surface of the dough reaches 212°F
(100°C) It occurs in baked goods in the presence of heat, moisture, proteins, and sugars and continues until the
surface temperature reaches 350°F (175°C). Further crust color and flavor develop with caramelization that
occurs between temperatures of 300°F and 400°F (149°C and 204°C). When the bread reaches a maximum
internal temperature of 210°F (99°C) the bread should be properly baked. Other signs that mark the completion
of the baking process are a golden brown crust and a hollow sound emitted when the baked loaf is thumped.
The baking process is now complete and the bread is ready to be cooled and stored.

Step 11: Cooling

The loaves are cooled on racks that allow the air to circulate around them and prevent the crusts from
becoming soggy. The bread should be cooled at least two hours to allow the crumb structure to stabilize and
develop full flavour.

Step 12: Storage

Baked breads will stale most quickly at temperatures between 32°F and 50°F (0°C and 10°C) and therefore
should never be placed in the refrigerator.

Yeast is the driving force behind fermentation, the magical process that allows a dense mass of dough to
become a well-risen loaf of bread. And yet yeast is nothing more than a single-celled fungus. How does it do
it?

Yeast works by consuming sugar and excreting carbon dioxide and alcohol as byproducts. In bread making,
yeast has three major roles. Most of us are familiar with yeast’s leavening ability. But you may not be aware
that fermentation helps to strengthen and develop gluten in dough and also contributes to incredible flavors in
bread.

Yeast makes dough rise

The essentials of any bread dough are flour, water, and of course yeast. As soon as these ingredients are stirred
together, enzymes in the yeast and the flour cause large starch molecules to break down into simple sugars.
The yeast metabolizes these simple sugars and exudes a liquid that releases carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol
into existing air bubbles in the dough.

Yeast strengthens bread dough

When you stir together flour and water, two proteins in the flour—glutenin and gliadin—grab water and each
other to form a bubblegum-like, elastic mass of molecules that we call gluten. In bread making, we want to
develop as much gluten as we can because it strengthens the dough and holds in gases that will make the bread
rise.
Once flour and water are mixed together, any further working of the dough encourages more gluten to form.
Manipulating the dough in any way allows more proteins and water to find each other and link together. If
you’ve ever made homemade pasta, you know that each time you roll the dough through the machine, the
dough becomes more elastic; in other words, more gluten is developed. And with puff pastry dough, every time
you fold, turn, and roll the dough, it becomes more elastic.

Yeast, like kneading, helps develop the gluten network. With every burst of carbon dioxide that the yeast
releases into an air bubble, protein and water molecules move about and have another chance to connect and
form more gluten. In this way, a dough’s rising is an almost molecule-by-molecule kneading. Next time you
punch down bread dough after its first rise, notice how smooth and strong the gluten has become, in part from
the rise.
Fermentation generates flavor in bread
At the beginning of fermentation, enzymes in the yeast start breaking down starch into more flavorful sugars.
The yeast uses these sugars, as well as sugars already present in the dough, and produces not only carbon
dioxide and alcohol but also a host of flavorful byproducts such as organic acids and amino acids. A multitude
of enzymes encourages all kinds of reactions that break big chains of molecules into smaller ones—amylose
and maltose into glucose, proteins into amino acids.

Yeast has help in producing flavorful compounds. Bacteria are important flavor builders as well. There are
bacteria in the dough from the beginning, but as long as the yeast is very active, it consumes sugars as quickly
as they’re produced, leaving no food for the bacteria, which also like sugar. But when bakers chill a dough and
slow down its rise, the cold dramatically reduces yeast activity. The bacteria, on the other hand, function well
even in cold temperatures, so they now have an opportunity to thrive, producing many more marvelously
flavorful acids.

The wet mill of a corn plant refers to area where the corn is separated into its individual components of starch,
gluten, fiber, and germ. The separations in the wet mill are mostly physical through grindmills, screens,
cyclones, centrifuges, presses, and filters. The main product of the wet mill is a relatively pure starch stream,
either dried or in a slurry form. The byproducts of the wet mill include the germ, fiber, and gluten, which are
further processed or marketed as feed products.

