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International Journal of Qualitative Methods

Volume 20: 1–11
Journaling: A More Mindful Approach to ª The Author(s) 2021
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Researching a Mindfulness-Based DOI: 10.1177/16094069211014771
journals.sagepub.com/home/ijq
Intervention in a Junior School

Andrea Crawford1 , Edward Sellman1 , and Stephen Joseph1

Abstract
Mindfulness, often defined as present-moment awareness, has in recent years become a topic of multidisciplinary interest. This
article addresses methodological issues for researching mindfulness and education. It is argued that there are advantages to
coherence between ontological and epistemological positions when designing research studies. The limitations of positivistic
methods for researching mindfulness are discussed. We then advocate the qualitative method of journaling as a more holistic
means of providing in-depth access to the unique and often underexplored inner life of those experiencing a mindfulness
intervention. Drawing upon pupils and teachers’ views at a junior school receiving low-intensity mindfulness training, we show
how journaling illuminates both its impact upon individuals alongside implementational issues for the school, in a manner more
consistent with mindfulness’ emphasis on such terms as “awareness” and “being.”

Keywords
journaling, reflexivity, mindfulness, mindfulness-based interventions, schools, children, well-being.

Introduction to pain management, reactivity to coping with stress, a way of

creating attentive learners, productive workers and, even some-
The popularity of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) has
what antithetically, more efficient soldiers (Sun, 2014). Propo-
increased exponentially over the last two decades (Ergas, 2019;
nents of MBIs often paraphrase Kabat-Zinn, (2003, p. 45), who
Feldman & Kuyken, 2019), so much so that the concept has
defines mindfulness as “the awareness that emerges through
entered common parlance. Yet it is enigmatic, and therefore it
paying attention on purpose, in the present moment and non-
is useful to explore the precise meaning of mindfulness and
judgmentally.” This kind of attention encourages greater
how it has been instrumentalized in fields such as psychology,
awareness, clarity, and acceptance of the here and now rather
health, and education before we discuss approaches to
than the past or future.
researching the phenomenon. The literature on mindfulness is
In this way, the operationalisation of mindfulness and its
replete with challenges to defining and conceptualizing mind-
associated practices have increasingly been used successfully
fulness due to the variety of practices associated with its culti-
with various adult clinical populations for treating a range of
vation. Consequently, definitions and applications of
“disorders” such as depression, anxiety, stress, and pain-related
mindfulness are many and varied, often being subject to the
health issues (Feldman & Kuyken, 2019). Consequently, and
author’s understanding of the concept and their own introspec-
more recently, MBIs have become widespread, resulting in
tive experience (Albrecht et al., 2012).
significant scientific efforts and financial resources to research
In its original Buddhist context, the Pali word for mindful-
ness “sati” refers to the process of remembrance, and acute
observation of the unity of the self with the world, alongside 1
Centre for Research in Human Flourishing, School of Education, University of
an appreciation of the transitory nature of both (Bodhi, 2013). Nottingham, United Kingdom
Since the 1970s however, and following a secularized intro-
duction within a United States health care setting by Jon Kabat- Corresponding Author:
Andrea Crawford, Centre for Research in Human Flourishing, School of
Zinn in particular (Crane, 2017), mindfulness has focused on Education, University of Nottingham, University Park Campus, Nottingham
meditation practices and has been presented as a potential NG7 2RD, United Kingdom.
“panacea” to numerous types of issues ranging from addiction Email: [email protected]

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2 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

