Kinematics and Dynamics

of Mechanical Systems
Updated throughout for the third edition, Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems:
Implementation in MATLAB and Simscape Multibody offers step-by-step instructions on
the fundamentals of mechanism kinematics, synthesis, statics, and dynamics, alongside
demonstrating its real-world applications.
Following updates made by MATLAB, replacing SimMechanics with the new system
Simscape Multibody, this textbook provides updated instructions and example problems
to fully enable the reader to use this new and improved system. New features discussed in
the book include enhanced rendering, 3D geometry in animations of user-generated solu-
tions for planar linkages, spatial linkages, and robotic systems. This textbook provides the
perfect companion to aid students in analyzing and designing mechanical systems.
The book will be of interest to students and professionals in the field of automotive
­engineering, mechatronics, and robotics, with a special focus on kinematics, dynamics,
and machine design.
Kinematics and Dynamics
of Mechanical Systems
Implementation in MATLAB and
­Simscape Multibody

Third Edition

Kevin Russell, John Q. Shen, and Raj S. Sodhi

MATLAB  is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the
accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB  software or related products
does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular
use of the MATLAB  software.

Third edition published 2023

by CRC Press
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and by CRC Press

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CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2023 Kevin Russell, John Q. Shen and Raj S. Sodhi

First edition published by CRC Press 2015

Second edition published by CRC Press 2019

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ISBN: 9781032328317 (hbk)

ISBN: 9781032328324 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003316961 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003316961

Typeset in Palatino
by codeMantra
 In memory of Willie J. Russell and Ella Russell.

Kevin Russell

To my wife Lili Qiu, my daughters Catherine Shen and Christine Shen

who have been supporting me in all aspects so that I can bring forth
the exciting new contents using future-proof technologies.

John Q. Shen

This book is affectionately dedicated to my wife Rani, my daughters

Preeti and Shelly and my son-in-law, Andrew.

Raj S. Sodhi

v
Contents

Preface..............................................................................................................................................xv
Authors......................................................................................................................................... xvii

1. Introduction to Kinematics...................................................................................................1
1.1 Kinematics.......................................................................................................................1
1.2 Kinematic Chains and Mechanisms........................................................................... 2
1.3 Mobility, Planar, and Spatial Mechanisms.................................................................3
1.4 Types of Mechanism Motion........................................................................................5
1.5 Kinematic Synthesis......................................................................................................7
1.6 Units and Conversions..................................................................................................8
1.7 Software Resources........................................................................................................9
1.8 Summary......................................................................................................................... 9
References................................................................................................................................ 11
Additional Reading................................................................................................................ 11

2. Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics............................................................................. 13

2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 13
2.2 Complex Numbers and Operations.......................................................................... 13
2.2.1 Complex Number Forms............................................................................... 13
2.2.2 Complex Number Addition........................................................................... 15
2.2.3 Complex Number Multiplication and Differentiation.............................. 17
2.3 Vector and Point Representation............................................................................... 20
2.4 Linear Simultaneous Equations, Matrices, and Matrix Operations.....................22
2.4.1 Linear Simultaneous Equation Systems and Matrices..............................22
2.4.2 Matrix Transpose, Addition, Subtraction, and Multiplication................. 23
2.4.3 The Identity Matrix and Matrix Inversion.................................................. 26
2.5 Intermediate and Total Spatial Motion..................................................................... 29
2.6 General Transformation Matrix................................................................................. 33
2.7 Summary....................................................................................................................... 36
References................................................................................................................................ 37
Additional Reading................................................................................................................ 37
Problems................................................................................................................................... 37

3. Fundamental Concepts in Kinematics.............................................................................. 41

3.1 Types of Planar and Spatial Mechanisms................................................................ 41
3.1.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism......................................................................... 41
3.1.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism............................................................................... 41
3.1.3 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism.........................................................................42
3.1.4 Planar Multiloop Six-Bar Mechanisms........................................................44
3.1.5 Spatial Four-Bar Mechanisms....................................................................... 45
3.2 Links, Joints, and Mechanism Mobility.................................................................... 46
3.3 Number Synthesis........................................................................................................ 49
3.4 Grashof’s Criteria and Transmission Angle............................................................. 50
3.5 Circuit Defect................................................................................................................ 53

vii
viii Contents

3.6 Mechanism Inversion..................................................................................................54

3.7 Passive Degree of Freedom and Paradoxes.............................................................. 55
3.8 Summary....................................................................................................................... 56
References................................................................................................................................ 57
Problems................................................................................................................................... 58

4. Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms.....................................................................63

4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................63
4.2 Numerical Solution Method for Two Simultaneous Equations............................64
4.3 Link Velocity and Acceleration Components in Planar Space..............................64
4.4 Four-Bar Mechanism Analysis.................................................................................. 66
4.4.1 Displacement Equations................................................................................ 66
4.4.2 Velocity Equations.......................................................................................... 67
4.4.3 Acceleration Equations................................................................................... 68
4.4.4 Kinematics of Coupler Locations of Interest............................................... 70
4.4.5 Instant Center, Centrodes, and Centrode Generation............................... 76
4.5 Slider-Crank Mechanism Analysis...........................................................................80
4.5.1 Displacement Equations................................................................................80
4.5.2 Velocity Equations.......................................................................................... 81
4.5.3 Acceleration Equations...................................................................................83
4.5.4 Centrode Generation...................................................................................... 89
4.6 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Analysis..................................................................... 91
4.6.1 Displacement Equations................................................................................ 91
4.6.2 Velocity Equations.......................................................................................... 92
4.6.3 Acceleration Equations................................................................................... 93
4.6.4 Kinematics of Intermediate Link Locations of Interest............................. 95
4.7 Watt II Mechanism Analysis...................................................................................... 97
4.8 Stephenson III Mechanism Analysis....................................................................... 100
4.8.1 Displacement Equations.............................................................................. 100
4.8.2 Velocity Equations........................................................................................ 103
4.8.3 Acceleration Equations................................................................................. 104
4.8.4 Kinematics of Intermediate Link Locations of Interest........................... 105
4.9 Time and Driver Angular Velocity.......................................................................... 108
4.10 Mechanism Configurations...................................................................................... 108
4.11 Constructing Cognates............................................................................................. 109
4.12 Planar Mechanism Kinematic Analysis and Modeling in
Simscape Multibody™...............................................................................................112
4.13 Summary..................................................................................................................... 119
References.............................................................................................................................. 120
Additional Reading.............................................................................................................. 120
Problems................................................................................................................................. 121

5. Dimensional Synthesis...................................................................................................... 133

5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 133
5.2 Branch and Order Defects........................................................................................ 135
5.3 Planar Four-Bar Motion Generation: Three Precision Positions......................... 137
5.4 Order- and Branch-Defect Elimination.................................................................. 142
5.5 Path Generation versus Motion Generation........................................................... 146
5.6 Stephenson III Motion Generation: Three Precision Positions............................ 147
Contents ix

5.7 Planar Four-Bar Function Generation: Three Precision Points........................... 151

5.8 Planar Four-Bar Function Generation: FSPs and MSPs........................................ 155
5.9 Mechanism Dimensions: From Dimensional Synthesis to
Kinematic Analysis.................................................................................................... 160
5.10 Summary..................................................................................................................... 165
References.............................................................................................................................. 166
Additional Reading.............................................................................................................. 167
Problems................................................................................................................................. 167

6. Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms................................................................. 177

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 177
6.2 Static Loading in Planar Space................................................................................. 178
6.3 Four-Bar Mechanism Analysis................................................................................ 179
6.4 Slider-Crank Mechanism Analysis......................................................................... 184
6.5 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Analysis................................................................... 187
6.6 Watt II Mechanism Analysis.................................................................................... 192
6.7 Stephenson III Mechanism Analysis....................................................................... 198
6.8 Planar Mechanism Static Force Analysis and Modeling
in Simscape MultibodyTM.......................................................................................... 203
6.9 Summary..................................................................................................................... 209
References.............................................................................................................................. 210
Additional Reading.............................................................................................................. 210
Problems................................................................................................................................. 210

7. Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms.......................................................... 227

7.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 227
7.2 Dynamic Loading in Planar Space.......................................................................... 228
7.3 Four-Bar Mechanism Analysis................................................................................ 228
7.4 Slider-Crank Mechanism Analysis.........................................................................234
7.5 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Analysis................................................................... 237
7.6 Watt II Mechanism Analysis.................................................................................... 242
7.7 Stephenson III Mechanism Analysis....................................................................... 247
7.8 Mass Moment of Inertia and Computer-Aided Design Software....................... 252
7.9 Planar Mechanism Dynamic Force Analysis and Modeling
in Simscape MultibodyTM..........................................................................................254
7.10 Summary..................................................................................................................... 262
References.............................................................................................................................. 263
Additional Reading.............................................................................................................. 263
Problems................................................................................................................................. 263

8. Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears...................................................................... 279

8.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 279
8.2 Gear Types.................................................................................................................. 280
8.3 SPUR-Gear Nomenclature and Relationships of Mating Gears......................... 282
8.3.1 Spur-Gear Nomenclature............................................................................ 282
8.3.2 Pressure Angle and Involute Tooth Profile...............................................284
8.3.3 Gear Center Distance and Contact Ratio................................................... 288
8.3.4 Gear-Tooth Interference and Undercutting.............................................. 289
8.3.5 Backlash.......................................................................................................... 291
x Contents

8.4 Helical-Gear Nomenclature..................................................................................... 292

8.5 Gear Kinematics......................................................................................................... 295
8.5.1 Spur Gears and Gear Trains........................................................................ 295
8.5.2 Planetary Gear Trains.................................................................................. 299
8.5.3 Rack and Pinion Gears................................................................................. 303
8.5.4 Helical Gears.................................................................................................304
8.5.5 Bevel Gears.................................................................................................... 306
8.5.6 Worm Gears...................................................................................................309
8.6 Summary..................................................................................................................... 313
References.............................................................................................................................. 313
Additional Reading.............................................................................................................. 314
Problems................................................................................................................................. 314

9. Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams............................................................. 319

9.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 319
9.2 Follower Types............................................................................................................ 320
9.3 Follower Motion......................................................................................................... 321
9.3.1 Rise, Fall, and Dwell..................................................................................... 321
9.3.2 Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, and Jerk......................................... 323
9.3.3 Constant Velocity Motion............................................................................ 323
9.3.4 Constant Acceleration Motion.................................................................... 325
9.3.5 Simple Harmonic Motion............................................................................ 328
9.3.6 Cycloidal Motion........................................................................................... 330
9.3.7 Polynomial Motion....................................................................................... 333
9.4 Disk Cam Design and Pressure Angle................................................................... 339
9.5 Summary.....................................................................................................................344
References..............................................................................................................................345
Additional Reading..............................................................................................................345
Problems.................................................................................................................................346

10. Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms.................................................................. 351

10.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 351
10.2 RRSS Mechanism Analysis...................................................................................... 352
10.2.1 Displacement Equations.............................................................................. 352
10.2.2 Velocity Equations........................................................................................ 354
10.2.3 Acceleration Equations................................................................................. 355
10.3 RSSR Mechanism Analysis....................................................................................... 358
10.3.1 Displacement Equations.............................................................................. 358
10.3.2 Velocity Equations........................................................................................ 359
10.3.3 Acceleration Equations................................................................................. 360
10.4 Four-Revolute Spherical Mechanism Analysis...................................................... 363
10.5 Planar Four-Bar Kinematic Analysis Using RRSS and RSSR
Kinematic Equations................................................................................................. 367
10.6 Spatial Mechanism Kinematic Analysis and Modeling
in Simscape MultibodyTM.......................................................................................... 370
10.7 Summary..................................................................................................................... 374
References.............................................................................................................................. 374
Problems................................................................................................................................. 375
Contents xi

11. Introduction to Robotic Manipulators............................................................................ 383

11.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 383
11.2 Terminology and Nomenclature.............................................................................384
11.3 Robotic Manipulator Mobility and Types.............................................................. 385
11.4 The General Transformation Matrix....................................................................... 387
11.5 Forward Kinematics.................................................................................................. 391
11.5.1 Definition and Application.......................................................................... 391
11.5.2 P-P-P................................................................................................................ 391
11.5.3 R-P-P................................................................................................................ 393
11.5.4 R-R-P............................................................................................................... 395
11.5.5 R-R-R............................................................................................................... 397
11.5.6 R-R-C............................................................................................................... 399
11.6 Inverse Kinematics..................................................................................................... 402
11.6.1 Definition and Application.......................................................................... 402
11.6.2 P-P-P................................................................................................................ 402
11.6.3 R-P-P................................................................................................................404
11.6.4 R-R-P............................................................................................................... 406
11.6.5 R-R-R............................................................................................................... 407
11.6.6 R-R-C............................................................................................................... 409
11.7 Robotic Manipulator Kinematic Analysis and Modeling
in Simscape MultibodyTM.......................................................................................... 411
11.8 Summary..................................................................................................................... 412
References.............................................................................................................................. 413
Additional Reading.............................................................................................................. 413
Problems................................................................................................................................. 414
Appendix A: User Information and Instructions for MATLAB®..................................... 419
A.1 Required MATLAB Toolkits..................................................................................... 419
A.2 Description of MATLAB Operators and Functions.............................................. 419
A.3 Preparing and Running Files in MATLAB and Operations
in Simscape Multibody............................................................................................. 419
A.4 Description of Simscape Multibody Functions.....................................................423
A.5 Rerunning MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files with
Existing *.csv Files..................................................................................................... 424
A.6 Minimum Precision Requirement for Appendix File User Input....................... 424
Appendix B: User Instructions for Chapter 4 MATLAB® Files.........................................425
B.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism....................................................................................425
B.2 Planar Four-Bar Fixed and Moving Centrode Generation..................................425
B.3 Slider-Crank Mechanism.......................................................................................... 427
B.4 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Two Gears).............................................................. 429
B.5 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Three Gears)...........................................................430
B.6 Watt II Mechanism.....................................................................................................430
B.7 Stephenson III Mechanism....................................................................................... 432
Appendix C: User Instructions for Chapter 6 MATLAB® Files........................................ 435
C.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism.................................................................................... 435
C.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism.......................................................................................... 435
C.3 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Two Gears).............................................................. 438
C.4 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Three Gears)........................................................... 439
xii Contents

C.5 Watt II Mechanism.....................................................................................................440

C.6 Stephenson III Mechanism.......................................................................................442
Appendix D: User Instructions for Chapter 7 MATLAB® Files........................................445
D.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism....................................................................................445
D.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism..........................................................................................445
D.3 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Two Gears).............................................................. 447
D.4 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Three Gears)...........................................................448
D.5 Watt II Mechanism..................................................................................................... 449
D.6 Stephenson III Mechanism....................................................................................... 451
Appendix E: User Instructions for Chapter 9 MATLAB® Files......................................... 457
E.1 S, V Profile Generation and Cam Design: Constant Velocity Motion��������������� 457
E.2 S, V, A Profile Generation and Cam Design: Constant Acceleration Motion.... 457
E.3 S, V, A, J Profile Generation and Cam Design: Simple Harmonic Motion......... 459
E.4 S, V, A, J Profile Generation and Cam Design: Cycloidal Motion....................... 461
E.5 S, V, A, J Profile Generation and Cam Design: 3-4-5 Polynomial Motion.......... 461
E.6 S, V, A, J Profile Generation and Cam Design: 4-5-6-7 Polynomial Motion...... 461
Appendix F: User Instructions for Chapter 10 MATLAB® Files.......................................463
F.1 RRSS Mechanism....................................................................................................... 463
F.2 RSSR Mechanism.......................................................................................................463
Appendix G: User Instructions for Chapter 11 MATLAB® Files...................................... 467
G.1 R-P-P Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics.................................................. 467
G.2 R-R-P Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics................................................. 467
G.3 R-R-R Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics................................................. 467
G.4 R-R-C Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics................................................. 469
G.5 R-P-P Robotic Manipulator Inverse Kinematics.................................................... 470
G.6 R-R-P Robotic Manipulator Inverse Kinematics.................................................... 470
G.7 R-R-R Robotic Manipulator Inverse Kinematics.................................................... 471
G.8 R-R-C Robotic Manipulator Inverse Kinematics................................................... 472
Appendix H: User Instructions for Chapter 4 MATLAB® and
Simscape Multibody™ Files............................................................................................. 475
H.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism.................................................................................... 475
H.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism.......................................................................................... 475
H.3 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Two Gears).............................................................. 477
H.4 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Three Gears)...........................................................480
H.5 Watt II Mechanism.....................................................................................................480
H.6 Stephenson III Mechanism....................................................................................... 483
Appendix I: User Instructions for Chapter 6 MATLAB® and Simscape
Multibody™ Files................................................................................................................................485
I.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism.................................................................................... 485
I.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism.......................................................................................... 485
I.3 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Two Gears).............................................................. 489
I.4 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Three Gears)........................................................... 490
I.5 Watt II Mechanism..................................................................................................... 490
I.6 Stephenson III Mechanism....................................................................................... 494
Contents xiii

Appendix J: User Instructions for Chapter 7 MATLAB® and Simscape

Multibody™ Files ...............................................................................................................................497
J.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism ................................................................................... 497
J.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism ......................................................................................... 498
J.3 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Two Gears).............................................................500
J.4 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Three Gears) ..........................................................504
J.5 Watt II Mechanism....................................................................................................505
J.6 Stephenson III Mechanism ...................................................................................... 507
Appendix K: User Instructions for Chapter 10 MATLAB® and
Simscape Multibody™ Files .............................................................................................511
K.1 RRSS Mechanism ...................................................................................................... 511
K.2 RSSR Mechanism ...................................................................................................... 511
Appendix L: User Instructions for Chapter 11 MATLAB® and
Simscape Multibody™ Files ............................................................................................... 515
L.1 R-P-P Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics ................................................. 515
L.2 R-R-P Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics ................................................ 515
L.3 R-R-R Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics ................................................ 517
L.4 R-R-C Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics ................................................ 518
Index ............................................................................................................................................. 519
Preface

Kinematics is the study of motion without considering forces. In comparison to other

engineering design disciplines such as statics, where motion and governing loads are
considered according to Newton’s first law and dynamics, where motion and governing
loads are considered according to Newton’s second law, kinematics is the most funda-
mental engineering design discipline. Courses pertaining to the kinematics of mechani-
cal systems are core requirements of university undergraduate mechanical engineering
curricula.
While a central understanding of classical kinematics will continue to remain rel-
evant in engineering and subsequently, a necessary focus in undergraduate engi-
neering education, it is becoming increasingly important that an undergraduate also
acquire a central understanding of static and dynamic mechanism analysis. Such an
understanding prepares an undergraduate student to conduct more thorough analy-
ses and produce more relevant solutions in mechanism design. In addition, a central
understanding of the design and analysis of robotic manipulators has become essential in
modern-day undergraduate engineering education due to the expanding use of robotic
systems today.
It has become very efficient and extremely practical to utilize mathematical analysis
software to conduct engineering analyses in recent years. Of all the mathematical analysis
software options available (which are numerous), the authors chose MATLAB®. MATLAB
is a high-level language and an interactive environment for numerical computation, visu-
alization, simulation, and programming. Using MATLAB, one can analyze data, develop
algorithms, and create models and applications without data type checking, compiling,
and linking (tasks common in programming languages such as C++ and Java).
During the time of the initial release and second edition of this textbook, the MATLAB
toolbox SimMechanics™ provided a graphical multi-body simulation environment for
2D and 3D mechanical systems including linkages, robots, cam systems, and gear sys-
tems. Since that time, however, SimMechanics has been discontinued and replaced with
Simscape Multibody™. Like its predecessor, the user models the multi-body system (using
blocks representing bodies, joints, constraints, and motion/force actuator elements) and
then Simscape Multibody formulates and solves the governing equations of motion and
force for the complete mechanical system. An automatically generated 3D animation lets
you visualize the system dynamics. Both the animation geometry and rendering quality
are much improved in Simscape Multibody for more enhanced 2D and 3D visualization.
MATLAB and Simscape Multibody can be used for a broad range of applications includ-
ing the kinematics, synthesis, statics, and dynamics of mechanical systems. Both MATLAB
and now Simscape Multibody are well established (and often the de facto standard for
mathematical analysis and simulation) in colleges and universities.
There is currently a variety of textbooks available in mechanism kinematics-each
book differing from the others primarily in terms of the breadth and depth of kinemat-
ics topics presented and the software packages used to implement the concepts and
methods presented. In light of the need to go beyond classical kinematics in under-
graduate engineering education and fill the gap between theory and the application of
theory for real-world problems, this textbook was produced. This textbook introduces
the fundamental concepts of mechanism kinematics, synthesis, statics and dynamics

xv
xvi Preface

for planar and spatial linkages, cam systems, gear systems and robotic manipulators by
realistic illustrations and practical problems. Also, the commercial software MATLAB
and its mechanical simulation toolbox Simscape Multibody are thoroughly integrated
in the textbook for ease of concept implementation (both during and after one’s under-
graduate years).
To improve both the practicality of the concepts covered and the clarity in their presenta-
tion, the third edition of Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems: Implementation in
MATLAB and Simscape Multibody includes the following updates:
• the inclusion of MATLAB and now Simscape Multibody file input in textbook
examples.

In prior editions of the authors’ textbook, MATLAB’s former mechanical simulation toolbox
SimMechanics was integrated in Chapters 4–11 and Appendices A and H–L. Considering
the release of MATLAB’s new mechanical simulation toolbox, Simscape Multibody, this new
toolbox has been integrated in the noted textbook sections in the third edition. In addition,
a new library of MATLAB, and now Simscape Multibody, files have been produced and
are available for download with this textbook. These files are available for download at
the publisher’s web page https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317 under the
Downloads tab. These files can also be downloaded from the authors’ server http://www.
softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip. This
new content improves the clarity of the reader regarding the preparation of textbook prob-
lems for use in MATLAB and Simscape Multibody as well as maintains textbook compat-
ibility with the latest MATLAB releases.
This textbook was written to accommodate students with no working knowledge of
MATLAB. In terms of MATLAB knowledge, the ideal user should know how to launch
MATLAB and have access to the MATLAB software package itself. Any version of MATLAB
after 2013 is suitable to run the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files associated with
this textbook (provided all the required toolkits listed in Appendix A.1 are installed).
The intended uses of this textbook are the following:

• as a sole text for an undergraduate course in mechanical system kinematics

• as a sole text for an undergraduate mechanical design course (where mechanisms
are then analyzed using Statics/Dynamics, Stress Analysis, Machine Design, CAE,
etc.)
• as a reference text for mechanical engineering research
• as a reference text for the application of MATLAB and Simscape Multibody in
mechanical engineering.

Because our goal is to produce a textbook with sufficient breadth, depth, and implemen-
tation resources to be an effective resource for 21st century undergraduate engineering
education, we look forward to any feedback you may have. For e-mail correspondence, we
can be reached at [email protected]. We hope you enjoy utilizing this work as much
as we have enjoyed producing it.

K. Russell
John Q. Shen
R. S. Sodhi
Authors

Kevin Russell, Ph.D., P.E. is a member of the teaching faculty in the Department of
Mechanical and Industrial Engineering at New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT). At
NJIT, Dr. Russell teaches courses in kinematics, machine design and mechanical design.
Formerly, Dr. Russell was a Senior Mechanical Engineer at the U.S. Army Research,
Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC) at Picatinny, New Jersey. Dr. Russell’s
responsibilities at ARDEC included the utilization of computer-aided design and mod-
eling and simulation tools for small and medium-caliber weapon system improvement,
concept development and failure investigations. A fellow of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and a registered Professional Engineer in New Jersey, Dr.
Russell holds several patents for his design contributions relating to small and medium-
caliber weapon systems, linkage-based inspection systems and human prosthetics. He has
published extensively among mechanical engineering journals in areas such as kinematic
synthesis, theoretical kinematics and machine design.

John Qiong Shen, Ph.D. (https://www.linkedin.com/in/qiong-shen-57212524/) is the

founder of Softalink LLC, a consulting company that applies cloud-computing and big
data technologies to help automate and optimize business processes, transform traditional
marketing and strategic planning into data-driven manner. Besides business activities, Dr.
Shen is also active, as an adjunct professor at New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), in
preparing college students for ever-growing challenges in engineering and management.
Dr. Shen received Ph.D. degree from a joint program between Mechanical Engineering
and Electrical Engineering Departments at NJIT. He has made substantial contribu-
tions to researches in Robotics and Mechanism Synthesis by applying technologies from
Distributed Parallel Computing, Machine Learning, Visualization, and Simulation.

Raj S. Sodhi, Ph.D., P.E. is a Professor in the Department Mechanical and Industrial
Engineering at NJIT. He has over 30 years of experience in research and education related
to Mechanical Design, Mechanisms Synthesis and Manufacturing Engineering. Dr. Sodhi
is the author or co-author of over one hundred refereed papers in scientific journals and
conference proceedings. He was awarded the Society of Manufacturing Engineering’s
University Lead Award in recognition of leadership and excellence in the application and
development of computer integrated manufacturing. He also received the N. Watrous
Procter & Gamble Award from the Society of Applied Mechanisms and Robotics for sig-
nificant contributions to the science of mechanisms and robotics and the Ralph R. Teetor
New Engineering Educator Award from the Society of Automotive Engineers. Dr. Sodhi is a
registered Professional Engineer in Texas.

xvii
1
Introduction to Kinematics

CONCEPT OVERVIEW
In this chapter, the reader will gain a central understanding regarding

1.1 Kinematics
Kinematics is the study of motion without considering forces. In a kinematic analysis, posi-
tions, displacements, velocities and accelerations are calculated for mechanical system
components without regard to the loads that actually govern them. In comparison to
other engineering design studies such as statics, where motion and governing loads are
considered according to Newton’s first law, and dynamics, where motion and governing
loads are considered according to Newton’s second law, kinematics is the most fundamen-
tal engineering design study. It is often necessary in the design of a mechanical system to
not only consider the motion of its components, but also the following:

• Static or dynamic loads acting on the components (considered in statics and

dynamics)
• Component material stress and strain responses to the loads (considered in stress
analysis)
• Required component dimensions for the working stresses (considered in machine
design)

Because of this, static, dynamic, stress, and machine design analyses often follow a
kinematic analysis.
Figure 1.1 includes kinematics, statics and dynamics, stress analysis and machine design
in an ascending order of progression. This order follows the intended order of use of these
studies in mechanical design. After a mechanical system has first been determined to

DOI: 10.1201/9781003316961-1 1
2 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 1.1
Kinematics in relation to other associated engineering design studies.

be kinematically feasible, the static or dynamic loads acting on the system components
are considered next. After static or dynamic feasibility has been achieved, the stresses
and strains produced in the mechanical system components are then considered. Lastly,
machine design principles and methodologies are employed to ensure the material and
dimensions of the mechanical system components (and subsequently the entire mechani-
cal system) are satisfactory for the known working stresses.*
As illustrated in Figure 1.1, kinematics is the most fundamental of the engineering design
study listed. When a design is not kinematically sound, evidence of this will often appear
in the other engineering design studies. For example, a discontinuous displacement profile
calculated in a kinematic analysis would be revealed as excessive acceleration in a dynamic
analysis, which, in turn, could produce excessive dynamic forces. These excessive dynamic
forces would likely produce high stresses. These high stresses may require a material selec-
tion or component dimensions that make the overall component design impractical for
the intended design application. Kinematic feasibility, therefore, must be established first
before considering the follow-on engineering design studies in Figure 1.1.

1.2 Kinematic Chains and Mechanisms

This textbook focuses primarily on the kinematic analysis and kinematic synthesis of
mechanical systems or mechanisms, as they are commonly called.† A kinematic chain, an
overarching classification that includes mechanisms, is an assembly of links intercon-
nected by joints where the motion of one link compels the motion of another link (which
compels the motion of another link, and so on depending on the number of mechanism
links).‡ Complex mechanical systems, such as an automobile engine, for example, can be
comprised of multiple kinematic chains, while a single kinematic chain can constitute an
entire mechanical system in the case of a simple tool. Figure 1.2 illustrates a commonly

* In addition to engineering design factors pertaining to kinematics, statics, dynamics, and machine design—
also called traditional engineering factors—nontraditional or modern engineering factors (including producibil-
ity, cost, environmental impact, disposal, aesthetics, ergonomics, and human factors) are often equally important.
† The distinctions between kinematic analysis and kinematic synthesis are first presented in Section 1.5.
‡ Because a mechanism is an assembly of links, it is also called a linkage. Links are generally assumed to be

nondeforming or rigid in kinematics.

Introduction to Kinematics 3

FIGURE 1.2
Pliers in (a) open and (b) closed positions.

used kinematic chain: a pair of pliers. Moving the lower handle (link L3) toward the upper
handle (link L1) or vice versa compels the motion of the remaining links, including the
lower grip (link L 4), which produces a gripping action. Having links compel the motion of
each other link in a controlled manner is important because the fundamental objective in
the design of a mechanical system is to provide a controlled output motion in response to
a supplied input motion.
One characteristic that distinguishes mechanisms from other kinematic chains is that
the former has at least one “grounded” link [1]. A grounded link is one that is attached
to a particular frame of reference. Some mechanisms have links that are permanently
grounded through friction, gravity, or fastening members (e.g., bolts, screws, and welds),
whereas with our pliers example, the grounded link can be established according to one’s
own preferences.

1.3 Mobility, Planar, and Spatial Mechanisms

The mobility or the number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is the number of indepen-
dent parameters required to uniquely define its position in space. Knowing the mobility of
a mechanism is particularly important when formulating equation systems for the kine-
matic analysis or synthesis of the mechanism. This is because the equation systems must
include enough parameters to fully define the motion of each mechanism component. To
fully define the position of a body in two-dimensional or planar space at an instant in time
requires three independent parameters. To demonstrate this principle, we will consider
the parking automobile example in Figure 1.3a where the X-Y coordinate frame is affixed to
the parking space. At any instant in time, the position of the automobile can be measured
with respect to the X-Y coordinate frame given three independent parameters. The X and
Y coordinates of any point on the automobile are two of the three parameters required to
define the planar position of a body. Because the parking automobile also rotates in the
coordinate frame, its angular position is also required to fully define its position in the X-Y
coordinate frame. Therefore, the three parameters required to define a planar position are
the X and Y coordinates of a location on the body and the orientation angle of the body.
Because three independent parameters are required to define the position of the body in the X-Y
plane, an individual mechanism link restricted to planar motion can have a mobility of up to three
or up to three degrees of freedom.
4 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 1.3
(a) Parking automobile and (b) aircraft in flight.

To fully define the position of a body in three-dimensional space at an instant in time

requires six independent parameters. To demonstrate this principle, we will consider the
flying aircraft example in Figure 1.3b where the X-Y-Z coordinate frame is affixed in space.
At any instant in time, the position of the aircraft can be measured with respect to the
X-Y-Z coordinate frame given six independent parameters. The X, Y, and Z coordinates
of any point on the aircraft are three of the six parameters required to define the spatial
position of a body. Because the aircraft also rotates about each coordinate frame axis, these
three angular positions are also required to fully define its position in the X-Y-Z coordinate
frame.* Therefore, the six parameters required to define a spatial position are the X, Y, and
Z coordinates of a location on the body and the orientation angles of the body about the
X, Y, and Z axes. Because six independent parameters are required to define the position
of the body in X-Y-Z space, an individual mechanism link restricted to spatial motion can
have a mobility of up to six, or up to six degrees of freedom.
Figure 1.4a illustrates a pair of pliers. As indicated by the overlapping plane, the motion
exhibited by this mechanism is restricted to 2D space. A pair of pliers is an example of
a commonly used planar mechanism. Each link in this particular mechanism has a sin-
gle degree of freedom—which is consistent with the previously stated condition that a
maximum mobility of three is possible with a body in planar motion.
In comparison to the pair of pliers, Figure 1.4b illustrates a particular type of robotic
manipulator— the RPP robotic manipulator (presented in Chapter 11). As indicated by the
overlapping cylindrical volume, this mechanism can exhibit motion in 3D space.† Robotic
manipulators are examples of commonly used spatial mechanisms. Each link in this par-
ticular robotic manipulator has a single degree of freedom—which is also consistent with
the previously stated condition that a maximum mobility of six is possible with a body in
spatial motion.

* As shown in Figure 1.3b, the three aircraft rotation angles are called the roll, pitch, and yaw angles and are
about the X, Y, and Z axes, respectively.
† The space (2D or 3D) that encompasses all of the possible positions achieved by a mechanism is called its

workspace.
Introduction to Kinematics 5

FIGURE 1.4
(a) Pliers in plane and (b) robotic manipulator in spatial workspace.

1.4 Types of Mechanism Motion

The motion exhibited by any mechanism link in 2D or 3D space can be classified as one
of four types of motion. These four types are illustrated in Figure 1.5. In pure rotation
(Figure 1.5a), a link rotates at a constant radius about a fixed axis. A link travels along a
linear path in pure translation (Figure 1.5b).* Complex motion is a type of planar motion that
includes both link rotations and translations simultaneously (Figure 1.5c). Any two spatial
link positions can be expressed as a rotation about and a translation along a spatial axis
(called a screw axis). This type of spatial motion is called screw motion (Figure 1.5d). Pure
rotation and translation can be exhibited by mechanisms in both 2D and 3D space while
only mechanisms in 2D space can exhibit complex motion and only mechanisms in 3D
space can exhibit screw motion.
Pure rotation and pure translation are commonly called circular motion and linear
motion, respectively. As the names imply, circular motion is exhibited about a circular
path and linear motion is exhibited along a linear path. The conversion of circular motion
to linear motion (and vice versa) is commonly required for the operation of mechanical
systems. Sometimes we are given a circular motion (e.g., from a hand crank, engine, or
electric motor) and we desire a linear output motion. On the other hand, we may be given a
linear motion and we desire a circular output motion. The circular and linear motion may
be constant, oscillatory, or even intermittent.
Several of the noted linear and circular input–output motion combinations appear in
the valve train assembly illustrated in Figure 1.6.† The valve train assembly is comprised of
four major components: the cam, rod, rocker, and valve (Figure 1.6a). Figure 1.6b includes the
motion produced by these four components. The initial input in this assembly is produced
by the cam.‡ The constantly rotating cam produces an oscillating translational rod motion.
The oscillating translational rod motion produces an oscillating rotational rocker motion
(as the name “rocker” implies). Lastly, the oscillating rotational rocker motion produces an

* Pure rotation at a radius of infinity becomes pure translation.

† The valve train assembly is an integral assembly in the internal combustion engine.
‡ The kinematics and design of radial cam systems are introduced in Chapter 9.
6 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 1.5
Links in (a) pure rotation, (b) pure translation, (c) complex, and (d) screw motion.

oscillating translational valve motion. It is the oscillating valve motion that governs the
timing in which air and fuel are brought into an internal combustion engine and exhaust
products are removed from the engine.

FIGURE 1.6
(a) Valve train assembly and (b) motion of assembly components.
Introduction to Kinematics 7

1.5 Kinematic Synthesis

In a kinematic analysis, the mechanism link dimensions are known and the motion char-
acteristics such as positions, displacements, velocities, and accelerations are calculated.
Understanding the kinematic behavior of a given mechanism is the scope of a kinematic
analysis. In comparison to kinematic analysis, in kinematic synthesis the problem is con-
sidered in reverse. Here, the mechanism required to fulfill a predetermined motion is
produced.
There are two categories in kinematic synthesis. One category involves the determi-
nation of the type of mechanism needed to accomplish a given purpose. This category
is called type synthesis [2]. Number synthesis falls into this category. In number synthesis
(presented in Section 3.3), mechanisms are produced that match a given mechanism
mobility.
The other category in kinematic synthesis involves the determination of the mechanism
dimensions needed to achieve a given motion sequence. This category is called dimen-
sional synthesis [3]. Motion generation and function generation fall into this category. In motion
generation, mechanism dimensions required to achieve coupler-link positions are deter-
mined, while the achievement of crank and follower-link displacement angles is the objec-
tive in function generation. Both motion generation and function generation are presented
in Chapter 5.

Example 1.1
Problem Statement: Figure E.1.1 illustrates two positions of a mechanism used to compact
trash bundles. By rotating the driving link from its initial position (Figure E.1.1a) to its
final position (Figure E.1.1b), the compacting ram is displaced from its initial position
to its final position. During compaction, a reaction force is applied to the compacting
ram. The mechanism is maintained in a state of static equilibrium by a torque applied
to the driving link and the compacting ram reaction force. Describe how the principles
of kinematics, statics, stress analysis, and machine design can be used to evaluate the
structural integrity of the coupling link (Figure E.1.1) during compaction.
Known Information: Figure E.1.1, background knowledge of kinematics, statics, stress
analysis, and machine design principles.
Solution Approach: The mechanism in Figure E.1.1 can be modeled as a slider-crank
mechanism.*
Kinematic Analysis: Given the dimensions of this particular slider-crank mechanism,
the driving link angular rotation required to achieve the final compacting position can
be calculated from the slider-crank mechanism displacement equations.
Static Analysis: A static equilibrium equation can be formulated to calculate the
columnar force that acts on the coupling link [4].† Equations for static equilibrium are
formulated according to Newton’s first law.
Stress Analysis: Given the columnar force on the coupling link, along with its cross-
section dimensions and material properties, the normal stress of this link can be calcu-
lated. Additionally, the buckling load for this link (which is essentially a column with
pinned ends) can also be calculated [5].

* Kinematic displacement, velocity, and acceleration equations for the slider-crank mechanism are introduced
in Chapter 4.
† Static force analysis for planar mechanisms is introduced in Chapter 6.
8 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.1.1
(a) Initial and (b) final positions of compacting mechanism.

Machine Design: Based on the values calculated for the normal stress and buckling
load for the coupling link, it may be necessary to modify its cross-section dimensions
or its material type to achieve an acceptable degree of structural integrity for use in the
trash compacting mechanism.

1.6 Units and Conversions

Many of the example problems and end-of-chapter problems presented throughout this
textbook are unitless because specific dimension units are not required to calculate cor-
rect solutions. With such problems, the calculated result can, in fact, be scaled to match
the desired unit system. However, there are other problems here, particularly those where
force and mass are included, where a particular system of units is not only desired, but
required for calculating correct solutions. Among the problems throughout this textbook
were units are specified, both the International System of Units (SI) and United States System
of Units (US) are used. Table 1.1 includes common quantities used throughout this textbook
and their associated unit conversions between SI and US units.
Introduction to Kinematics 9

TABLE 1.1
Common Textbook Quantities and Unit Conversions (from US to SI Units)
Quantity US Unit Conversion SI Unit
Mass 1 pound-mass (lbm) = 0.4536 kilograms (kg)
Force 1 pound-force (lbf) = 4.4482 newtons (N)
Length 1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 meters (m)
Length 1 inch (in) = 25.4001 millimeters (mm)
Work 1 horsepower (hp) = 745.6999 watts (W)
Angular velocity 1 revolution/minute (rpm) = 0.1047 radian/second (rad/s)
Angular velocity 1 degree/second (°/s) = 0.0174 radian/second (rad/s)
Velocity 1 foot/second (ft/s) = 0.3048 meters/second (m/s)
Velocity 1 inch/second (in/s) = 25.4001 millimeters/second (mm/s)
Torque 1 pound-foot (lb-ft) = 1.3558 newton-meters (N-m)

1.7 Software Resources

The commercial mathematical software package MATLAB™ and its mechanical modeling
and simulation toolbox Simscape Multibody™ are thoroughly integrated in this textbook for
applied kinematic analysis [6]. Both software resources are well established (and often the de
facto standard for mathematical analysis and simulation) in many colleges and universities
worldwide. A library of MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files developed for this text-
book is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317.* With
these files, the user can calculate solutions for the equation systems presented throughout
this textbook and conduct mechanical simulations to independently verify or evaluate equa-
tion system results.† The MATLAB and Simscape Multibody resources that accompany this
text provide a virtual test bed to utilize the equation systems and methodologies presented in
Chapters 2–11. This textbook also includes a variety of example problems where solutions
are calculated directly through MATLAB’s command window (see Appendix A.3).

1.8 Summary
Kinematics—the study of motion without considering governing forces—is the most
fundamental engineering study in mechanical system design. In mechanical system
design, kinematic feasibility should be determined before considering other engineering
design studies such as statics, dynamics, stress analysis, and machine design.
Mechanical systems are comprised of kinematic chains—an assembly of interconnected
links where the motion of one link compels the motion of another link in a controlled
manner. Achieving controlled output motion in response to a supplied input motion is the
fundamental objective in mechanical system design. Kinematic chain is an overarching

* This library can also be downloaded from the authors’ server http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_
mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
† This textbook also includes example problems where solutions are calculated directly through MATLAB’s
command window (see Appendix A.2).
10 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

classification that includes mechanisms (also called linkages). The presence of an estab-
lished ground link is a primary characteristic that distinguishes mechanisms from
kinematic chains.
The mobility or the number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism is the number of
independent parameters required to uniquely define its position in space. Knowing the
mobility of a mechanism is important when formulating equation systems for mecha-
nism kinematic or synthesis. This is because the equation systems must include enough
variables to fully define the motion of each mechanism component. An individual link
restricted to planar motion can have up to three degrees of freedom and an individual link
restricted to spatial motion can have up to six degrees of freedom.
A mechanism link in 2D or 3D space can exhibit pure rotation, pure translation, complex
motion, or screw motion. In pure rotation, a link rotates at a constant radius about a fixed
axis. A link travels along a linear path in pure translation. Complex motion is a type of
planar motion that includes simultaneous link rotations and translations. Screw motion is
a type of spatial motion that includes simultaneous link rotations about and translations
along a spatial axis called a screw axis.
Circular motion and linear motion are two types of motion often exhibited in mechani-
cal systems. Sometimes we are given a circular motion and desire an output linear motion.
On the other hand, we may be given a linear motion and desire a circular output motion.
In mechanical systems, the circular and linear motion may be constant, oscillatory, or even
intermittent.
In a kinematic analysis, the mechanism link dimensions are known and the motion char-
acteristics such as positions, displacements, velocities, and accelerations are calculated. In
comparison to kinematic analysis, the problem is considered in reverse in kinematic synthe-
sis. Here, the mechanism required to fulfill specific predetermined motions is produced.
One category in kinematic synthesis, called type synthesis, involves the determination of
the type of mechanism needed to accomplish a given purpose. Number synthesis (presented
in Chapter 3) falls into this category. In number synthesis, mechanisms are produced that
match a given mechanism mobility.
The other category in kinematic synthesis, called type synthesis, involves the determi-
nation of the mechanism dimensions needed to achieve a given motion sequence. Motion
generation and function generation (presented in Chapter 5) fall into this category. In
motion generation, mechanism dimensions required to achieve coupler-link positions are
determined while achieving crank and follower-link displacement angles is the objective
in function generation.
The mathematical software packages MATLAB and Simscape Multibody are fully
integrated throughout the remaining textbook chapters for applied kinematic analysis.
A library of MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for this textbook is available for
download at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317. This library can also be
downloaded from the authors’ server http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_
sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip. Example problems are also solved in this
textbook through MATLAB’s command window.
Introduction to Kinematics 11

References
1. Norton, R. L. 2008. Design of Machinery, 4th edn. New York: McGraw-Hill.
2. Sandor, G. N. and Erdman, A. G. 1984. Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis,
Volume 2. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
3. Russell, K., Shen, Q., and Sodhi, R. 2014. Mechanism Design: Visual and Programmable Approaches.
pp. 45–47. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
4. Wilson, C. E. and Sadler, J. P. 2003. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery. 3rd edn. Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
5. Ugural, A. C. and Fenster, S. K. 2009. Advanced Strength and Applied Elasticity. 4th edn.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
6. Mathworks. Products and services. http://www.mathworks.com/products/?s_tid=gn_ps.
Accessed June 1, 2022.
7. Mathworks, Products and services, accessed March 12, 2015, http://www.mathworks.com.

Additional Reading
Myszka, D. H. 2005. Machines and Mechanisms: Applied Kinematic Analysis. 3rd edn. Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Waldron, K. J. and Kinzel, G. L. 2004. Kinematics, Dynamics and Design of Machinery. 2nd edn. Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Wilson, C. E. and Sadler, J. P. 2003. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery. 3rd edn. Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
2
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics

CONCEPT OVERVIEW
In this chapter, the reader will gain a central understanding regarding

2.1  Introduction
This chapter introduces the mathematical concepts and methodologies with which the
reader should become familiar to gain a solid understanding of the equation systems for-
mulated or presented in Chapters 4 through 11. These mathematical concepts relate to the
representation of complex numbers and complex number operations, intermediate and total
spatial motion, and the general transformation matrix.

2.2 Complex Numbers and Operations

2.2.1 Complex Number Forms
Vectors are commonly used in the formulation of mechanism equation systems because,
being quantities that have both magnitude and direction, they can appropriately define

DOI: 10.1201/9781003316961-2 13
14 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

V1y
i

Imgaginary axis
V1

θ V1x

–1 0 1

–i

FIGURE 2.1
A vector in two-dimensional complex space.

mechanism motion (specifically, the motion of linkage-based mechanisms). One way to

represent a two-dimensional vector (a vector that lies on a plane) is with a complex number.
A complex number is comprised of a real component and an imaginary component.
Figure 2.1 illustrates a vector V1 in two-dimensional complex space. The real and
imaginary components of this vector are V1x and V1y, respectively. Vector V1 has the mag-
(
nitude V1, where V1 = V12x + V12y , and its direction angle is θ, where θ = tan −1 V1y V1x . The )
real and imaginary components of V1 can also be expressed as V1 cos θ1 and V1 sin θ1,
respectively, due to the vector direction angle.* Vector V1 can be expressed in the follow-
ing four forms:

V1 = V1x + iV1y = V1 ( cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) = V1e iθ1 (2.1)

where i = −1 and is called the imaginary unit.† The second form in Equation 2.1 is the
rectangular form of the vector V1—the complex number. The third and last forms in
Equation 2.1 are the polar forms of V1 (the last form being the polar exponential form).‡

Example 2.1
Problem Statement: Calculate the magnitude and direction angle of vector V1, where
V1 = 1.5 + i2.
Known Information: Vector V1 and Section 2.2.1.
Solution Approach 1 (using MATLAB® functions): Figure E.2.1 includes the calculation
procedure in MATLAB’s command window. After specifying the given values for the
real and imaginary components of V1, this vector is then defined. The magnitude and
direction angle of V1 are produced using MATLAB functions.
Solution Approach 2 (using manual calculations in MATLAB): Figure E.2.2 includes the
calculation procedure in MATLAB’s command window where the magnitude and
direction angle of V1 were produced using manual calculations.

* Therefore, V1x = V1 cos θ1 and V1y = V1 sin θ1.

† Therefore, i2 = −1, i3 = −i and i4 = 1 (which are also 90° counterclockwise rotations each in the 2D complex
space).
‡ The vector polar forms are the result of Euler’s formula. In this formula, etθ = cos θ + i sin θ.
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 15

>> V1x = 1.5;

>> V1y = 2;
>> V1 = V1x + i*V1y
V1 =

1.5000 + 2.0000i
>> Magnitude = abs(V1)

Magnitude =

2.5000
>> Direction = angle(V1)*180/pi
Direction =

53.1301
>>

FIGURE E.2.1
Example 2.1 calculation procedure (for Solution Approach 1) in MATLAB.

>> V1x = 1.5;

>> V1y = 2;
>> V1 = V1x + i*V1y
V1 =

1.5000 + 2.0000i

>> Magnitude = sqrt(V1x^2 + V1y^2)

Magnitude =

2.5000
>> Direction = atan2(V1y, V1x)*180/pi

Direction =

53.1301
>>

FIGURE E.2.2
Example 2.1 calculation procedure (for Solution Approach 2) in MATLAB.

MATLAB includes a library of functions covering a wide range of conventional calcu-

lation methods. A table of the MATLAB functions used in this textbook is included in
Appendix A.2. From here on, this textbook will primarily utilize MATLAB functions.
There will be occasional examples, however, where manual calculation methods will be
utilized to give the reader greater insight into the calculation method or to convey specific
techniques in MATLAB.

2.2.2 Complex Number Addition

Equation systems for mechanisms can be formulated by producing vector loops for the
mechanisms and taking the sum of the individual vectors in the loops [1]. Figure 2.2 illus-
trates a loop comprised of vectors V1, V2, V3, and V4 in two-dimensional complex space.
Taking the sum of the vectors in a clockwise loop produces
16 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

V2
i
V3

Imaginary axis
V1

V4

0 Real axis

FIGURE 2.2
A vector loop in two-dimensional complex space.

V1 + V2 + V3 − V4 = 0 (2.2)

If we conclude from Figure 2.2 that V1 = V1e iθ1 , V2 = V2 e iθ2 , V3 = V3 e iθ3 , and V4 = V4 e iθ4 , each
vector in the loop can be expressed in polar form as

V1 ( cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) + V2 ( cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) + V3 ( cos θ3 + i sin θ 3 )

(2.3)
− V4 ( cos θ 4 + i sin θ 4 ) = 0

and in rectangular form as

(V 1x ) ( ) ( ) (
+ iV1y + V2 x + iV2 y + V3 x + iV3 y − V4 x + iV4 y = 0* ) (2.4)

After grouping and separating the real and imaginary terms in Equation 2.4, the two
equations in Equation 2.5 are produced. The imaginary unit in the second equation (being
common among all equation terms) can be removed if preferred.

