The history of computer was started from stone age.

Many inventors worked a

lot for the development of different calculating devices. During that time , so
many devices were developed for calculating and to do mathematical
calculations. The history of calculation was started with the Abacus but, first
such machine having principle of today’s computing machine was developed
by Charles Babbage in 19th century. According the technology and concept
used on devices, the evolution of computer took place in the five distinct
periods that is called generation of computer.

Computer generation
Computer generation mean the change in technology that the computer were
being used. The term generation was used to distinguish between varying
hardware technologies. But nowadays generation includes both hardware and
software, which together make a computer system. There are total five
computer generation till date so the computer are classified into different
generation from first to fifth generation.
 The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge
and expensive. In these computers, vacuum tubes were used
as the basic components of CPU and memory. These
computers support only machine level language and punch
cards, Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and
input devices in this generation;
 Some of the popular first generation computers are;
 ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
 EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
 UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
 IBM-701
 IBM-650
The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers.
These computers used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming
less power; it made transistor computers faster than the first generation
computers. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory
and magnetic disc and tapes were used as the secondary storage. Assembly
language and programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN, were used
in these computers. The example of second generation computers are:
 IBM 1620

 IBM 7094

 CDC 1604

 CDC 3600

The third generation (1964-1971) computers used integrated circuits (ICs)

instead of transistors. A single IC can pack huge number of transistors which
increased the power of a computer and reduced the cost. The computers also
became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size. Keyboard and monitor are
used as input and output unit. The high-level programming languages like
FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were used in this
generation.
The example of third generation computers are:
 IBM-360 series

 Honeywell-6000 series

 PDP(Personal Data Processor)

The fourth generation (1972-till date) computer are marked by the use of
microprocessor which is made with the help of large scale integration
(LSI) and very large scale integration (VLSI) circuits. These chips made this
generation computers more compact, powerful, fast, portable and affordable.
As a result it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution. All the higher
level languages like C, C++, Java etc. are being used in this generation. The
example of fourth generation computers are:
 DEC 10

 STAR 1000

 PDP 11

 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
The fifth generation (1990 to In progress) computers, the VLSI technology
was replaced with ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) resulting in the
production of Biochips having more than ten million electronic components.
This generation is based on used parallel processing hardware and AI
(Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch of computer
science which interprets mean and method of making computer think like
human beings we can imagine that this computer will be able to use natural
language like English, Germany , French and even Nepali for the processing.
The programming languages used in this generation were C, C++, Java, .Net,
etc. . The example of fifth generation computers are:
 Note Book

 Robot

 Ultra Book

 Chrome Book
 What is Data?
 Data is a raw and unorganized fact that required to be processed to make it
meaningful. Data can be simple at the same time unorganized unless it is
organized. Generally, data comprises facts, observations, perceptions
numbers, characters, symbols, image, etc.
 Data is always interpreted, by a human or machine, to derive meaning. So,
data is meaningless. Data contains numbers, statements, and characters in a
raw form.
 What is Information?
 Information is a set of data which is processed in a meaningful way
according to the given requirement. Information is processed, structured, or
presented in a given context to make it meaningful and useful.
 It is processed data which includes data that possess context, relevance,
and purpose. It also involves manipulation of raw data.
 Information assigns meaning and improves the reliability of the data. It
helps to ensure undesirability and reduces uncertainty. So, when the data is
transformed into information, it never has any useless details.
 Input Unit:- Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any
computation can be performed on the supplied data. The input unit that links the
external environment with the computer system performs this task. Data and
instructions enter input units in forms that depend upon the particular device
used. For example, data is entered from a keyboard in a manner similar to
typing, and this differs from the way in which data is entered through a mouse,
which is another type of input device. However, regardless of the form in which
they receive their inputs, all input devices must provide a computer with data
that are transformed into the binary codes that the primary memory of the
computer is designed to accept.
 It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
 It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable format.
 It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for
further processing.
 Output Unit:- The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an input
unit. It supplied information and results of computation to the outside world.
Thus it links the computer with the external environment. As computers work
with binary code, the results produced are also in binary form. Hence, before
supplying the results to the outside world, they must be converted to a human
acceptable (readable) form. This task is accomplished by units called output
interfaces.
 In short, the following functions are performed by an output unit.
 It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and
hence cannot be easily understood by us.
 It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
 It supplied the converted results to the outside world.
 Storage Unit:- The data and instructions that are entered into the computer
system through input units have to be stored inside the computer before the
actual processing starts. Similarly, the results produced by the computer after
processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer system.
 Types of computer: A computer is a device that
transforms data into meaningful information. It
processes the input according to the set of
instructions provided to it by the user and gives the
desired output. Computers are of various types and
they can be categorized in two ways on the basis of
size and on the basis of data handling capabilities.


