F. Batten boards and Lamin Boards: Batten boards have core made up of 80 mm wide wood pieces, forming a slab glued between at least two surface veneers. Lamin boards have a core of strips, each not exceeding 7 mm in thickness glued together to form a slab which in turn is glued between two or more outer veneers. The directions of the grains of the core block run at right angles to that of the adjacent outer veneers. 4. Discuss the following tests done on timber; compressive strength test, tensile strength test, cleavage test, density, moisture content. 2. Make a comparison between timber and other materials. CLAY PRODUCTSClay products are one of the most important classes of structural materials. The raw materials used in their manufacture are clay blended with quartz, sand, chamatte (refractory clay burned at 1000-1400°C and crushed), slag, sawdust and pulverized coal. Structural clay products or building ceramics are basically fabricated by moulding, drying and burning a clay mass. Higher the bulk specific gravity, the stronger is the clay product. This rule does not hold good for vitrified products since the specific gravity of clay decreases as vitrification advances. Types of clay products: 4. Brick: A brick is rectangular in shape and of size unit of construction that can be conveniently handled with one hand. Brick may be made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime or of Portland cement concrete. Clay bricks are commonly used since these are economical and easily available. The length, width and height of a brick are interrelated as below: Length of brick = 2 * width of brick + thickness of mortar Height of brick = width of brick Artis or sharp edge Indent oF frog ; Strother face A brick is defined in BS 3921 as a walling unit with coordinating size of 225 mm length, 112.5 mm width and 75 mm height. Bricks are known by their format size - that is, a standard metric brick has coordinating dimensions of 225 x 112.5 x 75 mm and working dimensions of 215 x 102.5 x 65. The coordinating dimensions are a measure of the physical space taken up by a brick together with the mortar required on one bed, one header face and one stretcher face.They are classified in terms of: + Varieties * Common: Suitable for general building work but having no special claim to give an attractive appearance. * Facing: Specially made or selected to have an attractive appearance when used without rendering or plaster. ® Engineering: Having a dense and strong semi-vitreous body conforming to defined limits for absorption and strength. ® Internal: Suitable for internal use only; may need protection on site during bad weather or during the winter. ® Ordinary: Less durable than special quality but normally durable in the external face of a building. Some types are unsuitable for exposed situations. ® Special: For use in conditions of extreme exposure where the structure may become saturated and frozen, such as retai and paving. + Types ® Solid: Those in which small holes passing through or nearly through the brick do not exceed 25% of its volume, or in which frogs do not exceed 20% of its volume. A small hole is defined as a whole less than 20 mm wide or less than 500 mm? ® Perforated: Those in which holes passing through the brick exceed 25% of its volume and the holes are small as defined above. ® Hollow: Those in which the holes passing through the brick exceed 25% of its volume and the holes are larger than those defined as small holes. * Cellular: Those in which the holes are closed at one end and exceed 20% of the volume of the brick. + Other classifications walls Bricks may also be classified by one or more of the following: ® place of origin, for example London; ® raw material, for example clay; ® manufacture, for example wire-cut; ® use, for example foundation; ® color, for example blue;SINS aS) fa Use ‘Types of bricks in terms of their shapes. 2. Blocks: these are rectangular construction units composed of a similar material as bricks but they are larger than bricks. Their measurements can rise to as high as 600 mm in terms of length. 3. Roofing tiles: these are clay products designed to keep out rain.4. Flooring tiles: these are clay products made mainly to produce an appealing floor surface and also provide a corrosion resistant floor. 5. Wall tiles: they are clay products made to produce an appealing surface on walls. 6. Pipes and fittings: they are made act mainly as conduits of foul water transfer to the outside and far away from the bui MANUFACTURE OF CLAY PRODUCTS: RAW MATERIALS For the preparation of bricks, clay or other suitable earth is moulded to the desired shape after subjecting it to several processes. After drying, it should not shrink and no crack should develop. The clay used for brick making consists mainly of silica and alumina mixed in such a proportion that the clay becomes plastic when water is added to it. It also consists of ‘small proportions of lime, iron, manganese, Sulphur, etc. The proportions of various ingredients are as follows:Silica 50-60% Alumina 20-30% Lime 10% Magnesia <1% Ferric oxide < 7% Less than 20% Alkalis < 10% Carbon dioxide Sulphur trioxide Very small percentage Water SILICA/SAND: It enables the brick to retain its shape and imparts durability, prevents shrinkage and warping. Excess of silica makes the brick brittle and weak on burning. A large percentage of sand or uncombined silica in clay is undesirable. However, it is added to decrease shrinkage in burning and to increase the refractoriness of low alumina clays. ALUMINAICLAY: absorbs water and renders the clay plastic. If alumina is present in excess of the specified quantity, it produces cracks in brick on drying. Clays having exceedingly high alumina content are likely to be very refractory. LIME: it’s added in small quantities for the following reasons 4. Reduces the shrinkage on drying. 2. Causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it. 3. In carbonated form, lime lowers the fusion point. 4. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and the brick loses its shape. 5. Red bricks are obtained on burning at considerably high temperature (more than 800°C) and buff-burning bricks are made by increasing the lime content. MAGNESIA: rarely exceeding 1 per cent, affects the color and makes the brick yellow, in burningsIt causes the clay to soften at slower rate than in most case is lime and reduces warping. IRON OXIDE: Iron oxide constitutes less than 7 per cent of clay, imparts the following properties: 4. Gives red color on burning when excess of oxygen is available and dark brown or even black color when oxygen available is insufficient, however, excess of ferric oxide makes the brick dark blue. 2. Improves impermeability and durability. 3. Tends to lower the fusion point of the clay, especially if present as ferrous oxide. 4. Gives strength and hardness. Bricks are manufacture through the following stages: Preparation of Brick Earth Unsoiling }—s{ Digging }-+[ Weathering }|—+| Blending ] 4 Tempering 1 Moulding 1 Drying ed Burning, PREPARATION STAGE This stage consists of Unsoiling: The soil used for making building bricks should be processed so as to be free ofgravel, coarse sand (practical size more than 2 mm), lime and kankar particles, organic matter, ‘etc, About 20 cm of the top layer of the earth, normally containing stones, pebbles, gravel, roots, etc., is removed after clearing the trees and vegetation. Digging: the soil is then dug out where stones, pebbles, vegetable matter are removed. All lumps should be broken into powder. Weathering: Stones, gravels, pebbles, roots, etc. are removed from the dug earth and the soi Is heaped on level ground in layers of 60-120 cm. The soil is left in heaps and exposed to weather for at least one month in cases where such weathering is considered necessary for the soil. This is done to develop homogeneity in the mass of soil, particularly if they are from different sources, and also to eliminate the impurities which get oxidized. Soluble salts in the clay would also be eroded by rain to some extent, which otherwise could have caused scrumming at the time of burning of the bricks in the kiln. The soil should be turned over at least twice and it should be ensured that the entire soil is wet throughout the period of weathering. In order to keep it wet, water may be sprayed as often as necessary. The plasticity and strength of the clay are improved by exposing the clay to weather. Blending: The earth is then suitable proportions to modify the composition of soil. Moderate amount of water is mixed so as to obtain the right consistency for moulding. The mass is then mixed uniformly with spades. Addition of water to the soil at the dumps is necessary for the easy mixing and workabil the addition of water should be controlled in such a way that it may not create a problem in moulding and xed with sandy-earth and calcareous-earth in ity, butdrying. Excessive moisture content may affect the size and shape of the finished brick. Tempering: Tempering consists of kneading the earth with feet so as to make the mass stiff and plastics (by plasticity, we mean the property which wet clay has of being permanently deformed without cracking). It should preferably be carried out by storing the soil ina cool place in layers of about 30 cm thickness for not less than 36 hours. This will ensure homogeneity in the mass of clay for subsequent processing. For manufacturing good brick, tempering is done in pug mills and the operation is called pugging Clay feed — }+— Driving gear Processing screw ‘Supporting frame PUG MILL MOULDINGIt is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from the prepared brick earth. Moulding may be carried out by hand or by machines. The process of moulding of bricks may be the soft-mud (hand moulding), the stiff-mud (machine moulding) or the dry press process (moulding using maxi per cent water and forming bricks at higher pressures). Fire-brick is made by the soft mud process. Roofing, floor and wall made by dry-press method. However, the stiff-mud process is used for making all the structural clay products. Hand moulding: Hand moulding Is further classified as ground moulding and table moulding. In ground moulding, the ground is levelled and sand is sprinkled on it. The moulded bricks are left on the ground for drying. Such bricks do not have frog and the lower brick surface becomes too rough. To overcome these defects, moulding blocks or boards are used at the base of the mould. The process consists of shaping in hands a lump of well pugged earth, slightly more than that of the brick volume. It is then rolled into the sand and with a jerk dashed into the mould. The molder give blows with his fists and presses the earth properly in the