V1x + V2 x + V3 x − V4 x = 0
(2.5)
( )
i V1y + V2 y + V3 y − V4 y = 0

Example 2.2
Problem Statement: Determine if the sum V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 of the following vectors forms
a closed loop: V1 = 1.5 + i2, V2 = −i0.5, V3 = −1.25 − i2.25, and V4 = 0.25 − i0.25.
Known Information: Vectors V1, V2, V3, V4, and Section 2.2.2.
Solution Approach: Figure E.2.3 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window. After specifying the given vectors and calculating the vector sum, it can
be seen that the vectors do not form a closed loop since the vector sum (called Sum in
Figure E.2.3) is not zero.

* It may be more convenient to use the rectangular form of complex numbers for vector addition.
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 17

>> V1 = 1.5 + i*2

V1 =

1.5000 + 2.0000i
>> V2 = – i*0.5
V2 =

-0.5000i
>> V3 = -1.25 - i*2.25

V3 =

-1.2500 - 2.2500i
>> V4 = 0.25 - i*0.25

V4 =

0.2500 - 0.2500i
>> Sum = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
Sum =

0.5000 - 1.0000i
>>

FIGURE E.2.3
Example 2.2 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

2.2.3 Complex Number Multiplication and Differentiation

The product of two complex numbers (e.g., vectors V1 = V1e iθ1 and V2 = V2 e iθ2 ) in polar
exponential form is

V1V2 = V1e iθ1 V2 e iθ2 = V1V2 e i(θ1 + θ2 ) = V1V2  cos ( θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin ( θ1 + θ2 ) * (2.6)

The first derivative with respect to time of a complex number (vector V1 = V1e iθ1 , for
example) is
dV1 dθ
= i 1 V1e iθ1 = iθ 1V1 (2.7)
dt dt
where vector V1 represents a rigid link (a link having a fixed length).† The second derivative
of Equation 2.7 is
2
d 2 V1  dθ1  d 2 θ1
dt 2
=  
 dt 
V1 e iθ1
+ i
dt 2
V1e iθ1 = V1 iθ (
1 − θ 12 ) (2.8)

The multiplication and differentiation of complex numbers are used in the formulation of
vector-loop equations for higher-order mechanism motion quantities such as velocity and
acceleration [2].

* It may be more convenient to use the polar exponential form of complex numbers for vector multiplication (or
differentiation).
† If V represented a link having a length that changes over time, its derivative would also include the vector
1
 1.
length derivative term dV1/dt or V
18 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Example 2.3
Problem Statement: Formulate an equation system for vector V for the vector loop illus-
trated in Figure E.2.4. In this vector loop, W = Weiα and X = Xeiδ. Also, formulate equation
systems for the first and second derivatives of V (V  and V
 , respectively) manually and
symbolically in MATLAB. Assume all vectors represent rigid links.
Known Information: Figure E.2.4, Sections 2.2.2 and 2.2.3.
Solution Approach: Initial Formulation:
Taking a clockwise vector-loop sum for the vector loop in Figure E.2.4 and solving for
vector V produces

V = W + X = We iα + Xe iδ (2.9)

After expanding the polar exponential form of V, Equation 2.10 is produced, and
Equation 2.11 is produced after grouping and separating the real and imaginary terms.

V = W ( cos α + i sin α ) + X ( cos δ + i sin δ ) = Wx + iWy + X x + iX y (2.10)

Vx = W cos α + X cos δ = Wx + X x
(2.11)
Vy = W sin α + X sin δ = Wy + X y

First Derivative Formulation:

Taking the first derivative of Equation 2.9 produces

 = iα We iα + iδ Xe iδ
V (2.12)

Figure E.2.5 includes this calculation procedure in MATLAB’s command window. On

observation, it can be seen that Equation 2.12 agrees perfectly with the first derivative
produced symbolically in MATLAB. In Figure E.2.5, the terms alpha(t) and diff(alpha(t),t)
represent the terms α, and α ; respectively, in Equation 2.12 and the terms delta(t) and
diff(delta(t),t) represent the terms δ and δ , respectively.
After expanding the polar exponential form of V  , Equation 2.13 is produced, and
Equation 2.14 is produced after grouping and separating the real and imaginary terms.

 = α W ( i cos α − sin α ) + δ X ( i cos δ − sin δ ) = iα Wx − αW

V  y + iδ X x − δ X y (2.13)

V = W + X = We iα + Xe iδ

i
X
Imaginary axis

V
W

Real axis

FIGURE E.2.4
Vector loop in two-dimensional complex space.
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 19

>> syms W X t alpha(t) delta(t) real;

>> V = W*exp(i*alpha(t)) + X*exp(i*delta(t));
>> dV = diff(V)
dV =

X*exp(delta(t)*i)*diff(delta(t), t)*i +
W*exp(alpha(t)*i)*diff(alpha(t), t)*i
>>

FIGURE E.2.5
Example 2.3 vector first-order differentiation procedure in MATLAB.

Vx = −α W sin α − δ X sin δ = −α Wy − δ X y

(2.14)
Vy = α W cos α + δ X cos δ = α Wx − δ X x

Second Derivative Formulation:

Taking the second derivative of Equation 2.9 produces

V We iα − δ 2 Xe iδ + iδXe iδ
 = −α 2We iα + iα (2.15)

Figure E.2.6 includes this calculation procedure in MATLAB’s command window. On

observation, it can be seen that Equation 2.15 agrees perfectly with the second deriva-
tive produced symbolically in MATLAB. In Figure E.2.6, the terms diff(alpha(t), t, t) and
 and 
diff(delta(t), t, t) represent the terms α δ, respectively, in Equation 2.15.
After expanding the polar exponential form of V  , Equation 2.16 is produced, and
Equation 2.17 is produced after grouping and separating the real and imaginary terms.

W (i cos α − sin α) − δ 2 X (cos δ + i sin δ)

 = −α 2W (cos α + i sin α) + α
V

δX (i cos δ − sin δ) = −α 2Wx − iα 2Wy + iαW

+  Wy − δ 2 X x − iδ 2 X y + i
 x − α δX x − 
δX y (2.16)

W sin α − δ 2 X cos δ − δX sin δ = −α 2Wx − α

x = −α 2W cos α − α
V Wy − δ 2 X x − 
δX y
(2.17)
W cos α − δ 2 X sin δ − δX cos δ = −α 2Wy + αW
y = −α 2W sin α − α
V  x − δ 2 X y + δX x

Example 2.4
Problem Statement: Calculate the vector product VW where V = V1(cos θ1 + i sin θ1) and
W = W1(cos α1 − i sin α1). Also formulate VW symbolically in MATLAB.

>> syms W X t alpha(t) delta(t) real;

>> V = W*exp(i*alpha(t)) + X*exp(i*delta(t));
>> ddV = diff(V, 2)
ddV =
- W*exp(alpha(t)*i)*diff(alpha(t), t)^2 -
X*exp(delta(t)*i)*diff(delta(t), t)^2 +
W*exp(alpha(t)*i)*diff(alpha(t), t, t)*i +
X*exp(delta(t)*i)*diff(delta(t), t, t)*i
>>

FIGURE E.2.6
Example 2.3 vector second-order differentiation procedure in MATLAB.
20 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

>> syms theta1 alpha1 V1 W1 real;

>> V = V1*(cos(theta1) + i*sin(theta1));
>> W = W1*(cos(alpha1) - i*sin(alpha1));
>> Product = simplify(expand(V*W))
Product =

-V1*W1*(sin(alpha1 - theta1)*i - cos(alpha1 - theta1))

>>

FIGURE E.2.7
Example 2.4 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

Known Information: Vectors V, W, and Section 2.2.3.

Solution Approach: Equation 2.18 includes the basic form of the product VW. Equation
2.19 includes the vector product with the trigonometric identities for cos (α1−θ1) and sin
(α1−θ1) included.

VW = V1W1 ( cos θ1 cos α 1 − i cos θ1 sin α 1 + i sin θ1 cos α 1 + sin θ1 sin α 1 ) (2.18)

VW = V1W1 ( cos ( α 1 − θ1 ) − i sin ( α 1 − θ1 )) (2.19)

Figure E.2.7 includes the calculation procedure for VW in MATLAB’s command

window.

2.3 Vector and Point Representation

Vectors as well as points can be used to formulate equation systems for mechanisms. Both
the magnitude and direction can be calculated for a vector, given the coordinates of its end-
points. Vector V and its endpoints p1 and p2 in two-dimensional and three-dimensional
space are illustrated in Figure 2.3. In terms of point coordinates, the vector magnitude V
can be expressed in 2D space as

(p2x , p2y , p2z)

p2 p2
(p2x , p2y)

Y Z
V Vy Vz
V
Y
p1
(p1x , p1y) Vx
p1 Vy
(p1x , p1y , p1z) Vx
X

(a) (b) X

FIGURE 2.3
Point and vector representations in (a) 2D and (b) 3D space.
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 21

( p2 x − p1x )2 + ( p2 y − p1y )
2
V = p 2 − p1 = (2.20)

where p1 = [p1x, p1y]T and p2 = [p2x, p2y]T.* The direction of this vector is expressed in the
x- and y-components p2x − p1x and p2y − p1y, respectively.
In 3D space, the vector magnitude can be expressed as

( p2 x − p1x )2 + ( p2 y − p1y ) + ( p2 z − p1z )2

2
V = p 2 − p1 = (2.21)

where p1 = [p1x, p1y, p1z]T and p2 = [p2x, p2y, p2z]T. The direction of this vector is expressed in
the x-, y-, and z-components as p2x− p1x, p2y− p1y, and p2z− p1z, respectively. Point-based vec-
tors are used in the spatial mechanism equation systems in Chapter 10 [3].

Example 2.5
Problem Statement: Calculate the magnitude and orientation angle of vector V where
this 2D vector is comprised of points p1 = (1.25, −5) and p2 = (−2, 9.65). Also calculate
the magnitude and orientation angle of vector V where this 3D vector is comprised of
points p1 = (1.25, −5, 0) and p2 = (−2, 9.65, 6).
Known Information: Planar and spatial points p1 and p2, and Section 2.3.
Solution Approach: Figure E.2.8 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window.

>> p1 = [1.25, -5]';

>> p2 = [-2, 9.65]';
>> V = p2 - p1
V =

-3.2500
14.6500
>> Magnitude = norm(V)
Magnitude =

15.0062
>> p1 = [1.25, -5, 0]';
>> p2 = [-2, 9.65, 6]';
>> V = p2 - p1
V =

-3.2500
14.6500
6.0000
>> Magnitude = norm(V)

Magnitude =

16.1612
>>

FIGURE E.2.8
Example 2.5 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

* The length of a vector V is often called the norm of V and is denoted by ||V||.
22 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

2.4 Linear Simultaneous Equations, Matrices, and Matrix Operations

2.4.1 Linear Simultaneous Equation Systems and Matrices
A linear equation is an equation that includes linear or first-order variables.* A system of
linear equations (or a linear system) is collection of linear equations including the same
variables. If a common solution is sought among a system of linear equations, it is called a
set of simultaneous equations. An arbitrary set of linear simultaneous equations is given in
Equation 2.22. Variables x1, x2, x3, and x4 are included among the four linear equations and
true x1, x2, x3, and x4 solutions for these simultaneous equations must satisfy each equation
in the set.

x1 − 2 x2 + x3 − 3 x4 = 1
2 x1 + x2 + 2 x3 − 2 x4 = −2
(2.22)
− x1 + 2 x2 − 4 x3 + x4 = 1
3 x1 − 3 x4 = 3

A set of linear simultaneous equations can be expressed in matrix form. A matrix is a

rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions arranged in rows and columns.
This form can be particularly convenient when solving for the variables in a simultaneous
equation set. When expressed in matrix form, Equation 2.20 becomes

 1 −2 1 −3  x1   
    1 
x2
 2 1 2 −2     −2
=  or [ A] x = b (2.23)
 −1 2 −4 1  x3   1 
 3 0 0 −3  x4   3 
    

where

 1 −2 1 −3   x1   1 
     
x2
[ A ] = [ A ]4 × 4 =
2 1 2 −2  , x = x 4 × 1 =  
 a nd b = b 4 × 1 =  −2 
 −1 2 −4 1   x3   1 
 3 0 0 −3   x4   3 
     

Matrix [A] includes the variable coefficients and is subsequently called the coefficient
matrix. For simultaneous equation sets having n equations and n variables, the coefficient
matrix will always be square—having n rows and n columns ([A]n × n).

* A first-order variable is one that is of degree 1. Considering a first-order variable we will arbitrarily define as
x, examples of variables that are not first order include xn and x1/n (where n > 1), cos (x), and log (x).
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 23

Matrices x and b, which include the equation variables and remaining quantities, respec-
tively, are called column matrices or column vectors. For simultaneous equations sets having
n equations and n variables, the column matrices will always have n rows and one column
(xn × 1 and bn × 1).
Therefore, considering Equation 2.24, a general set of linear simultaneous equations hav-
ing n equations and n variables,

a11x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 +  + a1n xn = b1

a21x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 +  + a2 n x n = b2
a31x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 +  + a3 n x n = b3 (2.24)

an1x1 + an 2 x 2 + an 3 x 3 +  + ann xn = bn

the matrix form expression of the this equation set becomes

 a11 a12 a13  a1n  x1   b1 

    
 a21 a22 a23  a2n  x2   b2 
 a31 a32 a33  a3n   x3

=  b3  (2.25)

   

   


  


an 1 an 2 an 3  ann 
 
xn   bn 


where

 a11 a12 a13  a1n   x1   b1 

     
 a21 a22 a23  a2n   x2   b2 
   
[ A ] = [ A ]n× n =

a31 a32 a33  a3n ,

x = x n× 1 =  x3  and b = bn × 1 =  b3

         
   
 an 1 an 2 an 3  ann  xn  bn 
     

2.4.2 Matrix Transpose, Addition, Subtraction, and Multiplication

This section presents the most common matrix operations used in this textbook. One oper-
ation, which is used in this textbook for column matrices, is called the transpose. In this
matrix operation, the rows and columns of a matrix are interchanged. Considering the
column matrices in Equations 2.25, the transposes of x and b become

x T = x 1× n =  x1 x2 x3  xn  and bT = b1× n = b1 b2 b3  bn 

where the superscript T in xT and bT denotes the transpose operation. The transpose of a
column matrix produces a row matrix or row vector.
24 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

When adding or subtracting column matrices, the cells in each matching row are added
or subtracted. Considering the column matrices in Equations 2.25, the sum x + b and dif-
ference x − b become

 x1 + b1   x1 − b1 
   
 x2 + b2   x2 − b2 
x + b = x n × 1 + bn × 1 = [ x + b ]n+ 1 =  x3 + b3  and x − b = x n × 1 − bn × 1 = [ x − b ]n+1 =  x3 − b3 
     
   
 xn + bn   xn − bn 

When calculating the product of a matrix and a scalar quantity (e.g., k[A], where
k is a scalar quantity), the product of each cell in the matrix and the scalar quantity is
taken (distributing the constant throughout the matrix). For the product of a square
matrix and a column matrix, each row in the square matrix is multiplied by the column
matrix. Considering the square and column matrices in Equations 2.25, the product
[A]x becomes

 a11x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 +  + a1n xn 

 
 a21x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 +  + a2 n x n 
[ A ] x = [ A ]n× n x n×1 = ([ A ] x )n×1 =  a31x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 +  + a3 n x n 

  + 
 an1x1 + an 2 x 2 + an 3 x 3 +  + ann xn 
 

For the product of two column matrices, the first matrix is transposed so that the prod-
uct of a row matrix and a column matrix is what is actually taken.* Considering the column
matrices in Equations 2.25, the product of x and b becomes

( x )T ( b) = ( x 1× n )( bn× 1 ) = {( x )( b)}1+ 1 = x1b1 + x2b2 + x3b3 +  + xnbn

It can be observed that the product of a row vector and a column vector is a single scalar
quantity.

Example 2.6
Problem Statement: For the given matrices:

 3 2 −1 1 
 
5 3 2 1
v =  2.5 −2 1 0.5  , w =  −5 −1 0.75 −3  , and [ A ] =  
     3 1 3 2 
 −6 −4 2 −2 
 

calculate vT, wT, vT + wT, [A]vT, and (v)(w)T.

* The transpose of the first matrix is taken to make the number of columns in the first matrix equal to the num-
ber of rows in the second matrix—a requirement for the multiplication of any two matrices.
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 25

Known Information: Given matrices and Section 2.4.2 equations.

Solution Approach: Figure E.2.9 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window.

Considering the product of two general matrices [A] and [B] (as shown in Matrix (2.27))
where [A] = [A]m × n and [B] = [B]n × o, the entry in each cell in the product [A][B] (which is
labeled ABij in Matrix (2.27)) is given by

ABij = ai 1b1 j + ai 2b2 j + ai 3b3 j +  ainbnj * (2.26)

>> v = [2.5, -2, 1, 0.5];

>> w = [-5, -1, 0.75, -3];
>> A = [3, 2, -1, 1
5, 3, 2, 1
3, 1, 3, 2
-6, -4, 2, -2];
>> v_T = v'
v_T =

2.5000
-2.0000
1.0000
0.5000
>> w_T = w'

w_T =
-5.0000
-1.0000
0.7500
-3.0000
>> v_T + w_T

ans =
-2.5000
-3.0000
1.7500
-2.5000
>> A*v_T

ans =
3.0000
9.0000
9.5000
-6.0000
>> v*w_T

ans =

-11.2500
>>

FIGURE E.2.9
Example 2.6 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

* Equation (2.26) is the result of the product of a row in matrix [A] and the corresponding column in matrix [B].
26 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

 a11 a12  a1n 

   b1 j  b1o 
 a21 a22  a2n   b11 b12

      b21 b22  b2 j  b2 o 
[ A ][ B] =   
 ai 1 ai 2  ain       
      bn1 bn2  bnj  bno 
   
 am 1 am 2  amn 

 AB11 AB12  AB1 j  AB1o  (2.27)

 
 AB21 AB22  AB2 j  AB2 o 
 
   
=  

ABi 1 ABi 2  ABij  ABio
 
     
 
ABm1 ABm 2  ABmj  ABmo
 

The subscript i in Equation (2.26) corresponds to the rows in matrix [A] and the sub-
script j in the same equation corresponds to the columns in matrix [B]. The subscript
pair ij in Equation (2.26) corresponds to the cells in the matrix product [A][B]. Matrix
(2.27) includes matrices [A], [B] and [A][B] with an arbitrary row i, column j and cell ij
shaded.
When calculating the product of three or more matrices, the product is calculated from
right to left. Therefore to calculate the product of matrices [A], [B] and [C], for example,
the product [B][C] is first calculated and the result is multiplied by [A] (or [A][B][C] = [A]
([B][C])).

Example 2.7
Problem Statement: Calculate the matrix products [A][B] and [A][B][C] where

 a11 a12   b11 b12   c11 c12 

[ A] =  , [ B] =   and [ C ] =  
 a21 a22   b21 b22   c21 c22 

Known Information: Given matrices

Solution Approach: Figure E.2.10 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window.

2.4.3 The Identity Matrix and Matrix Inversion

The unit matrix or identity matrix (denoted by I) is a square matrix having the number 1
along its main diagonal (with all other cells having the number 0).* The identity matrix
is the matrix equivalent of the number 1. The general form of the identity matrix can be
expressed as

* The main diagonal runs from the top-left matrix corner to the bottom-right matrix corner.
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 27

>> syms a11 a12 a21 a22 real;

>> syms b11 b12 b21 b22 real;
>> syms c11 c12 c21 c22 real;
>> A = [a11, a12; a21, a22];
>> B = [b11, b12; b21, b22];
>> C = [c11, c12; c21, c22];
>> A*B
ans =
[ a11*b11 + a12*b21, a11*b12 + a12*b22]
[ a21*b11 + a22*b21, a21*b12 + a22*b22]
>> A*B*C
ans =
[ c11*(a11*b11 + a12*b21) + c21*(a11*b12 + a12*b22), c12*(a11*b11
+ a12*b21) + c22*(a11*b12 + a12*b22)]
[ c11*(a21*b11 + a22*b21) + c21*(a21*b12 + a22*b22), c12*(a21*b11
+ a22*b21) + c22*(a21*b12 + a22*b22)]
>>

FIGURE E.2.10
Example 2.7 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

 1 0 0  0 
 
 0 1 0  0 
I= 0 0 1  0  (2.28)
      
 
 0 0 0  1 

As noted in Section 2.4.1, expressing a set of linear simultaneous equations in matrix

form may be particularly convenient when solving for the variables in the equation set.
Considering the matrix form [A]x = b, the column vector of variables x is the result of
the product [A]−1b [A]−1b or x = [A]−1b where the superscript −1 in [A]−1 represents the
inverse of [A]. Assuming [A] is invertible, its inverse can be defined as

1
[ A ]−1 = adj [ A ] (2.29)
det [ A ]

where det and adj are the determinant and adjoint (two matrix functions) of [A]. Equation
2.29 is used in Cramer’s rule—a formula for the solution of linear simultaneous equations
having n equations and n unknown variables.
This textbook does not include descriptions of the determinant and adjoint functions.
This is in part because the procedures for manually calculating the determinant and adjoint
of a matrix become increasingly involved for matrices having dimensions beyond 2 × 2.
Another reason is that matrix inversion is a simple procedure in the mathematical analysis
software MATLAB. For those interested in becoming more familiar with the determinant
and adjoint functions (as well as Cramer’s rule), we recommended that you refer either to
online resources or to textbooks that include the fundamentals of linear algebra.*

* Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerning vector spaces and linear mappings between such
spaces.
28 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

The order of operations used in computer programming and arithmetic operations

for scalar quantities also applies to matrix operations. If we recall, this order is as fol-
lows: (1) parentheses, (2) exponents, (3) multiplication, (4) division, (5) addition, and
(6) subtraction.

Example 2.8
Problem Statement: Calculate [A]−1 where

 a11 a12 a13 

 
[ A] = a21 a22 a23 
 a31 a32 a33 
 

Known Information: Given matrix.

Solution Approach: Figure E.2.11 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window. It can be observed from scale of [A]−1 in Figure E.2.11 that manually
producing the inverse of even this 3 × 3 matrix will be quite involved.

Example 2.9
Problem Statement: Calculate [A]−1 and the unknown variables in Equation 2.22.
Known Information: Equation 2.22.
Solution Approach: Figure E.2.12 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s
command window.

>> syms a11 a12 a13 a21 a22 a23 a31 a32 a33 real;
>> A = [a11, a12, a13
a21, a22, a23
a31, a32, a33];
>> Inverse_A = inv(A)
Inverse_A =
[ (a22*a33 - a23*a32)/(a11*a22*a33 - a11*a23*a32 - a12*a21*a33 +
a12*a23*a31 + a13*a21*a32 - a13*a22*a31), -(a12*a33 -
a13*a32)/(a11*a22*a33 - a11*a23*a32 - a12*a21*a33 + a12*a23*a31 +
a13*a21*a32 - a13*a22*a31), (a12*a23 - a13*a22)/(a11*a22*a33 -
a11*a23*a32 - a12*a21*a33 + a12*a23*a31 + a13*a21*a32 -
a13*a22*a31)]
[ - (a21*a33 - a23*a31)/(a11*a22*a33 - a11*a23*a32 - a12*a21*a33 +
a12*a23*a31 + a13*a21*a32 - a13*a22*a31), (a11*a33 -
a13*a31)/(a11*a22*a33 - a11*a23*a32 - a12*a21*a33 + a12*a23*a31 +
a13*a21*a32 - a13*a22*a31), - (a11*a23 - a13*a21)/(a11*a22*a33 -
a11*a23*a32 - a12*a21*a33 + a12*a23*a31 + a13*a21*a32
a13*a22*a31)]
[ (a21*a32 - a22*a31)/(a11*a22*a33 - a11*a23*a32 - a12*a21*a33 +
a12*a23*a31 + a13*a21*a32 - a13*a22*a31), -(a11*a32 -
a12*a31)/(a11*a23*a33 - a11*a23*a32 - a12*a21*a33 + a12*a23*a31 +
a13*a21*a32 - a13*a22*a31), (a11*a22 - a12*a21)/(a11*a22*a33 -
a11*a23*a32 - a12*a21*a33 + a12*a23*a31 + a13*a21*a32
a13*a22*a31)]
>>

FIGURE E.2.11
Example 2.8 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 29

1 -2 1 -3
2 1 2 -2
-1 2 -4 1
3 0 0 -3
>> inv(A)

FIGURE E.2.12
Example 2.9 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

2.5 Intermediate and Total Spatial Motion

Matrix 2.30 is a general spatial angular displacement matrix. In this matrix, the rotation
angle is represented by the variable δ and the rotation axis is represented by the vector u
(Figure 2.4).*

 ux2 v ( δ ) + cos ( δ ) ux uy v ( δ ) − uz sin ( δ ) ux uz v ( δ ) + uy sin ( δ ) 

 
[ Rδ,u ] =  uxuy v (δ ) + uz sin (δ ) uy2 v ( δ ) + cos ( δ ) uy uz v ( δ ) − ux sin ( δ )  (2.30)

 ux uz v ( δ ) − uy sin ( δ ) uy uz v ( δ ) − ux sin ( δ ) uz2 v ( δ ) + cos ( δ ) 
 

In Matrix 2.30, v(δ) = 1 −cos (δ).

* By specifying a rotation axis of u = (0,0,1), Matrix 2.30 is restricted to rotations in two-dimensional space (as
well as Matrices 2.35 and 2.39). In this condition, the z-components of the point coordinates could all be speci-
fied as zero.
30 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Y u
X

FIGURE 2.4
Spatial rotation of an arbitrary body.

Figure 2.5 illustrates two interconnected members in three-dimensional space. In this

system of interconnected members, point p1 rotates about the axis u0 by an angle θ and
point q1 rotates about the axis u1 by an angle β.* Because both members are interconnected,
point q1 and axis u1 also rotate about the axis u0. Point p0, like axis u0, is fixed or grounded
in space. An equation for the rotation of p1 about u0 —or the total displacement of p1 (which
will be labeled p)—can be expressed as

p = [ Rθ, u0 ]( p1 − p0 ) + p0 (2.31)

and an equation for the rotation of u1 about u0 —or the total displacement of u1 (which will
be labeled u)—can be expressed as

u = [ Rθ, u0 ] u1 (2.32)

q1
Member 2

p1

u1
β
Member 1

Y
X

θ p0 Z

u0

FIGURE 2.5
Spatial motion of a two-body system.

* Because Matrix 2.30 is a 3 × 3 matrix, points p 0, p1, q1 and axes u0 and u1 are 3 × 1 column matrices (where vector
rows 1, 2, and 3 include the x-, y-, and z-components, respectively).
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 31

An equation for the intermediate displacement of q1 about u0 (which will be labeled q′) can
be expressed as

q′ = [ Rθ, u0 ](q1 − p0 ) + p0 (2.33)

Equation 2.33 is included in Equation 2.34 to calculate the total displacement of q1 about u0
(which will be labeled q).

q =  Rβ,u  (q′ − p ) + p (2.34)

Matrix 2.35 is a general spatial angular velocity matrix. In this matrix, the angular veloc-
ity is represented by the variable δ· and the rotation axis is represented by the vector u.

 0 − uzδ 
uy δ
 
   
Vδ,u
 =
  uzδ 0 − uxδ  (2.35)
 − u δ uxδ 0 
 y


The velocity of p1 in reference to u0—or the total velocity of p1 (which will be labeled p )—
can be expressed as

p = Vθ ,u0  ( p1 − p0 ) (2.36)

An equation for the intermediate velocity of q1 in reference to u0 (which will be labeled q ′)

can be expressed as

 θ ,u0  (q1 − p0 )
q ′ = V (2.37)

where the variable q is included from Equation 2.34. Equation 2.37 is included in
Equation 2.38 to calculate the total velocity of q1 in reference to u0 (which will be labeled q )

q = Vβ ,u  (q − p ) + q ′ (2.38)

where the variable p is included from Equation 2.31.

Matrix 2.39 is a general spatial angular acceleration matrix. In this matrix, the angu-
lar velocity and acceleration are represented by the variables δ and δ, respectively, and
the rotation axis is represented by the vector u from Equation 2.32. In Matrix 2.39, it is
assumed that u = 0, since u1 typically has a fixed orientation with respect to its associated
links [4].*

* In the RRSS and 4R spherical mechanisms in Chapter 10, the condition u = 0 holds true.
32 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

 
 ( )
ux2 − 1 δ 2 ux uy δ 2 − u zδ − uzδ ux uzδ 2 + u y δ + uy δ 
 
 
 Aδ , δ , u  =  ux uy δ 2 + u zδ + uzδ (u 2
y )
− 1 δ 2 uy uzδ 2 − u xδ − uxδ  (2.39)
 
 
2 
 ux uzδ − u y δ − uy δ
 ux uzδ 2 − u xδ + uxδ ( )
uz2 − 1 δ 2 
 

The acceleration of p1 in reference to u0 —or the total acceleration of p1 (which will be

 )—can be expressed as
labeled p

 =  Aθ , θ , u0  ( p − p0 )
p (2.40)

where the variable p is included from Equation 2.31. An equation for the intermediate accel-
′) can be expressed as
eration of q1 in reference to u0 (which will be labeled q

′ =  Aβ,β , u0  (q − p0 )
q (2.41)

where the variable q is included from Equation 2.34. Equation 2.41 is included in Equation
2.42 to calculate the total acceleration of q1 in reference to u0 (which will be labeled
 ). In Equation 2.42, the variables p and q are included from Equations 2.31 and 2.34,
q
respectively.

′ +  Aβ,β , u  (q − p ) + 2 Vθ,u

 = q
q  0 {
 Vβ ,u  (q − p ) } (2.42)

The intermediate and total spatial displacement velocity and acceleration equations
appear in the spatial mechanism equation systems in Chapter 10 [3].

Example 2.10
Problem Statement: For the two-body system in Figure 2.5, calculate the displaced values
of points p1 and q1 and axis u1. The dimensions and rotation angles in this system are
as follows: p 0 = (0, 0, 0), p1 = (0, 1, 0), u0 = (0, 0, 1), u1 = (0.7071, 0, 0.7071), q1 = (0.25, 1.3536,
−0.25), θ = 30°, and β = −15°.
Known Information: Given dimensions, rotation angles, Matrix 2.30 and Equations 2.31
through 2.34.
Solution Approach: Figure E.2.13 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s
command window.
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 33

>> p0 = [0, 0, 0]';

>> p1 = [0, 1, 0]';
>> q1 = [0.25, 1.3536, -0.25]';
>> u0 = [0, 0, 1];
>> u0x = u0(1); u0y = u0(2); u0z = u0(3);
>> u1 = [0.7071, 0, 0.7071]';
>> theta = 30*pi/180;
>> beta = -15*pi/180;
>> C = cos(theta);
>> S = sin(theta);
>> V = 1 - C;
>> R_theta_u0 = [...
V*u0x^2 + C, V*u0x*u0y - S*u0z, V*u0x*u0z + S*u0y
V*u0x*u0y + S*u0z, V*u0y^2 + C, V*u0y*u0z - S*u0x
V*u0x*u0z - S*u0y, V*u0y*u0z + S*u0x, V*u0z^2 + C];
>> u = R_theta_u0*u1
u =

0.6124
0.3535
0.7071
>> p = R_theta_u0*(p1 - p0) + p0
p =

-0.5000
0.8660
0
>> q_prime = R_theta_u0*(q1 - p0) + p0;
>> C = cos(beta);
>> S = sin(beta);
>> V = 1 - C;
>> ux = u(1); uy = u(2); uz = u(3);
>> R_beta_u = [...
V*ux^2 + C, V*ux*uy - S*uz, V*ux*uz + S*uy
V*ux*uy + S*uz, V*uy^2 + C, V*uy*uz - S*ux
V*ux*uz - S*uy, V*uy*uz + S*ux, V*uz^2 + C];
>> q = R_beta_u*(q_prime - p) + p
q =

-0.3599
1.2357
-0.3062
>>

FIGURE E.2.13
Example 2.10 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

2.6 General Transformation Matrix

Matrices 2.43 through 2.45 are rotation matrices about the x-, y-, and z-axes of a global
coordinate frame, respectively. Given the rotation angle value, the product of any of these
matrices and coordinates of a point (in a 3 × 1 column matrix) are the coordinates of the
rotated point.
 1 0 0 
 
[ Rδx ] =  0 cos δ x − sin δ x  (2.43)
 0 sin δ x cos δ x 
 
34 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

 cos δ y 0 sin δ y 
  (2.44)
 Rδ y  =  0 1 0 
 − sin δ y 0 cosδ y 
 
 cos δ z − sin δ z 0 
(2.45)
[ δz ]  sin δ z
R = cos δ z 0


 0 0 1 

The product of the three matrices can be expressed as Matrix 2.46, which can accom-
modate simultaneous rotations about the x-, y-, and z-axes (by rotation angles δx, δy, and
δz, respectively).

 R11 R12 R13 

 
[R] = [Rδz ] Rδy  [Rδx ] =  R21
  R22 R23 =
 
 R31 R32 R33 

 cos δ cos δ
 y z (sin δ x sin δ y cos δ z − cosδ x sin δ z ) (cosδ x )
sin δ y cosδ z + sin δ x sin δ z 


=  cos δ y sin δ z (sin δ x sin δ y sin δ z + cosδ x cos δ ) (cosδ
z )
x sin δ y sin δ z − sin δ x cos δ z


 − sin δ y sin δ x cos δ y cosδ x cos δ y 
 

(2.46)

Including the elements of Matrix 2.46 into a 4 × 4 matrix that also considers translations
along the x-, y-, and z-axes (in the fourth matrix column) produces

 R11 R12 R13 ∆x 

 
 R21 R22 R23 ∆y 
j[ ]
i
T =  (2.47)
 R31 R32 R33 ∆z 
 0 0 0 1 


Matrix 2.47 is a general transformation matrix for calculating point coordinates given in
one coordinate frame (which we will call Frame j) in reference to another coordinate frame
(which we will call Frame i) or
i
{p} = ij [T ] j {p} (2.48)

In Equation 2.48, the coordinates in Frame j or j{p} are j{p} = [px py pz 1]T. Matrix 2.47 is
general because it can accommodate all six possible degrees of freedom (x-y-z rotations
and x-y-z translations). The rotation angles δx, δy, δz and translation values Δx, Δy, and Δz
in Matrix 2.47 are the angular and linear displacement values required to align Frame i to
Frame j.
As an example, Figure 2.6 illustrates a Coordinate Frame i (where i = 1) and an arbi-
trary Coordinate Frame j (where j = 2). Using rotation angles δx = 20°, δy = 40°, δz = 60°
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 35

Y1
X2
Y2
Z2
X1

Z1 FIGURE 2.6
Coordinate frames i and j (where i = 1 and j = 2).

Y1
δy
X1 X1
y' X1
x''
z'''
z'' δz
Z1 Z1 Z1

(a) (b) (c)

Y1

2
∆x ∆y
∆
Z1
(d)

FIGURE 2.7
(a–c) Coordinate frame rotations about and (d) translations along axes X1, Y1, and Z1.

(Figures 2.7a, b, c, respectively) and translation values Δx = 2, Δy = Δz = 1 (Figure 2.7d),

Frame 1 is aligned with Frame 2. As a result, when these rotation and translation values
are used in Equation 2.48, any point coordinates given in reference to Frame 2 will be cal-
culated in reference to Frame 1. Transformation matrices are used in in Chapter 11 for the
kinematic analysis of robotic manipulators [5].

Example 2.11
Problem Statement: The coordinates of point p1 in Reference Frame 2 of a robotic sys-
tem are 2{p1} = [2, 5, −1, 1]T (see Figure E.2.14). Calculate the coordinates of this point
in Reference Frame 1 of the system (1{p1}). The location of the origin of Frame 2 with
respect to Frame 1 is Δ = (5, 10, −2) and the orientation angles of Frame 2 with respect to
Frame 1 are δx = 0°, δy = 15°, and δz = 30°.
Known Information: Given frame rotation and displacement values and Equation 2.48.
Solution Approach: Figure E.2.15 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window.
36 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

p1

X
Y2 2

Z2

Y1

X1

Z
1

FIGURE E.2.14
Robotic system with reference frames.

>> p2 = [2, 5, -1, 1]';

>> Dx = 5;
>> Dy = 10;
>> Dz = -2;
>> delta_x = 0*pi/180;
>> delta_y = 15*pi/180;
>> delta_z = 30*pi/180;
>> Sx = sin(delta_x); Cx = cos(delta_x);
>> Sy = sin(delta_y); Cy = cos(delta_y);
>> Sz = sin(delta_z); Cz = cos(delta_z);
>> T12 = [...
Cy*Cz, Sx*Sy*Cz - Cx*Sz, Cx*Sy*Cz + Sx*Sz, Dx
Cy*Sz, Sx*Sy*Sz + Cx*Cz, Cx*Sy*Sz - Sx*Cz, Dy
-Sy, Sx*Cy, Cx*Cy, Dz
0, 0, 0, 1];
>> p1 = T12*p2
p1 =

3.9489
15.1666
-3.4836
1.0000
>>

FIGURE E.2.15
Example 2.11 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

2.7 Summary
Vectors (quantities having both magnitude and direction) are commonly used in the formu-
lation of equation systems for mechanisms. One way to represent a two-dimensional vec-
tor is with a complex number. A complex number is comprised of both a real component
and an imaginary component. Equation systems for mechanisms can be formulated by
producing vector loops for the mechanisms and taking the sum of the individual vector
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 37

terms in the loops. First and second derivatives of vector-loop equations are taken to cal-
culate mechanism velocities and accelerations.
In addition to vectors, points can also be used to formulate mechanism displacement,
velocity, and acceleration equations. In fact, a vector can be produced from the coordinates
of two points in 2D or 3D space. Point-based vectors appear in such spatial mechanism equa-
tion systems as intermediate and total displacement, velocity, and acceleration equations.
A linear equation is an equation that includes linear or first-order variables. A system
of linear equations (or a linear system) is collection of linear equations including the same
variables. If a common solution is sought among a system of linear equations, it is called a
set of simultaneous equations.
A set of linear simultaneous equations having n equations and n variables can be expressed
in matrix form. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions arranged
in rows and columns. This form can be particularly convenient when solving for the vari-
ables in a simultaneous equation set. Cramer’s rule is a popular matrix-based formula for
the solution of linear simultaneous equations having n equations and n unknown variables.
The transformation matrix, commonly used in the analysis of robotic systems, is used
to calculate point coordinates given in one reference frame (Frame j) in terms of another
reference frame (Frame i). The general spatial transformation matrix can consider up to all
six possible degrees of freedom (x, y, and z rotations and translations).

References
1. Norton, R. L. 2008. Design of Machinery, 4th edn, pp. 186–199. New York: McGraw-Hill.
2. Ibid, pp. 309–318.
3. Russell, K., Shen, Q., and Sodhi, R. 2013. Mechanism Design: Visual and Programmable Approaches.
Chapter 7. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
4. Suh, C. H. and Radcliffe, C. W. 1978. Kinematics and Mechanisms Design. p. 85. New York: John
Wiley.
5. Wilson, C. E. and Sadler, J. P. 2003. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery. 3rd edn, Chapter 12.
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Additional Reading
Craig, J. J. 2005. Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and Control. 3rd edn, Chapter 2. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice-Hall.
Suh, C. H. and Radcliffe, C. W. 1978. Kinematics and Mechanisms Design. pp. 67–73. New York: John
Wiley.

Problems
1. Formulate an equation system for the vector loop illustrated in Figure P.2.1.
Consider that vector Vj always lies along the real axis.
38 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.2.1
Vector loop (three vectors where Vj changes length) in complex space.

FIGURE P.2.2
Vector loop (four vectors where Vj changes length) in complex space.
Mathematical Concepts in Kinematics 39

FIGURE P.2.3
Vector loop (four vectors) in complex space.

FIGURE P.2.4
Vector loop (five vectors) in complex space.
3
Fundamental Concepts in Kinematics

CONCEPT OVERVIEW
In this chapter, the reader will gain a central understanding regarding

1. Kinematic and design distinctions among select planar and spatial mechanisms
2. Mechanism components and mechanism construction
3. Mechanism mobility, Gruebler’s equation and number synthesis
4. Grashof criteria and the circuit defect
5. The transmission angle and its relationship with follower-link forces
6. Mechanism inversion
7. The passive degree of freedom and paradoxes to Gruebler’s equation

3.1 Types of Planar and Spatial Mechanisms

3.1.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism
Figure 3.1a illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism. The four interconnected links in this
mechanism are the crank (the driving link), coupler, follower, and ground.* A supplied input
rotation to the crank link compels the motion of the coupler and follower links. Both the
crank and follower links are connected to the ground link (or are grounded) and undergo
pure rotation (as indicated by the arrows).† The planar four-bar mechanism is one of the
most widely utilized kinematic chains in everyday devices (Figure 3.1b, c, and d) including
locking pliers, folding chairs, and doorways.

3.1.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism

Figure 3.2a illustrates a slider-crank mechanism. The four interconnected links in this mecha-
nism are the crank (the driving link), coupler, slider, and ground. A supplied input rotation to
the crank link compels the motion of the coupler and slider links. In this mechanism, the
crank link undergoes pure rotation, the slider undergoes pure translation and the coupler
undergoes complex motion. The slider-crank mechanism can be theoretically described as
a planar four-bar mechanism having a follower link of infinite length (Figure 3.2b) [1]. The

* Because mechanisms are comprised of links, they are also called linkages.
† The coupler undergoes complex motion—a combination of simultaneous rotation and translation (see Section 1.4).

DOI: 10.1201/9781003316961-3 41
42 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Coupler

Crank Follower

Ground

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

FIGURE 3.1
(a) Planar four-bar mechanism as (b) lock pliers, (c) folding chair, and (d) doorway linkages.

Coupler

Slider
Crank

00 00
(a) (b)

FIGURE 3.2
(a) Slider-crank mechanism and (b) four-bar mechanism as slider-crank mechanism.

slider-crank mechanism is also among the most widely utilized kinematic chains in every-
day applications. Among the many everyday applications for the slider-crank mechanism
is the crankshaft-connecting rod–piston linkage: a fundamental subsystem of the internal
combustion engine (Figure 3.3).

3.1.3 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism

Figure 3.4 illustrates a geared five-bar mechanism. This mechanism is comprised of five
interconnected links where the crank and output link are generally coupled to each
other through a gear pair or gear train.* Because the crank and output links are

* Coupling the motion of the crank and output links reduces the resulting mechanism to a single degree of free-
dom. In addition to using gears for coupling the crank and output links, other options include using pulley-belt
systems, chain-sprocket systems or drive motors.
Fundamental Concepts in Kinematics 43

FIGURE 3.3
Slider-crank mechanism as crankshaft-connecting rod–piston linkage.

Intermediate links

Output link
Crank

Ground

FIGURE 3.4
Geared five-bar mechanism.

indirectly interconnected, the supplied input motion to the crank compels the motion
of the output and intermediate links. Both the crank and output links of the geared
five-bar mechanism undergo pure rotation while the two intermediate links undergo
complex motion.
Though not as commonly utilized in everyday devices as the planar four-bar or slider-
crank mechanisms, one advantage the planar five-bar mechanism has over the four-bar
mechanism is that it can trace paths of higher orders than the latter. This means that the
intermediate links of the geared five-bar mechanism have the capacity to trace paths of
more complex curvature than the paths traced by the coupler link of the planar four-bar
linkage. Using Equation 3.1 (published by Wunderlich in 1963) to calculate the order (m)
of a coupler curve produced by a mechanism having n links connected by revolute joints,
we can determine that while a planar four-bar mechanism has a maximum curve order
of six, the planar five-bar mechanism has a maximum order of 10 (or 10.392 to be more
exact) [2].

  n −1 
m = 2  3 2   (3.1)
 
44 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

3.1.4 Planar Multiloop Six-Bar Mechanisms

Attaching a grounded link pair or a dyad (the link pair c-d-e in Figure 3.5) to the coupler of
the planar four-bar mechanism produces a planar multiloop six-bar mechanism. This particu-
lar type of multiloop planar six-bar mechanism is called a Stephenson type III mechanism
[3]. This mechanism includes three links that undergo pure rotation and two links that
undergo complex motion.
The five types of planar multiloop six-bar mechanisms are illustrated in Figure 3.6.
These types are grouped into two classifications: Watt and Stephenson. The supplied input
motion to the crank (e.g., Link 2 in Figure 3.6) compels the motion of the remaining links.
Though not as commonly utilized in everyday devices as the planar four-bar or slider-
crank mechanisms, Watt and Stephenson mechanisms include two to three intermediate
links that undergo complex motion. This property enables these mechanisms to deliver

d
c

b
e

FIGURE 3.5
Planar multiloop six-bar mechanism (Stephenson III six-bar mechanism).

Watt I Watt II

Stephenson I Stephenson II Stephenson III

FIGURE 3.6
Watt and Stephenson mechanism types.
Fundamental Concepts in Kinematics 45

both dual and simultaneous motion and path generation capabilities.* As shown in this
figure, both Stephenson and Watt mechanisms include two to three links that undergo
pure rotation (as indicated by the arrows in this figure) as well as two to three links that
undergo complex motion. The Watt II and Stephenson III mechanisms are the planar mul-
tiloop mechanisms of choice for analysis throughout this textbook.

3.1.5 Spatial Four-Bar Mechanisms

Planar mechanisms are restricted to motion in two-dimensional or planar space. Spatial
mechanisms can exhibit three-dimensional or spatial motion. Spatial mechanism motion
is predominantly determined by the degrees of freedom of the mechanism joints used and
the spatial orientation of the joints.
Because spatial mechanisms have the capability to exhibit spatial motion, they offer a
greater variety of possible motions and are structurally more general than planar mecha-
nisms. However, because the equations for spatial mechanism analysis and synthesis are
often much larger in scale and greater in complexity than those for planar mechanisms
(not to mention the actual design of spatial mechanisms vs. planar mechanisms), their real-
world applications are often limited. In practice, it is not uncommon to find complicated
planar mechanism solutions when, in fact, a simpler spatial mechanism solution is also
possible. It is, therefore, an ongoing task to devise simple methods of calculation, to produce
design aids with diagrams, and to set design standards for spatial mechanisms [4].
Like planar mechanisms, there are also many different types of spatial mechanisms.
This textbook considers three types of four-bar spatial mechanisms: the revolute-revolute-
spherical-spherical or RRSS, the revolute-revolute-revolute-revolute spherical or 4R spherical, and
the revolute-spherical-spherical-revolute or RSSR mechanisms (Figure 3.7a, b, and c, respec-
tively) [5,6]. The RRSS, 4R spherical, and RSSR are among the more basic four-bar spatial
mechanisms in terms of the types of joints used and the required linkage assembly condi-
tions for motion.

R
S
R R
Y
Y X
X Z
R R
R Z (b)
S
(a)
S
S

X
R Z
(c) R

FIGURE 3.7
Spatial (a) RRSS, (b) 4R spherical, and (c) RSSR mechanisms.

* Motion and path generation (mechanism design for prescribed mechanism link positions and path points, respec-
tively) are introduced in Chapter 5.
46 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

3.2 L inks, Joints, and Mechanism Mobility

As explained in Chapter 1, a mechanism is an assembly of links and joints. The attach-
ment points to adjacent links are called nodes. A link that has two nodes is called a binary
link, and a ternary link has three nodes. The Stephenson III six-bar mechanism in Figure 3.8
includes a ternary link as ground and a movable intermediate ternary link. The remaining
links in this mechanism are all binary.
Adjacent mechanism links are interconnected at their nodes by joints. Joint types differ
by both the number and type of degree(s) of freedom (DOF). Six mechanism joint types
are illustrated in Figure 3.9. For planar mechanisms, the revolute joint is more commonly
used than any other joint. Although the revolute joint is by far the dominant joint type
used in practice, as well as in the mechanisms in this textbook, Figure 3.9 includes other
common joint types. The revolute joint (R) has one rotational DOF, the prismatic joint (P)
has one translational DOF, the cylindrical joint (C) has 2 DOFs—one rotational and one
translational—and the spherical joint (S) has three rotational DOFs. The term lower pair
describes joints like the R, P, C, and S joints where surface contact occurs (e.g., a ball sur-
rounded by a socket for the S joint or a pin surrounded by a hole for the R joint). Lower
pairs are also called full joints [7].
Also illustrated in Figure 3.9 are the cam joint and the gear joint (G). Because the cam joint
includes rolling-sliding contact (between the cam and follower surfaces), it has two degrees
of freedom.* Because the gear joint includes rolling-sliding contact between the surfaces of
the gear teeth, it also has two degrees of freedom. The term higher pair describes joints like
the cam and the G joints where line contact occurs (e.g., a convex surface on a flat surface
for the cam joint or two curved convex surfaces in contact for the G joint).† Higher pairs are
also called half joints [7].
Gruebler’s equation (Equations 3.2 and 3.3) is used to determine the mobility (the DOF)
of a mechanism. Equation 3.2 calculates the mobility of a planar mechanism. Since any
individual planar mechanism link can have no more than three degrees of freedom, the

Binary
Nodes
Nodes

Binary
Ternary Nodes

Binary Nodes
Nodes

Binary Nodes
Ternary
Nodes

FIGURE 3.8
Link types in the Stephenson III mechanism.