their use. This is also the case for education, as illustrated by research using journaling as both a more coherent and illumi-
the fact that funding for a large randomized controlled trial was nating approach to investigate mindfulness. The results of our
recently granted to the University of Oxford to research the exploration using journaling with pupils and teachers and their
impact of short courses in United Kingdom schools (Mindful- implications for using this technique more widely are also dis-
ness and Resilience in Adolescence (MYRIAD) Project— cussed in later sections. First, we turn our attention to how
Oxford Mindfulness Centre, 2017). However, according to mindfulness is commonly researched, particularly within edu-
Goldberg et al. (2017), in their systematic review of mindful- cation, and its limitations.
ness research over the last 16 years, the literature in this field
has not become more rigorous with time. As such, Bishop’s
(2002, p. 71) critique of this area as “rife with methodological
Limitations of a Positivistic Approach
problems” remains just as valid now as it was nearly 2 decades Schonert-Reichl and Lawlor (2010) note that mindfulness
ago. research within the school population is more complicated than
One of the less-discussed methodological issues concerning clinical-based studies, which have clearly defined outcome
mindfulness research is the seemingly contradictory nature of variables related to reducing the severity of clinical symptoms
researching something that concerns people’s inner worlds as an objective. The influence of specific developmental peri-
using traditional positivistic techniques that focus on the exter- ods within a child’s or young person’s life, the type and inten-
nal and observable. Within the field of education, writers such sity of intervention used, issues around school delivery, e.g.
as Ergas (2019) and Sellman and Buttarazzi (2020) have shown teacher versus outside facilitator (Carsley et al., 2017), social
two predominant approaches; mindfulness in education (as a background, and how a program is accepted within a particular
psychologized intervention) and mindfulness as education (a school context all influence its effects (Zenner et al., 2014).
more holistic, embodied approach). Aligning ourselves as Thus, research on mindfulness within education attempts to
advocates of the latter position, we suggest journaling as an capture a broader range of positive and negative outcome vari-
approach that offers ontological-epistemological coherence. ables, all impacting replicability.
After defining journaling, we dedicate the larger part of this Despite this, studies on MBIs within education invariably
article to showing how journaling is a method that aligns well employ research methods where feedback is increasingly
with social constructionist and interpretivist methodology in gained via psychometric by-proxy measures of mindfulness,
general. Following this, we will report on the use of a journal- e.g. Child and Adolescent Mindfulness Measure (CAMM)
ing approach we used ourselves within a small-scale study at an (Greco et al., 2011); Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
English junior school. (FFMQ) (Baer et al., 2006). These quantitative methods have
Social constructionism moves away from expertise-based, been met with scepticism, although some of the criticism is
rational, hierarchical, and result-focused models toward parti- equally applicable to all self-report instruments. Objections are
cipatory, collaborative, and process-centred approaches (Gal- wide-ranging; from questionnaires being subject to biases,
bin, 2014), with the aim being to understand the world of lived where respondents measuring mindfulness misrepresent them-
experience from the perspective of those inhabiting it selves either deliberately or unconsciously (Baer, 2011), to
(Schwandt, 1998). A discussion on the broader context of problematic issues concerning the scale construction of mea-
mindfulness research and what we see as the problematic sures and interpretation (Van Dam et al., (2017). An earlier
nature of much contemporary quantitative research is included critique by Van Dam et al. (2010, p. 806) is that such measures
within our review. This leads to the presentation of a substan- lack “construct representationalism”, i.e. they do not consider
tive and robust case for journaling as a powerful and insightful the psychological processes underlying individuals’ responses
real-world research method, one that is particularly synergistic to questions.
with mindfulness. For Grossman (2011), the main weakness of these measures
Drawing on our own experience as mindfulness practi- is how they de-contextualize mindfulness from its original ethi-
tioners, pedagogues and researchers within the field of huma- cal and attitudinal foundations. Grossman (2011) lists other
nistic education, we contend that most approaches to flaws: the tendency to measure only particular aspects of mind-
researching mindfulness are contradictory and antithetical to fulness, such as staying present, attention span, or observing
its true meaning and origins. This is not to say mindfulness fleeting emotional states, and, more generally, presenting an
cannot be researched in positivistic ways—it clearly can be incorrect and adulterated perspective on what mindfulness is.
and is, like many other “ephemeral” qualities (kindness, com- Grossman and Van Dam (2011) point out that although scores
passion, altruism), yet, we contend, given the emphasis mind- on concentration, present moment awareness, and emotional
fulness places on inner experience and contemplation, it is reactivity tests might correlate positively with enhancement
amiss to neglect these sources of data from the research pro- of learning, all worthy and desirable traits, they are not neces-
cess. As our article shows, such inner experience is extremely sarily measures of mindfulness.
rich with potentially more insightful information. Toward the From a different perspective, Feagans Gould et al. (2016)
end of the article, we include teachers’ and pupils’ perspectives highlight the behavior and mental effects of mindfulness prac-
about the process of using journals to reflect on an MBI at a tices are subjective and personal; these are difficult to quantify
state junior school in England. Ultimately, we advocate alone and may occur with unpredictable timing. For example, a
Crawford et al. 3