Fluid-quip supplies process equipment for most of the physical separation steps of the corn wet mill, whose
individual processes shown on the Corn Wet Milling Process Flow Sheet are discussed in general terms below:

STEEPING

The corn after arriving to the plant, must be cleaned to meet the standards of the U.S. Yellow Dent #2 corn.
The cleaned corn is conveyed and metered into the steep tanks. Steeping the corn prior to milling is done by
soaking the corn in a solution of sulfur dioxide and water at controlled temperature for a length of time
between 30 and 45 hours. The purpose of steeping is to soften the kernel, allowing for separation of the germ
without cracking during milling, to partially breakdown the protein matrix in which the starch is embedded
allowing for separation in subsequent milling stages, and to remove the soluble impurities contained within the
corn. Good steeping is a necessity for achieving a good quality starch product.

Freshly made steep acid is added to the steep tank where the corn has been in the steeping process the longest.
The steep acid is circulated through the steep tanks towards the tank where the newest corn is being added.
From this point, some of the steep liquor must be removed from the system. The amount of steep water
removed is critical for producing a quality starch product as this is the only point in the system where soluble
impurities can leave the system. The dissolved solids content of this stream is usually in the range of 10%.

Water in this light steep water stream needs to be evaporated until the solids content reaches about 50%. Doing
this will allow the "heavy" steep water to be mixed with the end fiber product to increase the nutritional
content of the feed product. The condensate from this evaporator, being high in impurities, can not be utilized
back into the process and therefore makes up the majority of the waste water leaving the plant.

After steeping, the corn is conveyed to the milling area via sluice water. This water flows between the outlet of
the steep tank to the dewatering screen prior the first stage milling where it is continuously recycled back. In
between the steep tanks and the dewatering screen, the slurry if fed to a Stone Cyclone.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

DESTONING

The stone cyclone protects the grind mills and other down stream process equipment from damage or excessive
wear resulting from stones, sand, pieces of metal, or other high specific gravity contaminants that enter the
corn slurry during the washing, conveying, or steeping processes.

The centrifugal forces within the cyclone force the heavy contaminants to the outside of the cyclone towards
the underflow. A reject pot on the bottom of the cyclone collects the contaminants which are then purged from
the system with a pair of actuated valves on either side of the reject pot.

The overflow of the cyclone, free of contaminants, is then directed to the corn dewatering screen.

The Fluid-Quip SC-24” stone cyclone has capacity of 30,000 bpd (750 mtpd). Other cyclone sizes are also
available with grind rate capacities from 8,000 bpd (200 mtpd) up to 80,000 bpd (2000 mtpd).

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

CORN DEWATERING

Before the first grind process step, the corn slurry from the destoning cyclone is dewatered by a gravity screen.
Dewatering the corn slurry prior to milling reduces the hydraulic load on the grind mill and improves the
milling efficiency.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

FIRST GRIND MILL

The steeped corn, after being dewatered by the corn screens, enters into the first grind. The purpose of the first
grind is to crack the corn kernels and free the germs.

The devils tooth grind plates commonly used in the first grind mill have a pattern of large interlocking teeth
that the corn kernels must pass through before reaching the machine discharge. In the grind mill, one set of the
grind plates are rotating, while the other set of plates is fixed.
The gap between these two sets of plates are adjusted so that first grind mill cracks most of the kernels and
frees up most of the germ without damage to the soft germ particles. In every handful of slurry coming from
the first grind mill, there should only be about 1 uncracked kernel. Any corn not cracked in the first stage, will
be cracked in the second stage.

Dilution water is added to the first grind mill so that the starch freed from the kernel can enter into slurry
without pasting up in the grind mill.

Factors affecting the capacity and efficiency of the first grind mills include the density of the feed slurry, the
plate clearance, the applied horsepower, and the steep processes employed.