* This joint pertains to the classical radial cam (or disk cam) and follower type presented in Chapter 9.
† The term “higher pair” also describes joints where point contact occurs (e.g., two spheres in contact or a sphere

on a flat surface).
Fundamental Concepts in Kinematics 47

δZ
δθZ
Y
Y X
X
Z
Z

Revolute (R) joint Prismatic (P) joint

(1 DOF) (1 DOF)

δθy
δθZ Y
Y X
X
Z
δZ Z δθx δθz
Cylindrical (C) joint
(2 DOF) Spherical (S) joint
(3 DOF)

Rolling-sliding motion
between cam and follower
Rolling-sliding motion
between gear tooth pairs
Cam joint Gear (G) joint
(2 DOF) (2 DOF)

FIGURE 3.9
Six mechanism joint types.

maximum mobility of a planar mechanism with L links is 3L. Because the ground link is
fully constrained, its mobility is subtracted from the maximum mechanism mobility, giv-
ing 3(L−1). Each 1-DOF joint type removes two degrees of freedom, giving −2J1, and each
2-DOF joint type removes one degree of freedom, giving –J2 (where J1 and J2 are the total
number of 1-and 2-DOF joints, respectively).
Equation 3.3 calculates the mobility of a spatial mechanism. Since any individual spatial
mechanism link can have no more than six degrees of freedom, the maximum mobility
of a spatial mechanism with L links is 6L. Because the ground link is fully constrained,
its mobility is subtracted from the maximum mobility, giving 6(L−1). Each 1-DOF joint
type removes five degrees of freedom, giving −5J1. Likewise, each 2- and 3-DOF joint type
removes four and three degrees of freedom, respectively. In this textbook, J4 = J5 = 0, since
4- and 5-DOF joints are not utilized.

DOFPLANAR = 3 ( L − 1) − 2 J1 − J 2 (3.2)

DOFSPATIAL = 6 ( L − 1) − 5 J1 − 4 J 2 − 3 J 3 − 2 J 4 − J 5 (3.3)

As explained in Section 1.2, the fundamental objective in mechanical system design is to

produce specific controlled output motions for supplied input motions. Output motion con-
trol is maximized when the mechanical system has a single degree of freedom. Knowing
the mobility of a mechanism enables the designer to determine if additional constraints
are needed to reach the desired mobility (and if so, how many constraints are needed).
48 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Example 3.1
Problem Statement: Determine the mobility of the planar and spatial mechanisms illus-
trated in Figure E.3.1.
Known Information: Figure E.3.1, Equations 3.2 and 3.3.
Solution Approach: The planar mechanism illustrated in Figure E.3.1 includes eight links,
eight revolute joints, and two prismatic joints (therefore, L = 8, J1 = 10, and J2 = 0). The
spatial linkage illustrated in Figure E.3.1 includes six links, three revolute joints, three
spherical joints, and one cylindrical joint (therefore, L = 6, J1 = 3, J2 = 1, J3 = 3, and J4J5 = 0).
Figure E.3.2 includes the calculation procedure in the MATLAB® command window
using Gruebler’s planar and spatial mechanism equations (Equations 3.2 and 3.3).

R C

Y
X
Y R
X
Z R

(a) (b)

FIGURE E.3.1
Planar (a) and spatial (b) mechanisms.

>> L = 8;
>> J1 = 10;
>> J2 = 0;
>> DOF_Planar = 3*(L - 1) - 2*J1 - J2
DOF_Planar =

>> L = 6;
>> J1 = 3;
>> J2 = 1;
>> J3 = 3;
>> J4 = 0;
>> J5 = 0;
>> DOF_Spatial = 6*(L - 1) - 5*J1 - 4*J2 - 3*J3 - 2*J4 - J5
DOF_Spatial =

2
>>

FIGURE E.3.2
Example 3.1 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.
Fundamental Concepts in Kinematics 49

3.3 Number Synthesis
Given the number of mechanism links and the number and order of mechanism joints,
mechanism mobility is calculated from Gruebler’s equation. An inverse application of
Gruebler’s equation can also be considered. For example, Gruebler’s equation is useful in
determining mechanism link and joint combinations (which result in alternate mecha-
nism solutions) for a given mobility [8]. Number synthesis involves the determination of
alternate mechanism solutions for a given mobility. Expressing Gruebler’s equations for
planar and spatial mechanisms as functions of links and joints or as

f ( L, J1 , J 2 ) = DOFPLANAR (3.4)
f ( L, J1 , J 2 , J 3 , J 4 , J 5 ) = DOFSPATIAL (3.5)

shows that, for a given mobility, an indefinite number of link and joint combinations—
alternate mechanisms—exist. Number synthesis offers not only a means to assist in the
creative design of mechanisms, but Equations 3.4 and 3.5 could also be implemented
systematically [9,10]. By progressively increasing or decreasing the link and joint vari-
ables in Gruebler’s equation for a given mobility, tables of concept mechanism solutions
are produced.
While the number of mechanism links and joints required to achieve a specified mobil-
ity are determined through number synthesis, the specific mechanism design is not deter-
mined. With number synthesis, the user determines the specific mechanism design that
incorporates the calculated links and joints.

Example 3.2
Problem Statement: Compile a table of single-DOF planar mechanisms having two, three,
and four links.
Known Information: Equation 3.2, DOFPLANAR = 1, L = 2, 3, and 4.
Solution Approach: For each value of variable L, variable J1 is incrementally increased,
and for each value of L and J1, the corresponding value for the remaining unknown J2
in Equation 3.2 is calculated. Using this systematic procedure, the resulting mechanism
solutions in Table E.3.1 are calculated.

TABLE E.3.1
Two-, Three-, and Four-Link Single-DOF Planar Mechanisms
Mechanism Solution L J1 J2
1 2 0 2
2 2 1 0
3 3 0 5
4 3 1 3
5 3 2 1
6 4 0 8
7 4 1 6
8 4 2 4
9 4 3 2
10 4 4 0
50 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.3.3
Example two-, three-, and four-link single-DOF planar mechanism configurations.

Figure E.3.3 illustrates example mechanism configurations corresponding to mecha-

nism solutions 1, 2, 5, 9, and 10 in Table E.3.1. Each of the mechanism solutions in this
table does not necessarily represent a single mechanism configuration. For example,
for mechanism solution 9 in Table E.3.1, two mechanism configurations are provided
in Figure E.3.3.

3.4 Grashof’s Criteria and Transmission Angle

Grashof’s criteria are used to determine the link rotation behavior or link rotatability of
four-bar mechanisms. These criteria are based on the lengths of the crank, coupler, fol-
lower, and ground links. Table 3.1 includes all of the Grashof and non-Grashof mechanism
classifications. For the link length relationships in this table, the variables S and L are the
shortest and longest mechanism link lengths, respectively, and the remaining two link
lengths are the variables P and Q.
Figure 3.10 illustrates the link rotations for the crank-rocker, double-crank (also called drag-
link), double-rocker, and triple-rocker mechanisms. As illustrated, only the crank link can
undergo a complete rotation in a crank-rocker mechanism while both the crank and fol-
lower links can undergo complete rotations in a double-crank mechanism. In the double-
rocker mechanism, the shortest link—the coupler link—is the driving link and undergoes
a complete rotation, while no link rotates completely in the triple-rocker.* During the
motion of a change point mechanism (not illustrated), specifically, twice per revolution,
all of the links become simultaneously aligned. During this (theoretical) state, the output
behavior of the change point mechanism is unpredictable [11].
Unlike the crank-rocker and drag-link mechanisms, the driving link in the double-rocker
mechanism is not grounded. This characteristic can make the double-rocker mechanism
less practical for design applications. When considering the double-rocker mechanism, the

* Figure 3.10c illustrates the path achieved by the shortest link in the double-rocker when a driver is applied to
the labeled joint (of the shortest link).
Fundamental Concepts in Kinematics 51

TABLE 3.1
Grashof and Non-Grashof Mechanisms
Grashof Type Link Length Relationship Shortest Link
Crank-rocker S+L<P+Q Crank
Double-crank (drag-link) S+L<P+Q Ground
Double-rocker S+L<P+Q Coupler
Change point S+L=P+Q Any

Non-Grashof Type Link Length Relationship

Triple-rocker S+L>P+Q Any

(a) (b)

Driver

(c) (d)
FIGURE 3.10 Link rotations of Grashof mechanisms: (a) crank-rocker, (b) drag-link (double-crank), (c) double-
rocker, and (d) non-Grashof triple-rocker.

designer must overcome the technical challenges of affixing a drive system to a movable
joint (and operating such a drive system).*
When force and torque transmission between the crank and follower links are of concern
in four-bar mechanism design, knowing the transmission angle is critical. The transmission
angle is the angle between the coupler and follower links. Figure 3.11a illustrates a planar
four-bar mechanism and the transmission angle τ. When an input torque Tin is applied to
the crank link, this link transmits force to the coupler which subsequently transmits force
to the follower Ffollower. One component of this follower force (Ffollower sin (τ) in Figure 3.11b) is
normal to the follower link and results in the output torque Tout. The other force component
(Ffollower cos (τ)) is a columnar load acting along the length of the follower. Both follower force
components are functions of the transmission angle. Attempts are often made to minimize
the columnar component of the follower force in four-bar mechanism design, particularly

* Affixing a drive system (such as a motor or manual crank) to a grounded link joint (and operating such a
system) can be more easily accomplished than to a nongrounded joint.
52 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

(τ)
τ
F follower

er cos
F follower τ
Ff

llow
τ ollo
wer si
n(τ)

Ffo
Tin Tin

Tout Tout

(a) (b)

FIGURE 3.11
Planar four-bar mechanism with transmission angle and crank and follower loads.

in applications where the forces and torques transmitted are substantial.* A transmission
angle of 90° is optimum because the resulting follower force has only a normal component
(Ffollower cos (τ) when τ = 90°). A transmission angle range of 90°± 50° is generally preferred
by designers [12]. It can be observed from the equations in Figure 3.11b that as the transmis-
sion angle decreases, the columnar load component increases and the normal load compo-
nent decreases.
Follower-link forces are not governed by the transmission angle in dynamic force analy-
ses (to be presented in Chapter 7). This is because body forces exist in the mechanism links
due to gravity and link acceleration. Follower-link forces are also not governed by the
transmission angle in static-force analyses (to be presented in Chapter 6) where link body
forces (due to gravity) are comparable to link external loads. The ideal condition where
transmission angles do govern follower-link forces is under static loading where the exter-
nal link loads far exceed the link body forces. As the external static loads exceed the static
body forces in a planar four-bar linkage, the transmission angle-based calculation of the
follower forces becomes more accurate.

Example 3.3
Problem Statement: The link lengths for three planar four-bar mechanisms are given in
Figure E.3.4 (all identical to the link dimensions given in Mechanism 1) and the driving
links are labeled with rotation arrows. Determine the Grashof type for each mechanism.
Known Information: Figure E.3.4 and Table 3.1.
Solution Approach: Because the shortest link in Mechanism 1 is the ground link and
the Grashof condition S + L < P + Q is true, this mechanism is a Grashof double-crank.
Because the shortest link in Mechanism 2 is the crank link and the Grashof condition
S + L < P + Q is true, this mechanism is a Grashof crank-rocker. Because the shortest link
in Mechanism 3 is the coupler link and the Grashof condition S + L < P + Q is true, this
mechanism is a Grashof double-rocker.

* Unlike follower normal loads (which links having revolute joints are designed to accommodate), follower
columnar loads (Ffollower cos τ in Figure 3.11b) can result in follower buckling or excessive bearing forces in the
follower revolute joints.
Fundamental Concepts in Kinematics 53

3
2

Mechanism 1 Mechanism 2 Mechanism 3

FIGURE E.3.4
Planar four-bar mechanism configurations (with dimensionless link lengths given for Mechanism 1).

3.5 Circuit Defect

While a Grashof mechanism is capable of producing full crank rotation, a non-Grashof mech-
anism is not. For the latter mechanism type, the crank can only rotate to the mechanism’s
binding position. When the binding position is reached, the mechanism “locks up” or is physi-
cally precluded from further movement (i.e., further movement in the given crank direction).
Crank rotation beyond the binding position is only possible through mechanism disassembly.
Figure 3.12 illustrates a non-Grashof triple-rocker and one of its binding positions. The
binding position is reached when link a0 –a1 rotates by an angular displacement β. Because
the mechanism locks up at β, further mechanism motion in the counterclockwise direc-
tion is only possible when the mechanism is disassembled and reassembled beyond the
infeasible region shown in Figure 3.12.*

b1
a1

θ
Disassembly a0
required b0
θ+β

FIGURE 3.12
Planar four-bar mechanism (a non-Grashof triple-rocker) with circuit defect.

* For a given non-Grashof mechanism, the lock-up position can vary based on the designated crank link (e.g.,
link b0 –b1 could be a crank link) as well as the crank rotation direction (clockwise instead of counterclockwise
rotation).
54 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

If a mechanism is incapable of achieving a desired crank rotation (as, subsequently,

a desired mechanism position) due to a lock-up condition, it has what is called a circuit
defect.* Circuit defects are considered to be fatal to linkage operation (due to mechanism
disassembly being required for full crank rotation).

3.6 Mechanism Inversion

The motion of a mechanism can vary, based on which joints are grounded. As illustrated
in Figure E.3.4, the planar four-bar mechanisms given are all identical in terms of link
length (and even identical in terms of initial link orientation), but vary only in terms of the
joints that are grounded. The mechanisms in Figure E.3.4 are all inversions of each other
because they are otherwise identical mechanisms that have different grounded joints.
Figure 3.13 illustrates all of the inversions of the planar four-bar, slider-crank, and 4R
spherical mechanisms. Because the motion of a mechanism can vary based on which joints

2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1

4 4 4 4

2 2

3 Y 3
1 Y 1
X X
Z Z
4
4

2
2
3
1 Y Y 3
1
X X
Z Z
4 4

2 2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3

FIGURE 3.13
Planar four-bar, 4R spherical, and slider-crank mechanism inversions.

* A mechanism link loop (like loops in electrical and fluid flow systems) is also called a circuit.
Fundamental Concepts in Kinematics 55

are grounded, producing mechanism inversions is a systematic method to produce mech-

anisms that have unique motions, but include the same general linkage hardware.

3.7 Passive Degree of Freedom and Paradoxes

There are cases where the mobility values calculated from Equations 3.2 and 3.3 are mis-
leading. For example, although Equation 3.3 produces a mobility value of 2 for the spatial
RRSS and RSSR mechanisms, the RRSS mechanism is capable of controlled coupler motion
and the RSSR is capable of controlled follower motion. The extra degree of freedom for
these mechanisms is the free rotation of the S-S links about their length axes (Figure 3.14)
and is called a passive degree of freedom. Because this degree of freedom is highly localized
(limited to a single link) for these mechanisms, they have no effect on the kinematics of
their links of interest (the coupler link for the RRSS and the follower link for the RSSR).
There are also cases where the mobility values calculated from Equations 3.2 and 3.3 are
incorrect. For example, Equation 3.3 produces a mobility of –2 for the 4R spherical mecha-
nism (which has a true mobility of 1) and Equation 3.2 produces a mobility of 0 for the
pair of rolling cylinders in Figure 3.15 (which has a true mobility of 1). Mechanisms hav-
ing true mobility values that violate Gruebler’s equation are called paradoxes or maverick
mechanisms [13,14]. Because Gruebler’s equation cannot guarantee true mobility results for

Passive DOF

S S
R S
Passive DOF

Y Y
X X
R Z Z
S R
(a) (b) R

FIGURE 3.14
Passive DOF in spatial (a) RRSS and (b) RSSR mechanisms.

Rolling contact only (no sliding)

FIGURE 3.15
Rolling cylinder pair (with no sliding contact).
56 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

all mechanisms, it may be necessary for the user to validate the mobility of a mechanism
(through kinematic analyses, for example).

3.8 Summary
The planar four-bar mechanism is one of the most widely utilized kinematic chains in
everyday devices. The four interconnected links in this mechanism are the crank, cou-
pler, follower, and ground links. The crank and follower links in the planar four-bar
mechanism undergo pure rotation while the coupler link undergoes complex motion. The
slider-crank mechanism is another commonly used kinematic chain, particularly in inter-
nal combustion engines. The four interconnected links in this mechanism are the crank,
coupler, slider, and ground links. The crank link in the slider-crank mechanism under-
goes pure rotation while the slider link undergoes pure translation. In the geared five-bar
mechanism, the crank link and output link are coupled by a gear pair. Though not as
commonly utilized in everyday devices as planar four-bar mechanisms, one advantage the
planar five-bar mechanism has over the four-bar mechanism is that its intermediate links
can trace paths of higher orders than the latter.
Attaching a dyad to the coupler of the planar four-bar mechanism produces the
Stephenson III mechanism. Attaching the crank and follower of two planar four-bar mech-
anisms produces the Watt II mechanism. Both mechanisms are particular types of multi-
loop planar six-bar mechanisms. There are two classifications for planar multiloop six-bar
mechanisms: Watt and Stephenson. Although these mechanisms are not as commonly uti-
lized as planar four-bar mechanisms in everyday devices, they include at least two links
that undergo complex motion—giving them greater capacities in kinematic synthesis than
planar four-bar mechanisms.
Planar mechanisms are restricted to motion in two-dimensional or planar space. Spatial
mechanisms can exhibit three-dimensional or spatial motion. Because spatial mechanisms
have the capacity to exhibit spatial motion, they offer a greater variety of possible motions
and are structurally more general than planar mechanisms. This textbook considers
three types of four-bar spatial mechanisms: the revolute-revolute-spherical-spherical or
RRSS, the revolute-revolute-revolute-revolute spherical or 4R spherical, and the revolute-
spherical-spherical-revolute or RSSR mechanisms. The RRSS, 4R spherical, and RSSR are
among the more basic four-bar spatial mechanisms in terms of the types of joints used and
the required linkage assembly conditions for motion.
Mechanism links are interconnected by joints. Both the planar four-bar, geared five-bar,
Watt, and Stephenson mechanisms include revolute joints: joints having a single rotational
degree of freedom. The prismatic joint has a single translational degree of freedom and is
used where 1-DOF sliding contact is needed. The cylindrical joint and spherical joint are
other joint types utilized in spatial mechanisms. The cylindrical joint has a rotational and
a translational degree of freedom, while the spherical joint has three rotational degrees of
freedom. Joints having two degrees of freedom include the cam joint and gear joint, which
both include rolling-sliding contact.
Gruebler’s equation is used to calculate mechanism mobility or degrees of freedom
(DOF). Determining the mobility of a mechanism enables the designer to determine if addi-
tional constraints are needed to reach the desired mobility, and if so, how many constraints
are needed. In number synthesis, Gruebler’s equations are implemented systematically to
Fundamental Concepts in Kinematics 57

determine alternate mechanism solutions for a given mobility. Grashof’s criteria are used
to determine the link rotation behavior of four-bar mechanisms. Determining link rota-
tion behavior is important in design, particularly when coupling a drive system to the
crank link.
While a Grashof mechanism is capable of producing full crank rotation, a non-Grashof
mechanism cannot. For the latter mechanism type, the crank can only rotate to the mech-
anism’s binding position. Crank rotation beyond the binding position is only possible
through mechanism disassembly. This defect associated with non-Grashof mechanisms is
called a circuit defect. Circuit defects are considered to be fatal to linkage operation (due to
mechanism disassembly being required for full crank rotation).
Knowing the transmission angle (the angle between the coupler and follower links)
behavior is important when force and torque transmission between the crank and follower
links are of concern in four-bar mechanism design. As the transmission angle decreases,
the magnitude of the columnar load on the follower link increases and the magnitude of
the load normal to the follower decreases (and vice versa). A transmission angle range of
90° ± 50° is generally preferred by designers.
The motion of a mechanism can vary, based on which joints are grounded. Mechanisms
of identical type and link dimensions, but different grounded links, are inversions of each
other. Because the motion of a mechanism can vary based on which joints are grounded,
producing mechanism inversions is a systematic method to produce mechanisms that
have unique motions, but include the same general linkage hardware.
There are cases where the mobility values calculated by Gruebler’s equation are mislead-
ing. The follower link of the spatial RRSS mechanism and the coupler link of the spatial
RSSR mechanism have a passive degree of freedom: the free rotation of these links about
their length axes. For example, although Gruebler’s equation produces a mobility value of
2 for both mechanisms, the RRSS mechanism is capable of controlled coupler motion and
the RSSR is capable of controlled follower motion.
There are also cases where the mobility values calculated by Gruebler’s equation are
incorrect. For example, Gruebler’s equation produces a mobility value of –2 for the 4R
spherical mechanism (which has a true mobility of 1). Mechanisms having true mobil-
ity values that violate Gruebler’s equation are called paradoxes or maverick mechanisms.
Because Gruebler’s equation cannot guarantee true mobility results for all mechanisms, it
may be necessary for the user to validate the mobility of a mechanism.

References
1. Sandor, G. N. and Erdman, A. G. 1984. Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis.
Volume 2, p. 4. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
2. Wunderlich, W. 1963. Höhere Koppelkurven. Österreichisches Ingenieur Archiv, 17: 162–165.
3. Sandor, G. N. and Erdman, A. G. 1984. Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis.
Volume 2, pp. 10–11. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
4. Capellen, W. M. 1966. Kinematics: A survey in retrospect and prospect. Mechanism and Machine
Theory. 1: 211–228.
5. Russell, K., Shen, Q., and Sodhi, R. S. 2013. Mechanism Design: Visual and Programmable
Approaches. Chapter 7. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
6. Suh, C. H. and Radcliffe, C. W. 1978. Kinematics and Mechanisms Design. Chapter 4. New York:
John Wiley.
58 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

7. Norton, R. L. 2008. Design of Machinery. 4th edn, pp. 32–36. New York: McGraw-Hill.
8. Sandor, G. N. and Erdman, A. G. 1984. Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis.
Volume 2, p. 64. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 9. Ibid, pp. 64–75.
10. Norton, R. L. 2008. Design of Machinery. 4th edn, pp. 42–46. New York: McGraw-Hill.
11. Ibid, p. 58.
12. Wilson, C. E. and Sadler, J. P. 2003. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery. 3rd edn, p. 33. Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
13. Norton, R. L. 2008. Design of Machinery. 4th edn, pp. 46–47. New York: McGraw-Hill.
14. Suh, C. H. and Radcliffe, C. W. 1978. Kinematics and Mechanisms Design. pp. 109–110. New York:
John Wiley.

Problems
1. Planar four-bar linkages have many everyday applications (some are illustrated
Figure 3.1). Identify and describe four additional everyday applications for the pla-
nar four-bar linkage.
2. a. Why is it important to know if a mechanism has a single degree of freedom?
b. Why is a crank-rocker mechanism more useful than a double-rocker mechanism?
c. Should the transmission angle for the planar four-bar linkage be close to 0°?
Explain.
3. For the two linkages illustrated in Figure P.3.1, which (if any) of the links can
undergo a complete rotation relative to the other links? How do you know?
4. Repeat Problem 3 where one linkage has link lengths of 2.35 (ground), 3.25 (cou-
pler), 2.25 and 2.15 cm and another linkage has link lengths of 2.75 (ground), 3.25
(coupler), 1.15 and 1.75 cm.
5. Determine the number of links and the mobility of each of the three planar mech-
anisms in Figure P.3.2.

FIGURE P.3.1
Planar four-bar linkages with dimensionless link lengths.
Fundamental Concepts in Kinematics 59

FIGURE P.3.2
Planar mechanisms.

FIGURE P.3.3
Planar four-bar linkage.
60 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.3.4
Spatial mechanisms comprised of R, P, C, and S joints.

FIGURE P.3.5
Spatial robots comprised of R, P, and C joints.
Fundamental Concepts in Kinematics 61

FIGURE P.3.6
Planar four-bar mechanism with transmission angle and crank and follower loads.
4
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms

CONCEPT OVERVIEW
In this chapter, the reader will gain a central understanding regarding

4.1  Introduction
In a kinematic analysis, positions, displacements, velocities, and accelerations of mech-
anism links are determined either qualitatively or quantitatively. In a quantitative kine-
matic analysis, equations that fully describe the motion of the mechanism links are used.
Qualitative methods include constructing and measuring mechanism schematics and
polygons to determine the positions, velocities, and accelerations of mechanism links. As
intended by the authors, the kinematic analysis methods presented in this textbook are
all quantitative. Kinematic equations for the planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-
bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mechanisms are formulated in this chapter. Displacement
equations are formulated by taking the sum of the closed vector loop(s) in each mecha-
nism (as introduced in Section 2.2.2) [1]. Taking the first and second derivatives of the
vector-loop displacement equations introduces mechanism link velocity and acceleration
variables, respectively, and, ultimately, produces mechanism velocity and acceleration
equations, respectively.
As noted in Section 3.1.4, the Watt II and Stephenson III mechanisms (Figure 3.6) are
the planar multiloop mechanisms of choice for analysis in this textbook. Both mecha-
nisms have two links that exhibit complex motion. As illustrated in Figure 3.6, Watt II

DOI: 10.1201/9781003316961-4 63
64 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

and Stephenson III mechanisms are comprised of a planar four-bar mechanism and an
additional dyad.*
Because the Watt II and Stephenson III mechanisms include the planar four-bar
mechanism, the displacement, velocity, and acceleration equations for these planar mul-
tiloop mechanisms will include some of the variables and output from the planar four-
bar mechanism equations. Displacement equations for the additional dyads in the Watt II
and Stephenson III mechanisms are produced by formulating vector-loop equations that
include these dyads. Taking the first and second derivatives of the resulting vector-loop
displacement equations produces velocity and acceleration equations.

4.2 Numerical Solution Method for Two Simultaneous Equations

The displacement equations presented in this chapter form sets of two nonlinear
simultaneous equations (where each set includes two unknown variables). Unlike
linear simultaneous equations, which can be solved algebraically (see Section 2.4), non-
linear simultaneous equations cannot be solved in this way. Using a root-finding method
(a method for calculating the unknown variables in a set of nonlinear equations), such
equation sets can be solved numerically [2]. The Newton– Raphson method is one of the most
common root-finding methods. A Newton–Raphson method flowchart for a set of two
simultaneous equations is illustrated in Figure 4.1.†
Given a set of two simultaneous equations ( f1 and f2) having two unknowns (V1 and V2),
where f1(V1, V2) = 0 and f2(V1, V2) = 0, Figure 4.1 begins with initial values for the unknown
variables being specified. The unknown variable residuals δV1 and δV2 are then calculated
(by computing the negative product of the inverted Jacobian and the column matrix of
f1(V1, V2) and f2(V1, V2)). Updated values for the unknown variables are calculated by add-
ing the variable residuals to the unknown variables, and f1 and f2 are calculated using
the updated variables. As shown in Figure 4.1, the variables are updated repeatedly until
the values calculated from the two equations (with the latest variable values) are smaller
than a specified error term ɛ. The Newton–Raphson method can be codified (or currently
exists) on a wide range of software platforms—including MATLAB—as a basic solver for
simultaneous equations.

4.3 Link Velocity and Acceleration Components in Planar Space

Figure 4.2a illustrates an arbitrary grounded rotating link with rotation angle β. Figures 4.2b
and c include the velocity and acceleration components at point p1 of this link, respectively.
Given a link angular velocity (which we label β ), the velocity vector (which we label Vp1 ) is
produced. This velocity is tangent to the length p0 –p1 and acts in the direction of β .

* The additional dyad is connected to the follower link in the Watt II mechanism while the additional dyad is
connected to the coupler link in the Stephenson III mechanism.
† While the numerical Newton–Raphson method can be used to calculate solutions for linear and nonlinear simul-

taneous equations, linear simultaneous equations can be also solved analytically (see Section 2.4).
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 65

Initial values
V1, V2

∂f1 ∂f1 –1
δV1 ∂V1 ∂V2 f1 (V1, V2)
=– ∂f2 ∂f2
δV2 f2 (V1, V2)
∂V1 ∂V2

V1 = V1 + δV1
V2 = V2 + δV2

f1 (V1, V2) < ε

No
and
f2 (V1, V2) < ε

Yes

V1, V2

FIGURE 4.1
Newton–Raphson method flowchart (for two equations with two unknowns).

p1 Vp Ap
1 1t
p1 p1

Ap
1n

β . . ..
p0 ββ ββ β
p0 p0

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 4.2
(a) Rotating link and its (a) velocity and (b) acceleration components.

Given a link angular velocity and an angular acceleration (which we label β and β ,
respectively), the acceleration vectors (which we label A p1t and A p1n ) are produced. The
acceleration component A p1t is tangent to the length p0 –p1 and acts in the direction of β .
The acceleration component A p1n is along the length p0 –p1 and acts in the direction toward
the center of rotation (i.e., toward p0). The total acceleration at p1 is the sum of acceleration
components A p1t and A p1n .
66 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

. ..
V Ap1c V
Vp1
p1
p1 p1
.. Ap1t
β
. .
β V ββ V ββ Ap1n V
p0 p0 p0

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 4.3
(a) Rotating-sliding link and its (a) velocity and (b) acceleration components.

Figure 4.3a illustrates an arbitrarily grounded rotating-sliding link with rotation angle β
and sliding length V.* Figures 4.3b and c include the velocity and acceleration components
at point p1 of this link, respectively. Given a link angular velocity, the velocity vectors
(which we label Vp1 and V  ) are produced. The velocity component Vp1 is tangent to the
length p0 –p1 and acts in the direction of β . The velocity component V  (the sliding velocity)
is along the length p0 –p1 and acts in the direction away from the center of rotation (i.e.,
away from p0). The total velocity at p1 is the sum of velocity components Vp1 and V .
Given a link angular velocity and an angular acceleration, the acceleration vectors (which
we Label A p1t , A p1n , A p1c , and V  ) are produced. The acceleration component A p1t is tangent
to the length p0 –p1 and acts in the direction of β . The acceleration component A p is along
1t
the length acts in the p0 –p1 and acts in the direction toward the center of rotation (i.e.,
toward p0).† The acceleration component A p1n is also tangent to the length p0 –p1 but acts
in the direction of β .‡ The acceleration component V  (the sliding acceleration) is along the
length p0 –p1 and acts in the direction away from the center of rotation (i.e., away from p0).
The total acceleration at p1 is the sum of acceleration components A p1t , A p1n , A p1c , and V  .

4.4 Four-Bar Mechanism Analysis

4.4.1 Displacement Equations
The planar four-bar mechanism consists of four links interconnected by revolute joints. As
calculated from Gruebler’s equation for planar mechanisms (with L = 4 and J1 = 4), the pla-
nar four-bar mechanism has a single DOF. A single displacement equation is derived for
this mechanism by taking the sum of the displaced mechanism vector loop in Figure 4.4.
The equation produced from a clockwise sum of the displaced vector loop is

W1e ( ) + V e i(ρ +α j ) − U e i(σ + γ j ) − G = 0

i θ+β j
1 1 1 (4.1)

* This type of link is used in slider-crank inversions (see Section 3.6 and Example 4.7).
† This acceleration is also known as centripetal acceleration.
‡ This acceleration is also known as Coriolis acceleration.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 67

V1 b1
ρ
a1
αj
U1
W1
γj
σ
βj
θ
iY b0
a0 G1
X

FIGURE 4.4
Planar four-bar mechanism displacement variables.

After expanding Equation 4.1 and grouping its real and imaginary terms as separate
equations, the resulting planar four-bar mechanism displacement equations become

( ) ( ) ( )
f1 α j , γ j = W1 cos θ + β j + V1 cos ρ + α j − U 1 cos σ + γ j − G1x = 0 ( )
(4.2)
f ( α , γ ) = W sin ( θ + β ) + V sin ( ρ + α ) − U
2 j j 1 j 1 j 1 sin ( σ + γ ) − G
j 1y =0

With the exception of the coupler displacement angle αj and follower displacement angle
γj, all other variables in the planar four-bar displacement equations are user prescribed.
Because f1(αj, γj) and f2(αj, γj) in Equation 4.2 both include the unknown displacement angles
αj and γj, these equations form a set of nonlinear simultaneous equations from which the
angles are calculated.

4.4.2 Velocity Equations

A single planar four-bar velocity equation is derived by differentiating the planar four-bar
displacement equation. Differentiating Equation 4.1 with respect to time produces

iβ jW1e ( ) + iα V e i(ρ+α j ) − iγ U e i( σ + γ j ) = 0*

i θ+β j
j 1 j 1 (4.3)

Equation 4.4 includes the individual velocity variables from Equation 4.3. The velocity
Va1 is the global tangential velocity of the crank link vector—the tangential velocity of a1
with respect to a0 (see Figure 4.5). The velocity Vb1 is the global tangential velocity of the
follower-link vector—the tangential velocity of b1 with respect to b0. Also, the velocity
Vb1 − a1 is the relative tangential velocity of the coupler link vector—the relative tangential
velocity of b1 with respect to a1.

* Because the complex coefficient is fully distributed in Equation 4.3 (as well as in the velocity equations for the
forthcoming planar mechanisms), it can be cancelled from the equation if preferred.
68 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Vb –a
1 1

Vb
1
. V1 b1
αj
a1

Va
1
U1
W1 .
γj
.
βj

iY b0
a0 G1
X

FIGURE 4.5
Planar four-bar mechanism velocity variables.

Va1 = iβ jW1e ( j )

i θ+β

Vb1 = iγ jU 1e ( j )
i σ+γ
(4.4)

Vb1 − a1 = iα j V1e ( ) =V −V

i ρ+α j
b1 a1

After moving the term iβ jW1e ( j ) to the right-hand side of Equation 4.3, expanding this
i θ+β

equation, and grouping its real and imaginary terms as separate equations, the resulting
planar four-bar mechanism velocity equation in matrix form is

 −V sin ρ + α
 1 (j ) (
U 1 sin σ + γ j )  
 αj

   W1 sin θ + β j ( ) 

  γ j  = βj  (4.5)
 V cos ρ + α
 1 (
j ) (
−U 1 cos σ + γ j )     −W1 cos θ + β j ( ) 


After including the prescribed mechanism variables and the unknown variables calcu-
lated from the planar four-bar displacement equations, Equation 4.5 can be solved (using
Cramer’s rule, for example) to calculate the coupler angular velocity α j and the follower
angular velocity γ j.

4.4.3 Acceleration Equations
A single planar four-bar acceleration equation is derived by differentiating the planar
four-bar velocity equation. Time differentiation of Equation 4.3 produces

−β 2j W1e ( j ) + iβ
i θ+ β  jW1e i(θ +β j ) − α 2j V1e i(ρ+α j ) + iα
(
 jV1e i(ρ+α j ) − −γ 2j U 1e i( σ + γ j ) + i
γ jU 1e ( j ) = 0
i σ+γ
) (4.6)

Equation 4.7 includes the individual acceleration variables from Equation 4.6. The accel-
erations A a1n and A a1t are the global normal and tangential accelerations, respectively, of
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 69

the crank link vector—the normal and tangential accelerations of a1 with respect to a0 (see
Figure 4.6).* The total acceleration A a1 is the sum of these normal and tangential accelera-
tions. The accelerations A b1n and A b1t are the global normal and tangential accelerations,
respectively, of the follower-link vector—the normal and tangential accelerations of b1
with respect to b0. The total acceleration A b1 is the sum of these normal and tangential
accelerations. Also, the accelerations A ( b1 − a1 )n and A ( b1 − a1 )t are the relative normal and
tangential accelerations, respectively, of b1 with respect to a1—the relative normal and tan-
gential accelerations of the coupler link vector. The total relative acceleration A b1 − a1 is the
sum of these normal and tangential accelerations.

 jW1e i(θ+β j ) − β 2j W1e i(θ +β j )

A a1 = A a1t + A a1n = iβ

γ jU 1e ( j ) − γ 2j U 1e ( j )
i σ+γ i σ+γ
A b1 = A b1t + A b1n = i (4.7)

 jV1e (
A b1 − a1 = A ( b1 − a1 )t + A ( b1 − a1 )n = iα
i ρ+α j ) − α 2V e i(ρ+α j ) = A − A
j 1 b1 a1

After moving the terms β 2j W1e ( j ), iβ

 jW1e i(θ +β j ), γ 2j U 1e i( σ + γ j ), and α 2j V1e i(ρ+α j ) to the right-
i θ+β

hand side of Equation 4.6, expanding this equation, and grouping its real and imaginary
terms as separate equations, the resulting planar four-bar mechanism acceleration equa-
tion in matrix form is

A(b
1–a1)t

Ab
1t

.. . b1
αj α j V1
A(b
a1 1–a1)n

Ab
1n
Aa
1t Aa U1
1n

W1 .. .
γj γj

.. .
βj βj
iY
b0
a0 G1
X

FIGURE 4.6
Planar four-bar mechanism acceleration variables.

* Tangential acceleration (which points along or in the opposite direction to the velocity vector) is the result of
a change in the velocity vector magnitude, while normal acceleration or centripetal acceleration (which points
toward the center of path curvature) is the result of a change in the velocity vector direction.
70 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

 1 (
 −V sin ρ + α
j ) (
U 1 sin σ + γ j )  α 
  j  = β 2  1 (
 W cos θ + β
j ) 

 
 V cos ( ρ + α )   
( ) 
j
−U 1 cos ( σ + γ )  γ j  W1 sin θ + β j
    
1

(4.8)


 −W sin θ + β
 1 (j ) 
 − γ 2  1 (
 U cos σ + γ
j ) 
(
 V cos ρ + α
 + α 2  1 j ) 

− βj
 W cos θ + β
( ) 
(
 U sin σ + γ
) 
(
 V sin ρ + α
) 
j j

     1 
1 j 1 j j

After including the prescribed mechanism variables and the unknowns calculated from
the planar four-bar displacement and velocity equations, Equation 4.8 can be solved (using
Cramer’s rule, for example) to calculate the coupler angular acceleration α j and the fol-
lower angular acceleration  γ j.
Appendix B.1 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for planar four-bar displace-
ment, velocity, and acceleration analysis. In this MATLAB file (which is available for
download at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions for Equations
4.2, 4.5, and 4.8 are calculated.*

4.4.4 Kinematics of Coupler Locations of Interest

The solutions calculated from the planar four-bar displacement, velocity, and acceleration
equations can be used in additional equations to calculate the displacement, velocity, and
acceleration of any mechanism link location of interest. Like the planar four-bar kinematic
equations, the additional equations are the result of formulating vector-loop equations and
their derivatives.
For example, Figure 4.7 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism with a coupler vector L1
that points to an arbitrary coupler location of interest p1. Equations 4.9 and 4.10 are pro-
duced from the loop a0 –a1–p1 in Figure 4.7 (where Equation 4.10 is the result of expanding
and separating Equation 4.9).

p1

L1

V1 b1
ρ
δ
a1

U1

W1
σ
b0
θ
iY
a0 G1
X

FIGURE 4.7
Planar four-bar mechanism with coupler location p1.

* The library of MATLAB files used in this chapter can also be downloaded from the authors’ server http://
www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 71

p1 j = W1e ( ) + L e i(δ +α j )
i θ+β j
1 (4.9)

( ) (
p1xj = W1 cos θ + β j + L1 cos δ + α j )
(4.10)
p1yj = W sin ( θ + β ) + L sin ( δ + α )
1 j 1 j

The velocities of the coupler location of interest can be calculated from Equation 4.12—
the expanded form of Equation 4.11 (which is the first derivative of Equation 4.9).

Vp1 j = iβ jW1e ( j ) + iα j L1e ( j )

i θ+ β i δ +α
(4.11)

(
Vp1xj = −β jW1 sin θ + β j − α j L1 sin δ + α j ) ( )
(4.12)
Vp1yj ( )
= β jW1 cos θ + β j + α j L1 cos δ + α j ( )
The accelerations of the coupler location of interest can be calculated from Equation 4.14—
the expanded form of Equation 4.13 (which is the second derivative of Equation 4.9).

A p1 j = −β 2j W1e ( j ) + iβ
 jW1e i(θ +β j ) − α 2j L1e i(δ+α j ) + iα
 j L1e i(δ +α j )
i θ+β
(4.13)

( )
Ap1 xj = −β 2j W1 cos θ + β j − β ( ) ( )
 jW1 sin θ + β j − α 2j L1 cos δ + α j − α ( )
 j L1 sin δ + α j
(4.14)
Ap1 yj = −β W sin ( θ + β ) + β
2
j 1
 W cos ( θ + β ) − α L sin ( δ + α ) + α
j j 1  L cos ( δ + α )
j
2
j 1 j j 1 j

The Appendix B.1 MATLAB file also includes Equations 4.10, 4.12, and 4.14, from which
displacement, velocity, and acceleration values are calculated for a coupler-link location of
interest.

Example 4.1
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file, calculate the displaced value
of coupler point p1 for the planar four-bar mechanism configuration in Table E.4.1 for a
25° crank displacement angle.
Known Information: Table E.4.1 and Appendix B.1 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.4.1 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.1 MATLAB file. From the calculated output, it can be determined that the
displaced coupler point p1 is p j = 0.2127 + i1.8912 at a 25° crank displacement angle.

Example 4.2
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file, plot the path traced by point
p1 on the level-luffing crane (Figure E.4.2).* The mechanism assembly configuration is
given in Table E.4.2. The crank displacement angle range is βj = 10°, 9°, …, −32°.
Known Information: Table E.4.2 and Appendix B.1 MATLAB file.

TABLE E.4.1
Planar Four-Bar Mechanism Configuration
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
1.75, 90° 1.75, −22.4860° 1.75, 64.5895° 0.8660, −0.5 1, 6.4690°

* A level-luffing crane is a crane designed to trace a horizontal path for leveling applications.
72 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

W1 = 1.75*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 1.75*exp(-i*22.4860*pi/180);
G1 = 0.866 - i*0.5;
U1 = 1.75*exp(i*64.5895*pi/180);
L1 = exp(i*6.469*pi/180);
start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 25;
angular_vel = 0 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.4.1
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file for Example 4.1.

FIGURE E.4.2
Level-luffing crane mechanism.

TABLE E.4.2
Level-Luffing Crane Assembly Configuration
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
1.96, 47.4041° 0.33, −51.6935° 2.09, 63.7721° 0.6075, −0.6909 1.19, −51.6935°

Solution Approach: Figure E.4.3 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.1 MATLAB file. In this particular mechanism, configuration the angles
for V1 and L1 are identical because both vectors are parallel.* Figure E.4.4 illustrates
the path traced by the coupler point p1 using the given crank displacement angle range
(with a crank rotation increment of −1°). Figure E.4.5 illustrates the level-luffing crane

* The angles for V1 and L1 (angles ρ and δ respectively) are identical in this example problem. Identical values
for these angles however are not required for four-bar linkages in general.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 73

W1 = 1.96*exp(i*47.4041*pi/180);
V1 = 0.33*exp(-i*51.6935*pi/180);
G1 = 0.6075 - i*0.6909;
U1 = 2.09*exp(i*63.7721*pi/180);
L1 = 1.19*exp(-i*51.6935*pi/180);

start_ang = 10;
step_ang = -1;
stop_ang = -32;

angular_vel = 0 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.4.3
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file for Example 4.2.

FIGURE E.4.4
Path traced by point p1 on the level-luffing crane mechanism.

FIGURE E.4.5
Level-luffing crane mechanism with calculated coupler curve.
74 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

configuration with the calculated path. The lightly shaded section of curve in this figure
is useful for leveling applications because this section maintains a near-constant level.

Example 4.3
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file, determine if the two door-
linkage configurations in Table E.4.3 (Figure E.4.6a and b) will operate properly as the
door closes.
Known Information: Appendix B.1 MATLAB file, Table E.4.3, and displacement angle
range for crank link.
Solution Approach: One way to determine the operability of the door-linkage configura-
tions is to calculate their coupler link (or follower link) displacement angles throughout
the entire crank-link rotation range and check for circuit defects.* The data calculated
from the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file includes the coupler and follower-link displace-
ment angles αj and γj, respectively. The crank rotation range corresponding to Figure
E.4.6b is 0° (door fully open) to 90° (door fully closed).
Figure E.4.7 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the Appendix B.1 MATLAB
file. Figure E.4.8 illustrates the calculated coupler link displacement angles with respect
to the door (or crank) rotation angle (β) as the door closes. With configuration 1, a dis-
continuity appears after the door (the crank link of the linkage) exceeds an 84° displace-
ment angle. This discontinuity corresponds to the mechanism exceeding its limiting
position and subsequently experiencing a circuit defect (see Section 3.5). Using configu-
ration 1, the door cannot close completely. In contrast, configuration 2 produces a cou-
pler displacement angle curve that is continuous throughout the entire 90° door rotation
range. Using configuration 2, the door closes completely.

TABLE E.4.3
Door-Linkage Assembly Configurations
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y

Config. 1 10, −90° 8, 8.9743° 9, −103.4799° 10, 0

Config. 2 8, −90° 8, 1.4850° 9, −120.0198° 12.5, 0

FIGURE E.4.6
(a) Door linkage and (b) kinematic model of four-bar door linkage.

* During circuit defects, no coupler and follower displacement angles appear in the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file.
As a result, circuit defects will appear as discontinuities in coupler and follower displacement angle plots.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 75

W1 = 10*exp(-i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 8*exp(i*8.9743*pi/180);
G1 = 10;
U1 = 9*exp(-i*103.4799*pi/180);
L1 = 0;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 90;

angular_vel = 0 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);
(MATLAB File Input for Linkage Configuration 1)
W1 = 8*exp(-i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 8*exp(i*1.485*pi/180);
G1 = 12.5;
U1 = 9*exp(-i*120.0198*pi/180);
L1 = 0;
start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 90;

angular_vel = 0 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);
(MATLAB File Input for Linkage Configuration 1)

FIGURE E.4.7
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file for Example 4.3.

FIGURE E.4.8
Coupler displacement angles for Configurations 1 and 2.
76 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

4.4.5 Instant Center, Centrodes, and Centrode Generation

An instant center (IC) of velocity is a common point among two links (or two bodies in
general) in planar motion which has the same instantaneous velocity in both bodies.* For
a mechanical system of n links, the total number of ICs in the system, taking two links at
a time, can be calculated from the equation

n ( n − 1)
N IC = (4.15)
2
From Equation 4.15 it can be determined that both the planar four-bar and slider-crank
mechanisms have a total number of six ICs each.
There is a systematic procedure to identify the locations of ICs for a given mechanism.
Such a procedure is necessary due to the number of ICs that can exist, especially as the
number of mechanism links increases. This procedure is based on the Aronhold–Kennedy
theorem.† This theorem states the following:
For any three bodies in relative planar motion there will exist three instant centers and the three
instant centers are collinear.

Figure 4.8 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism and each of its six ICs. Also illustrated
in this figure is a diagram (called a linear diagram or circle diagram) used to keep track of the
ICs that have been located. Numbers 1 through 4 marked around the circle in this diagram
correspond to the four links in the planar four-bar mechanism, and the lines connecting
the numbers (six lines in total) represent each IC.‡ The lines are drawn one by one as each
IC is established, and when every possible line connection has been drawn, the full num-
ber of ICs has been produced.
Using Figure 4.8 as an example, the procedure for finding ICs and completing the circle
diagram is as follows:

1. Using Equation 4.15, calculate the total number of ICs for the given mechanism.
2. Number the mechanism links (e.g., 1, 2, 3, …) and mark these numbers on an arbi-
trary circle. The numbers should be equally spaced.
3. Determine as many ICs as possible by inspecting the mechanism. For example, since
an IC is a common point among two links in planar motion, the four revolute joints
in the planar four-bar mechanism are ICs. As each of these ICs is determined, a line
should be drawn in the circle diagram to connect the link numbers corresponding
to each IC. For example, the lines in the circle diagram that connect Numbers 1 and
2, 2 and 3, 3 and 4, and 4 and 1 correspond to ICs I1–2, I2–3, I3–4, and I1–4 in Figure 4.8.
4. Lines can be drawn along a link length between any two ICs. In Figure 4.8, such
lines (the dashed lines) have been drawn along all four mechanism links. The
point of intersection of any two lines, in accordance with the Aronhold–Kennedy
theorem, is also an IC. These ICs correspond to the links that form a triangle with
the drawn lines. For example, in Figure 4.8, because Links 3 and 1 form a triangle
with the two lines associated with the top-most IC, this IC is labeled I1–3, and a line

* ICs are also called poles.

† This theorem (also called Kennedy’s rule) was discovered in 1872 by Aronhold (from Germany) and indepen-

dently in 1886 by Kennedy (from England).

‡ For example, I
1–2 in Figure 4.8 (the IC common between Links 1 and 2) is the straight line connecting Numbers
1 and 2 in the diagram in Figure 4.8 (etc.).
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 77

FIGURE 4.8
Planar four-bar mechanism, its ICs, and circle diagram.

I1–3

I2–4
1
I2–3

4 2 Y
2 3

3 I1–2 X
4 I3–4
1

I1–4 (at infinity) I1–4 (at infinity)

FIGURE 4.9
Slider-crank mechanism, its ICs, and circle diagram.

(a dashed line) is drawn between Numbers 1 and 3 in the circle diagram. Also, in
Figure 4.8, because Links 2 and 4 form a triangle with the two lines associated
with the left-most IC, this IC is labeled I 2–4, and a line (again, a dashed line) is
drawn between Numbers 2 and 4 in the circle diagram.