participant may not realize they have become less reactive until please the teacher and/or researcher associated with the
such a stimulus arises to evidence this development. Further- intervention.
more, according to Trochim and Donnelly (2006), quantifica- Instead of using a tool with a fixed set of questions that
tion only looks at one small portion of a reality that cannot be attempts to measure mindfulness, a more mindful approach
split or unitized without losing the whole phenomenon’s enables the researcher and participant to let the questions arise
importance. More recently, Hyland (2016) notes that position- and change as they become more familiar with what they are
ing mindfulness as an intervention with instrumental ends and studying (Ochieng, 2009). The researcher moves away from
measurable outcomes for comparability and standardization assuming there is a single unitary reality apart from their per-
between courses and training results in a reductionist approach ceptions since each of us experiences life from our own view-
to its meaning. point (Trochim & Donnelly, 2006). All our experiences are
As such, Feagans Gould et al. (2016) suggest the importance inescapably subjective; our descriptions of the world are lim-
of practitioners and researchers acknowledging the limitations ited, chosen, and filtered by the perceptions and assumptions
of traditional, positivistic, scientific methods and espousing an we bring to our observations and the particular perspective
approach that remains open to the full ramifications of mind- from which we view the world (Letherby et al., 2013; Maxwell,
fulness as an ongoing way of being and knowing. Having con- 2018). Research carried out without considering this violates
sidered the problematic nature of measuring mindfulness, the fundamental view of the individual. Consequently, methods
maybe, as Farran (2011) states, just because something can that attempt to aggregate across individuals are flawed because
be measured, it does not mean it should be. Indeed, Ergas each individual is unique (Trochim & Donnelly, 2006).
(2013) contends that compartmentalizing mindfulness to fit Ochieng (2009) contends it is pointless trying to establish
science’s tendency and ability to measure, alongside educa- validity in any external or objective sense, particularly con-
tional policy-makers’ requirement for standards and time- cerning inner phenomena such as mindfulness. As qualitative
delineated achievements, undoubtedly affects the object researchers, there is always a personal significance. The stories
measured. Hence this article presents the case for adopting a told to us, how they are relayed, and the narratives we form and
more mindful approach to the research process itself. share with others are influenced by our position and experi-
ences as a researcher in relation to our participants (Greene,
2014); furthermore, just as the knowledge of participants
The Value of a More Mindful Approach to Research reflects their social, cultural, and historical context, this is
equally applicable to the researcher; as Burr (2015, p. 172)
A more mindful approach to research embraces reflective pro- states: “No human can step outside their humanity and view
cesses that also acknowledge the dialogical relationships the world from no position at all, and this is just as true of
between subject, object and researcher. It moves away from scientists as of everyone else.” Through interaction with peo-
the quantitative methods of research that are, as Ochieng ple, ideas, and activities in the world, who we are, what we
(2009) asserts, generally confirmatory and deductive methods. think, and how we act is shaped and reshaped (Webster-Wright,
It recognizes research techniques themselves can impact the 2013).
findings; that the subjects might not be aware of their feelings, Therefore, the best way to understand what is going on is to
interactions, and behaviors and, consequently, unable to articu- bring awareness to the situation, to become immersed in it; to
late them to respond to something like a questionnaire (Mar- be flexible in the inquiry of people in context (Ochieng, 2009).
shall & Rossman, 2016). In essence, the methods and procedures employed in the
Seminal sociologist Erving Goffman (1959) maintained all research process are ultimately and inextricably tied to the
actions humans perform in the social world are acts, i.e. a researcher’s values and subjectivities (Bochner, 2000). The use
projection of an image of ourselves we want others to see; of questionnaires to measure mindfulness, for example, com-
however, while unable to control what others think of us, we municates a reductive emphasis on the nature of mindfulness
can attempt to influence how we are seen through manipulation and attach status to personal competencies associated with its
of aspects we can control, e.g., the setting of the interaction, our development. The facts and truths scientists find are linked
appearance, and how we behave. Another distinctive contribu- inextricably to the vocabularies and paradigms the scientists
tion comes from Freire (1970), who questioned the authenticity use to represent them (Kuhn, 1996), and the observer and the
of voices when different groups and people are involved in an observed are inextricably tied together in reflection (Ryan,
intervention. Powerless groups may echo the voices of those 2007). One method that allows participants to be immersed
perceived as having the power as a conscious way to appear in this way, enabling greater subjective exploration is
compliant with the more powerful parties’ wishes or the domi- journaling.
nant views and values internalized (Freire, 1970). Alterna-
tively, they may become aware of what the researcher wants
and try to please them (Marshall & Rossman, 2016). For exam- Journaling—A Brief History
ple, in the case of using approaches such as questionnaires to The term “journal” comes from the French word “jour” mean-
measure mindfulness, post-intervention, children are vulnera- ing day and is often used to depict daily writing and reflection
ble to responding with social desirability and/or a desire to (Bender, 2000). Some writers use the terms diary and journal
4 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