After leaving the first grind mill, the slurry is gravity discharged into the first grind tank where it is mixed with
recycle streams from the germ separation and other millhouse recycle streams.

PRIMARY GERM SEPARATION

The slurry from first grind tank is fed to the primary germ separation system, where the main separation of the
germs from the slurry occurs.

The primary germ separation system consists of a two stage system, where the underflow of the first stage is
fed to a second stage. Usually the two stages are directly connected with only one feed pump for the entire
system.

Typically, the baume in the first grind tank is around 8. At this baume, the germs, with lighter specific gravity
than the starch slurry, will start to float on the top of the slurry. The centrifugal force inside the cyclone, driven
by the pressure drop across the cyclone, accelerates the floating of the germs, so that the overflow of the first
stage cyclone contains many of the germs in the slurry.

The overflow of the first stage cyclone is controlled with pressure to ensure that most of the germs with a
minimum amount of fiber is leaving the system with the germs.

The underflow of the first stage cyclone is then fed to a second stage to recover more of the germs remaining in
the slurry. The overflow of this second stage is directed back to the first grind tank, and the underflow of this
stage proceeds to the second grind step.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW GERM SEPARATION SYSTEMS PRODUCT PAGE

GERM WASHING SYSTEM

The overflow of the first stage of the primary germ separation system contains all of the recovered germ, some
fiber, and some starch. The purpose of the germ washing system is to wash as much of the starch as possible
from the germ and from the fiber with the germ.

The system typically consists of a three stage counter current system, with the feed entering into the first stage
and the wash water entering into the feed of the third stage. The overflow from the third stage is the germ
which proceeds to further dewatering and drying stages. The first stage underflow is a starch/gluten stream
which proceeds back to the first grind tank for dilution.

The amount of wash water added to the third stage should be about 9 gallons for every 1000 bushels of grind
rate. This amount can be adjusted to either increase the starch recovery or control the baume in the first grind
tank.

Fluid-Quip gravity screens with 31” long screens and 1mm screen spacing are common for germ washing
screens. Germ washing screens are designed special to accommodate wash headers and stacking so screens can
be stacked in the millhouse so the product can cascade from one screen to the next without the need for pumps
in between stages. Screens are available in many sizes, ranging from 2 feet wide to 10 feet wide, with germ
washing capacities up to 120,000 bpd per screen (3000 mtpd).

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW GRAVITY SCREEN PRODUCT PAGE

GERM PRESS / GERM DRYING

After the germ stream is washed in the germ washing system, the slurry, which still contains some fiber, then
proceeds to a dewatering press to remove as much free water as possible. At the outlet of the germ dewatering
press, the germ product is dried in the germ dryer.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

SECOND GRIND DEWATERING SCREEN

Before entering the second grind mill, the slurry from the underflow of the primary germ separation system is
dewatered by a gravity screen. Dewatering the corn slurry prior to milling reduces the hydraulic load on the
grind mill and improves the milling efficiency.

Fluid-Quip gravity screens with 54” long screen surfaces, and 1.5 mm slot openings are commonly used for
second grind dewatering. Screens are available in many sizes, ranging from 2 feet wide to 10 feet wide, with
second grind dewatering capacities up to 100,000 bpd per screen (2500 mtpd).

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW GRAVITY SCREEN PRODUCT PAGE

SECOND GRIND MILL

The purpose of the second grind is to crack any of the kernels that were missed in the first grind. Like the first
grind, the slurry feeding the second grind is dewatered just prior to milling. From the second grind mill, the
slurry is again diluted and then dumped into the second grind tank, which feeds the secondary germ separation
system.

A handful of discharge from the second grind mill should not contain any whole kernels, on average. Factors
affecting the efficiency of the second grind include the steep processes, the efficiency of the first grind, the
feed slurry density, the grind plates used, the clearance between the plates, and the applied horsepower.