Figure 4.9 illustrates the ICs and completed circle diagram for the slider-crank mecha-
nism. If we recall, a planar four-bar mechanism having a follower link of infinite length
becomes a slider-crank mechanism (see Figure 3.2).* A line drawn along the infinite-length
follower link is perpendicular to the slider path and passes through the revolute joint

* One way to determine the ICs for cam follower systems and gear pairs is to produce an equivalent planar four-
bar mechanism for these systems and determine the ICs for the equivalent four-bar mechanism.
78 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

attached to the slider (see Figure 4.9). The infinite-length follower link requires an infinite-
length ground link, which produces a line parallel to the follower-link line that passes
through the grounded revolute joint in Figure 4.9.
It is important to note that IC locations change with the position of a mechanism.
Therefore, if ICs are required for a given mechanism over a crank rotation range, the IC
location procedure must be repeated at each increment of the crank rotation range.
In addition to calculating velocities through vector-loop equations, velocities can also be
calculated using ICs. Figure 4.10 includes a planar four-bar mechanism, its IC I1–3, and its
velocities Va1 , Vb1 , and Vp1 . As illustrated in this figure, at an instant in time, the coupler link
of the planar four-bar mechanism rotates about I1–3. Given the angular velocity of the crank
link β j , the magnitude of the velocity Va1 (or Va1 ) can be calculated directly, since it is simply
the product of the angular velocity and the link length. Once Va1 has been determined, the
angular velocity α j in Figure 4.10 can be directly calculated, since Va1 is also the product of
α j and the distance between the ICs I1–3 and I2–3. Once α j has been determined, the magni-
tudes of velocities Vp1 and Vb1 can be directly calculated, since Vp1 and Vb1 are the products
of α j and the distances between I1–3 and p1, and I1–3 and b1 (see Figure 4.10), respectively.
Another use for ICs for the planar four-bar mechanism (particularly I1–3) is to replicate
the motion of the coupler link. Because the locations of ICs vary with the position of the
mechanism, a locus of ICs can be produced over a crank rotation range. A locus of ICs
is called a centrode. Figure 4.11a illustrates the centrode produced for a given Grashof
triple-rocker mechanism. The centrode produced for a given mechanism is called a fixed
centrode because it is stationary. Figure 4.11b illustrates the centrode produced for the
inverted triple-rocker mechanism. In this particular inversion, the coupler becomes the
ground and the ground becomes the coupler (see Figure 3.13). The centrode produced
for an inverted mechanism is called a moving centrode because this centrode can exhibit
motion—specifically, rolling motion—over the fixed centrode.

p1
Vp1

b1

V a1
Vb1

βj .
γj

FIGURE 4.10
Planar four-bar velocity analysis using an IC.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 79

I1–3 I1–3

3 4 3 4
2
β
β 2
1 1

(a) Fixed centrode Moving centrode

(original mechanism) (b)
(inverted mechanism)

I1–3

Fixed centrode

Moving centrode
3 4
3
2
Geometries with fixed
and moving centrodes included
1 (rolling the moving centrode over the fixed centrode
replicates the coupler motion of the original mechanism)

Fixed and moving centrodes

(c) (original mechanism) (d)

FIGURE 4.11
Fixed and moving centrode construction and use for a triple-rocker mechanism.

When illustrating the fixed and moving centrodes in the same illustration as shown in
Figure 4.11c, it can be seen more clearly that the concave curvature of the fixed centrode,
combined with the convex curvature of the moving centrode, enables the moving centrode
to roll over the fixed centrode. This rolling motion replicates the coupler motion produced
by the original mechanism itself. The fixed and moving centrodes can be incorporated
into geometry (Figure 4.11d) to ultimately produce alternate mechanisms to replicate the
coupler motion of their corresponding original planar four-bar mechanisms.
Appendix B.2 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for planar four-bar fixed and
moving centrode generation. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at
https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317), individual fixed and moving cen-
trode points are calculated for the complete rotation range of a planar four-bar mechanism
at 1° crank rotation increments. The Appendix B.2 MATLAB file can also be used to cal-
culate the fixed and moving centrodes for slider-crank mechanisms (defined as a planar
four-bar mechanism with a large follower length).* A slider-crank centrode generation
example is included in Section 4.5.4.

* When using the Appendix B.2 MATLAB file for the slider-crank mechanism, the follower length should be
long enough to produce an acceptable slider error. For example, using the follower fixed pivot coordinates
b 0 = (3, −100,000) for the four-bar mechanism coordinates a 0 = (0, 0), a1 = (0.7071, 0.7071), b1 = (3, 0) produces a
maximum sliding error (normal to the sliding direction) of 0.00001.
80 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

a0=[0, 0]';
a1=[0, 2]';
b0=[1, 0]';
b1=[1.8487, 1.2368]';

FIGURE E.4.9
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.2 MATLAB file for Example 4.4.

FIGURE E.4.10
Planar four-bar mechanism and sections of its fixed and moving centrodes.

Example 4.4
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.2 MATLAB file, plot the fixed and moving
centrodes for a planar four-bar mechanism with the unitless dimensions a0 = (0, 0),
a1 = (0, 2), b0 = (1, 0), and b1 = (1.8487, 1.2368).
Known Information: Known mechanism dimensions and Appendix B.2 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.4.9 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.2 MATLAB file. Figure E.4.10 illustrates the given planar four-bar mecha-
nism and sections of the fixed and moving centrodes calculated from the Appendix B.2
MATLAB file.

4.5 Slider-Crank Mechanism Analysis

4.5.1 Displacement Equations
The planar slider-crank mechanism consists of four links interconnected by revolute joints,
with the slider link connected to ground by a prismatic joint. As calculated from Gruebler’s
equation for planar mechanisms (with L = 4 and J1 = 4), the planar slider-crank mechanism
has a single DOF. A single displacement equation is derived for this mechanism by taking
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 81

αj
a1
ρ
V1

W1
βj b1

iY θ U1
a0
X Gj

FIGURE 4.12
Slider-crank mechanism displacement variables.

the sum of the displaced mechanism vector loop in Figure 4.12. The equation produced
from a clockwise vector-loop sum of the displaced vector loop is

e( ) + V e i(ρ+α j ) − U − G = 0
i θ+β j
1 1 j (4.16)

As illustrated in Figure 4.12, vector U1 only has an imaginary component (the slider
offset distance in the y-direction) and vector Gj only has a real component (the sliding dis-
tance in the x-direction). Having a zero U1 produces what is called an in-line slider-crank
(a nonzero U1 produces an offset slider-crank).
After expanding Equation 4.16 and grouping its real and imaginary terms as separate
equations, the resulting slider-crank mechanism displacement equations become

( ) ( ) ( )
f1 α j , G j = W1 cos θ + β j + V1 cos ρ + α j − G j = 0
(4.17)
f ( α ) = W sin ( θ + β ) + V sin ( ρ + α ) − U
2 j 1 j 1 j 1y =0

With the exception of the coupler displacement angle αj and the slider displacement
magnitude Gj, all other variables in the slider-crank displacement equations are user pre-
scribed. Unlike Equation 4.2, which requires a numerical solution (at least in its given
form), an analytical solution can be produced for Equation 4.17. The imaginary equation
f2(αj) can be rearranged so that

 U 1y − W1 sin θ + β j 
α j = sin −1 
(
−ρ
) (4.18)
 V1 

The coupler angle solutions from Equation 4.18 are used in f1(αj, Gj) and the corresponding
sliding distances Gj are calculated.

4.5.2 Velocity Equations
A single slider-crank velocity equation is derived by differentiating the slider-crank dis-
placement equation. Differentiating Equation 4.16 with respect to time produces

iβ jW1e ( ) + iα V e i(ρ+α j ) − G = 0

i θ+β j
j 1 j (4.19)
82 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

a1

W1 . V1
. αj
βj
b1
iY
U1
a0
X G1

FIGURE 4.13
Slider-crank mechanism velocity variables.

Equation 4.20 includes the individual velocity variables from Equation 4.19. The velocity
Va1 is the global tangential velocity of the crank link vector—the velocity of a1 with respect
to a0 (see Figure 4.13). The velocity Vb1 is the global sliding velocity of the slider link—the
sliding velocity of b1 with respect to a0. Also, the velocity Vb1 − a1 is the relative tangential
velocity of b1 with respect to a1—the relative velocity of the coupler link.

Va1 = iβ jW1e ( j )

i θ+β

Vb1 = G j (4.20)

Vb1 − a1 = iα jV1e ( ) =V −V

i ρ+α j
b1 a1

After moving the term iβ jW1e ( j ) to the right-hand side of Equation 4.19, expanding this
i θ+β

equation and grouping its real and imaginary terms as separate equations, the resulting
slider-crank mechanism velocity equation in matrix form is

 −V sin ρ + α
 1 ( j ) −1   α j


   1 (
 −W sin θ + β
j ) 

  = −β j  (4.21)
 V cos ρ + α
 1 (j ) 0   G j
  (
 W1 cos θ + β j ) 


After including the prescribed mechanism variables and the unknowns calculated from
the slider-crank displacement equations, Equation 4.21 can be solved (using Cramer’s rule,
for example) to calculate the coupler angular velocity α j and the slider velocity G j.

Example 4.5
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.3 MATLAB file, calculate the slider position
and velocity for the slider-bar mechanism configuration in Table E.4.4 for a 25° crank
displacement angle and a constant rotation speed of 7 rad/s.
Known Information: Appendix B.3 MATLAB file, Table E.4.4, β and β .
Solution Approach: Figure E.4.11 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.3 MATLAB file. From the calculated output, it can be determined that the
 j = −193.10 mm/s, respectively.
slider position and velocity are G j = 77.28 mm and G
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 83

TABLE E.4.4
Slider-Crank Mechanism Configuration (with Link Lengths in mm)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U1

30, 90° 90, 0° 30

LW1 = 30;
theta = 90*pi/180;
LU1 = 30;

LV1 = 90;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 25;

angular_vel = 7 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.4.11
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.3 MATLAB file for Example 4.5.

4.5.3 Acceleration Equations
A single slider-crank acceleration equation is derived by differentiating the slider-crank
velocity equation. Time differentiation of the Equation 4.19 produces

−β 2j W1e ( j ) + iβ
 jW1e i(θ +β j ) − α 2j V1e i(ρ+α j ) + iα
 jV1e i(ρ+α j ) − G
 j = 0
i θ+β
(4.22)

Equation 4.23 includes the individual acceleration terms from Equation 4.22. The accel-
erations A a1n and A a1t are the global normal and tangential accelerations, respectively, of
the crank link vector—the normal and tangential accelerations of a1 with respect to a0 (see
Figure 4.14). The total acceleration A a1 is the sum of these normal and tangential accelera-
tions. The acceleration A b1 is the global sliding acceleration of the slider link—the slid-
ing acceleration of b1 with respect to a0. Also, the accelerations A ( b1 − a1 )n and A ( b1 − a1 )t are
the relative normal and tangential accelerations, respectively, of b1 with respect to a1—the

Aa1t
a1

. V1
W1 Aa1n αj A(b1–a1)n
.
βj
A b1 b1
iY
A(b1–a1)t U1
a0
X G1
FIGURE 4.14

Slider-crank mechanism acceleration variables.

84 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

relative normal and tangential accelerations of the coupler link. The total relative accelera-
tion A b1 − a1 is the sum of these normal and tangential accelerations.

2j W1e i(θ+β j ) − β 2j W1e i(θ +β j )

A a1 = A a1t + A a1n = iβ
 j
A b1 = G (4.23)

 jV1e i(ρ+α j ) − α 2j V1e i(ρ+α j ) = A b1 − A a1

A b1 − a1 = A ( b1 − a1 )t + A( b1 − a1 )n = iα

After moving the terms β 2j W1e ( j ), iβ

 jW1e i(θ +β j ), and α 2j V1e i(ρ+α j ) to the right-hand side of
i θ+β

Equation 4.22, expanding this equation, and grouping its real and imaginary terms as sepa-
rate equations, the resulting slider-crank mechanism acceleration equation in matrix form is

 1 (
 −V sin ρ + α
j ) −1   α

 j  
  2  W1 cos θ + β j( ) 
−β
 j  1 (
 −W sin θ + β
j ) 

  = βj 
 1 (
 V cos ρ + α
j ) 0   G

 j
 (
 W1 sin θ + β j ) 
 
1 (
 W cos θ + β
j ) 



 V cos ρ + α
1 j ( ) 

+ α 2
(4.24)
 V sin ρ + α
( ) 
j

 1 j


After including the prescribed mechanism variables and the unknowns calculated from
the slider-crank displacement and velocity equations, Equation 4.24 can be solved (using
Cramer’s rule, for example) to calculate the coupler angular acceleration α
 j and the slider
acceleration G j.
Appendix B.3 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for slider-crank displacement,
velocity, and acceleration analysis. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download
at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions for Equations 4.17, 4.21,
and 4.24 are calculated.

Example 4.6
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.3 MATLAB file, plot the displacement, velocity,
and acceleration profiles for the piston in the crankshaft-connecting rod-piston linkage
(Figure E.4.12). The mechanism assembly configuration and driving link parameters are
given in Table E.4.5.

FIGURE E.4.12
Crankshaft-connecting rod-piston linkage.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 85

TABLE E.4.5
Slider-Crank Mechanism Assembly Configuration (with Link Lengths in cm)
W1, θ V1 , ρ β 0 
β
1, 45° 1.5, −28.1255° 100 rad/s 0 rad/s2

LW1 = 1;
theta = 45*pi/180;

LU1 = 0;
LV1 = 1.5;
start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 720;
angular_vel = 100 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.4.13
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.3 MATLAB file for Example 4.6.

Known Information: Table E.4.5 and Appendix B.3 MATLAB file.

Solution Approach: As illustrated in Figure E.4.12, the crankshaft-connecting rod-
piston linkage is an in-line slider crank mechanism (therefore U1 = 0). Because variable
Gx corresponds to piston displacement, the displacement, velocity, and acceleration
profiles of the piston can be produced by calculating and plotting Gx , G x , and G x ,
respectively.
Figure E.4.13 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the Appendix B.3 MATLAB
file. Figure E.4.14 illustrates the piston displacement, velocity, and acceleration profiles
with respect to the crank rotation angle (β) over the prescribed 720° crank rotation
range.

Example 4.7
Problem Statement: Derive vector-loop displacement, velocity, and acceleration equations
for the slider-crank inversion illustrated in Figure E.4.15(a). The starting and displaced
mechanism variables are included in Figure E.4.15(b). Also verify the velocity and accel-
eration equations in MATLAB.
Known Information: Figure E.4.15 and vector-loop formulation procedure.
Solution Approach: The two unknowns in the inverted slider-crank mechanism are the
sliding distance Vj and the follower displacement angle γj (which is the same displace-
ment angle for the sliding distance vector Vj).* The angle formed by U1 and Vj (angle ρ
in Figure E.4.15(b)) remains constant throughout mechanism motion.

DISPLACEMENT EQUATION
Taking a clockwise vector-loop sum for the vector loop in Figure E.4.15(b) produces

W1e ( ) − V e i (σ + γ j +ρ) − U e i (σ + γ j ) − G = 0
i θ+β j
j 1 1 (4.25)

* The sliding distance is also the distance between points a1 and b1 in Figure E.4.11. Due to the sliding joint, the
distance between these two points (the scalar length of Vj) can change throughout mechanism motion.
86 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.4.14
Piston (a) displacement, (b) velocity, and (c) acceleration profiles.

VELOCITY EQUATION
Taking the derivative of Equation 4.25 produces

iβ jW1e ( ) − iγ V e i ( σ + γ j +ρ) − V e i ( σ + γ j + ρ) − iγ U e i ( σ + γ j ) = 0

i θ+β j
j j j j 1 (4.26)

Equation (4.27) includes the individual velocity variables from Equation (4.26). The
velocity Va1 is the global tangential velocity of the crank link vector—the tangential
velocity of a1 with respect to a 0 (see Figure E.4.16). The velocity Vb1 is the global tangen-
tial velocity of the follower-link vector—the tangential velocity of b1 with respect to
b0. The velocity Vb1 − a1 is the relative tangential velocity of the coupler link vector—the
relative tangential velocity of b1 with respect to a1. The velocity V  j is the relative sliding
velocity of a1 with respect to b1—the velocity of the sliding distance vector Vj .

Va1 = iβ jW1e ( j )

i θ+β

Vb1 = iγ jU 1e ( j )
i σ+γ

(4.27)
 j = V j e i (σ + γ j + ρ)
V

Vb1 – a1 = iγ jVj e ( )

i σ + γ j +ρ
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 87

FIGURE E.4.15
(a) Slider-crank inversion and (b) mechanism displacement variables.

ACCELERATION EQUATION
Taking the derivative of Equation (4.26) produces

−β 2j W1e ( j ) + iβ
 W e i (θ +β j ) + γ 2V e i (σ + γ j + ρ) − i2γ V e i (σ + γ j +ρ)
i θ+β
j 1 j j j j
(4.28)
γ Ve( ) − V e i (σ + γ j +ρ) + γ 2U e i (σ + γ j ) − iγ U e i (σ + γ j ) = 0
i σ + γ j +ρ
−i j j j j 1 j 1

Equation (4.29) includes the individual acceleration variables from Equation (4.28). The
accelerations A a1n and A a1t are the global normal and tangential accelerations, respectively,
of the crank link vector—the normal and tangential accelerations of a1 with respect
to a0 (see Figure E.4.17). The total acceleration A a1 is the sum of these normal and
tangential accelerations. The accelerations A b1n and A b1t are the global normal and tan-
gential accelerations, respectively, of the follower link vector—the normal and tangen-
tial accelerations of b1 with respect to b0. The total acceleration A b1 is the sum of these
normal and tangential accelerations. The accelerations A ( b1 − a1 )n and A ( b1 – a1 )t are the rela-
tive normal and tangential accelerations, respectively, of b1 with respect to a1—the rela-
tive normal and tangential accelerations of the coupler link vector. The acceleration V  j
is the relative sliding acceleration of a1 with respect to b1—the acceleration of the sliding
distance vector Vj . Lastly, the acceleration A ( b1 – a1 )c is called the Coriolis acceleration [3].
This acceleration component is present whenever a link includes both sliding and angu-
lar velocities. While the Coriolis acceleration is tangent to the coupler link (like the rela-
tive tangential acceleration of b1 with respect to a1), its direction matches the direction of
88 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.4.16
Inverted slider-crank mechanism velocity variables.

FIGURE E.4.17
Inverted slider-crank mechanism acceleration variables.

γ j (while the direction of A ( b1 – a1 )t matches the direction of γ j). The total relative accelera-
 j , and A b – a .
tion of point b1 with respect to a1 is the sum of A ( b1 – a1 )n , A ( b1 – a1 )t , V ( 1 1 )c

 W e (
A a1 = A a1t + A a1n = iβ
i θ+β j ) − β 2W e i (θ +β j )
j 1 j 1

A b1 = A b1t + A b1n = γ 2j U 1e ( ) − iγ U e i ( σ + γ j )

i σ+γ j
j 1

A ( b1 – a1 )t = iγ jVj e ( )
i σ + γ j +ρ

A ( b1 – a1 )n = γ 2j Vj e ( j )
i σ + γ +ρ

j e i ( σ + γ j + ρ)
 j = V
V

A ( b1 – a1 )c = i2 γ jV j e ( )
i σ + γ j +ρ
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 89

>> syms W1 U1 G1 theta sigma rho t V(t) beta(t) gamma(t) real;

>> F = W1*exp(i*(theta + beta(t))) ...
- V(t)*exp(i*(sigma + gamma(t) + rho)) ...
- U1*exp(i*(sigma + gamma(t))) - G1;
>> dF = diff(F)

dF =
- exp(rho*i + sigma*i + gamma(t)*i)*diff(V(t), t)
+ W1*exp(theta*i + beta(t)*i)*diff(beta(t), t)*i
– U1*exp(sigma*i + gamma(t)*i)*diff(gamma(t), t)*i
– exp(rho*i + sigma*i + gamma(t)*i)*V(t)*diff(gamma(t), t)*i

>> ddF = diff(F, 2)

ddF =

- exp(rho*i + sigma*i + gamma(t)*i)*diff(V(t), t, t)

- exp(rho*i + sigma*i + gamma(t)*i)*diff(V(t), t)
*diff(gamma(t), t)*2*i
- W1*exp(theta*i + beta(t)*i)*diff(beta(t), t)^2
+ U1*exp(sigma*i + gamma(t)*i)*diff(gamma(t), t)^2
+ W1*exp(theta*i + beta(t)*i)*diff(beta(t), t, t)*i
- U1*exp(sigma*i + gamma(t)*i)*diff(gamma(t), t, t)*i
+ exp(rho*i + sigma*i + gamma(t)*i)*V(t)*diff(gamma(t), t)^2
- exp(rho*i + sigma*i + gamma(t)*i)*V(t)*diff(gamma(t), t, t)*i
>>

FIGURE E.4.18
Example 4.7 calculation procedure in MATLAB.

EQUATION FORMULATION IN MATLAB

Figure E.4.18 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s command window. In this
figure, the terms diff(beta(t),t), diff(V(t),t) and diff(gamma(t),t) represent the terms β j , V j and
γ j Equation (4.26), respectively. The terms diff(beta(t),t,t), diff(V(t),t,t) and diff(gamma(t),t,t)
in Figure E.4.18 represent the terms β  , V
j and 
γ j Equation (4.26), respectively.
j

4.5.4 Centrode Generation
The procedure to calculate ICs for the slider-crank mechanism are presented in Section 4.4.5.
Like the planar four-bar mechanism, slider-crank mechanism ICs are useful for velocity
analysis, and slider-crank mechanism fixed and moving centrodes are useful for replicat-
ing coupler motion.
By specifying the coordinates of a slider-crank mechanism in the Appendix B.2 MATLAB
file, the fixed and moving centrodes for this mechanism are calculated.

Example 4.8
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.2 MATLAB file, plot the fixed and moving
centrodes for a planar slider-crank mechanism with the unitless dimensions a 0 = (0, 0),
a1 = (0, 1) and b1 = (2, 0).
Known Information: Known mechanism dimensions and Appendix B.2 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Because the dimensions for a planar four-bar mechanism are
required for the Appendix B.2 MATLAB file, the coordinates of the fixed pivot b0 are
90 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

required. The coordinates b0 = (2, −100,000) were used because with this value, the mov-
ing pivot b1 (the slider) is accurate to five decimal places.*
Figure E.4.19 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the Appendix B.2 MATLAB
file. Figure E.4.20 illustrates the given slider-crank mechanism and sections of the fixed
and moving centrodes calculated from the Appendix B.2 MATLAB file.

a0=[0, 0]';
a1=[0, 1]';
b0=[2, -100000]';
b1=[2, 0]';

FIGURE E.4.19
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.2 MATLAB file for Example 4.8.

FIGURE E.4.20
Slider-crank mechanism and sections of its fixed and moving centrodes.

* Because the follower has an infinite length in a slider-crank mechanism, the accuracy of the slider increases
as the value of b 0y increases.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 91

4.6 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Analysis

4.6.1 Displacement Equations
The geared five-bar mechanism consists of five links interconnected by revolute joints.
Also included in this mechanism is a gear pair or gear train that couples the input and out-
put links (see Figure 4.15). As calculated from Gruebler’s equation for planar mechanisms
(with L = 5, J1 = 5, and J2 = 1), the geared five-bar mechanism has a single DOF. A single
displacement equation is derived for this mechanism by taking the sum of the displaced
mechanism vector loop in Figure 4.15. The equation produced from a clockwise sum of the
displaced vector loop is

W1e ( ) + V e i(ρ +α j ) − S e i(ψ + v j ) − U e i(σ + γ j ) − G = 0

i θ+β j
1 1 1 1 (4.30)

The relationship between the displacement angles of the crank W1 and the output link
U1 can be expressed as

βj
γj = ± (4.31)
r

where the variable r represents the gear ratio of the gear pair or train. The gear ratio can be
defined as the ratio of the driven gear radius to the driving gear radius (r = rdriven /rdriving ).
If W1 and U1 rotate in the same direction (which occurs when an odd number of gears
is used), the gear ratio is positive, and it is negative if they rotate in opposite directions
(which occurs when an even number of gears is used).
After expanding Equation 4.30 and grouping its real and imaginary terms as separate
equations, the resulting geared five-bar mechanism displacement equations become

c1

V1 S1
vj Ψ
αj

b1
ρ
a1

U1
W1 γj
σ
βj
θ
iY b0
G1
a0
X

FIGURE 4.15
Geared five-bar mechanism displacement equation variables.
92 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
f1 α j , v j = W1 cos θ + β j + V1 cos ρ + α j − S1 cos ψ + v j − U 1 cos σ + γ j − G1x = 0 ( )
(4.32)
f ( α , v ) = W sin ( θ + β ) + V sin ( ρ + α ) − S sin ( ψ + v ) − U
2 j j 1 j 1 j 1 j 1 ( )
sin σ + γ j − G1y = 0

With the exception of the intermediate link displacement angles αj and vj, all other vari-
ables in the geared five-bar displacement equations are user prescribed. Because f1(αj, vj) and
f2(αj, vj) in Equation 4.32 both include the unknown displacement angles αj and vj, these equa-
tions form a set of nonlinear simultaneous equations from which the angles are calculated.

4.6.2 Velocity Equations
A single-geared five-bar velocity equation is derived by differentiating the geared five-bar
displacement equation. Differentiating Equation 4.30 with respect to time produces

iβ jW1e ( ) + iα V e i(ρ+α j ) − iv S e i(ψ + v j ) + iγ U e i(σ + γ j ) = 0

i θ+β j
j 1 j 1 j 1 (4.33)

The relationship between the angular velocities of the crank W1 and the output link U1
(the time derivative of Equation 4.31) becomes

β j
γ j = ± (4.34)
r

Equation 4.35 includes the individual velocity terms from Equation 4.33. The velocity Va1
is the global tangential velocity of the crank link vector—the tangential velocity of a1 with
respect to a0 (see Figure 4.16). The velocity Vb1 is the global tangential velocity of the output
link vector—the tangential velocity of b1 with respect to b0. Also, the velocity Vc1 − a1 is the
relative tangential velocity of c1 with respect to a1—the relative tangential velocity of this
intermediate link. The global velocity of c1 (Vc1 ) can be calculated from the last equation
in Equation 4.35.

Va1 = iβ jW1e ( j )

i θ+β

Vb1 = iγ jU 1e ( )
i σ+γ j
(4.35)

Vc1 − a1 = iα jV1e ( ) =V −V

i ρ+α j
c1 a1

After moving the terms iβ jW1e ( j ) and iγ jU 1e ( j ) to the right-hand side of Equation 4.33,
i θ+β i σ+γ

expanding this equation, and grouping its real and imaginary terms as separate equations,
the resulting geared five-bar mechanism velocity equation in matrix form is

 −V sin ρ + α
 1 j( ) S1 sin ψ + v j ( ) 
 α j 
 
 V cos ρ + α
 1 j ( ) −S1 cos ψ + v j ( )  
v j 



 W sin θ + β
 1 j ( ) 
 + γ 
 −U sin σ + γ
1 j ( ) 

= βj (4.36)
 −W cos θ + β
( )   U cos σ + γ
( ) 
j

 1 j
  1 j

Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 93

Vc1–a1
c1

V1 S1
.
αj
.
νj
V b1
b1
a1

Va1 U1
W1 .
γj
.
βj

iY b0
G1
a0
X

FIGURE 4.16
Geared five-bar mechanism velocity variables.

After including the prescribed mechanism variables and the unknowns calculated from
the geared five-bar displacement equations, Equation 4.36 can be solved (using Cramer’s
rule, for example) to calculate the intermediate link angular velocities α j and v j .

4.6.3 Acceleration Equations
A single planar four-bar acceleration equation is derived by differentiating the planar
four-bar velocity equation. Time differentiation of Equation 4.33 produces

−β 2j W1e ( j ) + iβ
i θ +β  jW1e i(θ+β j ) − α 2j V1e i(ρ+α j ) + iα
(
 jV1e i(ρ+ α j ) − − v 2j S1e i( ψ + v j ) + ivjS1e i( ψ + v j ) ) (4.37)
(
− − γ U 1e (
2
j
i σ+γ j
j 1 )
) + iγ U e i( σ + γ j ) = 0

The relationship between the angular accelerations of the crank W1 and the output link
U1 (the time derivative of Equation 4.34) becomes

 j
β
γj = ±
 (4.38)
r

Equation 4.39 includes the individual acceleration terms from Equation 4.37. The accel-
erations A a1n and A a1t are the global normal and tangential accelerations, respectively, of
94 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

S1
A(c –a )
V

b1
a1
Ab
Aa

Aa1n
γj γj

βj βj iY b0
a0

FIGURE 4.17
Geared five-bar mechanism acceleration variables.

the crank link vector—the normal and tangential accelerations of a1 with respect to a0 (see
Figure 4.17). The total acceleration of A a1 is the sum of these normal and tangential acceler-
ations. The accelerations A b1n and A b1t are the global normal and tangential accelerations,
respectively, of the output link vector— the normal and tangential accelerations of b1
with respect to b0. The total acceleration A b1 is the sum of these normal and tangential
accelerations. Also, the accelerations A (c1 − a1 )n and A (c1 − a1 )t are the relative normal and
tangential accelerations, respectively, of c1 with respect to a1—the relative normal and tan-
gential accelerations of this intermediate link. The total relative acceleration A c1 − a1 is the
sum of these normal and tangential accelerations. The global acceleration of c1 (A c1 ) can be
calculated from the last equation in Equation 4.39.

 jW1e i(θ+β j ) − β 2j W1e i(θ +β j )

A a1 = A a1t + A a1n = iβ

γ jU 1e ( j ) − γ 2j U 1e ( j )
i σ+γ i σ+γ
A b1 = A b1t + A b1n = i (4.39)

A c1 – a1 = A(c1 − a1 )t + A(c1 − a1 )n = iα jV1e ( ) − α 2V e i(ρ+α j ) = A − A

i ρ+α j
j 1 c1 a1

After moving the terms β 2j W1e ( j ) , iβ

 jW1e i(θ +β j ), γ 2j U 1e i( σ + γ j ), iγ jU 1e i( σ + γ j ), α 2j V1e i(ρ+α j ), and
i θ+β

v 2j S1e ( j ) to the right-hand side of Equation 4.37, expanding this equation, and grouping
i ψ+v

its real and imaginary terms as separate equations, the resulting geared five-bar mecha-
nism acceleration equation in matrix form becomes
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 95

 1 (
 −V sin ρ + α
j ) (
S1 sin ψ + v j )   
 αj

 2
1 (
 W cos θ + β
j ) 
−β
 j  1 (
 −W sin θ + β
j) 

= β
  vj 
(
 V cos ρ + α
) ( ) (
 W sin θ + β
) 
(
 W cos θ + β
) 
j
−S1 cos ψ + v j
 1 j
    1 j
  1 j


(
 U cos σ + γ
)   −U sin σ + γ
( ) 
(
 V cos ρ + α
) 
(
 S cos ψ + v 
)
−γ 2j   + γ   + α 2  1  + v 2  1 
1 j 1 j j j

(
 U sin σ + γ
)   U cos σ + γ
( ) 
(
 V sin ρ + α
) 
(
 S sin ψ + v 
)
j j j

     1   
1 j 1 j j 1 j

(4.40)

After including the prescribed mechanism variables and the unknowns calculated
from the geared five-bar displacement and velocity equations, Equation 4.40 can be solved
(using Cramer’s rule, for example) to calculate the intermediate link angular accelerations
α
 j and vj .
Appendices B.4 and B.5 include the MATLAB file user instructions for geared five-bar
displacement, velocity, and acceleration analysis. The Appendix B.4 file considers a mech-
anism having two gears (or negative gear ratios) and the Appendix B.5 file considers a
mechanism having three gears (or positive gear ratios). In these MATLAB files (which are
available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions
for Equations 4.32, 4.36, and 4.40 are calculated.

4.6.4 Kinematics of Intermediate Link Locations of Interest

Equations 4.10, 4.12, and 4.14 can be directly applied to calculate the displacements, veloci-
ties, and accelerations of an arbitrary intermediate link location of interest p1 of a geared
five-bar mechanism (see Figure 4.18). The Appendix B.4 and B.5 MATLAB files include

c1
p1

S1
V1
L1 Ψ
δ
b1
ρ
a1

U1

W1
σ

θ
iY b0
G1
a0
X

FIGURE 4.18
Geared five-bar mechanism with intermediate link location p1.
96 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE E.4.6
Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Configuration (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ S 1, ψ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
0.35, 90° 0.525, 54.7643° 0.35, 60° 0.525, 115.0279° 0.35, 0 0.35, −15.7645°

W1 = 0.35*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.525*exp(i*54.7643*pi/180);
L1 = 0.35*exp(-i*15.7645*pi/180);
G1 = 0.35;
U1 = 0.35*exp(i*60*pi/180);
S1 = 0.525*exp(i*115.0279*pi/180);
ratio = 2;
start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 45;

angular_vel = 1.5 * ones(N+1,1);

angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.4.21
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.5 MATLAB file for Example 4.9.

Equations 4.10, 4.12, and 4.14, from which displacement, velocity, and acceleration values
are calculated for p1.

Example 4.9
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.5 MATLAB file, calculate the displaced value
of link point p1 and its velocity for the geared five-bar mechanism configuration in
Table E.4.6 for a 45° crank displacement angle and a constant rotation speed of 1.5 rad/s.
The gear ratio is r = +2.
Known Information: Appendix B.5 MATLAB file, Table E.4.6, β, and β .
Solution Approach: Figure E.4.21 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.5 MATLAB file. From the calculated output, it can be determined
that the displaced coupler point p1 is p j = ( 0.0972 + i0.1865 ) m and its velocity is
Vp j = ( −0.3480 − i0.2398 ) m/s at a 45° crank displacement angle.

Example 4.10
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.5 MATLAB file, calculate the location, velocity
and acceleration values of p1 at β = 0°, 15°, 30°, …, 90° given the geared five-bar mecha-
nism dimensions in Table E.4.7. The initial angular velocity and angular acceleration of
 = 0.1rad/s 2, respectively. The gear ratio is r = +2.
the driving link are β 0 = 1 rad/s and β
Known Information: Table E.4.7 and Appendix B.5 MATLAB file.

TABLE E.4.7
Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Dimensions (with Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ S 1, ψ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
1, 90° 1.5, 32.7304° 1.5, 45° 1.5, 149.9837° 1.5, 0 1, 74.1400°
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 97

W1 = 1.0*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 1.5*exp(i*32.7304*pi/180);
L1 = 1.0*exp(i*74.1400*pi/180);
G1 = 1.5;
U1 = 1.5*exp(i*45*pi/180);
S1 = 1.5*exp(i*149.9847*pi/180);
ratio = 2;
start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 90;

angular_vel = 1 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0.1 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.4.22
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.5 MATLAB file for Example 4.10.

TABLE E.4.8
Calculated Geared Five-Bar Point Positions, Velocities, and Accelerations
β p1j (m) Vp1 j (m/s) A p1 j (m/s2)
0° 0.2733, 1.9619 −0.8980, −0.0290 −0.2352, −0.9733
15° 0.0360, 1.9215 −0.9273, −0.2851 0.0102, −0.9959
30° −0.1949, 1.8184 −0.8956, −0.5302 0.2336, −0.9326
45° −0.4068, 1.6609 −0.8202, −0.7419 0.3516, −0.7683
60° −0.5944, 1.4624 −0.7440, −0.8976 0.2326, −0.5178
75° −0.7657, 1.2386 −0.7199, −0.9973 0.0079, −0.3769
90° −0.9304, 0.9976 −0.6957, −1.0978 0.2980, −0.5166

Solution Approach: Figure E.4.22 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.5 MATLAB file. Table E.4.8 includes the values of p1 j, Vp1j and A p1j calcu-
lated from the Appendix B.5 MATLAB file over the given crank rotation range.

4.7 Watt II Mechanism Analysis

The Watt II mechanism consists of six links interconnected by revolute joints. As calcu-
lated from Gruebler’s equation for planar mechanisms (with L = 6 and J1 = 7), the Watt II
mechanism has a single DOF.
From Figure 4.19a, it can be seen that the Watt II mechanism is essentially two planar
four-bar mechanisms that share a common link—the follower link of one planar four-bar
mechanism being the crank link of the other mechanism.* Because of this particular con-
struction, the displacement, velocity, and acceleration equations presented in Section 4.4
for the planar four-bar mechanism can be used to analyze the Watt II mechanism.
Figure 4.19b includes the displacement variables for the Watt II mechanism. Mechanism
loop W1–V1–U1–G1 is the planar four-bar mechanism loop presented in Section 4.4. For
this mechanism loop, the equations in Section 4.4 can be used directly. Mechanism loop

* The Watt II mechanism can also be described as essentially a planar four-bar mechanism with a dyad attached
to its follower link.
98 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

(a)
p1
∗
αj p1

L1 α∗j
αj
b1 ∗
L1
a1 V1 α∗j
γj ,βj∗ b1∗
a1∗
∗ ∗
δ V1
U1 ∗
βj W1
ρ γj∗
W1∗
∗ ∗
θ b0,a0 θ U1∗
iY
a0 G1 ∗ b0∗ σ∗
X G1

(b)

FIGURE 4.19
(a) Watt II mechanism and (b) mechanism displacement variables.

W1* − V1* − U*1 − G*1 is the additional planar four-bar mechanism loop. Because vectors W1*
(the crank of mechanism W1* − V1* − U*1 − G*1) and U1 (the follower of mechanism W1–V1–U1–
G1) share the same link, the follower angular displacement, velocity, and acceleration val-
ues calculated for the first planar four-bar mechanism are the crank angular displacement,
velocity, and acceleration values for the second planar four-bar mechanism (therefore
γ j = β*j, γ j = β *j, and  *j).
γj =β
The equations in Section 4.4 can also be used to analyze mechanism loop W1* − V1* − U*1 − G*1 .
When using the planar four-bar displacement equations for this mechanism loop, the results
must be offset by a value of G*1, since the grounded pivot of W1* (pivot a *0 in Figure 4.19b) is
offset from the coordinate system origin by this value. As a result, Equations 4.9 and 4.10,
when utilized to calculate the coordinates of p*1 would take on the form

p∗1 = G1 + W1∗e
(
i θ * + β∗j ) + L∗ e i(δ * +α ) ∗
j
(4.41)
1

( ) (
p1∗xj = G1x + W1∗ cos θ∗ + β∗j + L*1 cos δ∗ + α ∗j )
(4.42)
p1∗yj = G1y + W1∗ sin ( θ∗
+ β ) + L sin ( δ
∗
j
*
1
∗
+α ) ∗
j

The velocity and acceleration equations in Section 4.4, on the other hand, can be used
directly for mechanism loop W1* − V1* − U1* − G*1.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 99

Appendix B.6 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for Watt II displacement,
velocity, and acceleration analysis. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download
at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions for both Watt II mech-
anism loops are calculated using the planar four-bar displacement, velocity, and accel-
eration equations in Section 4.4. This MATLAB file also includes Equation 4.42 and its
derivatives for the analysis coupler point p*1.

Example 4.11
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.6 MATLAB file, calculate the displaced value
*
of coupler point p1 for the Watt II mechanism configuration in Tables E.4.1 and E.4.9 for
a −55° crank displacement angle.
Known Information: Tables E.4.1, E.4.9, and Appendix B.6 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.4.23 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.6 MATLAB file. From the calculated output, it can be determined that the
displaced coupler point p1 is p j = 0.7063 + i0.2577 at a −55° crank displacement angle.

Example 4.12
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.6 MATLAB file, calculate the location and
*
acceleration values of p1 at β = 0°, −15°, −30, …, −90° given the Watt II mechanism dimen-
sions in Table E.4.10. The initial angular velocity and angular acceleration of W1 are
β 0 = −1.5 rad/s and β
 = −0.25 rad/s 2, respectively.
Known Information: Table E.4.10 and Appendix B.6 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.4.24 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.6 MATLAB file. Table E.4.11 includes the values of p*1 j, Vp*1 j and A p*1 j calcu-
lated from the Appendix B.6 MATLAB file over the given crank rotation range.

TABLE E.4.9
Watt II Mechanism Configuration
W1∗, θ* V1∗, ρ* U 1∗, σ* *
G1x *
, G1y L∗1, δ*
1, 45° 1.25, 16.6249° 1.25, 58.4069° 1.25, 0 1.5, 34.8197°

W1 = 1.75*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 1.75*exp(-i*22.4860*pi/180);
G1 = 0.866 - i*0.5;
U1 = 1.75*exp(i*64.5895*pi/180);
L1 = exp(i*6.469*pi/180);

W1s = exp(i*45*pi/180);
V1s = 1.25*exp(i*16.6249*pi/180);
G1s = 1.25;
U1s = 1.25*exp(i*58.4069*pi/180);
L1s = 1.5*exp(i*34.8197*pi/180);

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = -1;
stop_ang = -55;

angular_vel = 0 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.4.23
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.6 MATLAB file for Example 4.11.
100 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE E.4.10
Watt II Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
1,90° 1.5, 19.3737° 1.5, 93.2461° 1.5, 0 1, 60.7834°
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
W , θ*
1 V , ρ*
1 U , σ*
1 G ,G
1x 1y L∗1 , δ ∗
1, 45° 1.5, 7.9416° 1.5, 60.2717° 1.4489, −0.3882 1, 49.3512°

W1 = exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 1.5*exp(i*19.3737*pi/180);
G1 = 1.5;
U1 = 1.5*exp(i*93.2461*pi/180);
L1 = exp(i*60.7834*pi/180);

W1s = exp(i*45*pi/180);
V1s = 1.5*exp(i*7.9416*pi/180);
G1s = 1.4489 - i*0.3882;
U1s = 1.5*exp(i*60.2717*pi/180);
L1s = exp(i*49.3512*pi/180);
start_ang = 0;
step_ang = -1;
stop_ang = -90;

angular_vel = -1.5 * ones(N+1,1);

angular_acc = -0.25 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.4.24
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.6 MATLAB file for Example 4.12.

TABLE E.4.11
Calculated Watt II Point Positions, Velocities, and Accelerations
β p*1 j ( m ) Vp1* j ( m/s ) (
A p*1 j m/s 2 )
0° 2.8585, 1.4658 0.5291, −0.5525 −1.1396, −0.3436
−15° 2.9309, 1.3677 0.3029, −0.5747 −1.4555, 0.1176
−30° 2.9610, 1.2759 0.0591, −0.5039 −1.3376, 0.7658
−45° 2.9566, 1.2078 −0.0796, −0.3041 −0.1181, 1.7982
−60° 2.9509, 1.1899 0.0535, 0.1407 1.4468, 4.1631
−75° 2.9606, 1.2790 −0.1487, 1.1232 −7.2492, 8.3587
−90° 2.7922, 1.5254 −2.2811, 1.7817 −13.9847, −4.4822

4.8 Stephenson III Mechanism Analysis

4.8.1 Displacement Equations
The Stephenson III mechanism consists of six links interconnected by revolute joints. As
calculated from Gruebler’s equation for planar mechanisms (with L = 6 and J1 = 7), the
Stephenson III mechanism has a single DOF.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 101

(a)
∗
αj ∗
p1
L∗1
p1 δ∗

ρ∗
αj ∗
V1 ∗
αj

L1 αj
b1
V1 b1∗
a1
γj U1
∗
U1
βj W1 γj∗

b0
θ G1
iY G1∗
a0 b0∗
σ∗
X

(b)

FIGURE 4.20
(a) Stephenson III mechanism and (b) mechanism displacement variables.

From Figure 4.20a, it can be seen that the Stephenson III mechanism is essentially a
planar four-bar mechanism with a dyad connected to the coupler link. Because of this par-
ticular construction, the displacement, velocity, and acceleration equations presented in
Section 4.4 for the planar four-bar mechanism can be used to analyze the planar four-bar
mechanism loop of the Stephenson III mechanism.
To analyze the U*1 − V1* dyad (Figure 4.20b), a vector loop must be formed that
includes this dyad. The equation produced from the clockwise vector-loop sum
W1 − L1 − V1* − U*1 − G*1 − G1 is

W1e (
i θ+β j ) + L e i(δ +α j ) + V ∗e i(ρ* +α∗j ) − U ∗e i(σ * + γ ∗j ) − G∗ − G = 0 (4.43)
1 1 1 1 1

After expanding Equation 4.43 and grouping its real and imaginary terms as separate
equations, the resulting Stephenson III mechanism displacement equations become
102 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

( ) ( ) ( ) (
f1 α ∗j , γ ∗j = W1 cos θ + β j + L1 cos δ + α j + V1∗ cos ρ∗ + α ∗j )
( )
− U 1∗ cos σ ∗ + γ ∗j − G1∗x − G1x = 0
(4.44)
( ) ( ) ( ) (
f2 α ∗j , γ ∗j = W1 sin θ + β j + L11 sin δ + α j + V1∗ sin ρ∗ + α ∗j )
( )
− U 1∗ sin σ ∗ + γ ∗j − G1∗y − G1y = 0

With the exception of the U*1 − V1* dyad displacement angles α *j and γ *j, all other variables
in the Stephenson III mechanism displacement equations are either user prescribed or
calculated from Equation 4.2. Because f1 (α *j , γ *j ) and f2 (α *j , γ *j ) in Equation 4.44 both include
the unknown U*1 − V1* dyad displacement angles α *j and γ *j these equations form a set of
nonlinear simultaneous equations from which the angles are calculated.

Example 4.13
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.7 MATLAB file, calculate the displacement
angle of vector V1* for the Stephenson III mechanism configuration in Tables E.4.1 and
E.4.12 for a 50° crank displacement angle.
Known Information: Tables E.4.1, E.4.12, and Appendix B.7 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.4.25 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.7 MATLAB file. From the calculated output, it can be determined that the
displacement angle of vector V1* is α *j = 7.1215° at a 50° crank displacement angle.

TABLE E.4.12
Stephenson III Mechanism Configuration
V1* , ρ* U 1* , σ * G1* x , G1* y
1.75, −8.8397° 1.75, 65.6031° 1.1340, 0.5

W1 = 1.75*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 1.75*exp(-i*22.4860*pi/180);
G1 = 0.866 - i*0.5;
U1 = 1.75*exp(i*64.5895*pi/180);
L1 = exp(i*6.469*pi/180);
V1s = 1.75*exp(-i*8.8397*pi/180);
G1s = 1.1340 + i*0.5;
U1s = 1.75*exp(i*65.6031*pi/180);
L1s = 0;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 50;

angular_vel = 0 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.4.25
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.7 MATLAB file for Example 4.13.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 103

4.8.2 Velocity Equations
Because the Stephenson III mechanism loop W1–V1–U1–G1 is a planar four-bar mechanism,
a velocity analysis for this mechanism loop can be conducted using the planar four-bar
velocity equations in Section 4.4. In this section, velocity equations for the Stephenson III
mechanism dyad U*1 − V1* (Figure 4.21) are presented.
A single Stephenson III velocity equation is derived by differentiating the Stephenson III
displacement equation. Differentiating Equation 4.43 with respect to time produces

iβ jW1e (
i θ+β j ) + iα L e i(δ +α j ) + iα ∗V ∗e i(ρ* +α∗j ) − iγ ∗U ∗e i( σ * + γ ∗j ) = 0 (4.45)
j 1 j 1 j 1

Equation 4.46 includes the individual velocity terms from Equation 4.45. The velocity Vb*1
is the global tangential velocity of vector U*1—the tangential velocity of b*1 with respect to
b*0 (see Figure 4.21). The velocity Vp1 − b*1 is the relative tangential velocity of p1 with respect
to b*1—the relative tangential velocity of vector V1* . The global velocity of p1 ( Vp1 ) can be
calculated from the last equation in Equation 4.46.

Vb∗ = iγ ∗jU 1∗e

( i σ * + γ ∗j )
1 (4.46)

Vp1 – b∗ = iα ∗jV1∗e

(
i ρ* +α∗j ) =V − Vb∗
p1
1 1

After moving the terms iβ jW1e ( j ) and iα j L1e ( j ) to the right-hand side of Equation
i θ+β i δ+α

4.45, expanding this equation, and grouping its real and imaginary terms as separate
equations, the resulting Stephenson III mechanism velocity equation in matrix form
becomes

V∗1 V
∗

1
b1
a1 a1 1
1
Va1
1
1 γj
γj
βj
G1 G∗1
iY
0 0

FIGURE 4.21
Stephenson III mechanism velocity variables.
104 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

 −V ∗ sin ρ∗ + α ∗
 1 j( ) (
U 1∗ sin σ ∗ + γ ∗j )  ∗
  α j


  γ ∗ 
 ∗ ∗
 V1 cos ρ + α j
∗
( ) −U 1∗ cos σ ∗ + γ ∗j ( )   j 

 W sin θ + β
( )   L sin δ + α
( ) 
= β j   + α  
1 j 1 j
(4.47)
 −W cos θ + β
( )   − L cos δ + α
( ) 
j

 1 j
  1 j


After including the prescribed mechanism variables and the unknowns calculated from
the Stephenson III displacement equations, Equation 4.47 can be solved (using Cramer’s
rule, for example) to calculate the U*1 − V1* dyad angular velocities α *j and γ *j.

4.8.3 Acceleration Equations
A single planar four-bar acceleration equation is derived by differentiating the planar
four-bar velocity equation. Time differentiation of Equation 4.45 produces

 j L1e i(δ +α j ) − α ∗j V1∗e (

i ρ∗+α j )
−β 2j W1e ( j ) + iβ
 jW1e i(θ +β j ) − α 2j L1e i(δ+α j ) + iα ( )
∗
i θ+β 2

(4.48)
 V e ( ) −  − ( γ ∗ )2 U ∗e i(σ∗+ γ ) + iγ∗U ∗e i(σ∗+ γ )  = 0
∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ i ρ∗+α j
+ iα j j

 
j 1 j 1 j 1

Equation 4.49 includes the individual acceleration terms from Equation 4.48. The
accelerations A b*1n and A b*1t are the global normal and tangential accelerations, respec-
tively, of vector U*1 —the normal and tangential accelerations of b*1 with respect to b*0
(see Figure 4.22). The total acceleration of A b*1 is the sum of these normal and tangential
accelerations. The accelerations A (p1 − b*1 ) and A (p1 − b*1 ) are the relative normal and tangential
n t

A ∗

p1 A ∗
1 1 n
V1∗ .. .
α α
.. .
αjαj
b1 b∗1
b∗
1 1
U1 U1∗
Ab ∗
Aa W1
Aa 1n ..
γjγj .∗. ∗
γjγj
.. .
βj βj b0
iY 1 G∗1
0 b0∗

FIGURE 4.22
Stephenson III mechanism acceleration variables.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 105

accelerations, respectively, of p1 with respect to b*1—the relative normal and tangential

accelerations of vector V1* . The total relative acceleration A p1 − b*1 is the sum of these normal
and tangential accelerations. The global acceleration of p1 (A p1 ) can be calculated from the
last equation in Equation 4.49.