comers of the mould with his thumb. The surplus clay on the top surface is removed with a sharp edge metal plate called strike or with a thin wire stretched over the mould. After this the mould is given a gentle slope and is lifted leaving the brick on the ground to dry. = O) Wire strike Wooden strikei) This method is adopted when a large and level land is available. ‘To provent the moulded bricks from sticking to the side of the mould. sand is sprinkled on the inner sides of the mould, or the mould may be dipped in water every time before moulding is ‘5 so produced are respectively called sand moulded and slop moulded bricks, better since they provide sufficient rough surface necessary for achieving a ‘good bond between bricks and mortar. In table moulding, the bricks are moulded on stock boards nailed on the moulding table. Stock boards have the projection for forming the frog. The process of filling clay in the mould is the same as explained above. After this, a thin board called pallet is placed over the mould. The mould containing the brick is then smartly lifted off the stock board and inverted so that the moulded clay along with the mould rests on the pallet. The mould is then removed as explained before and the brick is carried to the drying site. Pugged clay Moulding table ‘Moud. \ Paltot ta oe sand Guide roters Doras at AA Pedal Fig. 2.6(a) Brick Moulding Table Fig. 2.6(b) Stock Board Machine moulding: can be done by either of the following processes: Plastic machine moulding; the pugge4, stiffer clay is forced through a rectangular opening of brick size by means of an auger. Clay comes out of the opening in the form of a bar. The bricks are cut from the bar by a frame consisting of several wires at a distance of brick size. This is a quick and economical process.Wire cutting frame Clay bar Dry machine method; The moist, powdered clay is fed into the mould on a mechanically operated press, where it is subjected to high pressure and the clay in the mould takes the shape of bricks. ‘Such pressed bricks are more dense, smooth and uniform than ordinary bricks. These are burnt carefully as they are likely to crack. Green bricks contain about 7-30% moisture depending upon the method of manufacture. The object of drying is to remove the moisture to control the shrinkage and save fuel and time during burning. The drying shrinkage is dependent upon pore spaces within the clay and the mixing water. The addition of sand or ground burnt clay reduces shrinkage, increases porosity and facilities drying. The moisture content is brought down to about 3 per cent under exposed conditions within three to four days. Thus, the strength of the green bricks is increased and the bricks can be handled safely. Clay products can be dried in open air driers or in artificial driers. The artificial driers are of two types,> Hot floor drier. -heat is applied by a furnace placed at one end of the drier or by exhaust steam from the engine used to furnish power and is used for fire bricks, clay pipes and terracotta. > Tunnel drier. -Tunnol driers aro heated by fuels underneath, by steam pipes, or by hot air from cooling kilns. They are more economical than floor driers. In artificial driers, temperature rarely exceeds 120°C. The time varies from one to three days. In developing countries, bricks are normally dried in natural open air driers. They are stacked on raised ground as shown below and are protected from bad weather and direct sunlight. A gap of about 1.0 m is left in the adjacent layers of the stacks so as to allow free movement for the workers. Courses 1,35, ot BURNING Buming of bricks is done in a clamp or kiln. A clamp is a temporary structure whereas kiln is a permanent one. Burning of bricks is done to impart hardness and strength to the brick and also to increase the density of the brick so that they can absorb less quantity of water.Buming of bricks is done in three ways. 4. Clamp: The bricks and fuel are placed in alternate layers. The amount of fuel is reduced successively in the top layers. Each brick tier consists of 4-5 layers of bricks. Some space is left between bricks for free circulation of hot gasses. After 30 per cent loading of the clamp, the fuel in the lowest layer is fired and the remaining loading of bricks and fuel is carried out hurriedly. The top and sides of the clamp are plastered with mud. Then a coat of cow dung is given, which prevents the escape of heat. The process is completed in six months. This process yields about 60 per cent first class bricks. Fuel Raw bricks KILNS: The kiln used for burning bricks may be underground, or over ground. These may be rectangular, circular or oval in shape. When the process of burning bricks is continuous, the kiln is known as continuous kiln. On the other hand if the process of burning bricks is discontinuous, the kiln is known as intermittent kiln. 2. Intermittent kiln: After loading the kiln, it is fired, cooled and unloaded and then the next loading is done. Since the walls and sides get cooled during reloading and are to be heated again during next firing, there is wastage of fuel.370 a ? Baas Bricks Taal 1500 3. Continuous kiln: In a continuous kiln, bricks are stacked in various chambers wherein the bricks undergo different treatments at the same time. When the bricks in one of the chambers is fired, the bricks in the next set of chambers are dried