Like the first grind, devil tooth plates are used in the second grind. The clearance between the plates should be
set closer than in the first grind. Setting the plates too close, would result in cracking germs and tearing fibers
more than necessary. Setting the plates too far would result in a lower overall oil recovery, as any germ not
recovered in the second grind will be lost later in the process.
Fluid-Quip offers 24”, 36”, and 52” grind mills with respective second grind capacities of up to 16000 bpd
(400 mtpd), 60,000 bpd (1500 mtpd), and 80,000 bpd (2000 mtpd).

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW DISC GRIND MILLS PRODUCT PAGE

SECONDARY GERM SEPARATION

The slurry from the second grind tank is fed to the secondary germ separation system, where additional
recovery of the germ from the slurry occurs.

The secondary germ separation system also consists of a two stage system, where the underflow of the first
stage is fed to a second stage. Usually the two stages are directly connected with only one feed pump for the
entire system.

The secondary germ separation system is usually the same size as the primary system, despite a large portion
of the mill slurry has been removed via the primary germ separation system overflow.

Typically, the baume in the first grind tank is around 8. At this baume, the germs, with lighter specific gravity
than the starch slurry, will start to float on the top of the slurry. The centrifugal force inside the cyclone, driven
by the pressure drop across the cyclone, accelerates the floating of the germs, so that the overflow of the first
stage cyclone contains many of the germs in the slurry.

The overflow of the first stage cyclone is controlled with pressure to ensure that most of the germs with a
minimum amount of fiber is leaving the system with the germs.

The underflow of the first stage cyclone is then fed to a second stage to recover more of the germs remaining in
the slurry. The overflow of this second stage is directed back to the first grind tank, and the underflow of this
stage proceeds to the third grind step.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW GERM SEPARATION SYSTEMS PRODUCT PAGE

THIRD GRIND DEWATERING SCREEN

After the germ separation system has removed all of the recoverable germ, the mill slurry is sent to the third
grind dewatering screen, which dewaters the feed to the third grind machine.

The liquid portion of the slurry that makes it through this screen becomes part of the mill starch stream feeding
the centrifuges. It is important that only a minimum amount of fiber is contained in the filtrate of the screen.
For this reason, fine slot pressure screens are used.

The pressure screens have slotted screen surfaces fed by several nozzles aligned at the top of the screen. As the
feed nozzles discharge onto the screen surface tangentially, the pressure in the liquid creates high G forces at
the screen surfaces which drives the separation. As the slurry moves down the screen, the slight angle of the
screen bars help to peel off the liquid as the solids build up towards the bottom of the screen.
Fluid-Quip pressure screens are used for third grind dewatering, with 50 micron screen openings and ¾” feed
nozzles for grind rate capacities up to 12,000 bpd (300 mtpd) per screen surface.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW PRESSURE SCREEN PRODUCT PAGE

THIRD GRIND MILL

After the germ has been successfully removed during the first and second grind, the goal of the third grind is to
remove the bound starch from the fiber. This should be done with as little damage to the fiber as possible. An
increase in the amount of milling of the fiber lowers the bound starch but also increases the amount of fine
fiber.

For the third grind application, Fluid-Quip offers both disc mills and Impact mills. For disc mills, like the other
grind positions, devil tooth plates are used for the third grind application. The clearance between the plates
should be closer than for second grind. Setting the plates too close, would result in an unnecessary increase in
the amount of fine fibers. Setting the plates gap to wide would result in high amount of bound starch in the
fiber product.

When using impact mills, the feed slurry is fed between Slurry enters rotor through the feed inlets and is
accelerated to pins around the periphery of the rotor by centrifugal force Rotating pins impact the fiber and
starch particles, breaking starch free from the fiber and reducing the particle size of starch grits . The initial
impact from the rotating pins fling the particles into the stationary pins on inside of machine housing further
freeing the starch from the fiber and reducing the particle size.

The impact mills is available in a couple sizes, and offers several process benefits as described on the impact
mill product page.

The Fluid-Quip 52” third grind disc mill has a capacity of up to 40,000 bpd (1000 mtpd). For smaller plant
capacities the 36” double disc mill has capacity up to 20,000 bpd (500 mtpd).