interchangeably, others and ourselves would distinguish a diary learn the truth of balance, empathy, or charisma by embodying
as a report, often of facts related to external events, and a them and engaging with how they reveal themselves through
journal encompassing the thoughts and feelings from within. our subjectivity. Cunliffe (2016) also considers this subjective
People have kept journals for different reasons throughout dimension, emphasizing how journal writing is not just think-
recorded history. Samuel Pepys, Anne Frank, Virginia Woolf, ing about thinking; it is also thinking about self from a sub-
Ernest Hemingway and other famous authors kept journals that jective perspective.
became great and influential works that have stood the test of Thinking about thinking is a form of “pure awareness”
time and ultimately served to be a catalyst for their self- according to Williams and Penman (2011); it enables us to
actualisation and life purpose (Williamson, 2009). experience the world directly, unclouded by our thoughts and
In some quarters journaling became popular due to the feelings, and requires us to be attentive to our assumptions,
human potential movement popular in the 1960s and 1970s. ways of being and acting, and ways of relating. Thus, journal-
The movement emphasized an individual’s development ing as an approach resonates with both the secular definition of
through encounter groups, sensitivity training, and primal ther- mindfulness as “paying attention on purpose, in the present
apy (Stone, 1978). This movement prompted Ira Progoff, a moment, and non-judgmentally to things as they are” (Wil-
psychotherapist, to develop Intensive Journaling Workshops. liams et al., 2007, p. 47), and even more deeply with classical
Progoff (1992) began working with groups, requesting each definitions emphasizing mindfulness as a form of remembrance
participant keep a journal. He discovered that participants were or inquiry into the non-permanent, yet divine, nature of self and
more honest in their journals compared to what they articulated reality (Sellman & Buttarazzi, 2020). As such, harmonious
in therapy. Consequently, Progoff started to experiment, using links emerge between mindfulness, the subject of the research
the journal to probe the inner life and help his clients delve into and journaling as the methodology. Thus, we can welcome an
personal insights (Martin, 1992). approach open to the full ramifications of mindfulness as a way
Through such reflective writing, we have a way of expand- of being and knowing (Fegans Gould et al., 2016); that
ing our inner horizons and relating more meaningfully to the
acknowledges the limitations of positivistic science in this area.
world we live in. Journaling, therefore, is not just about record-
For writers such as Janesick (2015) and Parnell (2005), a
ing objective facts about the day’s events; it involves subjective
journal is a mirror of the self, our perceptions of, and responses
contemplation (Baldwin, 2007). It is a reconstruction of expe-
to, life’s events and, therefore, an opportunity for personal and
rience with objective and subjective dimensions; events are
spiritual growth. The use of structured questions in conjunction
chronicled as they happen, and we can have a dialog with facts
with free-flowing journal writing is particularly useful (Prog-
and interpretations and learn from experience (Holly, 1989).
off, 1992); it enables us to better explore and write about the
This dialog allows more in-depth insight to form, enabling us to
dominating thoughts and emotions, to discover what they can
become more accepting, less judgmental, and better acquainted
reveal about where we are with “the now of life” (Parnell,
with our hidden patterns of thinking and feeling (Holly, 1989).
2005, p. 3). Journaling also provides us with ways to illuminate
Although journaling is a key feature of the introduction and
augmentation of contemplative practices in Higher Education our automatic thinking and habits of mind; to move past an
(Barbezat & Bush, 2014), reflective journaling is perhaps best intuitive adoption of patterns of thinking, or unquestioned
known hitherto in the field of education as a means for devel- beliefs and progress from “assimilative learning to transforma-
oping critical thinking skills (Miller, 2017) where dilemmas, tive learning” (Hubbs & Brand, 2005, p. 64).
contradictions, and evolving worldviews are questioned or The “here and now” is a fundamental part of mindfulness.
challenged (Hiemstra, 2001). However, in the next section, Williams and Penman (2011) distinguish between the “Doing”
we will outline how journaling, inner inquiry, and mindfulness and “Being” modes of the mind. While good for solving prob-
are harmonious approaches for researching mindfulness and lems and regulating our lives through habits, the Doing mode
education specifically. can result in too much control surrendered to automaticity
where thinking, working, eating, and so forth happens without
deep awareness of them taking place. Living our life this way
Journaling for Researching Mindfulness and Education means much can be missed. The Being mode is a different way
of relating to the world. It allows us to see how our minds tend
We begin by examining how journaling can help researchers
incorporate reflexivity into their investigation, drawing upon to filter and distort reality, over-think, over-analyze and over-
synergistic links between mindfulness and inner contempla- judge. Mindfulness encourages us to enter this Being mode.
tion. We then discuss how journaling was used in a study for Similarly, just as journaling helps us develop and expand a
researching mindfulness in a junior school. more acute sense of self-awareness by examining our thoughts,
communications, and behaviors over time (Solgot, 2005), so
Harmonious links. Dillon (2014) observes how reflecting too can a mindful inquiry. Time for reflective thought is often
through writing a journal provides an opportunity to understand limited in busy academic lives, with any available thinking
the researcher’s subjectivity rather than remove it. Seminal time usually dedicated to pressing, analytic inquiry. Paradoxi-
philosopher, Heidegger (1962), wrote of how there is a know- cally, however, as Webster-Wright (2013) notes, time spent in
ing only obtainable through active engagement; we can only contemplative mindfulness, stepping back from persistent
Crawford et al. 5