and preheated while bricks in the othor set of chambers are loaded and in the last are cooled. GLAZING This is a process of forming some film over the surfaces of clay products to protect the surface from chemical attack and other weathering agencies. A glaze is a glassy coat (vitreous) applied on the surface of a clay item. The different types of glazing in use are as to follow. Transparent glazing: There are many methods for imparting transparent glazing, but salt glazing is most commonly used, since this makes the items impermeable. It consists of throwing sodium chloride in the kiln when burning is at peak (1200°-1300'C). The heat of the kiln volatizes the salt,which enters into the pores of the burning item and combines with the silica in clay to make soda silicate. The soda silicate so formed combines with alumina, lime and iron in the clay to form a permanent thin, transparent surface coating. Opaque glazing: Borax, kaolin, chalk and coloring matter is fired with total or a part of feldspar, flint, and lead oxide. The resulting molten glass is poured into water to give shattered frit. The frit is then ground with remaining materials and water and is made of the consistency of cream known as siip. Fully burnt earthenware’s known as biscuits are dipped in the slip. The biscuits absorb water and form thin layer of glaze on the surfaces. After drying the products, these are once again fired to a lower temperature so as to fuse the glaze. Porcelain enameling: this is a glaze acquired by fusing powdered glass to a clay item. The powder melts, flows and then hardens to a smooth durable vitreous coating on a clay article. PROPERTIES OF CLAY PRODUCTS: The essential requirements for buil crushing, regularity in size, a proper suction rate, and a pleasing appearance when exposed to view. ing bricks are sufficient strength in > Size and shape; The bricks should have uniform size and plane, rectangular surfaces with parallel sides and sharp straight edges > Color: The brick should have a uniform deep red or cherry color as indicative of uniformity in chemical composition and thoroughness in the burning of the brick. > Texture and compactness: The surfaces should not be too smooth to cause slipping of mortar. The brick should have pre-compact and uniform texture. A fractured surface should not show fissures, holes grits or lumps of lime. > Hardness and soundness: The brick should be so hard that when scratched by a finger nail noimpression is made. When two bricks are struck together, a metallic sound should be produced. > Water absorption: should not exceed 20 per cent of its dry weight when kept immersed in water for 24 hours. > Crushing strength: should not be less than 10 Nimm2 TEST PROCEDURES ON CLAY PRODUCTS 1. WATER ABSORPTION TEST: minute pores confers marked capillary properties on brick. In particular all bricks absorb water by c: action. The specimen is first weighed when dry. It’s then immersed in water for a period of 16-24 hrs. Its then removed from the water and weighed again. The difference in weight indicates the amount of water absorbedby the brick. It should not in any case, exceed 20 % of weight of the dry brick. SALT CONTENT TEST: it’s also known as an efflorescence test. The ends of the brick are kept in a 150 mm diameter porcelain or glass dish containing 25 mm depth of water at room temperature (20°-30°C) ti the entire water is absorbed or evaporated. The water is again filled to 25 mm depth in the dish and allowed to be absorbed by the brick or evaporated. Presence of efflorescence is classified as below; 1 Nil — When the deposit of efflorescence is imperceptible. 2 Slight — When the deposit of efflorescence does not cover more than 10 per cent of the exposed area of the brick. 3. Moderate — When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 10 per cent but less than 50% of the exposed area of the brick. 4. Heavy — When the deposit ofefMlorescence is do not powder or flake away the brick surface. re than 50 per cent but the deposits 5. Serious. — Whenthe deposits are heavy and powder or flake away the brick surface. ‘The specifications limit the efflorescence to be not more than moderate (10-50%) up to class, 12.5 and not more than slight (< 10 per cent) for higher classes. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST: the two bed faces of bricks are ground to provide smooth, even and parallel faces. The bricks are then Immersed in water at room temperature for 24 hours. These are then taken out of water and surplus water on the surfaces is wiped off with cotton or a moist cloth. The frog of the brick is flushed level with cement mortar and the brick is stored under damp jute bags for 24 hours followed by its immersion in water at room temperature for three days. The specimen is placed in the compression testing machine with flat faces horizontal and mortar filled face being upwards. Load is app! at a uniform rate of 14 N/m2 per minute till failure. The maximum load at failure divided by the average area of bed face gives the compressive strength. Maximum load at failure (N) Average area of bed faces (mm”) Compressive strength (N/n The average of results shall be reported. The compressive strength of any individual brick tested in the sample should not fall below the minimum average compressive strength specified for the corresponding class of brick by more than 20 percent.