The Fluid-Quip FQ-IM40H impact mill has capacity of 40,000 bpd (1000 mtpd). The smaller impact mill FQ-
IM40 is good for capacities up to 24,000 bpd (600 mtpd)

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW IMPACT MILL PRODUCT PAGE

FIBER WASHING SYSTEM

The fiber wash system consists of a series of 120 degree pressure screens configured to counter-currently wash
the fiber stream coming from the third grind mill. The goal of the fiberwash system is to wash all of the free
starch off of the fiber pieces.

Typically, a 6 stage system is used where the feed enters into the 1st stage. The wash water enters in the final
stage. The unders of each stage becomes the wash for the previous stage, and the overs of each stage become
the feed for the next stage. The unders of the first stage becomes the feed starch slurry heading for the
centrifuges while the overs of the last stage is fiber heading to the fiber dewatering step in the process.

There is some starch that leaves the system with the fiber and can not be recovered. This starch can either be
bound starch (unrecoverable pieces of starch physically attached to the fiber) or free starch (starch in the
water). An efficient wash system will minimize the amount of free starch leaving with the fiber to about 5-
10%. Much of this free starch can be recovered prior to the fiber dewatering press with a fiber press dewatering
screen. If the bound starch is high, the problem is most likely in the steeping and grinding processes.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW PRESSURE SCREEN PRODUCT PAGE

FIBER DEWATERING

After the fiber washing system, the fiber slurry is dewatered as much as possible with an additional pressure
screen. Any water removed from this dewatering screens helps to reduce the dewatering requirements of the
down stream fiber press.

Fluid-Quip pressure screens are used, with 150 micron screen openings and ¾” feed nozzles for grind rate
capacities up to 16,000 bpd (400 mtpd) per screen surface.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW PRESSURE SCREEN PRODUCT PAGE

FIBER PRESS / DRYER

After the fiber stream is washed in the fiber washing system and dewaterd, the slurry is further dewatered in a
fiber press. At the outlet of the fiber dewatering press, the fiber product is dried in the fiber dryer.

The dried fiber product is often mixed with heavy steep water and palletized for use as animal feed.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

DEGRITTING SYSTEM

The mill starch stream, comprised of the combined filtrates from the third grind dewatering screen and the first
stage fiber wash screen, will be further processed by centrifuges and starch washing cyclonettes to separate the
starch and gluten fractions of the slurry.

To protect the downstream equipment, the mill starch stream is fed to a degritting system to remove and small
heavy particles such as sand, grit, rust, or pipe scale. These materials, when passing through the high speed
centrifuges, would cause rapid wear and lead to premature replacement of expensive machine parts. This heavy
material also contributes to premature wear of the cyclonettes in the starch washing system.

The degritting system consists of a two stage system, with the underflow of the first stage being fed to a second
stage.

The overflow of the first stage proceeds to the centrifuge separation steps. The overflow of the second stage is
recycled back to the feed to the first stage.

Reject pots on the underflow of the second stage cyclones collect the contaminants, which are purged
periodically with timed automated purge valves around the reject pot.

Fluid-Quip supplies degritting systems with 8” cyclones in the first stage and 6” cyclones in the second stage.
The first stage cyclonettes are equipped with ceramic lower cones to extend cyclone life. Systems are sized
based on capacity requirements, with single system capacities up to 120,000 bpd (3000 mtpd). For smaller
plant capacities, single stage, or single cyclone systems are also effective.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW DEGRITTING SYSTEM PRODUCT PAGE

CENTRIFUGE / STARCH WASHING FEED STRAINERS

To offer protection against plugging of centrifuges and starch washing system cyclonettes, rotary strainers are
used in the feed line to each of these process steps.