probing into a quiet, peaceful space, can provide us with a with the program and, therefore, have greater program knowl-
broader perspective, leading to increased clarity and focus. edge, which is a strength, this close association can also result
For Sandelowski and Barroso (2002), reflexivity is a hall- in biased feedback; which is a weakness (Dariotis et al., 2017).
mark of excellent qualitative research; it entails the research- Hence, journaling provides program participants with a
er’s ability and willingness to acknowledge and consider the voice and includes them in informing the purposes of the data’s
many ways they can influence research findings and, conse- research and meanings. Participants have a different vantage
quently, what is accepted as knowledge. Bentz and Shapiro point, investment, and information sources. As key stake-
(1998) emphasize the need for tolerance and integration of holders, they provide unique perspectives; ones often under-
numerous perspectives in a more mindful inquiry; looking explored using qualitative methods (Dariotis et al., 2017).
beyond assumptions to the often unaware, deep layers of con- Indeed, Gaventa and Cornwall (2008) emphasize, it is crucial
sciousness and unconsciousness that underlie them. According to listen to and for different versions and voices; “truths”
to Kabat-Zinn (2004), paying attention in this way, with open- emerge when people come together to share their experiences
ness, not falling prey to our likes and dislikes, opinions, pre- through a dynamic process of action, reflection, and shared
judices, projections, and expectations, allows new possibilities inquiry. However, these truths are still entrenched in the parti-
to open up. cipants’ conceptual worlds and their interactions (Gaventa &
Turning our attention to children and young people, as Bar- Cornwall, 2008). Such voiced opinions about the acceptability
rack (2015) notes, mindfulness can empower pupils to become of an MBI’s content and delivery may help refine intervention
more self-confident and responsible for their well-being. procedures and optimize effectiveness (Dariotis et al., 2017).
Therefore, learning the practice of mindfulness presents the Similarly, McKeering and Hwang (2018) maintain that exclud-
opportunity for personal insight and the development of a life- ing qualitative data investigating pupils’ learning experiences
long tool or different way of being. Likewise, journal writing is and practising mindfulness overlooks valuable information that
a compelling medium for realizing transformative and healing could inform better implementation.
properties in ourselves and the world (Myers, 2010). With Wegner et al. (2017) note that adolescent programs are often
freedom from the restrictions of “proper writing”, journaling criticized for focusing on implementation and providing little
allows us to tap into our creative and authentic voice; a voice opportunity for reflection. Wegner et al. (2017) continue to
that perhaps sits just out of reach of our everyday conscious and describe using reflective writing to study a health-promoting
critical minds. It enables us to write without thinking, with an schools project in South Africa. The participants reflected on
openness and curiosity; also, a lauded trait of mindfulness connecting with complex, positive, and negative feelings. They
(Langer, 2014) to see what unfolds as we write things down. perceived reflective writing had empowered them to express
themselves with courage and honesty, connect with them-
Journaling for researching mindfulness in a junior school. We now selves, recognize weaknesses and let go of negative feelings.
make greater reference to a small scale-study that sought to They also perceived writing to be non-judgmental, affording a
investigate the implementation of an MBI at a state junior
sense of relief and release and inducing emotions; ultimately, it
school in England, emphasizing pupils’ and teachers’ perspec-
allowed them to recognize personal changes and development
tives. Journaling was considered most appropriately matched to
and provide insight into their feelings and experiences.
this study’s research objectives and valued for its harmonious
In the study we will now present, it was this creative and
link with mindfulness, as previously introduced. In this section,
authentic voice of participants that was sought. Within a school
we offer further detail concerning the reasons underpinning this
community, the pupils are invariably those with a silenced
methodological decision. As a research method, journaling is
voice or those not used to communicating their views freely
an excellent aide-mémoire of what took place and when. It can
or being taken seriously by adults in an adult dominated society
highlight critical learning and facilitate the writer to glimpse
(Punch, 2002). Thus, our concern was to provide pupils with
directly into the research process.
ample opportunity to share their voice more prominently than
As our next section will show, journaling allowed for greater
the one characteristically heard via questionnaire data. Journal-
exploration of how contextual factors and individual differ-
ing gave them this voice, which can be heard alongside their
ences influenced the perceived impact of, and meanings attrib-
teachers through the reflections contained within the extracts
uted to, mindfulness practice and experience of an MBI. Such
perceptions are vital for understanding the place of MBIs in shared later in this article. Journaling, as we will show, also
schools and providing essential information on how the MBI gave rise to a more democratic, participatory, and empowering
was experienced first-hand by those at the receiving end. experience.
Hence, the strength of a more mindful approach through jour-
naling lies in its ability to capture the nuances of diverse per-
sonal experiences gained from all involved in the same MBI.
The Study: Pupils and Teachers’ Perceptions of Journaling
Providing pupils with a voice also diverts focus away from the The study reported here aimed to ascertain pupils’ perceptions
usual narrow emphasis on feedback gained from the program of the potentiality and acceptability of mindfulness lessons at
implementer (Feagans Gould et al., 2016). While the imple- their school and journaling as a process that was integrated
menter’s perspective is essential as they are closely involved alongside these lessons.
6 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