γ ∗jU 1∗e
A b∗ = A b∗ + A b∗ = i
( i σ∗ + γ ∗j ) − ( γ ∗ )2 U ∗e i(σ + γ )
∗ ∗
j
j 1
1 1t 1n
(4.49)
 V e ( ) − (α ∗ )2 V ∗e i(ρ* + α ) = A
∗ ∗
∗ ∗ i ρ * +α j
A p1 − b∗ = A (p1 − b∗ ) + A (p1 − b∗ ) = iα j 1 j 1
j
p1 − A b∗
1 1 t 1 n 1

 *jV1* e ( j) ( j ) to the right-hand side

i ρ* + α * i σ* + γ *
After moving all the terms except iα γ *jU 1* e
and i
of Equation 4.48, expanding this equation, and grouping its real and imaginary terms
as separate equations, the resulting Stephenson III mechanism acceleration equation in
matrix form becomes

  ∗
( ) ( )  
( ) 
∗
∗ ∗ ∗
 −V1 sin ρ + α j U 1 sin σ ∗ + γ ∗j  α  j   2  W1 cos θ + β j 
   ∗  = βj 

∗ ∗
(
∗
 V1 cos ρ + α j )
∗
−U 1 cos σ ∗ + γ ∗j( )   γ j



W1 sin θ + β j ( ) 


 −W sin θ + β
 j  1 j( )   L cos δ + α
 + α 2  1 j ( ) 
−α
 − L sin δ + α
 j 
1 j ( ) 

−β
 W cos θ + β
( )   L sin δ + α
( )   L cos δ + α
( ) 
j

 1 j
  1 j
  1 j


 
(
 V ∗ cos ρ∗ + α ∗
) 
( )
∗
∗ ∗
 U 1 cos σ + γ j 
( )  1  − γ ∗
( )
j
∗ 2 2
+ α     (4.50)
( ) ( )
j j ∗
∗ ∗ ∗
 V1 sin ρ + α j
∗ ∗
  U 1 sin σ + γ j 
 

After including the prescribed mechanism variables and the unknowns calculated
from the Stephenson III displacement and velocity equations, Equation 4.50 can be solved
(using Cramer’s rule, for example) to calculate the U*1 − V1* dyad angular accelerations α *j
*
and γ j.
Appendix B.7 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for Stephenson III displace-
ment, velocity, and acceleration analysis. In this MATLAB file (which is available for down-
load at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions for Equations 4.44,
4.47, and 4.50 are calculated.

4.8.4 Kinematics of Intermediate Link Locations of Interest

The results calculated from the Stephenson III displacement, velocity, and acceleration
equations can be used in additional equations to calculate the displacement, velocity, and
acceleration of particular intermediate link locations of interest. These equations are the
result of formulating vector-loop equations and their derivatives.
Figure 4.18b illustrates a Stephenson III mechanism with an intermediate link vector
L*1 that points to an arbitrary intermediate link location of interest p*1. Equations 4.51 and
4.52 are produced from the loop a 0 − a 1 − p1 − p*1 in Figure 4.18b (where Equation 4.52 is the
result of expanding and separating Equation 4.51).
106 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

p∗1 j = W1e (
i θ+βj )
+ L1e (
i δ +αj )
+ L∗1e
(
i δ * + α *j ) (4.51)

( ) ((
p1∗xj = W1 cos θ + β j + L1 cos δ + α j + L*1 cos δ∗ + α ∗j ) )
(4.52)
p1∗yj = W sin ( θ + β ) + L sin ( δ + α ) + L sin ( δ
1 j 1 j
*
1
∗
+α ) ∗
j

The velocities of the intermediate link location of interest can be calculated from
Equation 4.54—the expanded form of Equation 4.53 (which is the first derivative of
Equation 4.51).

i ( δ * +α j )
Vp∗ = iβ jW1e ( ) + iα j L1e ( ) + iα ∗j L∗1e
*
i θ+βj i δ +αj
(4.53)
1j

( )
Vp∗ = −β jW1 sin θ + β j − α j L1 sin δ + α j − α ∗j L*1 sin δ∗ + α ∗j
1 xj
( ) ( )
(4.54)
( ) (
Vp∗ = β jW1 cos θ + β j + α j L1 cos δ + α j + α ∗j L*1 cos δ∗ + α ∗j
1 yj
) ( )
The accelerations of the intermediate link location of interest can be calculated from
Equation 4.56—the expanded form of Equation 4.55 (which is the second derivative of
Equation 4.51).

 j L1e i(δ +α j ) − α ∗j L∗1e (

i δ* +α j )
A p∗ j = −β 2j W1e ( j ) + iβ
 jW1e i(θ +β j ) − α 2j L1e i(δ+α j ) + iα ( )
∗
i θ+β 2

 ∗j L∗1e ( )
i δ * + α∗j
+ iα (4.55)

Ap∗ = −β 2j W1 cos θ + β j − β

1xj
( ) (
 jW1 sin θ + β j − α 2j L1 cos δ + α j − α )
 j L1 sin δ + α j ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
− α ∗j L∗1 cos δ∗ + α ∗j − α
 ∗j L∗1 sin δ∗ + α ∗j (4.56)

Ap∗ = −β 2j W1 sin θ + β j + β

1yj
( ) (
 jW1 cos θ + β j − α 2j L1 sin δ + α j + α )
 j L1 cos δ + α j ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
− α ∗j L∗1 sin δ∗ + α ∗j + α
 ∗j L∗1 cos δ∗ + α ∗j

The Appendix B.7 MATLAB file also includes Equations 4.52, 4.54, and 4.56, from which
displacement, velocity, and acceleration values are calculated for the intermediate link
locations of interest.

Example 4.14
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.7 MATLAB file, calculate the path traced by
point p*1 of the Stephenson III mechanism given in Table E.4.13 for a complete crank
rotation.
Known Information: Table E.4.13 and Appendix B.7 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.4.26 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.7 MATLAB file. Figure E.4.27 includes the Stephenson III mechanism and
the p*1 path calculated from the Appendix B.7 MATLAB file.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 107

TABLE E.4.13
Stephenson III Mechanism Dimensions
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
1, 90° 1.5, 19.3737° 1.5, 93.2461° 1.5, 0 1, 60.7834°

L ,δ
*
1
*
V ,ρ
1
* *
U ,σ
*
1
* *
G ,G
1x
*
1y

1, 63.7091° 2, 17.1417° 2, 76.4844° 0.4318, 0.5176

W1 = exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 1.5*exp(i*19.3737*pi/180);
G1 = 1.5;
U1 = 1.5*exp(i*93.2461*pi/180);
L1 = exp(i*60.7834*pi/180);
V1s = 2*exp(i*17.1417*pi/180);
G1s = 0.4318 + i*0.5176;
U1s = 2*exp(i*76.4844*pi/180);
L1s = exp(i*63.7091*pi/180);

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 360;
angular_vel = 0 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.4.26
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.7 MATLAB file for Example 4.14.

FIGURE E.4.27
Stephenson III mechanism and p*1 path.
108 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE E.4.14
Geared Five-Bar Driver Velocities and Point Positions, Velocities, and Accelerations
β β (rad/s) p1 j (m) Vp1 j (m/s) A p1 j (m/s2)
0° 1 0.2733, 1.9619 −0.8980, −0.0290 −0.2352, −0.9733
15° 1.0258 0.0360, 1.9215 −0.9273, −0.2851 0.0102, −0.9959
30° 1.0511 −0.1949, 1.8184 −0.8956, −0.5302 0.2336, −0.9326
45° 1.0757 −0.4068, 1.6609 −0.8202, −0.7419 0.3516, −0.7683
60° 1.0997 −0.5944, 1.4624 −0.7440, −0.8976 0.2326, −0.5178
75° 1.1233 −0.7657, 1.2386 −0.7199, −0.9973 0.0079, −0.3769
90° 1.1464 −0.9304, 0.9976 −0.6957, −1.0978 0.2980, −0.5166

4.9 Time and Driver Angular Velocity

In the Chapter 4, 7, and 10 MATLAB files, the driving link angular velocity β is calculated
according to β = β 0 + β
t, where β 0 ,β,
 and t are the initial angular velocity, angular accelera-
tion, and time, respectively.* Under a constant velocity condition (where β  = 0 and subse-
  
quently β = β 0), the time increment becomes t = β/β. Under a condition where both an initial
angular velocity and an angular acceleration are present, the time increment becomes

t=
( −β ± 0
β
β 02 + 2β ),

β

where only the smallest positive value of the two solutions is valid.

Example 4.15
Problem Statement: For the problem in Example 4.10, include β in Table E.4.8.
Known Information: Example 4.10 and Appendix B.4 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Table E.4.14 includes the values of β calculated using β 0 and β
 from
Example 4.10, the t values from the Appendix B.5 MATLAB file and the angular velocity
equation β = β 0 + βt
 presented in Section 4.9.

4.10 Mechanism Configurations

For a given crank link orientation of single-loop four- or five-bar mechanisms, there are
two ways to assemble the remaining links. These distinct assemblies are called assembly
configurations (also called open and crossed configurations) and can be easily determined
graphically for planar mechanisms. Figure 4.23 illustrates the assembly configurations of
the planar four-bar, geared five-bar, and slider-crank mechanisms. Reflecting b1 in the pla-
nar four-bar mechanism about an axis that passes through a1 and b0 produces the alternate

* In Chapter 10, the crank rotation variables, β 0 β , and β

 become θ , θ,
0
 and 
θ, respectively.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 109

c1

b1
a1 b1
a1
c*1

a0 b0
b1
∗ a0 b0

(a) (b)

a1

b1∗ a0 b1

(c)

FIGURE 4.23
(a) Planar four-bar, (b) geared five-bar, and (c) slider-crank mechanism assembly configurations.

assembly configuration a 0 – a 1 – b*1 – b0 . Reflecting c1 in the geared five-bar mechanism

about an axis that passes through a1 and b1 produces the alternate assembly configuration
a 0 – a 1 – c*1 – b1 – b0. Reflecting b1 in the slider-crank mechanism about an axis that passes
through a1 and is perpendicular to the slider path produces the alternate assembly con-
figuration a 0 – a 1 – b*1.
In the type of planar four-bar, geared five-bar, and slider-crank mechanism displace-
ment equations where mechanism motion is calculated algebraically, two sets of unknown
link displacement angles are calculated for each given crank link displacement angle [3].*
These two sets of displacement angle solutions correspond to the two mechanism assem-
bly configurations. This can be observed in the algebraic spatial mechanism equations that
appear in Chapter 10.

4.11 Constructing Cognates

For a given planar four-bar path mechanism, there are alternate four-bar mechanisms of
different dimensions that will trace coupler point curves identical to the given four-bar
mechanism. These alternate mechanisms are called cognates [4, 5]. A well-known sche-
matic to construct two cognates for a given four-bar mechanism is the Cayley diagram. The
construction of this schematic begins by repositioning the crank and follower links of
the given four-bar mechanism so that the crank, coupler, and follower links are collinear

* The kinematic equations presented in this chapter are solved numerically given the initial mechanism assembly
configuration. Therefore, kinematic analyses are performed on the particular mechanism assembly configura-
tion specified by the user.
110 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

O3

7
8

B3
B2

9 6
A2 A3
C
10 5
3
O1 2 4 O2
∼ A1 B1
O1
∼
O2

FIGURE 4.24
Cayley diagram construction.

(mechanism O1−A1−B1−O1 in Figure 4.24). Next, lines are constructed that are parallel to
all sides of the links in the original linkage. In Figure 4.24, the two newly constructed
cognates are visible (mechanisms O1−A2− B2−O3 and O2−A3−B3−O3).
After constructing the Cayley diagram, the fixed pivots of the original four-bar linkage
are returned to their original placements, making this linkage and the cognates movable
(as positioned in the Cayley diagram, mechanism O1−A1−B1−O2 and cognates are immov-
able). When returning the fixed pivots of the original planar four-bar mechanism, the
crank, coupler, and follower lengths of the cognates should be maintained. The reposi-
tioned Cayley diagram is called a Roberts diagram Figure 4.25a). Figure 4.25b illustrates the
three separate cognates. All three cognates will trace the same curve at coupler point C.

∼ ∼ ∼
O3 O3 O3
8 8
∼ 7 ∼ 7
B2 B2
∼ ∼
B3 B3
9 C 9 C C C
∼ 6 ∼ 6
A2 A2
∼ ∼
3 A3 3 A3
10 10

∼ A1 5 A1 5
B1 ∼ ∼ B1
O1 2 O1 O1 2
4 4 ∼
∼ O2 ∼
O2 O2

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4.25
(a) Roberts diagram and (b) separate cognates.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 111

Example 4.16
Problem Statement: Construct the cognates for the Grashof drag-link mechanism with
the unitless dimensions a0 = (0, 0), a1 = (0, 1.75), b0 = (1, 0), b1 = (1.4646, 1.4262), and
p1 = (0.8751, 2.2340).
Known Information: Section 4.11 and the given mechanism dimensions.
Solution Approach: Figure E.4.28 includes the given planar four-bar mechanism and
its Cayley diagram. Figure E.4.29 includes the Roberts diagram and separate cognates.

FIGURE E.4.28
(a) Planar four-bar mechanism and (b) Cayley diagram.

FIGURE E.4.29
(a) Roberts diagram and (b) separate cognates.
112 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

4.12 
P lanar Mechanism Kinematic Analysis and
Modeling in Simscape Multibody
As has been noted throughout this chapter, Appendices B.1 and B.3–B.7 include user instruc-
tions for the planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mecha-
nisms in MATLAB files, respectively. In these files, the displacement, velocity, and acceleration
equations formulated in this chapter are solved. These MATLAB files provide a means for the
user to efficiently conduct planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson
III kinematic analyses by solving their displacement, velocity, and acceleration equations.
This textbook also utilizes Simscape Multibody as an alternate approach for simula-
tion-based kinematic analysis. Simscape Multibody (formerly SimMechanics) is the latest
MATLAB toolbox that provides a physical modeling environment for the mechanical mod-
eling and simulation of rigid, multibody systems. The MATLAB and Simscape Multibody
files that accompany this textbook use distinct approaches for kinematic analysis. In the
Appendix B MATLAB files, for example, solutions are predominantly calculated analyti-
cally from closed-form kinematic equations. In Simscape Multibody, however, Newtonian
equations (produced by building mechanism links and joints in a physical modeling envi-
ronment) are solved using ordinary differential equation (ODE) solvers [6].
A library of Simscape Multibody files is available for download at https://www.­
routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317 to conduct displacement, velocity, and accelera-
tionanalyses on planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson
III mechanisms.* With these files, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions
and driving link parameters (e.g., crank displacements, velocities, and/or accelerations)
and the displacements, velocities, and/or accelerations of the mechanism locations of
interest are measured. Additionally, the motion of the mechanism itself is simulated.
The Simscape Multibody file user instructions for the planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared
five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mechanisms are given in Appendices H.1–H.6, respectively.

Example 4.17
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix H.1 Simscape Multibody files, plot the transmis-
sion angle versus crank displacement angle plot for the planar four-bar mechanism in
Table E.4.15 for a complete crank rotation.
Known Information: Table E.4.15 and Appendix H.1 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.4.30 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix H.1 Simscape Multibody file. Figure E.4.31 illustrates a plot of the trans-
mission angle data measured in the Appendix H.1 Simscape Multibody files. Figure
E.4.32 is an initial position snapshot of the mechanism animation generated from the
Appendix H.1 Simscape Multibody files.

TABLE E.4.15
Planar Four-Bar Mechanism Dimensions
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
1, 90° 1.5, 4.2451° 1.5, 88.2046° 1.4489, −0.3882 0.75, 45°

* This library can also be downloaded from the authors’ server http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_
mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 113

W1 = 1*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 1.5*exp(i*4.2451*pi/180);
G1 = 1.4489 - i*0.3882;
U1 = 1.5*exp(i*88.2046*pi/180);
L1 = 0.75*exp(i*45*pi/180);

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 360;

angular_vel = 0;
angular_acc = 0;

FIGURE E.4.30
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix H.1 Simscape Multibody file for Example 4.17.

FIGURE E.4.31
Transmission angle vs. crank displacement angle plot.

FIGURE E.4.32
Initial position of the planar four-bar mechanism in the Appendix H.1 Simscape Multibody ani-
mation for Example 4.17.
114 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Example 4.18
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix H.2 Simscape Multibody files, plot slider position,
velocity, and acceleration versus crank angular displacement plots for the slider-crank
mechanism in Table E.4.16 for a complete crank rotation. The initial angular velocity
and angular acceleration of the crank link are 1rad/sec and 0.1 rad/sec2, respectively.
Known Information: Table E.4.16, driving link parameters, and Appendix H.2 Simscape
Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.4.33 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix H.2 Simscape Multibody file. Figure E.4.34 illustrates the plots of the slider
position, velocity, and acceleration data measured in the Appendix H.2 Simscape
Multibody files. Figure E.4.35 is an initial position snapshot of the mechanism anima-
tion generated from the Appendix H.2 Simscape Multibody files.

Example 4.19
Problem Statement: Repeat Example 4.10 using the Appendix H.3 Simscape Multibody files.
In this example, β = 0°, −15°, −30°, …, −90°, β 0 = −1 rad/s, and β
 = −1.0 rad/s 2, respectively.
Known Information: Table E.4.7 and Appendix H.3 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Because the Appendix H.3 Simscape Multibody files consider
geared five-bar mechanisms where the crank and output links rotate in opposite direc-
tions, the gear ratio for this problem is r = −2.* Figure E.4.34 includes the input specified
(in bold text) in the Appendix H.3 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.4.17 includes the
values of p1 j, Vp1j , and A p1j measured from the Appendix H.3 Simscape Multibody files.
Figure E.4.37 is an initial position snapshot of the mechanism animation generated from
the Appendix H.3 Simscape Multibody files.

Example 4.20
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix H.5 Simscape Multibody files, plot the path
traced by point p*1 of the Watt II mechanism given in Example 4.12 for a complete crank
rotation.

TABLE E.4.16
Slider-Crank Mechanism Dimensions (with Lengths in cm)
W1, θ V1 U1

1, 90° 3 –0.6583

LW1 = 1;
theta = 90*pi/180;

LU1 = -0.6583;

LV1 = 3;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 360;

angular_vel = 1;
angular_acc = 0.1;

FIGURE E.4.33
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix H.2 Simscape Multibody file for Example 4.18.

* The Appendix H.4 SimMechanics file considers geared five-bar mechanism where the crank and output links
rotate in the same direction, while the Appendix H. 3 file considers links that rotate in the opposite direction.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 115

FIGURE E.4.34
Slider (a) position, (b) velocity, and (c) acceleration plots.

FIGURE E.4.35
Initial position of the slider-crank mechanism in the Appendix H.2 Simscape Multibody anima-
tion for Example 4.18.

Known Information: Table E.4.10 and Appendix H.5 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.4.38 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix H.5 Simscape Multibody file. Figure E.4.39 includes the Watt II mechanism
and the p*1 calculated from the Appendix H.5 Simscape Multibody files. Figure E.4.40 is
an initial position snapshot of the mechanism animation generated from the Appendix
H.5 Simscape Multibody files.
116 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

W1 = 1.0*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 1.5*exp(i*32.7304*pi/180);
L1 = 1.0*exp(i*74.1400*pi/180);
G1 = 1.5;
U1 = 1.5*exp(i*45*pi/180);
S1 = 1.5*exp(i*149.9847*pi/180);
ratio = -2;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = -15;
stop_ang = -90;

angular_vel = -1;
angular_acc = -0.1;

FIGURE E.4.36
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix H.3 Simscape Multibody file for Example 4.19.

TABLE E.4.17
Measured Geared Five-Bar Point Positions, Velocities, and Accelerations
β p 1 j [m] Vp1 j [m/sec] A p1 j [m/sec2]
0° 0.2733, 1.9619 −0.1473, 0.3259 0.4798, −2.5866
−14.984° 0.2391, 1.9658 −0.1530, −0.2874 −0.3755, −2.3556
−29.977° 0.1849, 1.8154 −0.2855, −0.9217 −0.5639, −2.7119
−44.981° 0.1021, 1.5037 −0.3576, −1.6097 0.1516, −2.6833
−59.973° 0.0315, 1.0517 −0.1901, −2.0725 1.0790, −0.8210
−74.968° 0.0135, 0.5647 0.0060, −1.9746 0.3157, 1.4206
−90.001° 0.0119, 0.1535 −0.0653, −1.5665 −0.8276, 1.8546

FIGURE E.4.37
Initial position of the geared five-bar mechanism in the Appendix H.3 Simscape Multibody ani-
mation for Example 4.19.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 117

W1 = exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 1.5*exp(i*19.3737*pi/180);
G1 = 1.5;
U1 = 1.5*exp(i*93.2461*pi/180);
L1 = exp(i*60.7834*pi/180);

W1s = exp(i*45*pi/180);
V1s = 1.5*exp(i*7.9416*pi/180);
G1s = 1.4489 - i*0.3882;
U1s = 1.5*exp(i*60.2717*pi/180);
L1s = exp(i*49.3512*pi/180);

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 360;

angular_vel = 0;
angular_acc = 0;

FIGURE E.4.38
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix H.5 Simscape Multibody file for Example 4.20.

FIGURE E.4.39
Watt II mechanism and p*1 path.

Example 4.21
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix H.6 Simscape Multibody files for the mechanism
in Example 4.14, measure the position of vector V1* over a complete crank rotation (at 45°
rotation increments).
Known Information: Table E.4.13 and Appendix H.6 Simscape Multibody files .
Solution Approach: One way to define the position of vector V1* of the Stephenson III
mechanism is by point p1 and angle α*. Figure E.4.37 includes the input specified (in bold
text) in the Appendix H.6 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.4.18 includes the V1* position
data measured from the Appendix H.6 Simscape Multibody file. Figure E.4.42 is an ini-
tial position snapshot of the mechanism animation generated from the Appendix H.6
Simscape Multibody files.
118 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.4.40
Initial position of the Watt II mechanism in the Appendix H.5 Simscape Multibody animation for
Example 4.20.

W1 = exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 1.5*exp(i*19.3737*pi/180);
G1 = 1.5;
U1 = 1.5*exp(i*93.2461*pi/180);
L1 = exp(i*60.7834*pi/180);

V1s = 2*exp(i*17.1417*pi/180);
G1s = 0.4318 + i*0.5176;
U1s = 2*exp(i*76.4844*pi/180);
L1s = exp(i*63.7091*pi/180);

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 45;
stop_ang = 360;

angular_vel = 0;
angular_acc = 0;

FIGURE E.4.41
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix H.6 Simscape Multibody file for Example 4.21.

TABLE E.4.18
Measured Position Data for Stephenson III Mechanism Dyad Vector V1*
β p1 α*
0° 0.4881, 1.8728 −0.0017°
45.004° −0.2542, 1.5986 8.9811°
89.982° −0.7405, 0.9661 20.6900°
135.020° −0.8565, 0.2815 33.3070°
179.990° −0.6180, −0.2137 47.3220°
225.030° −0.1788, −0.2435 58.5700°
270.000° 0.4727, 0.8497 38.0690°
315.000° 1.0664, 1.6404 −0.2744°
360.000° 0.4881, 1.8728 −0.0016°
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 119

FIGURE E.4.42
Initial position of the Watt II mechanism in the Appendix H.6 Simscape Multibody animation for
Example 4.21.

4.13 Summary
The method of vector-loop closure is employed in this chapter to formulate kinematic
equations for the planar four-bar mechanism, slider-crank mechanism, geared five-bar
mechanism, Watt II, and Stephenson III mechanisms. With this method, a sum of the closed
loop of mechanism link vectors is taken, expanded, grouped into real and imaginary com-
ponents, and expressed as a system of two equations to calculate two unknown mechanism
variables. With this approach, equations that fully describe the position, displacement,
velocity, and acceleration of each mechanism link are formulated. Taking the first and
second derivatives of the mechanism displacement equations produces velocity and
acceleration equations, respectively. The unknown variables calculated from these kinematic
equations can be used in additional vector-loop equations to calculate the positions,
displacements, velocities, and accelerations of additional mechanism locations of interest.
The displacement equations presented in this chapter form sets of two nonlinear simul-
taneous equations. Unlike linear simultaneous equations, nonlinear simultaneous equa-
tions cannot be solved algebraically. Using a root-finding method, such equation sets can
be solved numerically. The Newton–Raphson method is one of the most common root-
finding methods. In the Appendix B.1 and B.3 through B.6 MATLAB files, the displace-
ment, velocity, and acceleration equations for the planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared
five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mechanisms, respectively, are solved numerically.
An instant center (or IC) of velocity is a common point among two bodies in planar
motion which has the same instantaneous velocity in both bodies. A procedure (based
on the Aronhold–Kennedy theorem) has been developed to help locate the ICs for a given
mechanism. ICs can conduct velocity analyses as well as replicate coupler motion. A locus
of ICs is called a centrode. The centrode produced for a given mechanism is called a fixed
120 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

centrode because it is stationary. The centrode produced for the inverted mechanism is
called a moving centrode because it can exhibit motion—rolling motion over the fixed cen-
trode. The fixed and moving centrodes can be incorporated into geometry, to ultimately
produce alternate mechanisms to replicate the coupler motion of their corresponding four-
bar mechanisms. In the Appendix B.2 MATLAB file, individual fixed and moving centrode
points are calculated for the complete rotation range of a planar four-bar mechanism, as
well as slider-crank mechanisms defined as planar four-bar mechanisms.
For a given crank link orientation of most single-loop four- or five-bar mechanisms,
there are two distinct assembly configurations (the open and crossed configurations).
These configurations can be easily determined graphically for planar mechanisms by
reflecting particular links about particular axes.
For a given planar four-bar mechanism, there are alternate four-bar mechanisms
(called cognates) that will trace coupler curves identical to the original mechanism. The
Cayley diagram is a well-known schematic to construct two cognates for a given four-bar
mechanism.
This textbook also utilizes Simscape Multibody as an alternate approach for simulation-
based kinematic analyses. Using the Appendix H.1 through H.6 Simscape Multibody, the
user can conduct displacement, velocity, and acceleration analyses on the planar four-bar,
slider-crank, geared five- bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mechanisms, respectively, as well
as simulate mechanism motion.

References
1. Kimbrell, J. T. 1991. Kinematics Analysis and Synthesis. Chapter 2. New York: McGraw-Hill.
2. Chapra, S. C. and Canale, R. P. 1998. Numerical Methods for Engineers. Chapters 5–8. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
3. Norton, R. L. 2008. Design of Machinery. 4th edn, pp. 355–360. New York: McGraw-Hill.
4. Ibid, pp. 132–137.
5. Waldron, K. J. and Kinzel, G. L. 2004. Kinematics, Dynamics and Design of Machinery. 2nd edn,
pp. 318–320. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
6. Mathworks. What you can do with SimMechanics software. http://www.mathworks.com/
help/physmod/sm/mech/gs/what-you-can-do-with-simmechanics-software.html. Accessed
July 16, 2015.

Additional Reading
Sandor, G. N. and Erdman, A. G. 1984. Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis. Volume 2,
p. 64. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Waldron, K. J. and Kinzel, G. L. 2004. Kinematics, Dynamics and Design of Machinery. 2nd edn, Chapter
5. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Wilson, C. E. and Sadler, J. P. 2003. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery. 3rd edn, Chapter 2. Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 121

Problems

FIGURE P.4.1
Hatch mechanism.

TABLE P.4.1
Hatch Mechanism Dimensions
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
4.4127, 118.7982° 1.0214, 101.2268° 2.2807, 225.1319° −0.7156, 6.4851 4.1345, 139.4559°
122 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.4.2
Loading–unloading mechanism.

TABLE P.4.2
Loading–Unloading Mechanism Dimensions
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
2.9777, 136.588° 0.4032, 70.2408° 2.513, 259.5885° −1.5726, 4.8975 2.1995, 179.5331°
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 123

FIGURE P.4.3
Leveling crane.

FIGURE P.4.4
Component-assembly mechanism.

TABLE P.4.3
Component-Assembly Mechanism Dimensions
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
3.0645, 310.6493° 1.6039, 89.216° 1.1359, −112.147° 2.4465, 0.3309 4.8525, 0.7042°
124 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.4.5
Digging mechanism.

TABLE P.4.4
Digging Mechanism Dimensions
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
4.1332, 207.829° 5.3857, 187.8282° 6.0475, 233.487° −5.3924, 2.1975 5.1839, 202.3921°

TABLE P.4.5
Planar Four-Bar Mechanism Configurations
W1 V1 , ρ U 1, σ G1 L 1, δ
2.1, 90° 2.4, −16.0138° 2.4, 58.1173° 1.0392, −0.6 2.4, 12.9412°
0.7361, −0.425 1.7, 58.1173° 1.7, −16.0138° 1.4875, 90° 1.7, 12.9412°
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 125

FIGURE P.4.6
Folding-chair linkage in (left) fully open and (right) fully closed position.
126 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.4.7
Folding-chair linkage designs.
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 127

FIGURE P.4.8
Wiper-blade mechanism.

TABLE P.4.6
Slider-Crank Mechanism Configuration
W1, θ V1 U1 β (rad/s)  (rad/s 2 )
β
3.175 cm, 90° 9.525 cm 0.7938 cm 1.5 0.15

TABLE P.4.7
Slider-Crank Mechanism Configuration (with Unitless Link Lengths)
W1, θ V1 U1
1.35, 90° 1.6875 0.3375
128 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.4.9
Slider-crank mechanism used in a crankshaft-connecting rod-piston mechanism.

TABLE P.4.8
Slider-Crank Mechanism Configuration
W1, θ V1 U1 β (rad/s)  (rad/s 2 )
β
4.76 cm, 60° 6.35 cm 0 cm 1.5 0

TABLE P.4.9
Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Configuration
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ S 1, ψ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
1.3, 60° 9.1, 173.6421° 5.2, 150° 11.7, 182.2848° 7.8, 0 7.8, 203.6421°

TABLE P.4.10
Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Configuration
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ S 1, ψ G1
3.302 cm, 90° 13.208 cm, 140.2031° 4.953 cm, 75° 19.812 cm, 154.0128° 6.604 cm, −15°

L 1, δ β (rad/s)  (rad/s 2 )
β Gear Ratio
9.906 cm, 180° 1 0.5 −2
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 129

FIGURE P.4.10
Watt II mechanism used in an adjustable chair.

TABLE P.4.11
Watt II Mechanism Dimensions
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
0.85, 90° 1.275, 19.3737° 1.275, 93.2461° 1.275, 0 0.85, 60.7834°
W ,θ
1
* *
V ,ρ
1
* *
U ,σ
*
1
* *
G ,G
1x
*
1y L*1 , δ *
1.7, 25° 1.7, −59.4144° 1.7, −10.8507° 0.7361, −0.425 1.275, −11.2247°
130 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.4.11
Stephenson III gripper mechanism.

TABLE P.4.12
Stephenson III Gripper Mechanism Dimensions
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
1.7995, 318.4178° 0.9091, 286.4362° 1.6482, 230.6143° 2.6491, −0.7924 1.2304, 189.1904°

V ,ρ
1
* *
U ,σ
*
1
*
L,δ
*
1
*
G1* x , G1* y
9.2542, 319.9647° 1.5166, 236.6216° 5.7298, 11.8113° 5.4021, −5.2847
Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 131

FIGURE P.4.12
Stephenson III gripper mechanism.

TABLE P.4.13
Stephenson III Digging Mechanism Dimensions
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
4.2366, −25.6775° 2.0805, 120.3504° 2.5252, 229.6156° 4.4031, 1.8831 5.1069, 189.0097°

V ,ρ
1
* *
U ,σ
*
1
*
L ,δ
*
1
* *
G ,G
1x
*
1y

3.0994, 14.6953° 1.3340, 187.0724° 1.9944, 65° −1.3069, −3.5681

TABLE P.4.14
Stephenson III Mechanism Dimensions
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
1.45 m, 90° 2.175 m, 19.3737° 2.175 m, 93.2461° 2.175 m, 0 m 4.35 m, –5.1593°

V1* , ρ* U 1* , σ * G1* x , G1* y L*1 , δ *

2.9 m, –46.9725° 2.9 m, –6.6563° 1.2557 m, –0.725 m 2.175 m, 1.2172°
5
Dimensional Synthesis

CONCEPT OVERVIEW
In this chapter, the reader will gain a central understanding regarding

1. The study of dimensional synthesis and the distinctions between kinematic analysis
and dimensional synthesis
2. Categories of dimensional synthesis
3. Types of mechanism defects and defect-elimination methods in dimensional
synthesis
4. The formulation of linear simultaneous equation sets for planar four-bar motion
generation
5. Distinctions between motion generation and path generation
6. The formulation of linear simultaneous equation sets for Stephenson III motion
generation
7. The formulation of linear simultaneous equation sets for planar four-bar function
generation
8. Distinctions between finitely separated positions (FSPs) and multiply separated posi-
tions (MSPs)
9. The formulation of linear simultaneous equation sets for planar four-bar function
generation with FSPs and MSPs
10. Preparation of results from planar four-bar and Stephenson III dimensional syn-
thesis for planar four-bar and Stephenson III kinematic analysis

5.1 Introduction
As noted in Section 1.5, dimensional synthesis is a category in kinematic synthesis where
the objective is to calculate the mechanism dimensions required to achieve a prescribed
mechanism motion sequence [1].* The calculated mechanism dimensions include link
lengths, link positions (also called “rigid-body” positions), and joint coordinates.† The

* Another basic description of dimensional synthesis is the design of a mechanism to produce a desired output motion
for a given input motion.
† Mechanism links are also called “rigid bodies” because mechanism links are generally assumed to be rigid

(nondeforming) in kinematic synthesis.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003316961-5 133

134 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

parameters pertaining to the prescribed mechanism motion sequence include link posi-
tions, path points,and displacement angles. In contrast to kinematic analysis—where
mechanism dimensions are known and the resulting mechanism motion sequence is
calculated—in dimensional synthesis, the mechanism motion sequence is known and the
mechanism dimensions are calculated (Figure 5.1) [2].
Dimensional synthesis includes three distinct subcategories: motion generation, path
generation, and function generation (Figure 5.2). In motion generation, mechanism dimen-
sions are calculated to achieve prescribed rigid-body positions, while prescribed rigid-
body path points are achieved in path generation.* In function generation, mechanism
dimensions are calculated to achieve prescribed crank and follower-link displacement
angles.†
An overview of published research in dimensional synthesis will reveal an assort-
ment of qualitative and quantitative methods for motion, path, and function generation [3].
Qualitative methods include graphical techniques, which can provide a wealth of informa-
tion with virtually no computational effort [4]. Quantitative methods include mathemati-
cal models that can be solved analytically or numerically by way of solution algorithms
and root-finding methods [5]. As intended by the authors, the dimensional synthesis meth-
ods presented in this chapter are all quantitative.

(x2, y2)
(x1, y1) l2
Displacements,
X l3 Kinematic
1 analysis
(x0, y0) (x3, y3)

(a)

(x2, y2)
(x1, y1) l2
Displacements,
Dimensional X l3
l1
(x0, y0) (x3, y3)

(b)

FIGURE 5.1
(a) Kinematic analysis vs. (b) dimensional synthesis.

* In four-bar motion and path generation, the coupler link is the rigid body for which positions and path points
are prescribed.
† The crank and follower displacement angles are often prescribed in accordance to a mathematical function—

hence the name function generation.

Dimensional Synthesis 135

Prescribed parameters Synthesized mechanism

pl pl
pj pj αj
αn
pn αn pn

pj pj
pl
pn pn pl

γj
βj γj
βj

where γj = f(βj) where γj = f(βj)

FIGURE 5.2
Subcategories of dimensional synthesis.

5.2 Branch and Order Defects

Although motion and path generation ensure that the synthesized mechanisms will achieve
prescribed rigid-body positions and path points, respectively, they do not guarantee

• The synthesized mechanism will achieve the prescribed rigid-body parameters

without a change in its original assembly configuration (thus requiring mecha-
nism disassembly).
• The synthesized mechanism will achieve the prescribed rigid-body parameters in
the intended order.

These two uncertainties are defects inherent in motion and path generation, mechanism
synthesis requiring rigid-body positions and rigid-body path points, respectively.
The first noted defect is commonly called a branch defect [6]. Figure 5.3a illustrates the
two assembly configurations of a planar four-bar mechanism: configurations a-b-c-d and
a-b-c*-d.* In kinematic synthesis, a branch represents the rigid-body positions or path

* The assembly configurations a-b-c-d and a-b-c*-d of the planar four-bar mechanism are called the open and
crossed configurations, respectively.
136 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

2
b
1
3
1∗

(a) (b)

FIGURE 5.3
(a) Four-bar assembly configurations and (b) branch defect.

points that are achieved by a single mechanism assembly configuration. When both mech-
anism assembly configurations are required to achieve all of the rigid-body positions or
path points, this can introduce a potential design problem, because the mechanism would
require disassembly and reassembly from one assembly configuration to the other during
operation to achieve all of the prescribed rigid-body output.* Figure 5.3b illustrates a pla-
nar four-bar branch defect. In this figure, rigid-body positions 1-2-3 are achieved by planar
four-bar configuration a-b-c-d, while position 1* is achieved by configuration a-b-c*-d. So,
if the design application requires that this mechanism achieves the positions in the order
1*-1-2-3 continuously, this would not be possible with a single mechanism assembly con-
figuration due to the given branch defect. Branch defects are inherent in analytical motion
generation [7].
The second noted defect is commonly called an order defect [8]. When rigid-body posi-
tions or path points are prescribed, it is typically desired that the synthesized mechanism
achieve the prescribed rigid-body output in the given order in which they were prescribed.
If, for example, the rigid-body path points are prescribed in the order 1-2-3-4-1 (Figure 5.4a)
but the synthesized mechanism achieves the points in the order 1-2-4-3-1 (Figure 5.4b) this
can present a potential problem—especially if the prescribed point order is required to
trace a particular coupler curve. As shown in Figure 5.4, the order in which the rigid-body
path points are achieved determines the profile of the path achieved.
Branch- and order-defect elimination by way of constraint equations, graphical meth-
ods, or particular prescribed values are often employed in motion and path generation

2 3 2 3

1 1
4 4
(a) (b)

FIGURE 5.4
Order difference with four rigid-body path points (orders (a) 1-2-3-4 and (b) 1-2-4-3).

* The branch defect is distinct from the circuit defect (presented in Section 3.5) although the branch and circuit
defect both require mechanism disassembly. With the circuit defect, the mechanism is reassembled in another
position of the same assembly configuration (and not from one assembly configuration to another as with the
branch defect).
Dimensional Synthesis 137

equations to produce motion and path generator solutions that are branch-defect free and
order-defect free [9]. Several common branch- and order-defect elimination methods are
presented in Section 5.4.

5.3 P lanar Four-Bar Motion Generation: Three Precision Positions

Figure 5.5(a) illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism and three coupler positions
achieved by the mechanism. The location and orientation or the position of the coupler
is defined by the coordinates of rigid-body point pj and rigid-body displacement angle
αj. In motion generation (or quantitative motion generation, to be more exact), the mech-
anism dimensions required to achieve precision positions are calculated.* To further
convey motion generation, Figure 5.5b illustrates the operation sequence of an aircraft
landing gear. For effective operation, the aircraft landing gear should be guided from
within the airframe to a position where the wheels can properly contact the ground. The
planar four-bar motion generation equations presented in this section are useful for cal-
culating the four-bar mechanism dimensions required to achieve a set of three precision
positions.
Figure 5.6 illustrates both dyads of a planar four-bar mechanism in a starting position
(Position 1) and a displaced position (Position j). The left- and right-side dyads include the
vector chains W–Z and U–S, respectively. By taking the vector sum between the starting
and displaced positions for each dyad, vector-loop equations are derived [10, 11]. After
taking the counterclockwise vector sum for each dyad (starting with W1 for the left-side
dyad and U1 for the right-side dyad), the vector-loop equations for the four-bar mechanism
dyads become

− Z1e ( ) − W e j(θ +β j ) = 0
iδ j i φ+ α j
W1e iθ + Z1eiφ + Pj 1e 1 (5.1)

p1 Airframe Airframe

pj αj

αj
αn
pn

αn

Ground

(a) (b)

FIGURE 5.5
(a) Four-bar mechanism and coupler positions and (b) aircraft landing-gear example.

* In motion generation, the prescribed rigid-body positions are also called precision positions.
138 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

iY δj

Pj1
1
pj Z1 S1
Sj αj

Zj φ

αj

U1
W1
Uj

βj
Wj θ
γj

FIGURE 5.6
Four-bar mechanism in starting and (dashed) displaced positions.

U 1e iσ + S1e iψ + Pj1e iδj − S1e ( ) − U e i(σ + γ j ) = 0

i ψ +α j
1 (5.2)

iδ
where Pj1e j = p j − p1
After factoring the terms for the starting dyad position (which are unknown terms), the
resulting standard-form vector-loop equations become

(
W1e iθ e
iβ j
)
− 1 + Z1e iφ e ( iα j
)
− 1 = Pj1e
iδ j
(5.3)

(
U 1e iσ e
iγ j
)
− 1 + S1e iψ e ( iα j
)
− 1 = Pj1e iδj (5.4)

Expanding Equation 5.3 and grouping the real and imaginary terms as separate equa-
tions produces the equation set

( ) (
W1 cos θ cos β j − 1 − W1 sin θ sin β j + Z1 cos φ cos α j − 1 − Z1 sin φ sin α j = Pj 1 cosδ j )
(5.5)
W sin θ ( cos β
1 j − 1) + W cosθ sin β
1 j + Z sin φ ( cos α
1 j − 1) + Z cos φ sin α
1 j = Pj 1 sin δ j

After specifying W1 cos θ = W1x, W1 sin θ = W1y, Z1 cos ϕ = Z1x, and Z1 sin ϕ = Z1y, Equation
5.5 becomes

( ) (
W1x cos β j − 1 − W1y sin β j + Z1x cos α j − 1 − Z1y sin α j = Pj 1 cosδ j )
(5.6)
W1y ( cos β j − 1) + W 1x sin β j + Z1y ( cos α j − 1) + Z 1x sin α j = Pj 1 sin δ j
Dimensional Synthesis 139

Likewise, after separating the real and imaginary terms in the right-side dyad in
Equation 5.4 and specifying U1 cos σ = U1x, U1 sin σ = U1y, S1 cos ψ = S1x, and S1 sin ψ = S1y,
the equation becomes

( ) ( )
U 1x cos γ j − 1 − U 1y sin γ j + S1x cos α j − 1 − S1y sin α j = Pj 1 cos δ j
(5.7)
U 1y ( cos γ j − 1) + U 1x ( )
sin γ j + S1y cos α j − 1 + S1x sin α j = Pj 1 sin δ j

When expressed in matrix form for three precision positions (therefore, j = 2, 3), Equations
5.6 and 5.7 become Equations 5.8 and 5.9, respectively, when expressed in matrix form.

 cos β 2 − 1 − sin β 2 cosα 2 − 1 − sin α 2  W1x   P21 cosδ 2 

    
 sin β 2 cos β 2 − 1 sin α 2 cos α 2 − 1   W1y   P21 sin δ 2 
 cos β − 1  = (5.8)
− sin β 3 cosα 3 − 1 − sin α 3   Z1x   P31 cos δ 3 
 3
  
 sin β 3 cos β 3 − 1 sin α 3 cos α 3 − 1   Z1y   P31 sin δ 3 
   

 cos γ 2 − 1 − sin γ 2 cosα 2 − 1 − sin α 2  U 1x   P21 cosδ 2 

    
 sin γ 2 cos γ 2 − 1 sin α 2 cos α 2 − 1   U 1y   P21 sin δ 2 
 cos γ − 1  = (5.9)
3 − sin γ 3 cosα 3 − 1 − sin α 3   S1x   P31 cosδ 3 
   
 sin γ 3 cos γ 3 − 1 sin α 3 cos α 3 − 1   S1y   P31 sin δ 3 
   

Equations 5.8 and 5.9 can be solved using Cramer’s rule to calculate the scalar compo-
nents of dyads W1–Z1 and U1–S1, respectively. In Equation 5.8, angles β2 and β3 are the two
“free choices” that are prescribed along with the precision positions. By the term “free
choice,” we mean that the variable value specified is entirely according to the user’s own
preferences. In Equation 5.9, angles γ2 and γ3 are the free choices that are prescribed along
with the precision positions. Because an infinite variety of unique combinations of β2, β3,
γ2, and γ3 can be specified, the number of possible dyad solutions from Equations 5.8 and
5.9 is also infinite.
The resulting mechanism calculated from Equations 5.8 and 5.9 not only achieves the
precision positions precisely, but does so according to the prescribed dyad displacement
angles β and γ. By including the precision positions and prescribing the dyad displace-
ment angles, it is ensured that the calculated mechanism solutions are free of order
defects because both the precision positions and corresponding dyad displacements are
specified.*

Example 5.1
Problem Statement: Synthesize a planar four-bar mechanism to guide the landing gear
through the three precision positions in Figure E.5.1.

* Motion generation with prescribed dyad displacement angles is called motion generation with prescribed
timing.
140 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Known Information: Equations 5.8 and 5.9, and Table E.5.1.

Solution Approach: From the prescribed coupler points p j, vectors p j1 and vec-
tor angles δ j are calculated.* These variables, along with the prescribed dyad
displacement angles in Table E.5.1, are used in Equations 5.8 and 5.9 to calculate
(through Cramer’s rule) the dyad vectors for the planar four-bar mechanism (W1, Z1,
U1, and S1).
Figure E.5.2 includes the calculation procedure in the MATLAB command win-
dow and Figure E.5.3 illustrates the resulting planar four-bar mechanism. Being
an analytically calculated result, this mechanism achieves the precision positions
precisely.

p3

α3
P31

p2 δ3

P21
iY δ2

p1
X

α2

FIGURE E.5.1
Three landing-gear precision positions.

TABLE E.5.1
Landing-Gear Precision Position Parameters and Dyad Displacement Angles
Precision Position pj αj (°) βj (°) γj (°)
1 0, 0
2 0.292, 0.734 −51.7124 18 −40
3 0.299, 1.461 −84.9734 38 −87

* Pj1 = pj − p1, and δj is the angle vector Pj1 makes with the positive x-axis.
Dimensional Synthesis 141

>> p1 = [0, 0]';

>> p2 = [0.292, 0.734]';
>> p3 = [0.299, 1.461]';
>> P21 = p2 - p1;
>> P31 = p3 - p1;
>> A2 = -51.7124*pi/180;
>> A3 = -84.9734*pi/180;
>> CA2 = cos(A2); SA2 = sin(A2);
>> CA3 = cos(A3); SA3 = sin(A3);
>> B2 = 18*pi/180;
>> B3 = 38*pi/180;
>> CB2 = cos(B2); SB2 = sin(B2);
>> CB3 = cos(B3); SB3 = sin(B3);
>> WZ = inv([CB2 - 1, -SB2, CA2 - 1, -SA2
SB2, CB2 - 1, SA2, CA2 - 1
CB3 - 1, -SB3, CA3 - 1, -SA3
SB3, CB3 - 1, SA3, CA3 - 1])*[P21(1), P21(2), P31(1), P31(2)]'
WZ =

2.0580
-0.8054
-0.1324
0.1191

>> G2 = -40*pi/180;
>> G3 = -87*pi/180;
>> CG2 = cos(G2); SG2 = sin(G2);
>> CG3 = cos(G3); SG3 = sin(G3);
>> US = inv([CG2 - 1, -SG2, CA2 - 1, -SA2
SG2, CG2 - 1, SA2, CA2 - 1
CG3 - 1, -SG3, CA3 - 1, -SA3
SG3, CG3 - 1, SA3, CA3 - 1])*[P21(1), P21(2), P31(1), P31(2)]'
US =

0.5808
-1.8615
-1.5053
1.3400

>>

FIGURE E.5.2
Example 5.1 W1–Z1 and U1–S1 calculation procedure in MATLAB.

W1
iY
X
Z1

U1
S1

FIGURE E.5.3
Synthesized planar four-bar motion generator.
142 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

5.4 O rder- and Branch-Defect Elimination

Although branch and order defects are inherent in analytical motion generation, several
conventional practices and construction methods are used to produce motion and path
generators that are branch- and order-defect free. These practices and construction meth-
ods include prescribed timing, Filemon’s construction, and Waldron’s construction.
Motion generation with prescribed timing prevents order defects because, with this
practice, each coupler position and its corresponding dyad displacement angles are pre-
scribed. The planar four-bar motion generation equation sets in Section 5.3 (Equations 5.8
and 5.9) include displacement angle variables for both mechanism dyads (angles β and α
for dyad W–Z and angles γ and α for dyad U–S). By specifying both the precision posi-
tions and the corresponding dyad displacement angles, the order in which the precision
positions are achieved is maintained. Motion generation with prescribed timing was dem-
onstrated in Example 5.1.
In the early 1970s, Filemon introduced a construction method to ensure that planar four-
bar crank motion generator solutions (specifically, Grashof crank-rocker and drag-link
solutions) were branch-defect free [12, 13]. Filemon’s work shows that as long as the moving
pivot (the nongrounded revolute joint) of the mechanism driving link is selected outside
the wedge-shaped region produced using her construction method, the resulting planar
four-bar motion generator will pass through all of the precision positions without disas-
sembly (therefore making it a nonbranching solution).*
In Filemon’s construction, the output link is synthesized first. The follower link mov-
ing pivot and fixed pivot will be defined as b1 and b0, respectively, where b1 = −S1 and
b0 = −(S1 + U1) … Relative inverse displacements of the follower link are taken to sweep a
planar wedge-shaped region (with angles ∠b0jb1b0).† The positions that the follower fixed
pivot can take relative to the follower moving pivot are computed as

b0 j =  M j  b0 (5.10)

where
−1
 1 0 0   cos α j − sin α j Pj 1x 
  
 M j  =  0 1 0   sin α j cos α j Pj 1y  j = 2, 3,… (5.11)
 0 0 1   0 0 1 



and b0 = (b0x, b0y, 1)T.