The feed to the strainers enter the inside of a cylindrical screen that is continuously cleaned by a rotating brush.
The oversized particles and contaminants leave the strainer through the drain, while most of the feed stream
continues through the screen and to the centrifuge or starch washing system.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW ROTARY STRAINER PRODUCT PAGE

MST CENTRIFUGE

The combined filtrate streams from the third grind screen and first stage fiberwash screens will contain about
10 to 11% solids (5 to 6 Be). This slurry is comprised of the starch and protein components of the corn, along
with some soluble impurities released from the corn during the steeping process.

This slurry is fed to the Mill Stream Thickener (MST) centrifuge to thicken the starch slurry and provide a
process water stream. The centrifuge has high rotational speed, creating significant G forces inside the machine
which drives the separation of the water, solubles, and higher specific gravity starch and gluten particles. The
solids are continuously discharged through nozzles around the periphery of the bowl, while the water and
soluble head toward the center of the bowl and out the overflow of the machine.

The MST centrifuge increases the baume of the mill stream slurry providing a reduced flow rate and consistent
feed baume to the downstream primary centrifuge, and also separates out solubles early in the starch protein
separation process. This reduces the washing requirements to remove the solubles in the down stream primary
centrifuge and starch washing system.

The overflow of the MST centrifuge is primarily used for the steeping system makeup water. Great care is
taken in the operation of the MST centrifuge to ensure that a minimum amount of starch and gluten solids are
sent back to the steeping system through the MST overflow.

Fluid-Quip offers 30” and 36” centrifuges with respective MST grind rate capacities up to 1000 mtpd and 2000
mtpd.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW DISC NOZZLE CENTRIFUGE PRODUCT PAGE
PRIMARY CENTRIFUGE

The primary centrifuge is fed from the MST centrifuge underflow and any direct portion of the mill starch
stream that bypasses the MST. The primary centrifuge is the main separation point between the starch and the
water, gluten, and solubles.

Wash water from the clarifier centrifuge overflow is introduced into the primary where it washes the solubles
from the starch via displacement washing. Fluid-Quip primary centrifuges are designed to accommodate high
rates of displacement washing, to lower the residual soluble protein levels in the starch leaving through the
underflow of the machine.

The overflow of the primary centrifuge becomes the light gluten stream, which is further dewatered and dried
to become the gluten meal product. Since any starch in the overflow of the primary centrifuge will be lost to
the gluten meal product, and lower the important protein concentration of the gluten meal, it is very important
to operate the machine with minimal starch loss to the overflow.

The underflow of the primary centrifuge, which still contains some insoluble and soluble proteins, is further
purified in the starch washing system.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW DISC NOZZLE CENTRIFUGE PRODUCT PAGE

GLUTEN THICKENER

From the overflow of the primary centrifuge, the light gluten slurry is fed to a Gluten Thickener (GT)
centrifuge. This light gluten stream contains all of the gluten to be recovered in the gluten product stream,
water, and soluble proteins. The gluten thickener centrifuge concentrates the gluten stream prior to dewatering
and also provides clear overflow for process water to be used upstream in the millhouse. Since the overflow of
the GT machine has far less solubles than the overflow of the MST machine, this stream is used as fiber wash
or germ wash process water. This improves the counter current washing efficiency of the entire wet mill
process.

The underflow of the GT machine becomes the heavy gluten stream and contains all of the recoverable gluten
that will leave with the gluten product. This heavy gluten continues in the process to the gluten dewatering
step.

Fluid-Quip offers 30” and 36” centrifuges with respective GT capacities up to 500 mtpd and 1000 mtpd.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW DISC NOZZLE CENTRIFUGE PRODUCT PAGE

GLUTEN DEWATERING / DRYING

After the GT machine has thickened up the gluten stream by removing as much water as possible, vacuum belt
filters are commonly used for additional dewatering. The water removed from the gluten slurry at the vacuum
filters is sent back to the feed of the GT machine to recovery and remaining gluten.
The dewatering Gluten cake is then conveyed to the Gluten Dryer, typically a flash dryer system.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

STARCH WASHING SYSTEM

To produce a high quality starch product, the underflow of the primary is sent to a multiple stage washing
system. In this system, fresh water is added to the final stage to wash the starch slurry countercurrently across
12 stages. The starch reports to the underflow of each stage, getting purer and purer as it progresses towards
the end of the system. The protein and soluble impurities are carried out the overflow of the first stage of the
system with some starch. Sending some starch out the overflow is necessary for ensuring a high quality starch
product. The underflow of the starch washing system proceeds to further processing for modification into
specialty starch products, conversion to syrup for sweeteners/ethanol, or dewatering/drying to make dry starch
product.