Sample and approach. The lessons took place for one academic subsequently coded. Broader patterns of meaning were then
year in a mixed, ethnically diverse state-funded English junior sought by examining and comparing previously generated
school for pupils aged seven to eleven (years “three” to “six” in codes. This led to themes that explained larger data sections
the English context). A qualified mindfulness teacher led a 6- and involved combining similar codes (Braun & Clarke, 2006),
week sequence of lessons to each of the 4-year groups. Twelve for example, mindfulness as calming and behavior manage-
teachers and their classes, averaging 30 pupils per class, were ment later merged into one theme.
involved. An accompanying activity was journaling; as reflec-
tion was a fundamental part of the study it was considered The findings. The pupils’ focus group reflections and occasional
essential to provide the participants with an opportunity for teacher interview extracts are integrated with a continuing lit-
reflection through journaling. Therefore, all pupils in years five erature review. While only a few examples of their experiences
and six received a “mindful moments” diary in which to prac- are shared, generally, they are indicative of the whole sample.
tice. It was understood and agreed each pupil had full owner- Some children referred to the calming and relaxing effects
ship of their diary; their entries would not be shared with the of journaling, others to the pure enjoyment of filling them in, or
teacher, and they could write in them at a time agreed with their carefully coloring or doodling in them and thinking about
teacher, or at home. The diary comprised nineteen “tell me “stuff.”
about moments” relating to the different themes taught by the
MBI. For example, to reflect and write/draw about when they Mary—It’s just really sort of relaxing, and you just think like
felt worried at school and needed to steady themselves. Alter- it’s a nice thing to do at school because you don’t normally
natively, when they had felt grateful; to consider how it felt and get that time to do coloring or write down your thoughts (year
what they had noticed. The diaries also contained mindful col- six pupil).
oring sheets and blank pages for writing notes or doodling to Noah—I think it’s good because it’s almost mindful classes
allow for pupils’ different preferences and abilities for expres- but without the class. So, it’s just kind of like you’ve got your
sing themselves. own miniature private class to just do what you like really
Upon completing the six lessons, it was agreed that the (year six pupil).
teachers would select four pupils (two boys, two girls) from Ravinder—It’s nice to have something that you can put all
each class in each year group to form a focus group. Pupils your thoughts and feelings into, and your journal is almost
were selected based on their perceived motivation toward the like a person you’re telling about all these questions you’ve
lessons; this included one highly motivated pupil, two neutral got. And it’s quite nice just writing down something you
and one comparatively disinterested. It was considered more wouldn’t really tell other people. Or maybe just like I’m quite
representative if the focus groups comprised a mixture of pupils nervous telling other people stuff, so it’s been quite nice (year
in terms of enthusiasm for the MBI. Though perhaps a limita- six pupil).
tion, these factors were not analyzed as part of the process; Other pupils perceived journaling as providing support for
rather their views were taken as likely to be representative of their mental well-being. For Parnell (2005), the ultimate goal of
their age (7–11) and set against discussion of similar themes in writing is to find our centre of emotional balance and identify
the literature. The study followed the ethical guidelines and ways to regain balance when confronted with emotional dilem-
protocols of the University of Nottingham and BERA (2011); mas. In committing ourselves to this “growth process,” we
hence informed consent was obtained from the school and all begin to develop self-awareness to achieve and maintain emo-
participants for research activities (the lessons were part of the tional and spiritual balance in our lives. Journaling can help us
curriculum though and therefore mandatory), with pseudonyms develop self-awareness needed to recognize when we are not
used here to protect their anonymity. emotionally or spiritually centred or equanimous. It can pay
Free discussion for 30 min was encouraged. A schedule of witness to, and give a voice to, the often forgotten, overlooked,
questions, influenced by hierarchical focusing (Tomlinson, quieter, or silent parts of ourselves (Hubbs & Brand, 2005), as
1989) and informed by a prior review of the literature on mind- revealed by the extracts where some pupils alluded to the more
fulness and education, guided the group discussion. Prompts therapeutic benefits gained by journaling.
were used when long pauses in the discussion necessitated such
interjection. The researchers did not have direct access to the James—It certainly has allowed me to express my feelings as
pupils’ journals; however, pupils were encouraged to reflect on a kind of drawing really (year six pupil).
both their use and content within the focus group’s broader Keiran—I think that it’s good you can jot down all your
remit. Semistructured one to one interviews (30 min each) were worries down, and it will make you feel better, and it will
conducted with nine class teachers and supplement the data make you feel like you can just leave them all behind and
reported here, where reference is made to the pupils’ engage- you don’t have to think about them (year five pupil).
ment with their journals. George—When I’m like sad, or like worried about some-
The authors used thematic analysis to identify and analyze thing, I find it quite hard to say it. Because like you have to
patterns of meaning in the resulting dataset (Braun & Clarke, put like different . . . like ways of saying it when you’re
2006). Initially, emerging categories were used to determine speaking. But when you’re writing, I find it easier because
the significance of experiences reported (Joffe, 2012) and then you don’t put emotion really on writing (year six pupil).
Crawford et al. 7