We will discuss the type of computers on the basis of

size.
 Super Computer
 Mainframe computer
 Mini Computer
 Workstation Computer
 Personal Computer (PC)
 Supercomputer
 When we talk about speed, then the first name that comes to mind when
thinking of computers is supercomputers. They are the biggest and
fastest computers (in terms of speed of processing data).
Supercomputers are designed such that they can process a huge amount
of data, like processing trillions of instructions or data just in a second.
This is because of the thousands of interconnected processors in
supercomputers. It is basically used in scientific and engineering
applications such as weather forecasting, scientific simulations, and
nuclear energy research. It was first developed by Roger Cray in 1976.
 Characteristics of Supercomputers
 Supercomputers are the computers that are the fastest and they are also
very expensive.
 It can calculate up to ten trillion individual calculations per second, this
is also the reason which makes it even faster.
 It is used in the stock market or big organizations for managing the
online currency world such as Bitcoin etc.
 It is used in scientific research areas for analyzing data obtained from
exploring the solar system, satellites, etc.
 Mainframe computer
 Mainframe computers are designed in such a way that they can
support hundreds or thousands of users at the same time. It also
supports multiple programs simultaneously. So, they can execute
different processes simultaneously. All these features make the
mainframe computer ideal for big organizations like banking,
telecom sectors, etc., which process a high volume of data in
general.
 Characteristics of Mainframe Computers
 It is also an expensive or costly computer.
 It has high storage capacity and great performance.
 It can process a huge amount of data (like data involved in the
banking sector) very quickly.
 It runs smoothly for a long time and has a long life.
 Minicomputer
 Minicomputer is a medium size multiprocessing
computer. In this type of computer, there are two or
more processors, and it supports 4 to 200 users at
one time. Minicomputer is similar to Microcontroller.
Minicomputers are used in places like institutes or
departments for different work like billing,
accounting, inventory management, etc. It is smaller
than a mainframe computer but larger in comparison
to the microcomputer.
 Characteristics of Minicomputer
 Its weight is low.
 Because of its low weight, it is easy to carry anywhere.
 less expensive than a mainframe computer.
 It is fast.
 Workstation Computer
 A workstation computer is designed for technical or
scientific applications. It consists of a fast
microprocessor, with a large amount of RAM and a
high-speed graphic adapter. It is a single-user
computer. It is generally used to perform a specific
task with great accuracy.
 Characteristics of Workstation Computer
 It is expensive or high in cost.
 They are exclusively made for complex work
purposes.
 It provides large storage capacity, better graphics, and
a more powerful CPU when compared to a PC.
 It is also used to handle animation, data analysis,
CAD, audio and video creation, and editing.
 Personal Computer (PC)
 Personal Computers is also known as a
microcomputer. It is basically a general-purpose
computer designed for individual use. It consists of a
microprocessor as a central processing unit(CPU),
memory, input unit, and output unit. This kind of
computer is suitable for personal work such as
making an assignment, watching a movie, or at the
office for office work, etc. For example, Laptops and
desktop computers.
Characteristics of Personal Computer (PC)
 In this limited number of software can be used.
 It is the smallest in size.
 It is designed for personal use.
 It is easy to use.
Storage:-The storage unit is a part of the computer
system which is employed to store the information and
instructions to be processed. A storage device is an
integral part of the computer hardware which stores
information/data to process the result of any
computational work. Without a storage device, a
computer would not be able to run or even boot up. Or
in other words, we can say that a storage device is
hardware that is used for storing, porting, or extracting
data files. It can also store information/data both
temporarily and permanently.
 Types of Computer Memory