Given the precision position variables αj and Pj1, Equation 5.10 calculates the ground
link displacements of the inverted four-bar mechanism. When synthesizing the input link
(having already constructed the wedge-shaped region), an input link having a moving
pivot that lies outside the region should be chosen. Filemon’s construction can be applied
in motion generation with three precision positions and beyond.

* In linkages, the grounded revolute joints are also known as fixed pivots and the nongrounded revolute joints
are also known as moving pivots.
† If the angle of the wedge-shaped region is 180° or greater, the region will fill the entire 2D space (and no solu-

tion will be available under Filemon’s construction).

Dimensional Synthesis 143

>> p1 = [0, 0]';

>> p2 = [0.292, 0.734]';
>> p3 = [0.299, 1.461]';
>> P21 = p2 - p1;
>> P31 = p3 - p1;
>> A2 = -51.7124*pi/180;
>> A3 = -84.9734*pi/180;
>> CA2 = cos(A2); SA2 = sin(A2);
>> CA3 = cos(A3); SA3 = sin(A3);
>> U1 =[0.5808, -1.8615]';
>> S1 = [-1.5053, 1.3400]';
>> S1U1 = -(S1 + U1);
>> b0 = [S1U1(1,1), S1U1(2,1), 1]';
>> b02 =([1 0 0;0 1 0;0 0 1]*...
inv([CA2 -SA2 P21(1,1);SA2 CA2 P21(2,1);0 0 1]))*b0
b02 =
0.5587
0.3648
1.0000
>> b03 =([1 0 0;0 1 0;0 0 1]*...
inv([CA3 -SA3 P31(1,1);SA3 CA3 P31(2,1);0 0 1]))*b0
b03 =
0.9907
0.5408
1.0000
>>

FIGURE E.5.4
Example 5.2 b 02 and b 03 calculation procedure in MATLAB.

Example 5.2
Problem Statement: Calculate a nonbranching landing-gear mechanism for Example 5.1
using Filemon’s construction.
Known Information: Example 5.1 and Equation 5.10.
Solution Approach: The synthesized follower (U1–S1) in Example 5.1 is the selected out-
put link in this example. From Table E.5.1 in Example 5.1, the coupler displacement
angles αj and the x and y-components of the coupler point vectors Pj1 are known.*
Figure E.5.4 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s command window. The
lines passing through b1 and b02 and through b1 and b03 form the borders for the planar
wedge-shaped region (Figure E.5.5).
The moving pivot for the driving link dyad (W1–Z1) must lie outside the wedge-shaped
region. Figure E.5.6 illustrates the (W1–Z1) solution from Equation 5.8 with β2 = 10° and
β3 = 40°. Because the four-bar motion generator in this figure is a Grashof crank-rocker
and its driving link dyad lies outside the wedge-shaped region, it is branch-defect free.

In the mid-1970s, Waldron introduced a feasible region construction method for select-
ing non-branching planar four-bar motion generators for three precision positions [14, 15].
Waldron’s work shows that follower link moving pivots selected outside the three circles
produced using his construction method, as well as follower link moving pivots selected
in regions where any two circles overlap, result in nonbranching motion generator solu-
tions. Once a suitable follower-link dyad is calculated according to Waldron’s construction

* Because Pj1 = pj − p1, if p1 is specified as p1 = (0, 0), then the x- and y-components of the precision point vectors
Pj1 are identical to the x- and y-components of the precision points pj.
144 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

b0

iY

U1

S1

b1

FIGURE E.5.5
Wedge-shaped region borders formed by b 02 and b 03 (form U1).

iY
W1

Z1
X

U1

S1

FIGURE E.5.6
Wedge-shaped region with calculated dyads W1–Z1 and U1–S1.
Dimensional Synthesis 145

method, a corresponding suitable crank link dyad is calculated according to Filemon’s

construction.
Given three precision positions, three rotation centers or poles exist to rotate from Position
1 to 2 (pole p12), Position 1 to 3 (pole p13) and Position 2 to 3 (pole p23) [16].* These poles form
a triangle (called a pole triangle) Δp12p13p23 [17]. The reflection of pole p23 about the triangle
side p12p13 produces a new pole (called an image pole) p′23. In Waldron’s construction, each
side of the triangle Δp12p13p′23 is equal to a diameter of each circle.
The rotation pole equation corresponding to the two rigid-body positions in Figure 4.6
is defined as

iδ j  Pk 1e iδ k − Pj 1e iδ j  (5.12)
pole p jk = Pj1e −  i α −α 
( k j) − 1
 e 

where P11 = δ1 = α1 = 0 [18]. Equation 5.12 is used to calculate pole p12, pole p13, and pole p23.

Example 5.3
Problem Statement: Calculate a nonbranching landing-gear mechanism for Example 5.1
using Waldron’s construction and Filemon’s construction.
Known Information: Example 5.1 and Equation 5.12.
Solution Approach: Figure E.5.7 includes the calculation procedure for p12, p13, and p23
in MATLAB’s command window. Reflecting pole p23 about the triangle edge contain-
ing poles p12 and p13 produces the image pole (pole p′23 in Figure E.5.8a). Figure E.5.8b
includes the three-circle diagram resulting from Waldron’s construction. Suitable

>> p1 = [0, 0]';

>> p2 = [0.292, 0.734]';
>> p3 = [0.299, 1.461]';
>> P21 = norm(p2 - p1);
>> P31 = norm(p3 - p1);
>> A2 = -51.7124*pi/180;
>> A3 = -84.9734*pi/180;
>> D2 = atan2(p2(2,1), p2(1,1));
>> D3 = atan2(p3(2,1), p3(1,1));
>> pole_p12 = -(P21*exp(i*D2))/(exp(i*A2) - 1)
pole_p12 =
0.9033 + 0.0657i
>> pole_p13 = -(P31*exp(i*D3))/(exp(i*A3) - 1)
pole_p13 =

0.9471 + 0.5673i
>> pole_p23 = P21*exp(i*D2) - (P31*exp(i*D3) - P21*exp(i*D2))/...
(exp(i*(A3-A2)) - 1)

pole_p23 =
1.5125 + 1.0858i
>>

FIGURE E.5.7
Example 5.3 p12, p13, and p23 calculation procedure in MATLAB.

* The center of rotation between two positions of a body in planar motion is called a pole.
146 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

pole p’23 pole p23 pole p’23

pole p13 pole p13

iY iY

pole p12 pole p12

U1
(a)
S1

(b)

FIGURE E.5.8
(a) Calculated poles with image pole and (b) three-circle diagram with calculated dyad U1–S1.

follower link moving pivots lie either outside the three circles or in regions where any
two the three circles overlap.
It can be determined from Figure E.5.8 that the follower link dyad (the U1–S1 dyad)
solution from Example 5.1 is satisfactory, since its moving pivot lies outside the three
circles. The crank link dyad (the W1–Z1 dyad) solution from Example 5.2 is also satisfac-
tory since its moving pivot lies outside the wedge-shaped region. The resulting four-bar
motion generator, a Grashof crank-rocker, is branch-defect free.

5.5 Path Generation versus Motion Generation

Figure 5.7a illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism and the curve traced by coupler point
p1. In path generation, the mechanism dimensions required to achieve prescribed coupler

pj pl

pn

(a) (b)

FIGURE 5.7
Path generation concepts. (a) Four-bar mechanism and coupler path points. (b) Level-luffing crane mechanism.
Dimensional Synthesis 147

path points are calculated.* To further convey the concept of path generation, Figure
5.7b illustrates a level-luffing crane, a mechanism that remains at a constant level during
motion. For effective operation, the extremity of the level-luffing crane should follow a
horizontal path.
There is a distinct difference between path generation and motion generation. In
motion generation, precision positions are achieved, while precision points are achieved in
path generation. Because coupler path points rather than coupler positions are prescribed
in path generation, coupler displacement angles are not of particular concern. Equations
5.8 and 5.9 can be directly applied for path generation for three precision points, since the
mechanisms calculated from these equations achieve prescribed coupler points in addi-
tion to prescribed coupler displacement angles.† Because coupler displacement angles are
required in Equations 5.8 and 5.9, the user is free to specify the coupler displacement
angles arbitrarily.

5.6 Stephenson III Motion Generation: Three Precision Positions

It can be observed from Figure 5.8 (as well as the illustrations in Section 4.7) that the
Stephenson III mechanism is a planar four-bar mechanism with a dyad (U*1 − V1* in
Figure 5.8) attached to its coupler point.
Because the U*1 − V1* dyad and the coupler it is attached to share a common point p1, this
point can be used when prescribing precision positions for the dyads W1–Z1, U1–S1, and

iY

pl

α∗
Zl
Sl ρ∗
V∗
α

Ul U∗
Wl γ∗

σ∗

FIGURE 5.8
Stephenson III mechanism in starting and (dashed) displaced positions.

* In path generation, the prescribed rigid-body path points are also called precision points.
† Although Equations 5.8 and 5.9 can be used for path generation, the user is limited to three precision points

(making them too limited and subsequently impractical for detailed paths).
148 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

U*1 − V1*. However, while the displacement angle αj is associated with dyads W1–Z1 and
U1–S1, the dyad U*1 − V1* has its own rigid-body displacement angle (see Figure 5.8).
After taking the counterclockwise vector sum for dyad U*1 − V1* (starting with U∗1) in
the same manner as illustrated in Figure 5.6, the vector-loop equation for this dyad
becomes

U 1* e 1σ * + V1* e iρ* + Pj 1e
iδ j
− V1* e
(
i ρ* +α *j ) − U * e i(α * + γ *j ) = 0 (5.13)
1

iδ
where Pj1e j = p j − p1
After factoring the terms for the starting dyad position, the resulting standard-form
vector-loop equation becomes

(
U 1* e iσ * e
iγ *j
)
− 1 + V1* e iρ* e ( iα *j
)
− 1 = Pj1e iδj (5.14)

Expanding Equation 5.14 and grouping the real and imaginary terms as separate equa-
tions produces the equation set

( ) (
U *1 cos σ * cos γ *j − 1 − U 1* sin σ * sin γ *j + V1* cos ρ* cos α *j − 1 − V1* sin ρ* sin α *j = Pj 1 cosδ j )
U *1 sin σ ( cos γ
* *
j − 1) + U *
1 cos σ * sin γ *j + V1* sin ρ ( cos α
* *
j − 1) − V 1
*
cos ρ* sin α *i = Pj 1 sin δ j

(5.15)

After specifying U 1* cos σ * = U 1x

*
, U 1* sin σ * = U 1y
*
, V1* cosρ* = V1x* , and V1* sin ρ* = V1y* ,

Equation 5.15 becomes

( ) (
U *1x cos γ *j − 1 − U 1* y sin γ *j + V1*x cos α *j − 1 − V1*y sin α *j = Pj1 cosδ j )
(5.16)
U *1 y ( cos γ *
j − 1) − U *
1x sin γ *j + V1y* ( cos α *
j − 1) − V *
1x sin α *i = Pj 1 sin δ j

When expressed in matrix form for three precision positions (therefore, j = 2, 3), Equation
5.16 becomes Equation 5.17 when expressed in matrix form.

 cos γ *2 − 1 − sin γ *2 cos α *2 − 1 − sin α *2  *

U 1x   
    P21 cosδ 2

 cos α *2 − 1    
*
sin γ *2 cos γ − 1 *
2 sin α *
2 U 1y P21 sin δ 2 
  = (5.17)
*
 cos γ 3 − 1 − sin γ *
cosα *3 − 1 sin α *3  V1x*   P31 cosδ 3 
3
 
 
 sin γ *3 cos γ *3 − 1 sin α *3 cos α *3 − 1   V1y*   P31 sin δ 3 
 
Dimensional Synthesis 149

Like Equations 5.8 and 5.9, Equation 5.17 can be solved using Cramer’s rule to calculate
the scalar components of dyad U*1 − V1*. In Equation 5.17, angles γ *2 and γ *3 are the two “free
choices” that are prescribed along with the precision positions.

Example 5.4
Problem Statement: Synthesize a Stephenson III mechanism to guide the gripper through
the three precision positions in Figure E.5.9.
Known Information: Equations 5.8, 5.9, and 5.17, and Table E.5.2.
Solution Approach: Table E.5.2 includes the precision positions and dyad displacement
angles.
Figure E.5.10 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s command win-
dow for dyads W1–Z1 and U1–S1. Figure E.5.11 includes the calculation procedure in
MATLAB’s command window for the U*1 − V1* dyad. Figure E.5.12 illustrates the result-
ing Stephenson III mechanism.

α2

α3

p3

iY
p2 α∗

α∗
p1

FIGURE E.5.9
Three gripper precision positions.

TABLE E.5.2
Landing-Gear Precision Position Parameters and Dyad Displacement Angles
Precision Position pj αj (°) α *j ( ) βj (°) γj (°) γ *j ()
1 0, 0
2 0.1815, 0.4882 −30 15 15 −20 10
3 0.6647, 1.4078 −75 5 40 −35 30
150 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

>> p1 = [0, 0]';

>> p2 = [0.1815, 0.4882]';
>> p3 = [0.6647, 1.4078]';
>> P21 = p2 - p1;
>> P31 = p3 - p1;
>> A2 = -30*pi/180;
>> A3 = -75*pi/180;
>> CA2 = cos(A2); SA2 = sin(A2);
>> CA3 = cos(A3); SA3 = sin(A3);
>> B2 = 15*pi/180;
>> B3 = 40*pi/180;
>> CB2 = cos(B2); SB2 = sin(B2);
>> CB3 = cos(B3); SB3 = sin(B3);
>> WZ = inv([CB2 - 1, -SB2, CA2 - 1, -SA2
SB2, CB2 - 1, SA2, CA2 -1
CB3 - 1, -SB3, CA3 - 1, -SA3
SB3, CB3 - 1, SA3, CA3 - 1])*[P21(1), P21(2), P31(1), P31(2)]'
WZ =
0.5854
-1.2248
-0.4926
-0.3631
>> G2 = -20*pi/180;
>> G3 = -35*pi/180;
>> CG2 = cos(G2); SG2 = sin(G2);
>> CG3 = cos(G3); SG3 = sin(G3);
>> US = inv([CG2 - 1, -SG2, CA2 - 1, -SA2
SG2, CG2 - 1, SA2, CA2 - 1
CG3 - 1, -SG3, CA3 - 1, -SA3
SG3, CG3 - 1, SA3, CA3 - 1])*[P21(1), P21(2), P31(1), P31(2)]'
US =
0.1905
1.8923
-1.0184
-1.1813
>>

FIGURE E.5.10
Example 5.4 W1–Z1 and U1–S1 calculation procedure in MATLAB.

>> p1 = [0, 0]';

>> p2 = [0.1815, 0.4882]';
>> p3 = [0.6647, 1.4078]';
>> P21 = p2 - p1;
>> P31 = p3 - p1;
>> A2s = 15*pi/180;
>> A3s = 5*pi/180;
>> CA2s = cos(A2s); SA2s = sin(A2s);
>> CA3s = cos(A3s); SA3s = sin(A3s);
>> G2s = 10*pi/180;
>> G3s = 30*pi/180;
>> CG2s = cos(G2s); SG2s = sin(G2s);
>> CG3s = cos(G3s); SG3s = sin(G3s);
>> UsVs = inv([CG2s - 1, -SG2s, CA2s - 1, -SA2s
SG2s, CG2s- 1, SA2s, CA2s - 1
CG3s - 1, -SG3s, CA3s - 1, -SA3s
SG3s, CG3s - 1, SA3s, CA3s - 1])*[P21(1), P21(2), P31(1), P31(2)]'
UsVs =
2.2215
-2.0095
0.3400
0.4718
>>

FIGURE E.5.11
Example 5.4 U*1 − V1* calculation procedure in MATLAB.
Dimensional Synthesis 151

W1

iY
U∗1
p1 U1

FIGURE E.5.12
Synthesized Stephenson III motion generator.

5.7 P lanar Four-Bar Function Generation: Three Precision Points

In function generation, the mechanism dimensions required to achieve prescribed link dis-
placement angles are calculated.* The displacement angles are commonly defined accord-
ing to a mathematical function. In four-bar function generation, the angular displacements
of both the crank and follower links are typically where the angular displacement of the
follower link is a function of the crank link angular displacement (Figure 5.6a).† To further
convey function generation, Figure 5.9b illustrates a four-bar lawn sprinkling mechanism
(where the sprinkler is affixed to the follower link). For effective operation, the sprinkler

γj
βj

(a) Where γj = f(βj) (b)

FIGURE 5.9
(a) Four-bar mechanism in starting and displaced positions and (b) lawn sprinkling mechanism.

* In addition to link angular displacements, derivative quantities such as angular velocities and angular accel-
erations are also among the prescribed parameters that are considered in function generation.
† Prescribed displacement angles are also called precision points in function generation.
152 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

should oscillate within a particular range to avoid over-sprinkling or under-sprinkling

the lawn area. The planar four-bar function generation models presented in this section
are useful for calculating the planar four-bar mechanism dimensions required to achieve
prescribed link angular displacements.
As previously noted, the precision points in four-bar function generation are commonly
crank and follower displacement angles where the follower angles are defined as a func-
tion of the crank angles. In Figure 5.9a, the crank displacement angles βj correspond to the
independent function variable x and the follower displacement angles γj correspond to a
user-defined function f(x) [19, 20].
The curve in Figure 5.10 represents an example function to be achieved through func-
tion generation. From this function, precision points (pj) are selected. Because only a finite
number of precision points can be prescribed through analytical function generation, the
resulting function generator will achieve f(x) at pj, or simply f(xj), as opposed to achieving
the function continuously.
The abscissa and ordinate ranges for the function are Δx and Δy, respectively, and the
corresponding crank and follower displacement angle ranges are Δβ and Δγ, respectively
(Figure 5.10). Linear relationships between the crank and follower precision points and the
specific function precision points can be expressed as

β j − β1 ∆β
=
x j − x1 ∆x
(5.18)
γ i − γ 1 ∆γ
=
y j − y1 ∆y

Angles β1 and γ1 are zero because they are the displacement angles in the initial mecha-
nism position. Solving for βj and γj, Equation 5.18 can be expressed as Equation 5.19 where
βj and γj are the crank and follower precision points corresponding to the coordinates xj
and yj of the function precision points pj. Crank and follower-link displacement angles are
among the precision points for the planar four-bar function generation equations in this
chapter.

pn+1
yn+1
pn
yn
pj
yj
p3
y3
y
p2
y2

p1
y1
y0 p0
x0 x1 x2 x3

FIGURE 5.10
Function curve with precision points.
Dimensional Synthesis 153

∆β
βj =
∆x
(
x j − x1 )
(5.19)
∆γ
γj =
∆y
(
y j − y1 )

The general vector-loop closure equation for the four-bar mechanism in Figure 5.11 in
the jth position is

W1e ( ) + V e i(ρ+α j ) − U e i(σ + γ j ) − G = 0

i θ+β j
1 1 1 (5.20)

Being always in-line with the x-axis, vector G1 only has the real component G1x. Because
the mechanism link proportions affect its link rotation angles (which are of interest in func-
tion generation) and not the scale of the mechanism, a single mechanism link length vari-
able can be specified.* After specifying G1x = 1 and moving it to the right-hand side of the
equation, Equation 5.20 becomes

W1e ( ) + V e i(ρ+α j ) − U e i(σ + γ j ) = 1

i θ+β j
1 1 (5.21)

Expanding Equation 5.21 and grouping the real and imaginary terms as separate equa-
tions produces

W1 cos θ cos β j − W1 sin θ sinβ j + V1 cos ρ cos α j − V1 sin ρ sin α j – U 1 cos σ cos γ j

+ U 1 sin σ sinγ j = 1
(5.22)
W1 sin θ cos β j − W1 cos θ sinβ j + V1 sin ρ cos α j + V1 cos ρ sin α j

− U 1 sin σ cos γ j − U 1 cos σ sinγ j = 0

ρ Vl

αj Ul

Wl
γj
βj θ
iY

X Gl

FIGURE 5.11
Four-bar mechanism in starting and (dashed) displaced positions.

* This also means that scaled versions of a given function generator will produce identical results.
154 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

After setting W1 cos θ = W1x, W1 sin θ = W1y, V1 cos ρ = V1x, V1 sin ρ = V1y, U1 cos σ = U1x, and
U1 sin σ = U1y, Equation 5.22 becomes

W1x cos β j − W1y sinβ j + V1x cos α j − V1y sin α j − U 1x cos γ j + U 1y sinγ j = 1
(5.23)
W1y cos β j + W1x sinβ j + V1y cos α j + V1x sin α j − U 1y cos γ j − U 1sinγ j = 0

When expressed in matrix form for three precision points, Equation 5.23 becomes

 1 0 1 0 −1 0  W1x 
   1 
 0 1 0 1 0 −1  W1y   
 0 
 cos β 2 − sinβ 2 cos α 2 − sin α 2 − cos γ 2 sin γ 2   V1x   1 
  (5.24)
 sin β 2 cos β 2 sin α 2 cos α 2 − sin γ 2 − cos γ 2  V1y   0 
   
cos β 3 − sin β 3 cos α 3 − sin α 3 − cos γ 3 sin γ 3 U 1x   1 
  
 sin β 3 cos β 3 sin α 3 cos α 3 − sin γ 3 − cos γ 3   U 1y   0 
 

The first two rows in Equation 5.24 are the result of displacement angles β1, α1, and γ1 (cor-
responding to the initial mechanism position) all being zero in Equation 5.23.
Therefore, with three precision points, Equation 5.23 forms Equation 5.24—a set of six
linear equations (that can be solved using Cramer’s rule) to calculate the scalar components
of link vectors W1, V1, and U1. In addition to prescribing the crank and follower displace-
ment angles, the coupler displacement angles α2 and α 3 are also prescribed in Equation
5.24. The coupler displacement angles are typically incidental in function generation, since
only the crank and follower displacement angles are typically of concern. Because an infi-
nite variety of unique α2 and α 3 combinations can be specified, the number of possible
mechanism solutions from Equation 5.24 is also infinite.

Example 5.5
Problem Statement: Synthesize a planar four-bar sprinkler mechanism to achieve a fol-
lower rotation range of 60° for a corresponding crank rotation range of 180°.
Known Information: Crank and follower displacement angle ranges and Equation 5.24.
Solution Approach: The crank and follower rotation ranges have been equally divided
into the displacement angles given in Table E.5.3. This table also includes arbitrarily
specified coupler-link displacement angles.
Figure E.5.13 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s command window for
vectors W1, V1, and U1. The synthesized function generator is illustrated in Figure E.5.14.
Because the function generator was calculated analytically, it achieves the precision
points precisely.

TABLE E.5.3
Four-Bar Sprinkler Mechanism Precision Points
Precision Point βj (°) γj (°) αj (°)
1 0 0 0
2 90 30 −5
3 180 60 10
Dimensional Synthesis 155

>> B2 = 90*pi/180;
>> B3 = 180*pi/180;
>> CB2 = cos(B2); SB2 = sin(B2);
>> CB3 = cos(B3); SB3 = sin(B3);
>> G2 = 30*pi/180;
>> G3 = 60*pi/180;
>> CG2 = cos(G2); SG2 = sin(G2);
>> CG3 = cos(G3); SG3 = sin(G3);
>> A2 = -5*pi/180;
>> A3 = 10*pi/180;
>> CA2 = cos(A2); SA2 = sin(A2);
>> CA3 = cos(A3); SA3 = sin(A3);
>> WVU = inv([1, 0, 1, 0, -1, 0
0, 1, 0, 1, 0, -1
CB2, -SB2, CA2, -SA2, -CG2, SG2
SB2, CB2, SA2, CA2, -SG2, -CG2
CB3, -SB3, CA3, -SA3, -CG3, SG3
SB3, CB3, SA3, CA3, -SG3, -CG3])*[1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0]'
WVU =
0.2670
0.0816
1.0598
0.4564
0.3268
0.5380
>>

FIGURE E.5.13
Example 5.5 W1–Z1–U1 calculation procedure in MATLAB.

Clamping screw

Spray
area

V1 U1

W1 G1

FIGURE E.5.14
Synthesized planar four-bar function generator.

5.8 P lanar Four-Bar Function Generation: FSPs and MSPs

In addition to link displacement angles, it is also possible to synthesize a function genera-
tor to achieve prescribed link angular velocities and accelerations.* Figure 5.12 includes
the function generator angular velocity and angular acceleration variables—the first and
second derivatives of angular displacements β, α, and γ.

* Angular displacements (being discrete, finitely separated quantities) are called finitely separated positions (FSPs)
and derivative quantities such as angular velocities and accelerations are multiply separated positions (MSPs).
156 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

..
. α
αj αj j

.. . γ..
. βj γj γj j
βj
βj

Where γj = f(βj)

FIGURE 5.12
Planar four-bar function generator with angular velocity and acceleration variables.

By differentiating, expanding, and separating vector-loop Equation 5.21, mechanism

velocity and acceleration constraint equations are derived for the planar four-bar function
generator. Differentiating Equation 5.21 and cancelling the complex coefficient produces

β jW1e + α jV1e ( j ) − γ jU 1e ( j ) = 0*
i( θ+β j ) i ρ+ α i σ+γ
(5.25)

Expanding Equation 5.25 and grouping the real and imaginary terms into separate
equations produces

( ) ( ) (
β j W1x cos β j − W1y sinβ j + α j V1x cos α j − V1y sin α j − γ j U 1x cos γ j − U 1y sin γ j = 0 )
(5.26)
β (W
j 1 x sin β j + W1 y cosβ ) + α (V
j j 1 x sin α j + V1 y cos α ) + γ (U
j j 1 x sin γ j − U 1 y cos γ j )=0
Equation 5.26 constitutes a planar four-bar function generator velocity constraint (intro-
ducing link velocity terms α , β , and γ ). Differentiating Equation 5.25 produces

 jW1e (
iβ
i θ+β j ) − β 2W e i(θ +β j ) + iα
j 1  jV1e i(ρ+ α j ) − α 2j V1e i(ρ+α j ) − iγ jU 1e i( σ + γ j ) + γ 2j U 1e i( σ + γ j ) = 0 (5.27)

Expanding Equation 5.27 and grouping the real and imaginary terms into separate equa-
tions produces

( ) (
 j W1x sin β j + W1y cos β j − β 2j W1x cos β j − W1y sin β j − α
−β  j V1x sin α j + V1y cos α j ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
− α 2j V1x cos α j − V1y sin α j + γ j U 1x sin γ j + U 1y cos γ j + γ 2j U 1x cos γ j − U 1y sin γ j = 0

 j W1x
β ( cos β − W sin β ) − β (W sin β + W cos β ) + α
j 1y j
2
j (V cos α − V sin α )
1x j 1y j j 1x j 1y j

− α 2j (V sin α + V cosα ) − γ (U cos γ − U sin γ ) + γ (U sin γ + U cos γ ) = 0

1x j 1y j j 1x j 1y j
2
j 1x j 1y j

(5.28)

* Whenever the complex coefficient (or any other term) is distributed throughout an equation, it can be can-
celled if preferred.
Dimensional Synthesis 157

Equation 5.28 constitutes a planar four-bar function generator acceleration constraint—

introducing link angular acceleration terms α , and 
 , β γ in addition to the link angular
velocity terms introduced in Equation 5.26.
As observed in Equation 5.24, three precision points for planar four-bar function genera-
tion produce a set of six scalar equations to calculate mechanism variables W1, V1, and U1.
A set of six equations to calculate mechanism variables W1, V1, and U1 can also be formed
from Equation 5.23 (with β = α = γ = 0) and any combination of Equations 5.23, 5.26, or 5.28.
With such an equation set, the user can specify not only link angular displacements (FSPs),
but also corresponding link angular velocities, or accelerations (MSPs). This equation set
can be solved using Cramer’s rule. Being an analytically calculated solution, the result-
ing mechanism will precisely achieve the prescribed angular displacements, velocities, or
accelerations.

Example 5.6
Problem Statement: Given a constant driving link angular velocity of 1 rad/s and angu-
lar acceleration of zero, synthesize a planar four-bar mechanism to achieve a follower
angular velocity and acceleration of −0.75 rad/s and −0.1 rad/s2, respectively.*
Known Information: Equations 5.23, 5.26, 5.28, β = 1 rad/s, β
 = 0 rad/s2, γ = −0.75 rad/s,
and 
γ = −0.1 rad/s 2.
Solution Approach: A set of six equations to calculate mechanism variables W1, V1,
and U1 is formed from Equation 5.23 (with β = α = γ = 0), Equation 5.23 (with β,α, and γ )
and Equation 5.28.† When expressed in matrix form, these equations become

 1 0 1 0 −1 0 
  W1x   
0 1 0 1 0 −1  1
  W1y   
0
 β cβ −β sβ α cα −α sα −γc γ γs γ   
  V1x   0 
 
βsβ 
βcβ α sα α cα −γs γ −γc γ   = 
V1y  0
   
  2 
 −βsβ − β cβ −βcβ + β sβ −α 2
sα − α cα −α
2
cα + α sα 
2
γs γ + γ c γ γc γ − γ 2 s γ
2
 U 1x   0 
  
 βc − β 2 s −β s − β 2 c αcα − α 2 sα −α
sα − α 2 cα −γc γ + γ 2 s γ γs γ + γ 2 c γ   U 1y   0 
 β β β β
 
(5.29)

In Equation 5.29, cang = cos(ang) and sang = sin(ang). The angular velocity and accelera-
tion of the coupler link were arbitrarily specified as α = −1.5 rad/s and α = −1 rad/s2.
Figure E.5.15 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s command window for
vectors W1, V1, and U1. Plotting the follower angular velocity and acceleration profiles
(Figure E.5.16) of the planar four-bar function generator solution (Figure E.5.17) con-
firms that the prescribed MSPs are achieved precisely at β = 0.

Example 5.7
Problem Statement: Given a driving link angular displacement of 35° and a constant driv-
ing link angular velocity of 1 rad/s, synthesize a planar four-bar mechanism to achieve
a follower angular displacement and velocity of −20° and −0.75 rad/s, respectively.‡
Known Information: Equations 5.23, 5.26, β = 35°, β = 1 rad/s, γ = −20° and γ = −0.75 rad/s.

* The velocity and acceleration of V1 are arbitrarily specified as α = −1.5rad/s and α = −1rad/s2.
† To ensure the function generator solution forms a closed loop, Equation 5.20 (with β = α = γ = 0) must be

included in the solution equation set.

‡ The displacement and velocity of V are arbitrarily specified as α = −10° and α
1  = −1.5 rad/s.
158 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

>> B = 0;
>> dB = 1;
>> ddB = 0;
>> CB = cos(B); SB = sin(B);
>> A = 0;
>> dA = -1.5;
>> ddA = -1;
>> CA = cos(A); SA = sin(A);
>> G = 0;
>> dG = -0.75;
>> ddG = -0.1;
>> CG = cos(G); SG = sin(G);
>> WVU = inv([1, 0, 1, 0, -1, 0
0, 1, 0, 1, 0, -1
dB*CB, -dB*SB, dA*CA, -dA*SA, -dG*CG, dG*SG
dB*SB, dB*CB, dA*SA, dA*CA, -dG*SG, -dG*CG
-ddB*SB - dB^2*CB, -ddB*CB + dB^2*SB, -ddA*SA - dA^2*CA,...
-ddA*CA + dA^2*SA, ddG*SG + dG^2*CG, ddG*CG - dG^2*SG
ddB*CB - dB^2*SB, -ddB*SB - dB^2*CB, ddA*CA - dA^2*SA,...
-ddA*SA - dA^2*CA, -ddG*CG + dG^2*SG, ddG*SG + dG^2*CG
])*[1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]'

WVU =

0.2818
0.0540
-0.3424
0.1260
-1.0605
0.1801

>>

FIGURE E.5.15
Example 5.6 W1–Z1–U1 calculation procedure in MATLAB.

FIGURE E.5.16
Follower angular velocity and acceleration profiles for synthesized function generator.
Dimensional Synthesis 159

FIGURE E.5.17
Synthesized planar four-bar function generator.

Solution Approach: A set of six equations to calculate mechanism variables W1, V1, and
U1 is formed from Equation 5.23 (with β = α = γ = 0), Equation 5.23 (with β, α, and γ) and
Equation 5.26. When expressed in matrix form, these equations become

 1 0 1 0 −1 0  W1x  
   1 
 0 1 0 1 0 −1  W1y   
 0 
 cos β − sin β cos α − sin α − cos γ sin γ  V1x  
  =
1 
 sin β cos β sin α cos α − sin γ − cos γ   V1y   0 
    
 β cos β −β sin β α cos α −α sin α −γ cos γ γ sin γ   U 1x   0 
 
 β sin β β cos β α sin α α cos α −γ sin γ −γ cos γ   U 1y   0 
  
(5.30)

Figure E.5.18 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s command window for
vectors W1, V1, and U1. The synthesized planar four-bar function generator solution is
illustrated in Figure E.5.19.

>> B = 35*pi/180;
>> dB = 1;
>> CB = cos(B); SB = sin(B);
>> A = -10*pi/180;
>> dA = -1.5;
>> CA = cos(A); SA = sin(A);
>> G = -20*pi/180;
>> dG = -0.75;
>> CG = cos(G); SG = sin(G);
>> WVU = inv([1, 0, 1, 0, -1, 0
0, 1, 0, 1, 0, -1
CB, -SB, CA, -SA, -CG, SG
SB, CB, SA, CA, -SG, -CG
dB*CB, -dB*SB, dA*CA, -dA*SA, -dG*CG, dG*SG
dB*SB, dB*CB, dA*SA, dA*CA, -dG*SG, -dG*CG
])*[1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0]'

WVU =

0.3675
-0.1534
-0.1252
0.1796
-0.7577
0.0261

>>

FIGURE E.5.18
Example 5.7 W1 – V1 – U1 calculation procedure in MATLAB.
160 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.5.19
Synthesized planar four-bar function generator.

5.9 Mechanism Dimensions: From Dimensional

Synthesis to Kinematic Analysis
After synthesizing a mechanism, it is commonly analyzed kinematically. This is usually
done to verify that the mechanism is free of defects. The vector solutions from the pla-
nar four-bar and Stephenson III dimensional synthesis equations can be incorporated in
their respective kinematic analysis equations. Figure 5.13 includes the dimensional syn-
thesis vectors and the kinematic analysis vectors for the planar four-bar and Stephenson
III mechanisms. Figures 5.13a and 5.13b are for planar four-bar and Stephenson III motion
generation and kinematic analysis respectively and Figure 5.13c is for planar four-bar
function generation and kinematic analysis. In four-bar and Stephenson III motion gen-
eration, it is not certain that the W1 – Z1 will be the true driving dyad. When a kinematic
analysis of a synthesized four-bar or Stephenson II mechanism yields incorrect results
(with respect to the prescribed values used for synthesis), one should also drive these
mechanisms using the U1 – S1 dyad along with its displacement angles to fully determine
if the synthesized mechanism has a defect.
Table 5.1 includes the vectors and vector expressions for planar four-bar and Stephenson
III motion generation and kinematic analysis.* The coupler displacement angles αj and
α *j specified in planar four-bar and Stephenson III motion generation require no changes
for the kinematic analysis of these mechanisms. Adding the vector sum W1 + Z1 to the
precision points p1, p2, and p3 as shown in Table 5.1 expresses these precision points in the
reference frame used for kinematic analysis. One can also subtract the kinematic analysis-
calculated p1 value from any remaining kinematic analysis-calculated p j values to express
them in the reference frame used for kinematic synthesis.
In planar four-bar function generation (Figure 5.13c), the synthesis vectors W1, V1, U1,
and G1 can be directly incorporated in the analysis equations without any additional cal-
culations. From this, we can see that W1 = W1x + iW1y, V1 = V1x + iV1y, U1 = U1x + iU1y, and
G1 = G1x + iG1y in the planar four-bar kinematic analysis equations.

* Although link dimensions mainly appear in polar exponential form in the Appendix B, C, D MATLAB files and
user instructions, they can be specified in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
Dimensional Synthesis 161

iY
Pl Pl
Zl Sl

Vl

Ul Ul
Wl
Wl
iY Gl

(a)

iY
Pl Pl
V∗

Vl

Ul Ul
U∗ Wl U∗
iY Gl ∗
G

(b)

Vl

Ul
Wl
iY
Gl

(c)

FIGURE 5.13
Synthesis and analysis vectors for (a, c) four-bar and (b) Stephenson III mechanisms.

TABLE 5.1
Vectors and Vector Expressions in Four-Bar and Stephenson III Synthesis and Analysis
Motion Generation Kinematic Analysis
Vector Vector Expression Vector Vector Expression
W1 W1 = W1x + iW1y W1 W1 = W1x + iW1y
Z1 Z1 = Z1x + iZ1y L1 L1 = Z1x + iZ1y
U1 U1 = U1x + iU1y U1 U1 = U1x + iU1y
S1 S1 = S1x + iS1y V1 V1 = Z1− S1
G1 G1 = W1 + Z1 − S1 − U1
U*1 U*1 = U 1x
*
+ iU 1y
*
U*1 U*1 = U 1x
*
+ iU 1y
*

V1* V1* = V1x* + iV1y* V1* V1* = −V1*

G *
1 ( )
G*1 = W1 + Z1 + −V1* − U*1 = −G1
p1 p1 = p1x + ip1y p1 p1 = p1 + W1 + Z1
p2 p2 = p2x + ip2y p2 p2 = p2 + W1 + Z1 or p2 = p2 − p1
p3 p3 = p3x + ip3y p3 p3 = p3 + W1 + Z1 or p3 = p3 − p1
162 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Example 5.8
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file, determine if the mechanism
solution in Example 5.1 achieves its precision positions.
Known Information: Example 5.1 and Appendix B.1 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.5.20 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.1 MATLAB file. Table E.5.4 includes the coupler positions and follower dis-
placement angles achieved by the planar four-bar mechanism synthesized in Example
5.1. The values of p1, p2, and p3 (in the p j column in Table E.5.4) calculated from the
Appendix B.1 MATLAB file are actually offset by W1 + Z1 , since the coordinate system
origin for kinematic analysis is as shown in Figure 5.13a (right image). By subtracting p1
from p1, p2, and p3 (as shown in the p j − p1 column in Table E.5.4), the coordinate system
origin matches the origin shown in Figure 5.13a (left image) and the resulting values in
this column can be compared directly to the p j column data in Table E.5.1.

Example 5.9
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.7 MATLAB file, determine if the mechanism
solution in Example 5.4 achieves its precision positions.
Known Information: Example 5.4 and Appendix B.7 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.5.21 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.7 MATLAB file. Table E.5.5 includes the coupler positions and follower dis-
placement angles achieved by the planar four-bar mechanism synthesized in Example
5.4. The values of p1, p2, and p3 (in the p j column in Table E.5.5) calculated from the
Appendix B.7 MATLAB file are actually offset by W1 + Z1 since the coordinate system
origin for kinematic analysis is as shown in Figure 5.13b (right image). By subtracting p1
from p1, p2, and p3 (as shown in the p j − p1 column in Table E.5.5), the coordinate system
origin matches the origin shown in Figure 5.13b (left image) and the resulting values in
this column can be compared directly to the p j column data in Table E.5.2.

W1 = 2.058 - i*0.8054;
Z1 = -0.1324 + i*0.1191;
U1 = 0.5808 - i*1.8615;
S1 = -1.5053 + i*1.34;
V1 = Z1 - S1;
G1 = W1 + Z1 - S1 - U1;
L1 = Z1;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 38;

angular_vel = 0 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.5.20
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file for Example 5.1.

TABLE E.5.4
Coupler Positions and Follower Angles Achieved by Example 5.1 Solution
β j (°) pj α j (°) γ j (°) p j − p1
0 1.9256, −0.6863 0 0 0, 0
18 2.2176, 0.0477 −51.716 −40.002 0.292, 0.734
38 2.2246, 0.7747 −84.98 −87.004 0.299, 1.461
Dimensional Synthesis 163

W1 = 0.5854 - i*1.2248;
Z1 = -0.4926 - i*0.3631;
U1 = 0.1905 + i*1.8923;
S1 = -1.0184 - i*1.1813;
V1 = Z1 - S1;
G1 = W1 + Z1 - S1 - U1;
L1 = Z1;

U1s = 2.2215 - i*2.0095;

V1s = -(0.3400 + i*0.4718);
G1s = W1 + Z1 + V1s - U1s - G1;
L1s = 0;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 40;

angular_vel = 0 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.5.21
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.7 MATLAB file for Example 5.4.

TABLE E.5.5
Coupler Positions and Follower Angles Achieved by Example 5.4 Solution
β j (°) pj α j (°) α *j (°) γ j (°) γ *j (°) p j − p1
0 0.0928, −1.5879 0 0 0 0 0, 0
15 0.2743, −1.0997 −30 14.999 −20 10 0.1815, 0.4882
40 0.7575, −0.1801 −75.001 5 −35 29.999 0.6647, 1.4078

Example 5.10
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file, determine if the mechanism
solution in Example 5.5 achieves its precision points.
Known Information: Example 5.5 and Appendix B.1 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.5.22 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.1 MATLAB file. Table E.5.6 includes the link displacement angles achieved
by the planar four-bar mechanism synthesized in Example 5.5. The values in this
table match the precision points in Table E.5.3.

W1 = 0.2670 + i*0.0816;
V1 = 1.0598 + i*0.4564;
U1 = 0.3268 + i*0.5380;
G1 = 1;
L1 = 0;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 180;

angular_vel = 0 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.5.22
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file for Example 5.5.
164 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE E.5.6
Precision Points Achieved by Example 5.5
Solution
β j (°) γ j (°) α j (°)
0 0 0
90 30.007 −4.999
180 60.008 10.004

Example 5.11
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file, determine if the mechanism
solution in Example 5.6 achieves its precision points.
Known Information: Example 5.6 and Appendix B.1 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.5.23 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.1 MATLAB file. Table E.5.7 includes the link displacement angles achieved
by the planar four-bar mechanism synthesized in Example 5.6. The values in this table
match the precision points in Figure E.5.15.

Example 5.12
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file, determine if the mechanism
solution in Example 5.7 achieves its precision points.
Known Information: Example 5.7 and Appendix B.1 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.5.24 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix B.1 MATLAB file. Table E.5.8 includes the link displacement angles achieved
by the planar four-bar mechanism synthesized in Example 5.7. The values in this table
match the precision points in Figure E.5.18.

W1 = 0.2818 + i*0.0540;
V1 = -0.3424 + i*0.1260;
U1 = -1.0605 + i*0.1801;
G1 = 1;
L1 = 0;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 1;

angular_vel = 1 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.5.23
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file for Example 5.6.

TABLE E.5.7
Precision Points Achieved by Example 5.6 Solution
β j (°) α j (°) α j (rad/s)  j (rad/s2)
α γ j (°) γ j (rad/s) 
γ j (rad/s2)
0 −0.0701 −1.495 −1.0388 −0.0172 −0.7482 −0.1116
Dimensional Synthesis 165

W1 = 0.3675 - i*0.1534;
V1 = -0.1252 + i*0.1796;
U1 = -0.7577 + i*0.0261;
G1 = 1;
L1 = 0;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 35;

angular_vel = 1 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.5.24
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix B.1 MATLAB file for Example 5.7.

TABLE E.5.8
Precision Points Achieved by Example 5.7 Solution
β j (°) α j (°) α j (rad/s) γ j (°) γ j (rad/s)
35 −10.012 −1.4996 −20.007 −0.7497

5.10 Summary
In kinematic analysis, mechanism dimensions are known and the resulting mecha-
nism motion sequence is calculated. In dimensional synthesis (a category of kinematic
synthesis), a mechanism motion sequence is prescribed and the mechanism dimensions
required to achieve them are calculated. Dimensional synthesis includes three subcatego-
ries: motion generation, path generation, and function generation. In motion generation,
mechanism link positions are prescribed (specifically, coupler-link positions for the pla-
nar four-bar mechanism). In planar four-bar path generation, coupler-link path points are
prescribed while crank and follower displacement angles are prescribed in planar four-
bar function generation. Prescribed coupler positions are called precision positions, while
precision points are prescribed coupler points (this is the chief distinction between motion
and path generation).
Order defects and branch defects are two uncertainties inherent in motion and path gen-
eration. With the order defect, the synthesized mechanism will not achieve the precision
positions/points in the intended order. With the branch defect, the synthesized mecha-
nism will not achieve its precision positions/points in a single mechanism branch. A vari-
ety of methods have been developed to ensure order- and branch-defect-free solutions.
For example, motion generation with prescribed timing (where dyad rotation angles are
prescribed) ensures order-defect-free mechanism solutions.
Linear simultaneous equation sets for planar four-bar motion generation are formulated
using vector-loop closure for the starting and displaced position of a mechanism dyad.
These equations are applicable for three precision positions. By including an equation set
corresponding to an additional dyad connected to the coupler point of the planar four-bar
mechanism, Stephenson III motion generators are produced.
In planar four-bar function generation, displacement angles are typically specified for
the crank and follower links. Often the displacement angles correspond to a mathematical
166 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

function (where the crank and follower displacement angles are particular input and out-
put function values, respectively). Simultaneous equation sets for planar four-bar function
generation are formulated by taking the vector-loop sum of the entire mechanism. The
resulting equations can be used to calculate the dimensions of a planar four-bar mecha-
nism to precisely achieve three prescribed crank and follower displacement angle pairs
(also called precision points).
In addition to link displacement angles (or FSPs), it is also possible to synthesize function
generators to achieve or approximate prescribed link angular velocities or accelerations (or
MSPs). Differentiating, expanding, and separating the planar four-bar vector-loop equa-
tion produces velocity and acceleration equations (after the first and second derivatives,
respectively). Any combination of the velocity equation or the acceleration equation and
the initial-position vector-loop equation produces an equation set to analytically calculate
the mechanism dimensions required to precisely achieve prescribed FSPs or MSPs.

References
1. Sandor, G. N. and Erdman, A. G. 1984. Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis.
Volume 2, p. 51. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
2. Martin, G. H. 1969. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines. P. 319. New York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Erdman, A. G. 1993. Modern Kinematics-Developments in the Last Forty Years. Chapters 4–5.
New York: John Wiley.
4. Kimbrell, J. T. 1991. Kinematics Analysis and Synthesis. Chapter 7. New York: McGraw-Hill.
5. Ibid, Chapter 8.
6. Mallik, A. K., Amitabha, G., and Dittrich, G. 1994. Kinematic Analysis and Synthesis of Mechanisms.
pp. 306–308. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
7. Russell, K., Shen, Q., and Sodhi, R. 2014. Mechanism Design: Visual and Programmable Approaches.
Chapter 4. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
8. Mallik, A. K., Amitabha, G., and Dittrich, G. 1994. Kinematic Analysis and Synthesis of Mechanisms.
pp. 306–308. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
9. Russell, K., Shen, Q., and Sodhi, R. 2014. Mechanism Design: Visual and Programmable Approaches.
Chapters 4–5. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
10. Norton, R. L. 2008. Design of Machinery. 4th edn, Chapter 5. New York: McGraw-Hill.
11. Sandor, G. N. and Erdman, A. G. 1984. Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis.
Volume 2, pp. 179–180. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
12. McCarthy, M. J. 2000. Geometric Design of Linkages. pp. 110–111. New York: Springer.
13. Filemon, E. 1972. Useful ranges of centerpoint curves for design of crank-and-rocker linkages.
Mechanism and Machine Theory 7: 47–53.
14. McCarthy, M. J. 2000. Geometric Design of Linkages. pp. 111–112. New York: Springer.
15. Waldron, K. L. 1976. Elimination of the branch problem in graphical Burmester mechanism
synthesis for four finitely separated positions. Transactions of the ASME, Journal of Engineering
for Industry 98: 176–182.
16. Sandor, G. N. and Erdman, A. G. 1984. Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis.
Volume 2, p. 76. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
17. McCarthy, M. J. 2000. Geometric Design of Linkages. pp. 51–52. New York: Springer.
18. Sandor, G. N. and Erdman, A. G. 1984. Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis.
Volume 2, pp. 198–199. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
19. Ibid, pp. 52–53.
20. Waldron, K. J. and Kinzel, G. L. 2004. Kinematics, Dynamics and Design of Machinery. 2nd edn,
pp. 287–288. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Dimensional Synthesis 167

Additional Reading
Norton, R. L. 2008. Design of Machinery. 4th edn, pp. 256–259. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Sandor, G. N. and Erdman, A. G. 1984. Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis. Volume 2,
pp. 127–133. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Waldron, K. J. and Kinzel, G. L. 2004. Kinematics, Dynamics and Design of Machinery. 2nd edn, pp.
283–294. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Problems

FIGURE P.5.1
Tree hatch positions.
168 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.5.2
Three load–unload bucket positions.