George spoke of how journaling had become a source of Undeniably, when we write knowing the thoughts presented
comfort and support, particularly as his mother had died will be viewed, there is the risk of self-censorship either con-
recently. He found it difficult to speak to adults about his sciously or unconsciously. There is exposure to the fear of
feelings, having noticed it shocked or upset them when he being judged detracting from the “letting go” experience. Con-
became emotional or angry. George spoke of how it seemed sequently, according to Martin (1992, p. 40), “a journal will
as though the adults did not want to listen to him, to hear of his probably be most useful if it is written not as something which
pain and grief. He had decided it was because it was too dis- will 1 day be published but with the abandon of one who knows
tressing for them to cope with as they too were in pain. So, to that 1 day it will go up in smoke.”
protect their feelings, George felt it better to be careful about
what he said and, more importantly, from his perspective, how Lily—It’s really helpful when I can write things down, and I
he said it. Through journaling, he found a distinct, uncensored, know no one will read it (year five pupil).
voice, one that was not accompanied by even more pain than William—If you want to get something out of your system,
what he was already enduring. Similarly, the class teacher, then it is helpful. And you know if somethings holding you
when interviewed recognized the benefits of journaling for down, it’s your little private thing, yeah . . . and well no one
George. else is going to read it so you can write whatever you want in
One child particularly has started the writing of the ques- there (year six pupil).
tions when he’s feeling quite emotional, quite strained because
From a different perspective, it could be argued that
his mum died recently. He will take himself off with his journal
although journaling can be challenging, it can also go on
and sits quietly and does a bit of writing and things like that.
unchallenged, which could be a limitation of this solo act. The
That’s really helped him actually. He’s been active with that
journal writer might repeatedly process and re-process the
(Mark, year six teacher).
same concepts with little or no challenge to their accepted
From a more critical perspective, it prompts the question
beliefs or ideas (Hubbs & Brand, 2005). Potentially this could
how ethical is it to give a child who is suffering in some way
provide a reason for including an ‘audience’ in the process; it
the space and time at school to allow for thoughts to drift
may encourage the writer to reflect, re-evaluate, and criticize
through their mind and then on to paper? As Sellman and
their perceptions at a deeper and more honest level, while
Buttarazzi (2020) contend in their discussion of MBIs, while
providing others with a glimpse of what the writer is experien-
processing such issues is valuable on an educational and ther-
cing, or has experienced, at a given time (Hubbs & Brand,
apeutic level, crucially it requires dedicated and qualified sup-
2005).
port as it could elicit disturbances in their emotional lives in
Journaling can be an excellent tool to help children think
unpredictable ways, which are difficult to handle and support
about issues that have been addressed and worked on while
(Ergas, 2017). Undeniably, according to Lynagh et al. (2010),
revealing unresolved issues still in need of attention.
many teachers express discomfort in dealing with sensitive
issues such as mental health, grief, and loss. Undoubtedly, Mary—when you write things down it sort of brings back
balancing teacher and carer roles can be problematic, particu- memories and you can kind of think well, I think I did that
larly when the numerous pedagogical tasks filling a school day well. Like you sort of understand more (year six pupil).
conflict with finding time to care for individual pupils (Alisic, Charlotte—I’ve found that I can just . . . just write it down-
2011). but I’ve deliberately taken lots and lots of time erm . . . and
When writing in a journal, there is no expectation for it to I’ve had breaks where I’ve just thought about different things
conform to any style, category, representation, or to have any (year six pupil).
discernible meaning. It only needs to have substance and value
for the writer; it records the dialog taking place in the writer’s In terms of the teachers’ perceptions of journaling, through-
mind and makes sense of it. It takes an order of its own as the out the study, they maintained there was little time in their busy
words are written down on paper, and is a way to be heard when school day for “squeezing” anything else in, let alone what they
it feels like no one else will listen (Williamson, 2009). Thus, viewed as another intervention. They considered they were
journaling gives voice to our feelings, makes us pay attention to already hard-pressed to complete everything they regarded as
what is going on inside us and gives voice to your “self” in the essential, therefore, unsurprisingly, lack of time remained an
sense that it can facilitate a person to speak with him/herself in issue for them when trying to find time for the children to
a language of pure understanding. “The reflective journal pro- reflect and write in their journals. Yet, despite this, the teachers
vides a vehicle for inner dialogue that connects thoughts, feel- generally viewed journaling positively.
ings, and actions” (Hubbs & Brand, 2005, p. 62). Helen (year five teacher) - Oh yes. I really like them. I think
The journal encompasses any and everything within the they really like them. Again, we haven’t given them a lot of
scope of our daily life experiences; it is “a collage” of our life; time in school I’m afraid, but I think it’s a really good idea and
serving as a “storehouse” to document life experiences (Par- it will get them used to writing down their feelings. I think it’s
nell, 2005). However, in a school, as Martin (1992) cautions, it very positive.
is necessary to consider for children journaling maybe stifled Stuart (year six teacher) - When everybody was doing it, it
when written as though someone is looking over their shoulder. was nice and calm. It was nice and quiet. Yeah, it’s lovely. I
8 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