 Primary Memory

 Secondary Memory
1. Primary Memory: It is also known as internal memory and main
memory. This is a section of the CPU that holds program instructions,
input data, and intermediate results. It is generally smaller in size. RAM
(Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are examples
of primary storage.
RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store
information that is used immediately or we can say that it is a temporary
memory. Computers bring the software installed on a hard disk to RAM to
process it and to be used by the user. Once, the computer is turned off, the
data is deleted. With the help of RAM, computers can perform multiple
tasks like loading applications, browsing the web, editing a spreadsheet,
experiencing the newest game, etc.
ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or stored in
these devices are non-volatile, i.e, once the data is stored in the memory
cannot be modified or deleted. The memory from which will only read but
cannot write it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is
stored permanently during manufacture only once. ROM stores
instructions that are used to start a computer. This operation is referred to
as bootstrap.
2. Secondary Memory: Secondary storage is a memory that is
stored external to the computer. It is mainly used for the permanent
and long-term storage of programs and data. Hard Disks, CDs,
DVDs, Pen/Flash drives, SSD, etc, are examples of secondary
storage.
 Hard Disk: Hard Disk is a storage device (HDD) that stores and
retrieves data using magnetic storage. It is a non-volatile storage
device that can be modified or deleted n number of times without
any problem. Most computers and laptops have HDDs as their
secondary storage device. It is actually a set of stacked disks, just
like phonograph records. In every hard disk, the data is recorded
electromagnetically in concentric circles or we can say track
present on the hard disk, and with the help of a head just like a
phonograph arm(but fixed in a position) to read the information
present on the track. The read-write speed of HDDs is not so fast
but decent. It ranges from a few GBs to a few and more TB.
 Floppy Disk: Floppy Disk is also known as a floppy diskette. It is
generally used on a personal computer to store data externally. A Floppy
disk is made up of a plastic cartridge and secured with a protective case.
Nowadays floppy disk is replaced by new and effective storage devices like
USB, etc.
 Magnetic Card: It is a card in which data is stored by modifying or
rearranging the magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles present on
the band of the card. It is also known as a swipe card. It is used like a
passcode(to enter the house or hotel room), credit card, identity card, etc.
 Tape Cassette: It is also known as a music cassette. It is a rectangular flat
container in which the data is stored in an analog magnetic tape. It is
generally used to store audio recordings.
 SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive, a mass storage device like HDD. It is
more durable because it does not contain optical disks inside like hard
disks. It needs less power as compared to hard disks, is lightweight, and has
10x faster read and writes speed as compared to hard disks. But, these are
costly as well. While SSDs serve an equivalent function as hard drives,
their internal components are much different. Unlike hard drives, SSDs
don’t have any moving parts and thus they’re called solid-state drives.
Removable storage: Removable media is a type of storage device
that can be removed from a computer whilst the system is
running. Examples Pen drive, memory card etc.
 Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes
flash memory with an integrated USB interface. We can
directly connect these devices to our computers and laptops and
read/write data into them in a much faster and more efficient
way. These devices are very portable. It ranges from 1GB to
256GB generally.
 SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally
used with electronic devices like phones, digital cameras, etc.
to store larger data. It is portable and the size of the SD card is
also small so that it can easily fit into electronic devices. It is
available in different sizes like 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, etc.
 Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras. printers,
game consoles, etc. It is also used to store large amounts of data
and is available in different sizes. To run a memory card on a
computer you require a separate memory card reader.
 CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors
on its surface to store data. It is made up of polycarbonate plastic
and is circular in shape. CD can store data up to 700MB. It is of
two types:
 DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat
optical discs used to store data. It comes in two different sizes one
is 4.7GB single-layer discs and another one is 8.5GB double-layer
discs. DVDs look like CDs but the storage capacity of DVDs is
more than as compared to CDs. It is of two types:
 Blu-ray Disc: It is just like CD and DVD but the storage capacity
of blu ray is up to 25GB. To run a Blu-ray disc you need a
separate Blu-ray reader.
 What is data backup?
Data backup means creating a copy of the data on your system that you use for
recovery in case your original data is lost or corrupted. You can also use backup to
recover copies of older files if you have deleted them from your system.
Many businesses and organizations protect their critical data with backup, making
it one of the key components of a company's disaster recovery plan and business
continuity strategy.
There are three most common backup types implemented and generally used in
most of these programs, such as:
 Full backup

 Incremental backup

 Differential backup

Full backup: The most basic and complete type of backup operation is a full
backup. As the name implies, this backup type makes a copy of all data to a
storage device, such as a disk or tape. The primary advantage of performing a full
backup during every operation is that a complete copy of all data is available with
a single media set. It takes the shortest time to restore data, a metric known as a
recovery time objective. However, the disadvantages are that it takes longer to
perform a full backup than other types, requiring more storage space.
 Incremental backups:-An incremental backup operation will
result in copying only the data that has changed since the last
backup operation of any type. The benefit of an incremental
backup is that it copies a smaller amount of data than a full. Thus,
these operations will have a faster backup speed and require fewer
media to store the backup.
 Differential backups:-A differential backup operation is similar
to an incremental the first time it is performed, in that it will copy
all data changed from the previous backup. However, each time it
is run afterward, it will continue to copy all data changed since the
previous full backup. Therefore, it will store more backed up data
than an incremental. Differential backups require more space and
time to complete than incremental backups, although less than full
backups.