FIGURE P.5.3
Three stamping tool positions.
Dimensional Synthesis 169

FIGURE P.5.4
Three folding wing positions.

FIGURE P.5.5
Three lower blade positions.
170 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.5.6
Three brake pad positions.

FIGURE P.5.7
Three digger bucket positions.
Dimensional Synthesis 171

FIGURE P.5.8
Three latch positions.

FIGURE P.5.9
Three top gripper positions.

FIGURE P.5.10
Three assembly component positions.
172 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.5.11
Three gripper positions.

FIGURE P.5.12
Three seat positions.
Dimensional Synthesis 173

FIGURE P.5.13
Three digger arm positions.

FIGURE P.5.14
Three cutting tool positions.
174 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.5.15
Wiper blade rotation range.

FIGURE P.5.16
Wheel rotation range.
Dimensional Synthesis 175

FIGURE P.5.17
Pipe valve rotation range.

FIGURE P.5.18
Hatch rotation range.
176 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems
6
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms

CONCEPT OVERVIEW
In this chapter, the reader will gain a central understanding regarding

1. Criteria for static force analysis and its applications

2. Link static loads in 2D space
3. Formulation and solution of linear simultaneous equation sets for static force
analysis
4. The effects of gear train inclusion in the static force analysis of five-bar mechanisms

6.1 Introduction
As explained in Chapter 1, additional analyses often follow a kinematic analysis. In terms
of structural force analyses for mechanical systems, a static force analysis (Figure 1.1) is the
most basic type of analysis to consider beyond kinematics. In this type of analysis, loads
such as forces and torques are considered for each mechanism link according to Newton’s
first law (∑F = ∑M = 0) [1–3].
A static force analysis is the only type of force analysis required if the mechanism oper-
ates in a static state.* In Figure 6.1a, the lock pliers holding the solid object are an example
of a static state because, when holding the solid object, the pliers are not in motion. A static
force analysis may also be applicable when the mechanism operates in a quasi-static state.
An example of this state is given in the cutting tool illustrated in Figure 6.1b. Although
the mechanism is in motion while the blades of the cutting tool shear the material, the
dynamic forces produced during this motion can be so small (because the motion can be
so slow) that they can be neglected. Under a condition where dynamic forces are small
enough to be negligible in a mechanism, a quasi-static state exists and static force assump-
tions are suitable.
Even if the mechanism motion is truly dynamic, static force assumptions can be useful
as a preliminary force analysis. For example, static forces or stresses can be multiplied by
certain scale factors to account for dynamic events such as impact and fatigue [4].
Although it is possible for out-of-plane forces and moments to exist in a planar mech-
anism (due to mechanism mass and force imbalances in the z-direction), the equation

* When a mechanism is in a static state, it is said to be statically determinate.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003316961-6 177

178 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

(a) (b)

FIGURE 6.1
Applied forces in (a) lock pliers and (b) cutting tool.

systems presented in this chapter consider forces in the x-y plane only.* The equation sys-
tems presented in this chapter consider the reaction forces due to externally applied loads
as well as the additional forces produced by gravity on the link masses (link weights).
Although link weights are not neglected in the forthcoming equations, as the externally
applied loads exceed the link weights, the reaction force-producing effect of these weights
becomes increasingly negligible. The contribution of link weights generally becomes more
important as the scale of the mechanism increases. For example, it would be essential to
consider link weights in the static force analysis of a multistory level-luffing crane mecha-
nism (see Figure E.4.1), but not essential in the analysis of the hand tools in Figure 6.1.
Lastly, in this chapter, the mechanism links are considered to be rigid or nondeforming in
the mechanism static force equations.†

6.2 Static Loading in Planar Space

Figure 6.2 illustrates arbitrarily grounded rotating and translating planar links under
static loads. Loads, even distributed loads, can be represented as force vectors applied to
link points. For example, force vectors Fp0 , Fp1 , and mg are applied to link points p0, p1 and
the link’s CG (center of gravity), respectively, in Figure 6.2a. Also, a torque Ta0 is applied
about point p0 in Figure 6.2a.‡ Static forces and torques are either applied externally (like
force vector F in Figure 6.2b) or they are reactions to externally applied loads (like force
vectors Fp1 and F f in Figure 6.2b).
Link static equilibrium is achieved in accordance to Newton’s first law. With this law,
when the sum of all link forces is zero (or ∑F = 0) and the sum of all link moments is zero (or
∑M = 0), link static equilibrium is achieved.§§ Because the force vectors include both x- and
y-direction components, the forces’ sums are taken in both directions (∑Fx = 0 and ∑Fy = 0).
The conditions from Newton’s first law must be satisfied for each mechanism link in
order to achieve static equilibrium in the entire mechanism.

* Whether out-of-plane mechanism forces and moments should be considered in an analysis depends in part on
the amount of mass and force imbalance preset in the mechanism as well as the overall mechanism scale.
† If springs are included in the mechanism design, their deflection should be considered since spring force is

proportional to spring deflection.

‡ The torque is actually applied about an axis, but in planar space, the axis can be represented by a point (since

the axis is normal to the plane).

§ The words torque and moment are used in this chapter since they are synonymous.
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 179

FIGURE 6.2
Static loads on (a) grounded rotating and (b) translating planar links.

6.3 Four-Bar Mechanism Analysis

Figure 6.3a illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism where a force Fp1 is applied to the
coupler-link point p1. To maintain static equilibrium, a torque Ta0 is applied about the
crank link revolute joint a0. Vectors R 1 , R 2 , and R 3 point from a 0, a 1, and b0, respectively, to
the center of gravity of each link. The loads on the individual planar four-bar mechanism
links are illustrated in Figure 6.3b. Because the joints at a1 and b1 are shared among two
links, the forces at a1 and b1 must be equal but opposite (resulting in ±Fa1 and ±Fb1 in Figure
6.3b). The remaining force and torque variables, however, remain positive for simplicity.*
This approach is repeated for the mechanisms in Sections 6.4 through 6.7.
Taking the sum of the forces and moments for each link, according to the static equilib-
rium conditions ∑F = 0 and ∑M = 0, produces two static equilibrium equations for each link.
Expanding these two equations and separating the force equation into two equations, where
∑Fx = 0 and ∑Fy = 0, ultimately produces three static equilibrium equations for each link.
Using the first two static equilibrium conditions for the crank link (where the moment
sum is taken about a0) produces

Fa0 + Fa1 + m1g = 0

Ta0 + W1 × Fa1 + R 1 × m1g = 0† (6.1)

Expanding and separating Equation 6.1 produces

Fa0 x + Fa1 x = 0

Fa0 y + Fa1 y + m1 g = 0 (6.2)

( )
Ta0 − Fa1 x W1 sin(θ + β j ) + Fa1 y W1 cos(θ + β j ) + m1 g R1x cos β j − R1y sin β j = 0

* The signs of the calculated static force and torque variables are not determined by the signs prescribed to
them during equation formulation. They are determined by the mechanism position and the applied load
values.
† The expression A × B is the cross product of planar vectors A and B. When expanded, A × B = A B − A B .
x y y x
180 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 6.3
(a) Planar four-bar mechanism and (b) link static forces and torque.

Since gravity is directed along the y-axis (which is identical to the imaginary axis), the
expansion of the cross product R 1 × m1g in Equation 6.2 only includes the expansion of the
iβ
product of m1 g and the real component of R 1 where R 1 = (R1x + iR1y )e j .
Using the first two static equilibrium conditions for the coupler link (where the moment
sum is taken about a1) produces

−Fa1 − Fb1 + Fp1 + m2 g = 0

(6.3)
−V1 × Fb1 + L1 × Fp1 + R 2 × m2 g = 0.

Expanding and separating Equation 6.3 produces

−Fa1 x − Fb1 x + Fp1x = 0

−Fa1 y − Fb1 y + Fp1y + m2 g = 0

(6.4)
Fb1 x V1 sin(ρ + α j ) − Fb1 y V1 cos(ρ + α j ) − Fp1 x L1 sin(δ + α j ) + Fp1 y L1 cos(δ + α j )

(
+m2 g R2 x cos α j − R2y sin α j = 0. )
Since gravity is directed along the y-axis, the expansion of the cross product R 2 × m2 g in
Equation 6.4 only includes the expansion of the product of m2 g and the real component of
iα
R 2 where R 2 = (R2 x + iR2 y )e j .
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 181

Using the first two static equilibrium conditions for the follower link (where the moment
sum is taken about b0) produces

Fb0 + Fb1 + m3 g = 0
(6.5)
U1 × Fb1 + R 3 × m3 g = 0.

Expanding and separating Equation 6.5 produces

Fb0 x + Fb1 x = 0
Fb0 y + Fb1 y + m3 g = 0 (6.6)

(
−Fb1 x U 1 sin(σ + γ j ) + Fb1 y U 1 cos(σ + γ j ) + m3 g R3 x cos γ j − R3y sin γ j = 0 )
Again, due to the y-axis direction of gravity, the expansion of the cross product R 3 × m3 g
in Equation 6.6 only includes the expansion of the product of m3 g and the real component
iγ
of R 3 where R 3 = (R3 x + iR3 y )e j .
Expressing Equations 6.2, 6.4, and 6.6 in a combined matrix form produces

 
  Ta0 
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
  Fa0 x 
 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0  
 1 0 0 −Wy Wx 0 0 0 0  Fa0 y 
  Fa1x 
 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0   
 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1  Fa1y 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vy −Vx  
  Fb0 x 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0  Fb0 y 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1  
  Fb1x 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −U y Ux
  
Fb1y 
 

 
 
 
 0 
 −m1 g 
 


(
− m1 g R1x cos β j − R1y sin β j ) 

 −Fp1x 
 
= − Fp1y − m2 g  (6.7)
 
  Fp1 x Ly − Fp1 y Lx  
   
  (
 − m2 g R2 x cos α j − R2y sin α j ) 
 
 
 0 
 −m3 g 
 


(
− m3 g R3 x cos γ j − R3 y sin γ j ) 

182 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

where:
Wx = W1 cos(θ + βj)
Wy = W1 sin(θ + βj)
Lx = L1 cos(δ + αj)
Ly = L1 sin(δ + αj)
Vx = V1 cos(ρ + αj)
Vy = V1 sin(ρ + αj)
Ux = U1 cos(σ + γj)
Uy = U1 sin(σ + γ).j
*

Equation 6.7 can be solved using Cramer’s rule to determine the unknown forces and
torque. The unknown planar four-bar displacement angles αj and γj are the same angles cal-
culated from the planar four-bar displacement equations in Section 4.4.1. Given βj, αj, and γj
solutions, the corresponding static forces and torques can be calculated from Equation 6.7.
Appendix C.1 includes the MATLAB® file user instructions for planar four-bar static force
analysis. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions for Equation 6.7 are calculated.†

Example 6.1
Problem Statement: When vector W1 of the planar four-bar stamping mechanism
(Figure E.6.1a) is rotated β = 60 , a reaction force of Fp2 = (0, 4500)N is applied

iY

W1 a0 X a0

L1 b1
a1 p1

b1 V1

G1 a1
U1

b0
b0
p2
Reaction
Blank
force, Fp2

(a) (b)

FIGURE E.6.1
Stamping mechanism in (a) initial and (b) stamping positions.

* This method of calculating mechanism forces via matrix manipulation is called the matrix method. With this
method, link force equations are quickly derived.
† The library of MATLAB files used in this chapter can also be downloaded from the authors’ server http://

www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 183

(Figure E.6.1b) due to the stamping event. Tables E.6.1 and E.6.2 include the dimensions
and mass properties of the planar four-bar stamping mechanism in the initial position
(Figure E.6.1a). Using the Appendix C.1 MATLAB file, calculate the static torque and
forces generated in the stamping mechanism in the stamping position (Figure E.6.1b).
Gravity is −9.81 m/s2.
Known Information: Tables E.6.1, E.6.2, and Appendix C.1 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.6.2 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix C.1 MATLAB file. Table E.6.3 includes the static torque and forces calculated
for the planar four-bar stamping mechanism using the Appendix C.1 MATLAB file.

TABLE E.6.1
Stamping Mechanism Dimensions in Initial Position (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ
0.2013, −157.8291° 0.1583, −150.1267° 0.3455, 133.0953°

G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
−0.0876, −0.4071 0.27, 4.7572°

TABLE E.6.2
Planar Four-Bar Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m and mass in kg)
R1 −0.0932 − i0.038 m1 8
R2 0.0955 + i0.0159 m2 40
R3 −0.118 + i0.1261 m3 12

W1 = 0.2013*exp(-i*157.8291*pi/180);
V1 = 0.1583*exp(-i*150.1267*pi/180);
G1 = -0.0876 -i*0.4071;
U1 = 0.3455*exp(i*133.0953*pi/180);
L1 = 0.27*exp(i*4.7572*pi/180);

Fp1 = [0, 4500];

g = -9.81;

R1 = -0.0932 -i*0.038;
R2 = 0.0955 + i*0.0159;
R3 = -0.118+ i*0.1261;

m1 = 8;
m2 = 40;
m3 = 12;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 60;

FIGURE E.6.2
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix C.1 MATLAB file for Example 6.1.

TABLE E.6.3
Calculated Stamping Mechanism Static Forces (in N) and Torque (in N-m)
Ta0 Fa0 Fa1 Fb0 Fb1
162.51 74.14, −5347.8 −74.14, 5426.3 −74.14, 1436.4 74.14, −1318.7
184 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

6.4 Slider-Crank Mechanism Analysis

Figure 6.4a illustrates a slider-crank mechanism where a force F is applied to the slider link
revolute joint b1. To maintain static equilibrium, a torque Ta0 is applied about the crank
link revolute joint a0. Vectors R 1 and R 2 point from a 0 and a 1, respectively, to the center of
gravity of each link. The loads on the individual slider-crank mechanism links are illus-
trated in Figure 6.4b. Taking the sum of the forces and moments for each link according
to the static equilibrium conditions ∑F = 0 and ∑M = 0 produces two static equilibrium
equations for each link. Expanding these two equations and separating the force equation
into two equations, where ∑Fx = 0 and ∑Fy = 0, ultimately produces three static equilibrium
equations for each link. Using these conditions for the crank link (where the moment sum
is taken about a0) produces Equation 6.2.
Using the first two static equilibrium conditions for the coupler link (where the moment
sum is taken about a1) produces

−Fa1 − Fb1 + m2 g = 0
(6.8)
−V1 × Fb1 + R 2 × m2 g = 0

Expanding and separating Equation 6.8 produces

−Fa1 x − Fb1 x = 0

−Fa1 y − Fb1 y + m2 g = 0 (6.9)

( )
Fb1 x V1 sin(ρ + α j ) − Fb1 y V1 cos(ρ + α j ) + m2 g R2 x cos α j − R2y sin α j = 0

FIGURE 6.4
(a) Slider-crank mechanism and (b) link static forces and torque.
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 185

Since gravity is directed along the y-axis, the expansion of the cross product R 2 × m2 g in
Equation 6.9 only includes the expansion of the product of m2 g and the real component of
iα
R 2 where R 2 = (R2 x + iR2 y )e j .
Using only the static equilibrium condition ∑F = 0 for the slider link produces

F + Fb1 + F f + m3 g = 0* (6.10)

In Equation 6.10, the x- and y-components of vector Ff are the friction force ±μFnormal and the
normal force Fnormal, respectively. Expanding and separating Equation 6.10 produces

Fx + Fb1x ± µFnormal = 0
(6.11)
Fy + Fb1y + Fnormal + m3 g = 0

Expressing Equations 6.2, 6.9, and 6.11 in a combined matrix form produces

 
 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0   Ta0 
   Fa0 x 
 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0  
 1 0 0 −Wy Wx 0 0 0   Fa0 y 
 
 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 0 0   Fa1x 
 0 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 0   Fa1 y 

 0 0 0 0 0 Vy −Vx 0  F 
  b1x
 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ±µ   F 
 b1 y 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1   
 F
 normal 

 0 
 
 −m 1g 
 (
 − m g R cos β − R sin β
1 1x j 1y j ) 

 0 
=  (6.12)
−m2 g
 

(
 − m2 g R2 x cos α j − R2y sin α j ) 

 −Fx 
 
− Fy − m3 g
 

where:
Wx = W1 cos(θ + βj)
Wy = W1 sin(θ + βj)
Vx = V1 cos(ρ + αj)
Vy = V1 sin(ρ + αj)†

* Because the slider does not rotate, the static equilibrium condition ∑M = 0 is not included in Equation 6.10.
† Equation 6.12 could be solved using both signs for ±µ to determine the maximum static loads.
186 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Equation 6.12 can be solved using Cramer’s rule to determine the unknown forces and
torque. The unknown slider-crank displacement angles αj are the same angles calculated
from the slider-crank displacement equations in Section 4.5.1. Given βj and αj solutions, the
corresponding static forces and torques can be calculated from Equation 6.12.
Appendix C.2 includes the MATLAB® file user instructions for slider-crank static force
analysis. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions for Equation 6.12 are calculated.

Example 6.2
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix C.2 MATLAB file, calculate the static torque and
forces generated in the in-line slider-crank mechanism in Tables E.6.4 and E.6.5 where a
force of F = ( −50, 0 ) N is applied and gravity is −9.81 m/s2.
Known Information: Tables E.6.4, E.6.5, and Appendix C.2 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.6.3 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix C.2 MATLAB file. Table E.6.6 includes the static torque and forces calculated
for the slider-crank mechanism using the Appendix C.2 MATLAB file.

TABLE E.6.4
Slider-Crank Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 U1 µ
0.04, 45° 0.06 0 0.1

TABLE E.6.5
Slider-Crank Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m and Mass in kg)
R1 0 m1 0.05
R2 0.0265 – i0.0141 m2 0.025
m3 0.075

LW1 = 0.04;
theta = 45*pi/180;
LU1 = 0;

LV1 = 0.06;

F = [-50, 0];
mu = 0.1;
g = -9.81;

R1 = 0;
R2 = 0.0265 - i*0.0141;

m1 = 0.05;
m2 = 0.025;
m3 = 0.075;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 0;

FIGURE E.6.3
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix C.2 MATLAB file for Example 6.2.
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 187

TABLE E.6.6
Calculated Slider-Crank Mechanism Static Forces (in N) and Torque (in N-m)
Ta0 Fa0 Fa1 Fb1 Fnormal Ffriction
−2.053 47.381, −24.714 −47.381, 25.204 47.381, −25.449 26.815 2.6185

6.5 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Analysis

We will begin the formulation of a static force equation system for the geared five-bar
mechanism by first formulating a static force equation system for a five-bar mechanism
without gears. Because such a system has two degrees of freedom, static equilibrium is
achieved by independently constraining the rotations of the links containing vectors W1
and U1.
Figure 6.5a illustrates a five-bar mechanism where a force Fp1 is applied to the interme-
diate link point p1. To maintain static equilibrium, torques Ta0 and Tb0 are applied about
both grounded revolute joints a0 and b0, respectively. Vectors R 1 through R 4 point from a 0,
a 1, b1, and b0 , respectively, to the center of gravity of each link. The loads on the individual
five-bar mechanism links are illustrated in Figure 6.5b. Taking the sum of the forces and
moments for each link according to the static equilibrium conditions ∑F = 0 and ∑M = 0
produces two static equilibrium equations for each link. Expanding these two equations
and separating the force equation into two equations, where ∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0, ultimately
produces three static equilibrium equations for each link. Using these conditions for the
crank link a0− a1 (where the moment sum is taken about a0) produces Equation 6.2.
Using the first two static equilibrium conditions for the intermediate link a1− c1 (where
the moment sum is taken about a1) produces

−Fa1 − Fc1 + Fp1 + m2 g = 0

(6.13)
−V1 × Fc1 + L1 × Fp1 + R 2 × m2 g = 0

Expanding and separating Equation 6.13 produces

−Fa1 x − Fc1 x + Fp1x = 0

−Fa1 y − Fc1 y + Fp1y + m2 g = 0

(6.14)
Fc1 x V1 sin(ρ + α j ) − Fc1 y V1 cos(ρ + α j ) − Fp1 x L1 sin(δ + α j ) + Fp1 y L1 cos(δ + α j )

(
+m2 g R2 x cos α j − R2y sin α j = 0 )
Since gravity is directed along the y-axis, the expansion of the cross product R 2 × m2 g in
Equation 6.14 only includes the expansion of the product of m2 g and the real component of
iα
R 2 where R 2 = (R2 x + iR2 y )e j .
Using the first two static equilibrium conditions for the intermediate link b1− c1 (where
the moment sum is taken about b1) produces

Fc1 − Fb1 + m3 g = 0
(6.15)
S1 × Fc1 + R 3 × m3 g = 0
188 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 6.5
(a) Five-bar mechanism and (b) link static forces and torques.

Expanding and separating Equation 6.15 produces

Fc1 x − Fb1 x = 0
Fc1 y − Fb1 y + m3 g = 0 (6.16)

( )
−Fc1 x S1 sin(ψ + ν j ) + Fc1 y S1 cos(ψ + ν j ) + m3 g R3 x cos ν j − R3y sin ν j = 0

Since gravity is directed along the y-axis, the expansion of the cross product R 3 × m3 g in
Equation 6.16 only includes the expansion of the product of m3 g and the real component of
iν
R3 where R 3 = (R3 x + iR3 y )e j .
Using the first two static equilibrium conditions for the crank link b0 − b1 (where the
moment sum is taken about b0) produces
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 189

Fb0 + Fb1 + m4 g = 0
(6.17)
Tb0 + U1 × Fb1 + R 4 × m4 g = 0

Expanding and separating Equation 6.17 produces

Fb0 x + Fb1 x = 0
Fb0 y + Fb1 y + m4 g = 0 (6.18)

(
Tb0 − Fb1 x U 1 sin(σ + γ j ) + Fb1 y U 1 cos(σ + γ j ) + m4 g R4 x cos γ j − R4y sin γ j = 0 )
Since gravity is directed along the y-axis, the expansion of the cross product R 4 × m4 g in
Equation 6.18 only includes the expansion of the product of m4 g and the real component of
iγ
R4 where R 4 = (R4 x + iR4 y )e j .
Expressing Equations 6.2, 6.14, 6.16, and 6.18 in a combined matrix form produces

 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 1 0 0 −Wy Wx 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 Vy −Vx 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 −1 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 −Sy Sx 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 −U y Ux 
 

 Ta0   0 
   −m1 g

 Fa0 x   


Fa0 y  
 
(
− m1 g R1x cos β j − R1y sin β j ) 

 Fa1x   −Fp1x 
   − Fp1y − m2 g

 Fa1 y   
  F L 

×
 Fc1x   p1 x y (
− Fp1 y Lx − m2 g R2 x cos α j − R2y sin α j ) 
Fc1 y =   (6.19)
   0 
 Tb0   −m3 g 
   
 Fb0 x   (
− m3 g R3 x cos ν j − R3y sin ν j ) 
 Fb0 y   
   0

 Fb1 x   −m4 g 
   
 Fb1y  

(
− m4 g R4 x cos γ j − R4y sin γ j ) 
190 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

where:
Wx = W1 cos(θ + βj)
Wy = W1 sin(θ + βj)
Lx = L1 cos(δ + αj)
Ly = L1 sin(δ + αj)
Vx = V1 cos(ρ + αj)
Vy = V1 sin(ρ + αj)
Sx = S1 cos(ψ + vj)
Sy = S1 sin(ψ + vj)
Ux = U1 cos(σ + γj)
Uy = U1 sin(σ + γj)

Equation 6.19 can be solved using Cramer’s rule to determine the unknown forces and
torques. The unknown five-bar displacement angles α j and ν j are the same angles calcu-
lated from the geared five-bar displacement equations in Section 4.6.1. Given β j , α j, and ν j
solutions, the corresponding static forces and torques can be calculated from Equation 6.19.
As noted at the start of this section, Equation 6.19 calculates the static forces and torques
for a five-bar mechanism without gears. The inclusion of a gear pair or gear train, however,
will affect the calculated values of Ta0 , Fa0 , and Fb0 .
Including a gear pair or train in the five-bar mechanism reduces it to a single degree of
freedom. To achieve static equilibrium, a new torque is applied about a0 (while the calcu-
lated torque Tb0 is still applied about b0). This new, gear-based torque (which we call Ta′0 )
includes Ta0 and Tb0 from Equation 6.19 and can be expressed as
r1 1
Ta′0 = Ta0 + Tb0 = Ta0 + Tb0 (6.20)
r2 r
where the gear ratio r is the ratio of the radius of the driven gear to the driving gear.*
Therefore, with the inclusion of a gear pair or a gear train in the five-bar mechanism, the
static torque Ta′0 from Equation 6.20 replaces Ta0 from Equation 6.19, while the static torque
Tb0 calculated from Equation 6.19 remains unchanged.
Figure 6.6a illustrates a gear pair used in the geared five-bar mechanism. By using a
gear pair, the links containing vectors W1 and U1 rotate in opposite directions. The force
transmitted by Gear 2 (force F in Figure 6.6a) must be included among the components of
Fa0 and Fb0 calculated in Equation 6.19.
In Equations 6.21 and 6.22, the components of the transmitted gear pair force F (which is
calculated through the torque Tb0 from Equation 6.19) are included in Fa0 and Fb0 , respectively.
π  π
Tb0 i  2 + ang   1+ r  i  2 + ang 
Fa′0 = Fa0 + e = Fa0 + Tb0   e (6.21)
r2  r G1
π  π
T i  + ang   1+ r  i  2 + ang 
Fb′0 = Fb0 − b0 e  2 = Fb0 − Tb0   e (6.22)
r2  r G1

Figure 6.6b illustrates a three-gear train used in the geared five-bar mechanism.†
By using a three-gear train, the links containing vectors W1 and U1 rotate in the same

* The radius of a gear is commonly referred to as the pitch radius (see Chapter 8).
† The gear train (Figure 6.6b) considered in this text for the geared five-bar mechanism is comprised of three

gears, where the middle gear and the gear affixed to a 0 have identical radii.
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 191

iY

r1
iY a0
ang r1
r1
gear 1
a0 G1
ang π/2±ang π/2±ang
gear 1 Tb0 gear 1 Tb0
G1
b0 r2 b0 r2

gear 2 gear 2

(a) (b)

FIGURE 6.6
(a) Gear pair and (b) three-gear train used in geared five-bar mechanism.

direction. The force transmitted by Gear 2 (force F in Figure 6.6b) must be included among
the components of Fa0 and Fb0 calculated in Equation 6.19.
In Equations 6.23 and 6.24, the components of the transmitted three-gear-train force F
(which is calculated through the torque Tb0 from Equation 6.19) are included in Fa0 and Fb0 ,
respectively.

 π  π
Tb0 i  2 + ang   3+ r  i  2 + ang 
Fa′0 = Fa0 + e = Fa0 + Tb0   e (6.23)
r2  r G1

π  π
Tb0 i  2 + ang   3+ r  i  2 + ang 
Fb′0 = Fb0 + e = Fb0 + Tb0   e (6.24)
r2  r G1

Therefore, with the inclusion of gears in the five-bar mechanism, the static forces Fa′0 and
Fb′ 0 from Equations 6.21 and 6.22 replace Fa0 and Fb0 calculated from Equation 6.19, when
a gear pair is included, while Fa′0 and Fb′ 0 from Equation 6.23 and 6.24 replace Fa0 and Fb0 ,
when a three-gear train is included.
Appendices C.3 and C.4 include the MATLAB file user instructions for geared five-bar
static force analysis (for two and three gears, respectively). In this MATLAB file (which is
available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions
for Equation 6.19 and Equations 6.20 through 6.24 are calculated.

Example 6.3
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix C.4 MATLAB file, calculate the static forces
and driver torque generated in the geared five-bar mechanism in Tables E.6.7 and E.6.8
where a force of Fp1 = ( −2500, −3000 ) N is applied at β = 60°. The gear ratio is r = +2, and
the gravity is −9.81 m/s2.
Known Information: Tables E.6.7, E.6.8, and Appendix C.4 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.6.4 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix C.4 MATLAB file. Table E.6.9 includes the static forces and torques calculated
for the geared five-bar mechanism using the Appendix C.4 MATLAB file.
192 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE E.6.7
Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ S 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
0.5, 90° 0.75, 32.7304° 0.75, 45° 0.75, 149.9837° 0.75, 0 0.5, 74.1400°

TABLE E.6.8
Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m and mass in kg)
R1 i0.0831 m1 22.54
R2 0.2558 + i0.2955 m2 29.785
R3 −0.3247 + i0.1876 m3 12.075
R4 0.0356 + i0.0356 m4 75.67

W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*32.7304*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75;
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*45*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*74.1400*pi/180);
S1 = 0.75*exp(i*149.9847*pi/180);

ratio = 2;
Fp1 = [-2500,-3000];
g = -9.81;

R1 = i*0.0831;
R2 = 0.2558 + i*0.2955;
R3 = -0.3247 + i*0.1876;
R4 = 0.0356 + i*0.0356;

m1 = 22.54;
m2 = 29.785;
m3 = 12.075;
m4 = 75.67;
start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 60;

FIGURE E.6.4
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix C.4 MATLAB file for Example 6.3.

TABLE E.6.9
Calculated Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Static Forces (in N) and Torques (in N-m)
Ta′0 Fa′0 Fa1 Fc1 Fb1
−2207 543.23, −1144.8 −543.23, −3173.8 −1956.8, −118.43 −1956.8, −236.88

Tb0 Fb′0
−1361.9 1956.8, −3560.5

6.6 Watt II Mechanism Analysis

Figure 6.7a illustrates a Watt II mechanism where forces Fp1 and Fp*1 are applied to the
intermediate link points p1 and p*1. Vectors R 1 through R 5 point from a 0, a 1, b0 , a *1, and b*0 ,
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 193

FIGURE 6.7
(a) Watt II mechanism and (b) link static forces and torque.

respectively, to the center of gravity of each link. To maintain static equilibrium, a torque
Ta0 is applied about the crank link revolute joint a0. The loads on the individual Watt II
mechanism link are illustrated in Figure 6.7b. Taking the sum of the forces and moments
for each link according to the static equilibrium conditions ∑F = 0 and ∑M = 0 produces two
static equilibrium equations for each link. Expanding these two equations and separating
the force equation into two equations, where ∑Fx = 0 and ∑Fy = 0, ultimately produces three
static equilibrium equations for each link. Because the Watt II mechanism includes the pla-
nar four-bar mechanism, the static equilibrium equations given in Equations 6.2 and 6.4
are used for the crank and coupler links, respectively, of the planar four-bar mechanism
loop a0−a1−b1−b0 in the Watt II mechanism.
Using the first two static equilibrium conditions for the follower link of the planar four-
bar mechanism loop a0− a1− b1− b0 (where the moment sum is taken about b0) produces
Fb0 + Fb1 + Fa1* + m3 g = 0
(6.25)
U1 × Fb1 + W1* × Fa1* + R 3 × m3 g = 0
194 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Expanding and separating Equation 6.25 produces

Fb0 x + Fb1 x + Fa1x

* = 0

Fb0 y + Fb1 y + Fa1y

* + m3 g = 0

(6.26)
−Fb1 x U 1 sin(σ + γ j ) + Fb1 y U 1 cos(σ + γ j ) − Fa1* x W1* sin(θ* + β*j ) + Fa1* y W1* cos(θ* + β*j )

(
+m3 g R3 x cos γ j − R3y sin γ j = 0 )
Since gravity is directed along the y-axis, the expansion of the cross product R 3 × m3 g in
Equation 6.26 only includes the expansion of the product of m3 g and the real component of
iγ
R 3 where R 3 = (R3 x + iR3 y )e j .
Using the first two static equilibrium conditions for the coupler link of the planar four-
bar mechanism loop b0 − a *1 − b1* − b*0 (where the moment sum is taken about a *1) produces

−Fa*1 − Fb*1 + Fp*1 + m4 g = 0

(6.27)
−V1* × Fb*1 + L*1 × Fp*1 + R 4 × m4 g = 0

Expanding and separating Equation 6.27 produces

−Fa1* x − Fb1* x + Fp1x

* = 0

−Fa1* y − Fb1* y + Fp1y

* + m4 g = 0

(6.28)
* V1 sin(ρ + α j ) − F * V1 cos(ρ + α j ) − F * L1 sin(δ + α j ) + F * L1 cos(δ + α j )
* * * * * * * * * * * *
Fb1x b1 y p1x p1 y

(
+m4 g R4 x cos α *j − R4y sin α *j = 0 )
Since gravity is directed along the y-axis, the expansion of the cross product R 4 × m4 g in
Equation 6.28 only includes the expansion of the product of m4 g and the real component of
iα *
R 4 where R 4 = (R4x + iR4 y )e j .
Using the first two static equilibrium conditions for the follower of the planar four-bar
mechanism loop b0 − a 1* − b1* − b*0 (where the moment sum is taken about b*0 ) produces

Fb*0 + Fb*1 + m5 g = 0
(6.29)
U*1 × Fb*1 + R 5 × m5 g = 0

Expanding and separating Equation 6.29 produces

Fb0* x + Fb1* x = 0

Fb0* y + Fb1* y + m5 g = 0 (6.30)

( )
−Fb1* x U 1* sin(σ * + γ *j ) + Fb1* y U 1* cos(σ * + γ *j ) + m5 g R5 x cos γ *j − R5 y sin γ *j = 0
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 195

Since gravity is directed along the y-axis, the expansion of the cross product R 5 × m5 g in
Equation 6.30 only includes the expansion of the product of m5 g and the real component
iγ *
of R 5 where R 5 = (R5 x + iR5 y )e j .
Expressing Equations 6.2, 6.4, 6.26, 6.28, and 6.30 in a combined matrix form produces

 
 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 1 0 0 −Wy Wx 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vy −Vx 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −U y Ux −Wy* Wx* 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vy* −Vx* 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −U y* U x* 
 

   
   
 Ta0   0

 Fa0 x   −m1 g 
   
 Fa0 y   (
− m1 g R1x cos β j − R1y sin β j ) 
   
 Fa1x   − Fp1x

 Fa1y   − Fp1y − m2 g 
   


Fb0 x   Fp1 x Ly
 
(
− Fp1 y Lx − m2 g R2x cos α j − R2y sin α j ) 
Fb0 y 
   0 
   
× Fb1x = −m3 g
   

Fb1y
  (
− m3 g R3 x cos γ j − R3y sin γ j ) 
 Fa*1 x   − Fp1x

   * 
 Fa*1 y   − Fp1y
* − m4 g

   
  F * L* 


Fb*0 x
  p1x y (
− Fp1* y L*x − m4 g R4 x cos α *j − R4 y sin α *j ) 
 Fb*0 y   0

   
 Fb*1x   −m5 g 
  

 Fb*1y   (
− m5 g R5 x cos γ *j − R5 y sin γ *j ) 

(6.31)
196 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

where:
variables Wx, Wy, Lx, Ly, Vx, Vy, Ux, and Uy are identical to those used in Equation 6.7 and

( )
Wx* = W1* cos θ* + β*j

W = W sin ( θ + β )
*
y 1
* * *
j

L = L cos ( δ + α )
*
x
*
1
* *
j

L = L sin ( δ + α )
*
y
*
1
* *
j

V = V cos (ρ + α )
*
x 1
* * *
j

V = V sin (ρ + α )
*
y 1
* * *
j

U = U cos ( σ + γ )
*
x
*
1
* *
j

U = U sin ( σ + γ )
*
y
*
1
* *
j

Equation 6.31 can be solved using Cramer’s rule to determine the unknown forces and
torque. The unknown Watt II displacement angles αj, γj, α *j, and γ *j are the same angles
calculated from the planar four-bar displacement equations in Section 4.4.1. Given βj, αj,
γ, α *j, and γ *j solutions, the corresponding static forces and torques can be calculated from
Equation 6.31.
Appendix C.5 includes the MATLAB® file user instructions for Watt II static force anal-
ysis. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions for Equation 6.31 are calculated.

Example 6.4
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix C.5 MATLAB file, calculate the static forces and
torque generated in the Watt II mechanism in Tables E.6.10 and E.6.11 where forces of
Fp1 = ( 2500, 3000 ) N and Fp*1 = ( −1500, 2000 ) N are applied at β = 100° and the gravity is
−9.81 m/s2.
Known Information: Tables E.6.10, E.6.11, and Appendix C.5 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.6.5 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix C.5 MATLAB file. Table E.6.12 includes the static forces and torque calculated
for the Watt II mechanism using the Appendix C.5 MATLAB file.

TABLE E.6.10
Watt II Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
0.5, 90° 0.75, 19.3737° 0.75, 93.2461° 0.75, 0 0.5, 60.7834°

W1* , θ* V1*, ρ* U 1* , σ* G1* x , G1* y L*1 , δ*

0.5, 45° 0.75, 7.9416° 0.75, 60.2717° 0.7244, −0.1941 0.5, 49.3512°
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 197

TABLE E.6.11
Watt II Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m and Mass in kg)
R1 i0.25 m1 8.05
R2 0.3172 + i0.2284 m2 29.785
R3 0.1037 + i0.3675 m3 33.81
R4 0.3562 + i0.161 m4 29.785
R5 0.186 + i0.3257 m5 12.075

W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*19.3737*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75;
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*93.2461*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*60.7834*pi/180);

W1s = 0.5*exp(i*45*pi/180);
V1s = 0.75*exp(i*7.9416*pi/180);
G1s = 0.7244 - i*0.1941;
U1s = 0.75*exp(i*60.2717*pi/180);
L1s = 0.5*exp(i*49.3512*pi/180);

Fp1 = [2500, 3000];

Fp1s = [-1500, 2000];
g = -9.81;

R1 = i*0.25;
R2 = 0.3172 + i*0.2284;
R3 = 0.1037 + i*0.3675;
R4 = 0.3562 + i*0.161;
R5 = 0.1860 + i*0.3257;

m1 = 8.05;
m2 = 29.785;
m3 = 33.81;
m4 = 29.785;
m5 = 12.075;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 100;

FIGURE E.6.5
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix C.5 MATLAB file for Example 6.4.

TABLE E.6.12
Calculated Watt II Mechanism Static Forces (in N) and Torque (in N-m)
Ta0 Fa0 Fa1 Fb0
1323.5 −412.06, −2721 412.06, 2800 −741.83, 211.14

Fb1 Fa*1 Fb*0 Fb*1

2087.9, −92.193 −1346.1, 212.73 153.89, −1376.6 −153.89, 1495.1
198 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

6.7 Stephenson III Mechanism Analysis

Figure 6.8a illustrates a Stephenson III mechanism where a force Fp*1 is applied to the inter-
mediate link point. p*1 To maintain static equilibrium, a torque Ta0 is applied about the
crank link revolute joint a0. Vectors R 1 through R 5 point from a 0, a 1, b0 , p1, and b*0 , respec-
tively, to the center of gravity of each link. The loads on the individual Stephenson III
mechanism link are illustrated in Figure 6.8b. Taking the sum of the forces and moments
for each link according to the static equilibrium conditions ∑F = 0 and ∑M = 0 produces two
static equilibrium equations for each link. Expanding these two equations and separating
the force equation into two equations, where ∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0, ultimately produces three

FIGURE 6.8
(a) Stephenson III mechanism and (b) link static forces and torque.
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 199

static equilibrium equations for each link. Because the Stephenson III mechanism includes
the planar four-bar mechanism, the static equilibrium equations given in Equations 6.2,
6.4, and 6.6 are used for the crank and coupler links, respectively, of the planar four-bar
mechanism loop a0− a1− b1− b0 in the Stephenson III mechanism.
Using the first two static equilibrium conditions for the dyad link containing vector R 4
(where the moment sum is taken about p1) produces

−Fp1 − Fb*1 + Fp*1 + m4 g = 0

(6.32)
−V1* × Fb*1 + L*1 × Fp*1 + R 4 × m4 g = 0

Expanding and separating Equation 6.32 produces

−Fp1x − Fb1* x + Fp1* x = 0

−Fp1y − Fb1y* + Fp1* y + m4 g = 0

(6.33)
( ) ( )
Fb1* x V1* sin ρ* + α *j − Fb1* y V1* cos ρ* + α *j − Fp1x * * *
( )
* *
(
*
* L1 sin δ + α j + F * L1 cos δ + α j
p1 y )
(
+m4 g R4x cos α *j − R4y sin α *j = 0 )
Since gravity is directed along the y-axis, the expansion of the cross product R 4 × m4 g in
Equation 6.33 only includes the expansion of the product of m4 g and the real component of
( iα *
R 4 where R 4 = R4 x + iR4 y e j . )
Using the first two static equilibrium conditions for the dyad link containing vector R 5
(where the moment sum is taken about b*0 produces

Fb*0 + Fb*1 + m5 g = 0
(6.34)
U*1 × Fb*1 + R 5 × m5 g = 0.

Expanding and separating Equation 6.34 produces

Fb0* x + Fb1* x = 0

Fb0* y + Fb1* y + m5 g = 0 (6.35)

( ) ( ) ( )
−Fb1x* U 1* sin σ * + γ *j + Fb1* y U 1* cos σ * + γ *j + m5 g R5 x cos γ*j − R5 y sin γ *j = 0.

Since gravity is directed along the y-axis, the expansion of the cross product R 5 × m5 g in
Equation 6.35 only includes the expansion of the product of m5 g and the real component of
( iγ *
R 5 where R 5 = R5 x + iR5 y e j . )
Expressing Equations 6.2, 6.4, 6.6, 6.33, and 6.35 in a combined matrix form produces
200 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

 
 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 1 0 0 −Wy Wx 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vy −Vx −Ly Lx 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −U y Ux 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vy* −Vx* 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −U y* U x* 
 

   
 Ta0   
   0 
 Fa0 x   −m1 g 
   
 Fa0 y   (
− m1 g R1x cos β j − R1y sin β j ) 
 Fa1x   
   0 
 Fa1 y   −m2 g 
   
 Fb0 x   (
− m2 g R2 x cos α j − R2y sin α j ) 
 Fb0 y   
   0 
× Fb1x =  −m3 g 
   

Fb1y
  (
− m3 g R3 x cos γ j − R3y sin γ j ) 
 Fp1x   
−Fp1x
   
*

 Fp1y   − Fp1y
* − m4 g

 Fb*0 x   
  F * L* 

 Fb*0 y   p1 x y (
− Fp1* y L*x − m4 g R4 x cos α *j − R4 y sin α *j ) 
   0

 Fb*1x   
   −m5 g 
  


Fb*1 y
  (
− m5 g R5 x cos γ *j − R5y sin γ *j ) 

(6.36)

where:
variables Wx, Wy, Lx, Ly, Vx, Vy, Ux, and Uy are identical to those used in Equation 6.7
(
L*x = L*1 cos δ * + α *j )
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 201

(
L*y = L*1 sin δ * + α *j )
x 1
*
(
V = V cos ρ + α *j
* *
)
Vy* = V sin (ρ + α )
1
* * *
j

U x* = U cos ( σ + γ )
*
1
* *
j

U y* = U sin ( σ + γ )
*
1
* *
j

Equation 6.36 can be solved using Cramer’s rule to determine the unknown forces and
torque. The unknown Stephenson III displacement angles α, γ, α *j, and γ *j are the same
angles calculated from the Stephenson III displacement equations in Sections 4.4.1 and
4.8.1. Given β, α, γ, α *j, and γ *j solutions, the corresponding static forces and torques can be
calculated from Equation 6.36.
Appendix C.6 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for Stephenson III static force
analysis. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions for Equation 6.36 are calculated.

Example 6.5
Problem Statement: When vector W1 of the Stephenson III gripper mechanism is rotated
by β = 40, a reaction force of Fp*1 = ( 0, − 40 )N is applied. Tables E.6.13 and E.6.14 include
the dimensions and mass properties of Stephenson III gripper mechanism in the initial
position (Figure E.6.6). Gravity is −9.81m/s2. Using the Appendix C.6 MATLAB file, cal-
culate the static torque and forces generated in the gripper mechanism.
Known Information: Tables E.6.13, E.6.14, and Appendix C.6 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.6.7 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix C.5 MATLAB file. Table E.6.15 includes the static torque and forces calculated
for the Stephenson III gripper mechanism using the Appendix C.6 MATLAB file.

TABLE E.6.13
Gripping Mechanism Dimensions in Initial Position (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ G1 x , G1 y L1 , δ
1.3575, −64.4543° 0.9726, 57.2740° 1.9019, 84.2513° 0.9207, −2.2989 0.6120, −143.6057°

L ,δ
*
1
*
V ,ρ
1
* *
U ,σ
*
1
* *
G ,G
1x
*
1y

2.2217, −5° 0.5815,−25.7782° 2.9955,−42.1315° −3.3894, 2.2487

TABLE E.6.14
Stephenson III Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m and Mass in kg)
R1 0.2927 − i0.6124 m1 4
R2 0.0504 + i0.1900 m2 8
R3 0.0953 + i0.9462 m3 4
R4 0.4979 − i0.2304 m4 12
R5 1.1107 − i1.0047 m5 4
202 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.6.6
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix C.5 MATLAB file for Example 6.5.

TABLE E.6.15
Calculated Gripping Mechanism Static Forces (in N) and Torque (in N-m)
Ta0 Fa0 Fa1 Fb0
259.92 −269.71, 352.61 269.71, −313.37 14.57, 36.53

Fb1 Fp1 Fb*0 Fb*1

−14.57, 2.71 255.13, −232.18 255.13, −35.22 −255.13, 74.46

W1 = 1.3575*exp(-i*64.4543*pi/180);
V1 = 0.9726*exp(i*57.2740*pi/180);
G1 = 0.9207 - i*2.2989;
U1 = 1.9019*exp(i*84.2513*pi/180);
L1 = 0.6120*exp(-i*143.6057*pi/180);

V1s = 0.5815*exp(-i*125.7782*pi/180);
G1s = -3.3894 + i*2.2487;
U1s = 2.9955*exp(-i*42.1315*pi/180);
L1s = 2.2217*exp(-i*5*pi/180);

Fp1s = [0, -40];

g = -9.81;

R1 = 0.2927 - i*0.6124;
R2 = 0.0504 + i*0.1900;
R3 = 0.0953 + i*0.9462;
R4 = 0.4979 - i*0.2304;
R5 = 1.1107 - i*1.0047;

m1 = 4;
m2 = 8;
m3 = 4;
m4 = 12;
m5 = 4;
start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 40;

FIGURE E.6.7
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix C.5 MATLAB file for Example 6.5.
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 203

6.8 Planar Mechanism Static Force Analysis and

Modeling in Simscape MultibodyTM
As has been noted throughout this chapter, Appendices C.1–C.6 include user instructions
for the planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mecha-
nisms in MATLAB files, respectively. In these files, the static force and torque equations
formulated in this chapter are solved. These MATLAB files provide a means for the user to
efficiently conduct planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson
III static force analyses by solving their displacement equations along with their static
force and torque equations.
This textbook also utilizes Simscape Multibody as an alternate approach for simulation-
based static force analysis. A library of Simscape Multibody files is available for download
at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317 to conduct static force analyses on
planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mechanisms*.
With these files, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions, mass properties,
applied loads, and driving link parameters, and the static forces and torques at the mecha-
nism locations of interest are measured. The Simscape Multibody file user instructions for
the planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mechanisms
are given in Appendices I.1–I.6, respectively.
While the user can specify input according to any unit type for length, force, and torque
in the Appendix C MATLAB files, only two groups of dimensions are available in the
Appendix I Simscape Multibody files. The user can specify length, mass, and force quanti-
ties either in inch, pound-mass, and pound-force, respectively (the US system), or in meter, kilo-
gram, and newton, respectively (the SI system). The user also has the option in the Appendix
I files to convert US system input to SI system output and vice versa.
Example 6.6
Problem Statement: Repeat Example 6.1 using the Appendix I.1 Simscape Multibody files.
Known Information: Example 6.1 and Appendix I.1 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.6.8 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix I.1 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.6.16 includes the static torque and
forces calculated for the planar four-bar stamping mechanism using the Appendix I.1
Simscape Multibody files. Figure E.6.9 is an initial position snapshot of the mechanism
animation generated from the Appendix I.1 Simscape Multibody files.

Example 6.7
Problem Statement: Repeat Example 6.2 using the Appendix I.2 Simscape Multibody files.
Known Information: Example 6.2 and Appendix I.2 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.6.10 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix I.2 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.6.17 includes the static torque and
forces calculated for the slider-crank mechanism using the Appendix I.2 Simscape
Multibody files. Figure E.6.11 is an initial position snapshot of the mechanism ani-
mation generated from the Appendix I.2 Simscape Multibody files.

Example 6.8
Problem Statement: Repeat Example 6.3 using the Appendix I.4 Simscape Multibody files.
Known Information: Example 6.3 and Appendix I.4 Simscape Multibody files.

* This library can also be downloaded from the authors’ server http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_
mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
204 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

unit_select = 'SI';

W1 = 0.2013*exp(-i*157.8291*pi/180);
V1 = 0.1583*exp(-i*150.1267*pi/180);
G1 = -0.0876 - i*0.4071;
U1 = 0.3455*exp(i*133.0953*pi/180);
L1 = 0.27*exp(i*4.7572*pi/180);
Fp1 = [0, 4500];
g = -9.81;

R1 = -0.0932 - i*0.0380;
R2 = 0.0955 + i*0.0159;
R3 = -0.1180 + i*0.1261;

m1 = 8;
m2 = 40;
m3 = 12;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 60;

angular_vel = 0;
angular_acc = 0;

FIGURE E.6.8
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix I.1 Simscape Multibody file for Example 6.6.