The overflow of the starch washing system is sent back to the clarifier centrifuge.

RETURN TO PROCESS FLOW SHEET

VIEW RADIAL MATRIX CYCLONETTE UNITS PRODUCT PAGE

CLARIFIER CENTRIFUGE

The clarifier separates the starch washing system overflow into a process water stream, and a thickened
starch/protein stream.

Part of the overflow of the clarifier centrifuge is used as wash water for the primary centrifuge. The remaining
overflow not used as primary wash water is used for wash water in the fiber washing or germ washing
systems.

Since any fine fiber making it through the third grind dewatering screen or the first stage fiberwash screens
ends up in the underflow of the clarifier, a portion of this stream is recycled back to the fiber wash system. The
remainder of the clarifier underflow is added to the primary centrifuge feed stream.

Fluid-Quip offers 30” and 36” centrifuges with respective Clarifier capacities up to 1000 mtpd and 2000 mtpd.

Preparing fruit jelly

The ingredients must be added in carefully measured amounts. Ideally, they should be combined in the
following manner: 1% pectin, 65% sugar, and an acid concentration of pH 3.1. Too much pectin will make the
spread too hard, too much sugar will make it too sticky.

Inspection
 1 When the fruit arrives at the plant, it is inspected for quality, using color, ripeness, and taste as
guides. Fruit that passes inspection is loaded into a funnel-shaped hopper that carries the fruit into pipes
for cleaning and crushing.
Cleaning, crushing, and chopping
 2 As the fruit travels through the pipes, a gentle water spray clears away surface dirt. Depending on
whether the finished product is to be jam or jelly, paddles push the fruit and or just its juice through
small holes, leaving stems and any other excess debris behind. Some fruits, such as citrus and apples
may be manually peeled, cored, sliced and diced. Cherries may be soaked and then pitted before being
crushed.

Pasteurizing the fruit

 3 The fruit and/or juice continues through another set of pipes to cooking vats. Here, it is heated to just
below the boiling point (212° F [100° C]) and then immediately chilled to just below freezing (32° F
[0° C]). This process, pasteurization, prevents spoilage. For jelly, the pulp is forced through another set
of small openings that holds back seeds and skin. It will often then be passed through a dejuicer or
filter. The juice or fruit is transferred to large refrigerated tanks and then pumped to cooking kettles as
needed.

Cooking the jam and jelly

 5 Premeasured amounts of fruit and/or juice, sugar, and pectin are blended in industrial cooking kettles.
The mixtures are usually cooked and cooled three times. If additional flavorings are to be included,
they are added at this point. When the mixture reaches the predetermined thickness and sweetness, it is
pumped to filling machines.

Filling the jars

 6 Presterilized jars move along a conveyer belt as spouts positioned above pour premeasured amounts
of jam or jelly into them.

When the fruit arrives at the plant, it is inspected for quality, using color, ripeness, and taste as guides.
Fruit that passes inspection is cleaned, crushed, and pasteurized. Next, the premeasured mixture is
cooked with added sugar and pectin until it reaches the appropriate thickness and taste. Then it is
vacuum-packed in jars and labeled.

Metal caps are then vacuumed sealed on top. The process of filling the jars and vacuum packing them
forces all of the air out of the jars further insuring the sterility of the product.

Labeling and packaging

 7 The sealed jars are conveyed to a machine that affix preprinted labels. According to law, these labels
must list truthful and specific information about the contents. The jars are then packed into cartons for
shipment. Depending on the size of the producer's operation, labeling and packaging is either achieved
mechanically or manually.