think because they do like that whole idea of ownership of Journaling, a more holistic, interpretive and contemplative
something like that. But they love it because it’s theirs and type of self-report, provided this tool. In contrast to the more
they take real ownership of it; they take good care of it. They limited feedback typically gained from psychometric tests with
take better care of that than their reading books and their school their narrow emphasis on outcomes, journaling offered access
diaries, stuff that don’t necessarily give them that opportunity to more eloquent, perceptive, and real-life feedback on the
to do stuff for their benefit. I think that’s the key, so that’s pupils’ experiences of mindfulness and their experiences of the
definitely a good thing, a positive. process of learning the practice and keeping a journal as an
Journaling, however, is just one method of connecting with intricate part of the process itself.
self and creating time to slow down and acknowledge all that The reflections reveal how the pupils valued the depth of
takes place within our lives. Undeniably no one method will insight afforded by journaling and how such an approach can
work for all people. If committed to self-care and well-being, it support and go beyond processes of reflection encouraged by
is an individual’s responsibility to try out different methods and mindfulness. As Haertl and Ero-Phillips (2017, p. 1) highlight,
find the method or methods they consider best suited to their “writing is a powerful means of expression. It allows the writer
interests, forms of expression, and lifestyle. exploration of cognitive, emotional and spiritual areas other-
Carrie (year six teacher) - They’ve loved it as well, when- wise not accessible.” For some, like George, one of the pupils
ever it’s been like quiet reading “oh can we get our mindfulness referred to in this article, journaling can provide the vehicle to
journals out.” And you know, you know, I think it’s a good help traverse a landscape clouded with pain and sorrow to a
idea. They’re like jotting a lot. Some children won’t. I think place where a measure of peace and acceptance can be found.
you know they’ll be mixed. There’ll be the children that don’t. For others, journaling can provide an element of calm in a
And even just having time to reflect . . . I think they’ve all typically busy school day, a time to think, reflect, or to be still.
enjoyed some aspect of the journals, whether maybe not so Finally, this article argues the case for recognizing the value
much writing it down, whether it’s like a drawing, or the quotes of journaling as a means of collecting data that encourages
looking at those. I think I think there’s been something for mindfulness and yields more authentic data. This more mindful
everybody they’ve enjoyed and like I said they’ve all used them approach to researching MBIs in schools provides a more
in their own ways. But they’ve all certainly enjoyed getting nuanced opportunity for exploring the undeniably complex
them out and have asked me several times’ oh can we get our behavior and mental effects emerging from mindfulness
journals out. practices.

Data Availability
The data sets generated and analyzed during the current study are
Conclusion
available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
This article argues that there is a need for greater coherence
between ontology and epistemology in research design in the Ethical Statement
field of mindfulness and education. To date, studies on MBIs This article draws upon data collection in adherence with the guide-
within education have tended to employ quantitative research lines of the British Educational Research Association and was cleared
methods that emphasize the before and after, with little atten- by the University of Nottingham’s own ethical research reviewing
tion paid to the learning process itself. Such methods have protocols. All participants gave their informed consent and no subject
often been met with skepticism by some (e.g., Hyland, 2016) was harmed or put at risk during the collecting of data. The article
for attempting to measure the “immeasurable.” In doing so, includes quotes from participants that have been safely anonymized.
they only research relatively narrow understandings and The literature has been cited accurately and representatively.
applications of mindfulness, and subsequently, reinforce an
instrumental interpretation and agenda. In contrast, this Declaration of Conflicting Interests
review and study’s findings acknowledge the limitations of The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
the traditional, that is, positivistic, method and adopts journal- the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ing, a qualitative method with harmonious links to mindful-
ness, though the journals themselves were kept private and Funding
discussed in focus groups. The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author-
The rationale for employing journaling was the need to find ship, and/or publication of this article.
a method both more synergistic with mindfulness as a way of
being and knowing and more deeply illuminating of the type of ORCID iDs
learning that may take place during a mindfulness course; one Andrea Crawford https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7722-1632
that could be used as an appropriate tool to study the process of Edward Sellman https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9124-5502
development and learning that takes place when learning the
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