TABLE E.6.16
Calculated Stamping Mechanism Static Forces (in N) and Torque (in N-m) (Appendix I.1)
Ta0 Fa 0 Fa1 Fb0 Fb1
162.51 74.14, −5347.8 −74.14, 5426.3 −74.14, 1436.4 74.14, −1318.7

FIGURE E.6.9
Initial position of the planar four-bar mechanism in the Appendix I.1 Simscape Multibody anima-
tion for Example 6.6.
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 205

unit_select = 'SI';

LW1 = 0.04;
theta = 45*pi/180;

LU1 = 0;

LV1 = 0.06;

F = [-50, 0];
mu = 0.1;
g = -9.81;

R1 = 0;
R2 = 0.0265 - i*0.0141;

m1 = 0.05;
m2 = 0.025;
m3 = 0.075;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 0;

FIGURE E.6.10
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix I.2 Simscape Multibody file for Example 6.7.

TABLE E.6.17
Calculated Slider-Crank Mechanism Static Forces (N) and Torque (N-m) (Appendix I.2)
Ta 0 Fa 0 Fa1 Fb1 Fnormal Ffriction
−2.053 47.381, −24.714 −47.381, 25.204 47.381, −25.449 26.815 2.6185

FIGURE E.6.11
Initial position of the slider-crank mechanism in the Appendix I.2 Simscape Multibody animation
for Example 6.7.
206 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

unit_select = 'SI';
W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*32.7304*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75;
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*45*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*74.1400*pi/180);
S1 = 0.75*exp(i*149.9847*pi/180);

ratio = 2;
Fp1 = [-2500,-3000];
g = -9.81;

R1 = i*0.0831;
R2 = 0.2558 + i*0.2955;
R3 = -0.3247 + i*0.1876;
R4 = 0.0356 + i*0.0356;

m1 = 22.54;
m2 = 29.785;
m3 = 12.075;
m4 = 75.67;
start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 60;

FIGURE E.6.12
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix I.4 Simscape Multibody file for Example 6.8.

TABLE E.6.18
Calculated Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Static Forces (N) and Torque (N-m)
(Appendix I.4)
Ta′0 Fa′0 Fa1 Fc1 Fb1
−2207 543.2, −1145 −543.2, −3173.7 −1956.8, −118.44 −1956.8, −236.88

Tb0 Fb′0
−1362 1956.8, −3560.7

Solution Approach: Figure E.6.12 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix I.4 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.6.18 includes the static torque and
forces calculated for the geared five-bar mechanism using the Appendix I.4 Simscape
Multibody files. Figure E.6.13 is an initial position snapshot of the mechanism animation
generated from the Appendix I.4 Simscape Multibody files.

Example 6.9
Problem Statement: Repeat Example 6.4 using the Appendix I.5 Simscape Multibody files.
Known Information: Example 6.4 and Appendix I.5 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.6.14 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix I.5 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.6.19 includes the static torque and forces
calculated for the Watt II mechanism using the Appendix I.5 Simscape Multibody files.
Figure E.6.15 is an initial position snapshot of the mechanism animation generated from
the Appendix I.5 Simscape Multibody files.

Example 6.10
Problem Statement: Repeat Example 6.5 using the Appendix I.6 Simscape Multibody files.
Known Information: Example 6.5 and Appendix I.6 Simscape Multibody files.
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 207

FIGURE E.6.13
Initial position of the geared five-bar mechanism in the Appendix I.4 Simscape Multibody anima-
tion for Example 6.8.

unit_select = 'SI';

W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*19.3737*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75 + i*0;
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*93.2461*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*60.7834*pi/180);
W1s = 0.5*exp(i*45*pi/180);
V1s = 0.75*exp(i*7.9416*pi/180);
G1s = 0.7244 - i*0.1941;
U1s = 0.75*exp(i*60.2717*pi/180);
L1s = 0.5*exp(i*49.3512*pi/180);
Fp1 = [2500,3000];
Fp1s = [-1500, 2000];
g = -9.81;

R1 = i*0.25;
R2 = 0.3172 + i*0.2284;
R3 = 0.1037 + i*0.3675;
R4 = 0.3562 + i*0.161;
R5 = 0.1860 + i*0.3257;

m1 = 8.05;
m2 = 29.785;
m3 = 33.81;
m4 = 29.785;
m5 = 12.075;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 100;

FIGURE E.6.14
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix I.5 Simscape Multibody file for Example 6.9.

Solution Approach: Figure E.6.16 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix I.5 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.6.20 includes the static torque and
forces calculated for the Stephenson III mechanism using the Appendix I.6 Simscape
Multibody files. Figure E.6.17 is an initial position snapshot of the mechanism anima-
tion generated from the Appendix I.6 Simscape Multibody files.
208 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE E.6.19
Calculated Watt II Mechanism Static Forces (in N) and Torque (in N-m) (Appendix I.5)
Ta0 Fa0 Fa1 Fb0
1323.5 −412.06, −2721 412.06, 2800 −741.83, 211.14

Fb1 Fa1* Fb*0 Fb*1

2087.9, −92.193 −1346.1, 212.73 153.89, −1376.6 −153.89, 1495.1

FIGURE E.6.15
Initial position of the Watt II mechanism in the Appendix I.5 Simscape Multibody animation for
Example 6.9.

unit_select = 'SI';

W1 = 1.3575*exp(-i*64.4543*pi/180);
V1 = 0.9726*exp(i*57.2740*pi/180);
G1 = 0.9207 - i*2.2989;
U1 = 1.9019*exp(i*84.2513*pi/180);
L1 = 0.6120*exp(-i*143.6057*pi/180);
V1s = 0.5815*exp(-i*125.7782*pi/180);
G1s = -3.3894 + i*2.2487;
U1s = 2.9955*exp(-i*42.1315*pi/180);
L1s = 2.2217*exp(-i*5*pi/180);

Fp1s = [0, -40];

g = -9.81;

R1 = 0.2927 - i*0.6124;
R2 = 0.0504 + i*0.1900;
R3 = 0.0953 + i*0.9462;
R4 = 0.4979 - i*0.2304;
R5 = 1.1107 - i*1.0047;

m1 = 4;
m2 = 8;
m3 = 4;
m4 = 12;
m5 = 4;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 40;

FIGURE E.6.16
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix I.6 Simscape Multibody file for Example 6.10.
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 209

TABLE E.6.20
Calculated Stephenson III Mechanism Static Forces (N) and Torque (N-m) (Appendix I.6)
Ta0 Fa0 Fa1 Fb0
259.92 −269.71, 352.61 269.71, −313.37 14.573, 36.532

Fb1 Fp1 Fb*0 Fb*1

−14.573, 2.7082 255.13, −232.18 255.13, −35.221 −255.13, 74.461

FIGURE E.6.17
Initial position of the Stephenson III mechanism in the Appendix I.6 Simscape Multibody anima-
tion for Example 6.10.

6.9 Summary
In terms of structural force analyses for mechanical systems, a static force analysis is the
most basic type of force analysis to consider beyond kinematics. In this type of analysis,
loads are considered for each mechanism link according to Newton’s first law (∑F = ∑M = 0).
In this chapter, static force and moment equations are formulated for the planar four-bar,
slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mechanisms. These equations
form sets of linear simultaneous equations that are solved to determine the static forces
and torques present at each mechanism joint. The Appendix C.1 through C.6 MATLAB files
provide a means for the user to efficiently conduct planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-
bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III static force analyses by solving their displacement equations
(from Chapter 4) along with their linear simultaneous equation sets.
This textbook also utilizes Simscape Multibody as an alternate approach for simulation-
based static load analyses. Using the Appendix I.1 through I.6 Simscape Multibody files,
the user can conduct static load analyses on the planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-
bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mechanisms, respectively, as well as simulating mecha-
nism motion.
210 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

References
1. Hibbeler, R. C. 1995. Engineering Mechanics: Statics. 7th edn, Chapter 5. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
2. Beer, F. P. and Johnston, E. R. 1988. Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics. 5th edn,
Chapter 4. New York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Cheng, F. 1997. Statics and Strength of Materials. 2nd edn, Chapter 3. New York: Glencoe
McGraw-Hill.
4. Spotts, M. F., Shoup, T. E., and Hornberger, L. E. 2004. Design of Machine Elements. 8th edn,
pp. 709–717. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Additional Reading
Myszka, D. H. 2005. Machines and Mechanisms: Applied Kinematic Analysis. 3rd edn, Chapter 13. Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Waldron, K. J. and Kinzel, G. L. 2004. Kinematics, Dynamics and Design of Machinery. 2nd edn,
Chapter 13. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Wilson, C. E. and Sadler, J. P. 2003. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery. 3rd edn, Chapter 9. Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Problems
1. Figure P.6.1 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a hatch from the
closed-hatch position to the opened-hatch position. When the opened-hatch position
is reached, a static force of Fp2 = ( 0, 4500 )N is applied at the displaced p1 (labeled
p2 in Figure P.6.1). The dimensions for the illustrated mechanism are included in
Table P.6.1. The masses of the crank, coupler, and follower links are m1 = 5, m2 = 63,
and m3 = 7 kg, respectively, and the link center of mass vectors are R1 = –1.0629 +
i1.9335, R 2 = −2.6808 + i0.5954, and R 3 = −0.8045 − i0.8082 m. Gravity is −9.81 m/s2.
Considering a crank rotation of −30°, determine the crank static torque and joint
forces produced at the opened-hatch position (using the Appendix C.1 or I.1 file).
2. Figure P.6.2 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a bucket from
the loading bucket position to the unloading position. When the unloading posi-
tion is reached, a static force of Fp2 = ( 0, −2250 ) N is applied at the displaced p1
(labeled p2 in Figure P.6.2). The dimensions for the illustrated mechanism are
included in Table P.6.2. The masses of the crank, coupler, and follower links are
m1 = 8.75, m2 = 58, and m3 = 10 kg, respectively, and the link center of mass vec-
tors are R 1 = −1.6021 + i1.5157, R 2 = −1.7147 − i1.0699, and R 3 = −0.3364 − i1.8307.
Gravity is −9.81 m/s2. Considering a crank rotation of −30°, determine the crank
static torque and joint forces produced at the unloading bucket position (using the
Appendix C.1 or I.1 file).
3. Figure P.6.3 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a digging
bucket from the initial position to the final position. When the final digging
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 211

FIGURE P.6.1
Hatch mechanism.

TABLE P.6.1
Hatch Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ G1 x , G1 y L1 , δ
4.4127,118.7982° 1.0214,101.2268° 2.2807, 225.1319° −0.7156, 6.4851 4.1345,139.4559°

position is reached, a static force of Fp2 = ( −3500, −4500 )N is applied at the dis-
placed p1 (labeled p2 in Figure P.6.3). The dimensions for the illustrated mecha-
nism are included in Table P.6.3. The masses of the crank, coupler, and follower
links are m1 = 8, m2 = 45, and m3 = 10 kg, respectively, and the link center of mass
vectors are R 1 = −1.4003 − i0.7392, R 2 = −4.7688 + i0.7191, and R 3 = −1.3785 − i1.8621
. Gravity is −9.81 m/s2. Considering a crank rotation of −57.4°, determine the crank
static torque and joint forces produced at the opened-hatch position (using the
Appendix C.1 or I.1 file).
212 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.6.2
Loading–unloading mechanism.

TABLE P.6.2
Loading-Unloading Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ G1 x , G1 y L1 , δ
4.4109, 136.588° 0.5973, 70.2408° 3.7227, 259.5885° −2.3295, 7.2548 3.2581, 179.5331°
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 213

FIGURE P.6.3
Digging mechanism.

TABLE P.6.3
Digging Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ G1 x , G1 y L1 , δ
3.1669, 207.829° 4.1266, 187.8282° 4.6337, 233.487° −4.1317, 1.6837 3.9721, 202.3921°

FIGURE P.6.4
Component-assembly mechanism.

TABLE P.6.4
Component Assembly Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ G1 x , G1 y L1 , δ
2.619, 310.6493° 1.3708, 89.216° 0.9708, −112.147° 2.0908, 0.2827 4.1467, 0.7042°
214 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE P.6.5
Planar Four-Bar Mechanism Configuration (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ G1 x , G1 y L1 , δ
0.2153, 90° 0.246, −16.0138° 0.246, 58.1173° 0.1066, −0.0615 0.246, 12.9412°
Fp1 (N) R1 ∼ R 3 m1 ∼ m 3
−150, −150 0 0

FIGURE P.6.5
Folding-wing mechanism.

TABLE P.6.6
Folding Wing Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
0.4795 + i4.2231 −0.7524 − i1.143 0.3857 − i3.5125 −0.6586 + i6.5927 0.5555 + i0.8439
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 215

FIGURE P.6.6
Latch mechanism.

TABLE P.6.7
Latch Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
2.7459 − i2.0384 1.8305 − i0.8899 2.3039 − i0.6875 2.2725 − i2.2408 4.1783 + i5.334

−9.81 m/s2. Considering a crank rotation of 70°, determine the crank static torque
and joint forces produced at the applied position (using the Appendix C.1 or I.1 file).
8. Figure P.6.7 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a lower
cutting blade from the open position to the close position. When the close
position is reached, a static force of Fp2 = ( 0, −22 )N is applied at the displaced
p1 (labeled p2 in Figure P.6.7). The dimensions for the illustrated mechanism
are included in Table P.6.8. The masses of the crank, coupler, and follower links are
m1 = 15, m2 = 75 and m3 = 30 kg, respectively, and the link center of mass vectors are
R 1 = −0.0498 + i0.7196, R 2 = 1.8244 − i1.4446, and R 3 = 1.1707 + i0.5269. Gravity is
−9.81 m/s2. Considering a crank rotation of −45°, determine the crank static torque
and joint forces produced at the close position (using the Appendix C.1 or I.1 file).
9. Figure P.6.8 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a brake
pad from the released position to the applied position. When the applied posi-
tion is reached, a static force of Fp2 = ( 222, 0 )N is applied at the displaced p1
(labeled p2 in Figure P.6.8). The dimensions for the illustrated mechanism are
included in Table P.6.9. The masses of the crank, coupler, and follower links are
m1 = 8, m2 = 12, and m3 = 5 kg, respectively, and the link center of mass vectors
are R 1 = 0.2661 + i0.4847, R 2 = 1.1785 + i1.0948, and R 3 = −0.2278 + i0.2698. Gravity
is −9.81 m/s2. Considering a crank rotation of 40°, determine the crank static
torque and joint forces produced at the applied position (using the Appendix C.1
or I.1 file).
216 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.6.7
Cutting-blade mechanism.

TABLE P.6.8
Cutting Blade Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
−0.0997 + i1.4392 −0.6134 + i1.3743 2.3413 + i1.0538 −3.0544 + i1.7597 2.222 − i1.111

FIGURE P.6.8
Brake-pad mechanism.
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 217

TABLE P.6.9
Brake Pad Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
0.5322 + i0.9695 −1.6049 − i1.2391 −0.4555 + i0.5396 −0.6171 − i0.8093 0.899 + i1.2002

FIGURE P.6.9
Gripper mechanism.

TABLE P.6.10
Gripper Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
−0.405 − i0.801 1.3998 − i0.4425 0.7481 + i0.4728 0.2466 − i1.7163 3.375 + i4.25
218 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.6.10
Stamping mechanism.

TABLE P.6.11
Stamping Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
−1.8638 − i0.7595 −1.8068 − i0.9841 −2.3177 + i0.9444 −1.3529 − i2.688 2.6903 + i0.2239

R 1 = −0.9319 − i0.3798, R 2 = 0.955 + i0.1593, and R 3 = −1.1589 + i0.4722. Gravity

is −9.81 m/s2. Considering a crank rotation of 60°, determine the crank static
torque and joint forces produced at the applied position (using the Appendix C.1
or I.1 file).
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 219

TABLE P.6.12
Slider-Crank Mechanism Configuration (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 U1 µ F (N)
0.3, 90° 1 0 0.45 300, 100

TABLE P.6.13
Slider-Crank Mechanism Configuration (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 U1 µ F (N)
0.03, 90° 0.09 0 0.35 −60, −20

coupler, and slider links are m1 = 0.025 , m2 = 0.015, and m3 = 0.015 kg, respectively,
and the link center of mass vectors are R 1 = i0.015 and R 2 = 0.0424 − i0.015. Gravity
is −9.81 m/s2.

TABLE P.6.14
Slider-Crank Mechanism Configuration (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 U1 µ F (N)
0.0635, 45° 0.2 −0.035 0.5 400, 0

TABLE P.6.15
Slider-Crank Mechanism Configuration (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 U1 µ F (N)
0.03, 90° 0.09 0.03 0.25 −111, 0
220 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE P.6.16
Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Configuration (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ S1 , ψ G1 x , G1 y L1 , δ
0.35, 90° 0.525, 54.7643° 0.35, 60° 0.525, 115.0279° 0.35, 0 0.35, −15.7645°

Fp1 Gear Ratio

0, −1000 −2

TABLE P.6.17
Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Configuration (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ S1 , ψ G1 , angle
0.0254, 90° 0.1016, 140.2031° 0.0381, 75° 0.1524, 154.0128° 0.0508, −15°

L1 , δ Fp1 (N) Gear Ratio

0.0762, 180° 0,−40 −1.5

TABLE P.6.18
Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Configuration (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ S1 , ψ G1 x , G1 y
0.0254, 60° 0.1778, 173.6421° 0.1016, 150° 0.2286, 182.2848° 0.1524, 0

L1 , δ Fp1 (N) Gear Ratio

0.1524, 203.6421° 20, −40 3
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 221

TABLE P.6.19
Watt II Mechanism Configuration (with all Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ G1 x , G1 y L1 , δ
1, 90° 1.5, 19.3737° 1.5, 93.2461° 1.5, 0 1, 60.7834°

W ,θ
1
* *
V ,ρ
1
* *
U ,σ
*
1
*
G ,G *
1x
*
1y L*1 , δ *
1, 45° 1.5, 7.9416° 1.5, 60.2717° 1.4489, −0.3882 1, 49.3512°

Fp1 (N) Fp*1 (N)

0, −1500 −2500, −1000

R 1 = i0.5, R 2 = 0.6344 + i0.4568, R 3 = 0.2074 + i0.7349, R 4 = 0.7124 + i0.322, and

R 5 = 0.3719 + i0.6513. Gravity is −9.81 m/s2.
27. Using the Watt II mechanism configuration given in Table P.6.19, determine the
driving link static torque values corresponding to crank displacements of −90°,
−180°, and −270° (using the Appendix C.5 or I.5 file).
28. Figure P.6.11 includes a Watt II mechanism used in an adjustable chair. The
dimensions for the chair in the initial upright position are also included in this
figure. A crank rotation of 25° is required to achieve the reclined chair posi-
tion. At the reclined position, the forces illustrated in Figure P.6.11 are applied
at vectors L1 and L*1 (the midpoints of vectors V1 and V1* respectively). Calculate

FIGURE P.6.11
Adjustable-chair mechanism.
222 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

the static forces and torques at the reclined chair position (using the Appendix
C.5 or I.5 file). The link masses are m1 = 3, m2 = 7, m3 = 12, m4 = 7, and m5 = 2
kg, respectively, and the link center of mass vectors are R 1 = −0.2201 + i0.7295,
R 2 = 0.0602 − i0.4441, R 3 = i0.3279, R 4 = 0.0964 − i0.3749, and R 5 = 0.1039 − i0.2908.
Gravity is −9.81 m/s2.
29. Repeat Problem 28 using head rest and leg rest forces of (−150, −450) and (−25, −225)
N, respectively.
30. Calculate the static forces and torque for the Watt II mechanism in Example 6.4
where Fp1 = ( −1500, −2000 )N and Fp*1 = ( 2000, −1000 )N (using the Appendix C.5 or
I.5 file).
31. Figure P.6.12 illustrates a Stephenson III mechanism used to guide a seat from the
reclined position to the upright position. When the upright position is reached, a
static force of Fp*2 = ( 0, −900 )N is applied at the displaced p*1 (labeled p*2 in Figure P.6.12).
The dimensions for the illustrated mechanism are included in Table P.6.20.
Considering a crank rotation of −16°, determine the crank static torque and joint
forces produced at the upright position (using the Appendix C.6 or I.6 file). The

FIGURE P.6.12
Seat mechanism.

TABLE P.6.20
Seat Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
−0.7432 + i0.4727 0.5825 + i0.1724 −0.1804 − i0.4696 0.0197 + i1.1147 0.5671 + i1.2383
* * * *
L1 V1 U 1 G 1

1 + i0.25 0.0552 − i2.3906 −0.2086 − i0.2401 0.068 − i1.5542

Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 223

link masses are m1 = 3.75, m2 = 12, m3 = 2.5, m4 = 10, and m5 = 2.25 kg, respectively,
and the link center of mass vectors are R 1 = −0.3716 + i0.2364, R 2 = 0.3832 + i0.4702,
R 3 = −0.0902 − i0.2348, R 4 = 0.3758 − i1.0047, and R 5 = −0.1043 − i0.1201. Gravity is
−9.81 m/s2.
32. Figure P.6.13 illustrates a Stephenson III mechanism used to guide a digging
tool from the initial position to the final position. When the final position is
reached, a static force of Fp*2 = ( 0, −9000 )N is applied at the displaced p*1 (labeled
p*2 in Figure P.6.13). The dimensions for the illustrated mechanism are included in
Table P.6.21. Considering a crank rotation of 40°, determine the crank static torque
and joint forces produced at the final position (using the Appendix C.6 or I.6 file).
The link masses are m1 = 5, m2 = 10, m3 = 4, m4 = 15, and m5 = 3.75 kg, respectively,
and the link center of mass vectors are R 1 = 1.5273 − i0.7343, R 2 = −1.6254 + i0.2655,
R 3 = −0.6545 − i0.7694, R 4 = 1.056 − i0.4951, and R 5 = −0.5295 − i0.0657. Gravity is
−9.81 m/s2.
33. Calculate the static forces and torques for the Stephenson III mechanism configura-
tion in Table P.6.22 at a crank displacement angle of −90° (using the Appendix C.6 or
I.6 file). The link masses are m1 = 4, m2 = 8, m3 = 4, m4 = 8, and m5 = 7 kg, respectively,
and the link center of mass vectors are R 1 = i0.5, R 2 = 0.6344 + i0.4568, R 3 = 0.2074
+ i07349, R 4 = 0.7847 + i0.4953, and R 5 = 0.2337 + i0.9723. Gravity is −9.81 m/s2.

FIGURE P.6.13
Digging mechanism.
224 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE P.6.21
Digging Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ G1 x , G1 y L1 , δ
3.3893, −25.6775° 1.6644, 120.3504° 2.0202, 229.6156° 3.5225, 1.5065 4.0855, 189.0097°

V ,ρ
1
* *
U ,σ
*
1
*
L ,δ
*
1
* *
G ,G
1x
*
1y

2.4795, 14.6953° 1.0672, 187.0724° 2.25, −70° −1.0455, −2.8545

TABLE P.6.22
Stephenson III Mechanism Configuration (with all Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ G1 x , G1 y L1 , δ
1, 90° 1.5, 19.3737° 1.5, 93.2461° 1.5, 0 1, 60.7834°

L*1 , δ * V1* , ρ* U 1* , σ * G1* x , G1* y Fp*1 (N)

1, 63.7091° 2, 17.1417° 2, 76.4844° 0.4318, 0.5176 0, 0

FIGURE P.6.14
Gripping-tool mechanism.
Static Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 225

TABLE P.6.23
Gripper Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in cm)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ G1 x , G1 y L1 , δ
1.0283, 318.4178° 0.5195, 286.4362° 0.9418, 230.6143° 1.5138,−0.4529 0.7031, 189.1904°

V ,ρ
1
* *
U ,σ
*
1
*
L ,δ
*
1
* *
G ,G
1x
*
1y

5.2881, 319.9647° 0.8666, 236.6216° 3.2742, 11.8113° 3.0869, −3.0198

reached, a static force of Fp*2 = ( 0, −50 )N is applied at the displaced p*1 (labeled p*2
in Figure P.6.14). The dimensions for the illustrated mechanism are included in
Table P.6.23. Considering a crank rotation of 40°, determine the crank static torque
and joint forces produced at the closed position (using the Appendix C.6 or I.6
file). The link masses are m1 = 4, m2 = 8, m3 = 4, m4 = 12, and m5 = 4 kg, respectively,
and the link center of mass vectors are R 1 = 0.3846 − i0.3412, R 2 = −0.6343 + i1.0364,
R 3 = −0.2988 − i0.3639, R 4 = 1.1487 + i0.0597, and R 5 = −0.2384 − i0.3618. Gravity is
−9.81 m/s2.
35. Calculate the static forces and torque for the Stephenson III mechanism in
Example 6.5 where Fp*1 = ( 0, 0 )N.
7
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms

CONCEPT OVERVIEW
In this chapter, the reader will gain a central understanding regarding

1. Criteria for dynamic force analysis and its applications

2. Link dynamic loads in 2D space
3. Formulation and solution of linear simultaneous equation sets for dynamic force
analysis
4. The effects of gear train inclusion in the dynamic force analysis of five-bar
mechanisms
5. The mass moment of inertia, its application in dynamic force analysis, and its
calculation in computer-aided design (CAD) software

7.1 Introduction
As explained in Chapter 1, a dynamic force analysis (Figure 1.1) is the next type of force
analysis to consider beyond a static force analysis when determining the structural forces
in mechanical systems. Such an analysis should always be considered when angular
velocities and accelerations are substantial (when mechanism motion is truly dynamic).
Dynamic force analyses are also more general than static force analyses when mechanism
motion is quasi-static. This is because, with a dynamic force analysis, acceleration-based
forces and torques (however small in a quasi-static condition) are included.* In a dynamic
force analysis, loads such as forces and torques are considered for each mechanism link
according to Newton’s second law (∑F = ma, ∑M = Iα) [1–5].†
Unlike the static force equations in Chapter 6, the equation systems presented in this
chapter consider the inertia, velocity, and acceleration of each link.‡ Like the Chapter 6
equations, the equation systems presented in this chapter consider in-plane forces and
torques, and mechanism links are considered to be rigid. Although link weights are not
neglected in the forthcoming equations, as the acceleration of the links exceeds gravitational

* In a static force analysis, acceleration-based loads are not included due to Newton’s first law.
† In Newton’s second law, the variables m and I represent the link mass and mass moment of inertia, respectively.
‡ While the equations in this chapter do not explicitly consider time (only angular displacement, velocity, and

acceleration), time can be inversely determined from these quantities (see Section 4.9).

DOI: 10.1201/9781003316961-7 227

228 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 7.1
Dynamic loads on (a) grounded rotating and (b) translating planar links.

acceleration, the effect of gravity (and subsequently the link weights) becomes increasingly
negligible. This condition is common in high-speed machinery.

7.2 D ynamic Loading in Planar Space

Figure 7.1 illustrates arbitrarily grounded rotating and translating planar links under load-
ing. Like static loads, dynamic loads can be represented as force vectors applied to link
points. For example, force vectors Fp0 , Fp1 , and mg are applied to link points p0, p1, and the
link’s CG (center of gravity), respectively, in Figure 7.1(a). Also, a torque Ta0 is applied about
point p0 in Figure 7.1(a). Like static loads, dynamic forces and torques are either applied
externally (like force vectors F and mg in Figure 7.1(b)) or they are reactions to externally
applied loads (like force vectors Fp1 and F f in Figure 7.1(b)).
Link dynamic loads are governed according to Newton’s second law. In this law, the sum
of all link forces is equal to the product of link mass and linear acceleration (or ∑F = ma),
and the sum of all moments is equal to the product of the link mass moment of inertia and
rotational acceleration (or ∑M = Iα). Like static loading, under dynamic loading force sums
are taken in both directions (∑Fx = max and ∑Fy = may). The gravitational load or the weight
of each moving link (denoted by the product mg in Figure 7.1) is oriented in the negative
y-axis direction.
The conditions of Newton’s second law must be satisfied for each mechanism link in
order for the entire mechanism to be dynamically sound.

7.3 Four-Bar Mechanism Analysis

Figure 7.2a illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism where a force Fp1 is applied to the
coupler link point p1. To drive the mechanism, a torque Ta 0 is applied about the crank
link revolute joint a0. The user also has the option of specifying a torque Tb 0 about the
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 229

follower-link revolute joint b0.* The loads on the individual planar four-bar mechanism
links are illustrated in Figure 7.2b. Because the joints at a1 and b1 are shared among two
links, the forces at a1 and b1 must be equal but opposite (resulting in ±Fa1 and ±Fb1 in
Figure 7.2b). The remaining force and torque variables, however, remain positive for sim-
plicity.† This approach is repeated for the mechanisms in Sections 7.4–7.7.
Taking the sum of the forces and moments for each link according to the conditions
∑F = ma and ∑M = Iα produces two dynamic equations for each link. Expanding these two
equations and separating the force equation into two equations, where ∑ Fx = maCGx and
∑ Fy = maCGy , ultimately produces three dynamic equations for each link.
Because, in a dynamic condition, moments are taken with respect to each link’s center
of gravity (also called the center of mass), Figure 7.2b includes vectors between the cen-
ter of gravity and the load points (which are the mechanism nodes and the points where
external forces are applied) of each mechanism link. Equation 7.1 includes the center
of gravity-load point vectors used for the planar four-bar mechanism. To eliminate the

FIGURE 7.2
(a) Planar four-bar mechanism and (b) link dynamic forces and torques.

* If the user prefers not to consider the coupler link applied force Fp1 or the follower link applied torque Tb 0 ,
these quantities can be specified as zero in the dynamic load equations.
† The signs of the calculated dynamic force and torque variables are not determined by the signs prescribed
to them during equation formulation. They are determined by the mechanism position and the applied load
values.
230 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

need to define unique direction angles for vectors R1 through R 7, they are expressed in
rectangular form.

R j = R jx + iR jy , j = 1, 2,...,7 (7.1)

As illustrated in Figure 7.2, vectors R1 through R 7 are defined with respect to the link
center of gravity (therefore pointing away from the center of gravity).*
Because the x- and y-components of the total acceleration of the center of gravity of each
link are required in the dynamic load equations, Equation 7.2 includes the acceleration
equations for a CG1 through a CG3 .† These acceleration equations are identical in form to the
planar four-bar acceleration equations in Section 4.4.3.

 j ( −R 1 ) e i(β j ) − β 2j ( −R 1 ) e i(β j )
a CG1 = iβ

 i ( −R 3 ) e i(α j ) − α 2j ( −R 3 ) e i(α j )
a CG2 = A a1 + iα
(7.2)
 jW1e i(θ+β j ) − β 2j W1e i(θ +β j ) − iα
= iβ  jR 3 e i(α j ) + α 2j R 3 e i(α j )

γ j ( −R 7 ) e ( j ) − γ 2j ( −R 7 ) e ( j )
i γ i γ
a CG3 = i

Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the crank link (where the moment sum is
taken about the center of gravity CG1) produces

Fa0 + Fa1 + m1g = m1a CG1

(7.3)
 j
Ta0 + R 1 × Fa0 + R 2 × Fa1 = I1β

Expanding and separating Equation 7.3 produces

Fa0 x + Fa1 x = m1aCG1x

Fa0 y + Fa1 y + m1 g = m1aCG1y (7.4)

 j
Ta0 − Fa0 x R1y + Fa0 y R1x − Fa1 x R2 y + Fa1 y R2 x = I1β

Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the coupler link (where the moment sum
is taken about CG2) produces

−Fa1 − Fb1 + Fp1 + m2 g = m2a CG2

(7.5)
−R 3 × Fa1 − R 4 × Fb1 + R 5 × Fp1 = I 2α
 j

Expanding and separating Equation 7.5 produces

* The vectors were established this way for use in the forthcoming moment summation equations.
† To correctly calculate a
CG1 through a CG3 , the signs of R 1, R 3, and R 7 are reversed.
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 231

−Fa1 x − Fb1 x + Fp1 x = m2 aCG2 x

−Fa1 y − Fb1 y + Fp1 y + m2 g = m2 aCG2 y (7.6)

Fa1 x R3 y − Fa1 y R3 x + Fb1 x R4 y − Fb1 y R4 x − Fp1 x R5 y + Fp1 y R5 x = I 2α

 j

Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the follower link (where the moment
sum is taken about CG3) produces

Fb0 + Fb1 + m3 g = m3a CG3

(7.7)
Tb0 + R 6 × Fb1 + R 7 × Fb0 = I 3 
γj

Expanding and separating Equation 7.7 produces

Fb0 x + Fb1 x = m3 aCG3 x

Fb0 y + Fb1 y + m3 g = m3 aCG3 y (7.8)

Tb0 − Fb1 x R6 y + Fb1 y R6 x − Fb0 x R7 y + Fb0 y R7 x = I 3 

γj

Expressing Equations 7.4, 7.6, and 7.8 in a combined matrix form produces

 
  Ta0 
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
  Fa0 x 
 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0  
 1 − R1yβ j R1xβ j − R2 yβ j R2 xβ j 0 0 0 0  Fa0 y 
  
 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0  Fa1x

 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1   Fa1y 
  
 0 0 0 R3 yα j − R3 xα j 0 0 R4 y α j − R4 xα j  Fb0 x 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0  
  Fb0 y
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 
  Fb1 x 
 0 0 0 0 0 − R7 yγ j R7 xγ j − R6 yγ j R6 xγ j  
  Fb1y
 

 m1aCG1x 
 
 m 1 CG1y − m1 g
a 
  j 
 I1β 
 − Fp1 x + m2 aCG2 x 
 
= − Fp1 y + m2 aCG2 y − m2 g  (7.9)
 
 j + Fp1 x R5 yα j − Fp1 y R5 xα j
 I 2α 
 
 m3 aCG3 x 
 m3 aCG3 y − m3 g 
 
 I 3 
γ j − Tb0 
 
232 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

where the x- and y-components of vectors R1 through R 7 are Rnxangle j = Rnx cos angle j − ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Rny sin angle j and Rnyangle j = Rnx sin angle j + Rny cos angle j .* It can be seen in Equations 7.4,
7.6, 7.8, and ultimately in Equation 7.9 that the mass and mass moment of inertia of each
link are also required.
Equation 7.9 can be solved using Cramer’s rule to determine the unknown forces and
torque. The unknown planar four-bar displacement angles αj and γj, angular velocities
α j and γ j, and angular accelerations α γ j are the same quantities calculated from the
 j and 
planar four-bar equations in Sections 4.4.1–4.4.4. Given such solutions, the corresponding
dynamic forces and torques can be calculated from Equation 7.9.
Appendix D.1 includes the MATLAB® file user instructions for planar four-bar dynamic
force analysis. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions for Equation 7.9 are calculated.†

Example 7.1
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix D.1 MATLAB file, calculate the reaction forces
Fa0 x , Fa0 y , Fb0 x , and Fb0 y over a complete crank rotation range for the planar four-bar
mechanism in Tables E.7.1 and E.7.2. For this mechanism Fp1 = ( 0, 0 ) N, β 0 = 1rad s, and
 = 0 rad s 2 . Also, T = 0 and gravity is −9.81 m/s2.
β b0
Known Information: Tables E.7.1, E.7.2, and Appendix D.1 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.7.1 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix D.1 MATLAB file. Vectors R 2 , R4, R 5 , and R 6 are calculated in the MATLAB
file using vector-loop equations (see Appendix D.1). Figure E.7.2 includes the reaction
force profiles calculated for the planar four-bar mechanism using the Appendix D.1
MATLAB file.

TABLE E.7.1
Planar Four-Bar Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
0.5, 90° 0.75, 19.3737° 0.75, 93.2461° 0.75, 0 0.5, 60.7834°

TABLE E.7.2
Planar Four-Bar Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and
Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 0 − i0.25 m1 8.05
R3 −0.3172 − i0.2284 I1 0.805
R7 0.0212 − i0.3744 m2 29.785
I2 5.635
m3 12.075
I3 2.415

* This method of calculating mechanism forces via matrix manipulation is called the matrix method. With this
method, link force equations are quickly derived.
† The library of MATLAB files used in this chapter can also be downloaded from the authors’ server http://

www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 233

W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*19.3737*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75;
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*93.2461*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*60.7834*pi/180);

Fp1 = [0, 0];

Tb0 = 0;
g = -9.81;

R1 = -i*0.25;
R3 = -0.3172 - i*0.2284;
R7 = 0.0212 - i*0.3744;

m1 = 8.05;
I1 = 0.805;
m2 = 29.785;
I2 = 5.635;

m3 = 12.075;
I3 = 2.415;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 360;

angular_vel = 1 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.7.1
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix D.1 MATLAB file for Example 7.1.

FIGURE E.7.2
Fa0 x , Fa0 y , Fb0 x and Fb0 y reaction force profiles for planar four-bar mechanism.

In a mechanism where the crank link rotates continuously, nonconstant force profiles in
the mechanism joints (like those illustrated in Figure E.7.1 for the planar four-bar mecha-
nism) will cause the mechanism to oscillate or vibrate. Excessive vibration is an undesired
effect because it can compromise the design life of a mechanical system as well as its
performance. Vibration analysis (a study associated with dynamics) is concerned with the
oscillatory motions of bodies and the forces associated with them [6].
234 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

7.4 Slider-Crank Mechanism Analysis

Figure 7.3a illustrates a slider-crank mechanism where a force F is applied to the slider
link revolute joint b1 (which is coincident with the slider’s center of gravity CG3). To drive
the mechanism, a torque Ta0 is applied about the crank link revolute joint a0. The loads
on the individual slider-crank mechanism links are illustrated in Figure 7.3b. Taking the
sum of the forces and moments for each link according to the conditions ∑F = ma and
∑M = Iα produces two dynamic equations for each link. Expanding these two equations
and separating the force equation into two equations, where ∑ Fx = maCGΧ and ∑ Fy = maCGy ,
ultimately produces three dynamic equations for each link.
Equation 7.10 includes the center of gravity-load point vectors used for the slider-crank
mechanism.

R j = R jx + iR jy , j = 1, 2,..., 4 (7.10)

Because the x- and y-components of the total acceleration of the center of gravity of each
link are required in the dynamic load equations, Equation 7.11 includes the acceleration
equations for a CG1 through a CG3 . The acceleration equations are identical in form to the
slider-crank acceleration equations in Section 4.5.3.

i ( −R 1 ) e i(β j ) − β 2j ( −R 1 ) e i(β j )

a CG1 = iβ

 j ( −R 3 ) e i(α j ) − α 2j ( −R 3 ) e i(α j )
a CG2 = A a 1 + iα
(7.11)
 jW1e i(θ+β j ) − β 2j W1e i(θ +β j ) − iα
= iβ  jR 3 e i(α j ) + α 2j R 3 e i(α j )

 j
a CG3 = A b1 = G

Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the crank link (where the moment sum
is taken about the center of gravity CG1) produces Equation 7.3. Expanding and separating
the resulting equations produces Equation 7.4.

FIGURE 7.3
(a) Slider-crank mechanism and (b) link dynamic forces and torque.
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 235

Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the coupler link (where the moment sum
is taken about CG2) produces
−Fa1 − Fb1 + m2 g = m2a CG2
(7.12)
−R 3 × Fa1 − R4 × Fb1 = I 2α
 j

Expanding and separating Equation 7.12 produces

−Fa1 x − Fb1 x = m2 aCG2 x

−Fa1 y − Fb1 y m2 g = m2 aCG2 y (7.13)

Fa1 x R3 y − Fa1 y R3 x + Fb1 x R4 y − Fb1 y R4 x = I 2α

 j

Using only the dynamic load condition ∑F = ma for the slider link produces

F + Fb1 + F f + m3 g = m3a CG3 (7.14)

In Equation 7.14, the x- and y-components of vector Ff are the friction force ±µFnormal and the
normal force Fnormal, respectively. Expanding and separating Equation 7.14 produces

Fx + Fb1 x ± µFnormal = m3 aCG3 x

(7.15)
Fy + Fb1y + Fnormal + m3 g = 0

Expressing Equations 7.4, 7.13, and 7.15 in a combined matrix form produces

 
 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0   Ta0 
   Fa0 x 
 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 
− R1yβ j − R2 yβ j 
 1 R1xβ j R2 xβ j 0 0 0   Fa0 y 
  F 
 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 0 0  a1x

 0 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 0   Fa1 y 

 0 0 0 R3 yα j − R3 xα j R4 y α j − R4 xα j 0  F 
  b1x

 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ±µ   Fb1 y 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1   F 
 normal 

 m1 aCG1x 
 
 m1aCG1y − m1 g 
  j 
 I1β 
 m2 aCG2 x 
=  (7.16)
 m2 aCG2 y − m2 g 
 
 I2α
 j 
 − Fx + m3 aCG 
 3x

 − Fy − m3 g 
 
236 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

where the x- and y-components of vectors R1 through R4 are Rnxangle j = Rnx cos angle j − ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Rny sin angle j and Rnxangle j = Rnx sin angle j + Rny cos angle j .* It can be seen in Equations 7.4,
7.13, 7.15, and ultimately in Equation 7.16 that the mass and mass moment of inertia of each
link are also required.
Equation 7.16 can be solved using Cramer’s rule to determine the unknown forces and
torque. The unknown slider-crank displacement angles αj, angular velocities α j, and angu-
lar accelerations α  j are the same quantities calculated from the slider-crank equations
in Sections 4.5.1–4.5.3 (along with the slider accelerations G  j). Given such solutions, the
corresponding dynamic forces and torques can be calculated from Equation 7.16.
Appendix D.2 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for slider-crank dynamic force
analysis. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions for Equation 7.16 are calculated.

Example 7.2
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix D.2 MATLAB file, calculate the driver torque
over a complete crank rotation range for the in-line slider-crank mechanism in Tables
E.7.3 and E.7.4. For this mechanism, Fp1 = ( 0, 0 ) N, β 0 = 10 rad s, and β
 = 0 rad s 2 . Gravity
is −9.81 m/s .
2

Known Information: Tables E.7.3, E.7.4, and Appendix D.2 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.7.3 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix D.2 MATLAB file. Vectors R 2 and R 4 are calculated in the MATLAB file using
vector-loop equations (see Appendix D.2). Figure E.7.4 includes the driver torque profile
calculated for the slider-crank mechanism using the Appendix D.2 MATLAB file. After
running the Appendix D.2 file twice (once with µ = +0.5 and again with µ = −0.5), only
the driver torque where the friction force opposes the slider velocity is retained and
assembled to produce Figure E.7.4.

TABLE E.7.3
Slider−Crank Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ µ
0.5, 90° 0.9014, −33.6901° ±0.5

TABLE E.7.4
Slider−Crank Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and
Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 0 − i0.25 m1 8.05
R3 − 0.3750 + i0.2500 I1 0.805
m2 14.49
I2 4.025
m3 30

* The correct sign for ±µ in Equation 7.16 will be the sign that produces a friction force that opposes the direction
of the slider velocity.
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 237

LW1 = 0.5;
theta = 90*pi/180;

LU1 = 0;

LV1 = 0.9014;

F = [0, 0];
mu = 0.5; (NOTE: the file must be run with mu=0.5 and mu=-0.5)
g = -9.81;

R1 = -i*0.25;
R3 = -0.3750 + i*0.25;

m1 = 8.05;
I1 = 0.805;
m2 = 14.49;
I2 = 4.025;

m3 = 30;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 360;
angular_vel = 10 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.7.3
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix D.2 MATLAB file for Example 7.2.

FIGURE E.7.4
Ta0 profile for slider-crank mechanism.

7.5 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Analysis

We will begin the formulation of a dynamic force equation system for the geared five-bar
mechanism by first formulating a dynamic force equation system for a five-bar mechanism
without gears. Because such a system has two degrees of freedom, controlled mechanism
238 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 7.4
(a) Geared five-bar mechanism and (b) link dynamic forces and torques.

motion is achieved by independently controlling the rotations of the links containing vec-
tors W1 and U1.
Figure 7.4a illustrates a geared five-bar mechanism where a force Fp1 is applied to the
intermediate link point p1. To drive the mechanism, torques Ta0 and Tb0 are applied about
the grounded revolute joints a0 and b0, respectively. The loads on the individual geared
five-bar mechanism links are illustrated in Figure 7.4b. Taking the sum of the forces and
moments for each link according to the conditions ∑F = ma and ∑M = Iα produces two
dynamic equations for each link. Expanding these two equations and separating the force
equation into two equations, where ∑ Fx = maCGx and ∑ Fy = maCGy , ultimately produces
three dynamic equations for each link.
Equation 7.17 includes the center of gravity-load point vectors used for the geared
five-bar mechanism.

R j = R jx + iR jy , j = 1, 2,..., 9 (7.17)

Because the x- and y-components of the total acceleration of the center of gravity of each
link are required in the dynamic load equations, Equation 7.18 includes the acceleration
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 239

equations for aCG1 through a CG4 . The acceleration equations are identical in form to the
geared five-bar acceleration equations in Section 4.6.3.

 j ( −R 1 ) e i(β j ) − β 2j ( −R 1 ) e i(β j )
a CG1 = iβ

 j ( −R 3 ) e i(α j ) − α 2j ( −R 3 ) e i(α j )
a CG2 = A a1 + iα

 jW1e i(θ+β j ) − β 2j W1e i(θ +β j ) − iα

= iβ  jR 3 e i(α j ) + α 2j R 3 e i(α j )
(7.18)
ν j ( −R 7 ) e ( j ) − ν 2j ( −R 7 ) e ( j )
i ν i ν
a CG3 = A b1 + i

= iγ jU 1e ( ) − γ 2U e i(σ + γ j ) − iν R e i( ν j ) + ν 2R e i( ν j )

i σ+γ j
j 1 j 7 j 7

a CG4 = iγ j ( − R9 ) e ( j ) − γ 2j ( −R 9 ) e ( j )
i γ i γ

Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the crank link (where the moment sum
is taken about the center of gravity CG1) produces Equation 7.3. Expanding and separating
the resulting equations produces Equation 7.4.
Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the intermediate link a1–c1 (where the
moment sum is taken about CG2) produces
−Fa1 − Fc1 + Fp1 + m2 g = m2a CG2
(7.19)
−R 3 × Fa1 − R 4 × Fc1 + R 5 × Fp1 = I 2α
 j

Expanding and separating Equation 7.19 produces

−Fa1 x − Fc1 x + Fp1 x = m2 aCG2 x

−Fa1 y − Fc1 y + Fp1 y + m2 g = m2 aCG2 y (7.20)

Fa1 x R3 y − Fa1 y R3 x + Fc1 x R4 y − Fc1 y R4 x − Fp1 x R5 y + Fp1 y R5 x = I 2α

 j

Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the intermediate link b1–c1 (where the
moment sum is taken about CG3) produces
Fc1 − Fb1 + m3 g = m3a CG3
(7.21)
νj
R 6 × Fc1 − R 7 × Fb1 = I 3 
Expanding and separating Equation 7.21 produces

Fc1 x − Fb1 x = m3 aCG3 x

Fc1 y − Fb1 y + m3 g = m3 aCG3 y (7.22)

−Fc1 x R6 y + Fc1 y R6 x + Fb1 x R7 y − Fb1 y R7 x = I 3 

νj

Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the crank link b0 –b1 (where the moment
sum is taken about CG4) produces
Fb0 + Fb1 + m4 g = m4a CG4
(7.23)
Tb0 + R 8 × Fb1 + R 9 × Fb0 = I 4 
γj
240 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Expanding and separating Equation 7.23 produces

Fb0 x + Fb1 x = m4 aCG4 x

Fb0 y + Fb1 y + m4 g = m4 aCG4 y (7.24)

Tb0 − Fb1 x R8 y + Fb1 y R8 x − Fb0 x R9 y + Fb0 y R9 x = I 4 

γj

Expressing Equations 7.4, 7.20, 7.22, and 7.24 in a combined matrix form produces

 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 1 − R1yβ j R1xβ j − R2 yβ j R2 xβ j 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 R3 yα j − R3 xα j R4 y α j − R4 xα j 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 −1 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 − R6 yν j R6 xν j 0 0 0 R7 yν j − R7 xν j 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 − R9 yγ j R9 xγ j − R8 yγ j R8 xγ j 
 

 Ta0   m1aCG1x 
   
Fa0 x   m 1 CG1y − m1 g
a 

  
Fa0 y   I1β  j

 
 Fa1 x   m2 aCG2 x − Fp1 x 
   
 Fa1y   − Fp1 y + m2 aCG2 y − m2 g 
  
 Fc1x   j + Fp1 x R5 yα j − Fp1 y R5xα j
 I 2α 
 =
Fc1y    (7.25)
  m3 aCG3 x 
 Tb0   m3 aCG3 y − m3 g 
   
 Fb0 x   I 3 
νj 
 Fb0 y   
  m4 aCG4 x
 
 Fb1x   m4 aCG4 y − m4 g 
   
 Fb1y  I 4 
γj
  

where the x- and y-components of vectors R1 through R9 are Rnxangle j = Rnx cos angle j ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
−Rny sin angle j and Rnyangle j = Rnx sin angle j + Rny cos angle j . It can be seen in Equations 7.4,
7.20, 7.22, 7.24, and ultimately in Equation 7.25 that the mass and mass moment of inertia of
each link are also required.
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 241

Equation 7.25 can be solved using Cramer’s rule to determine the unknown forces and
torques. The unknown geared five-bar displacement angles αj and ν j, angular velocities
α j and ν j, and angular accelerations α  j and 
ν j are the same quantities calculated from the
geared five-bar equations in Sections 4.6.1–4.6.4. Given such solutions, the corresponding
dynamic forces and torques can be calculated from Equation 7.25. Because this equation
(like Equation 6.19 in static force analysis) considers a five-bar mechanism without gears,
values for Ta′0 , Fa′0 , and Fb′0 must be calculated in place of Ta0 , Fa0 , and Fb0 in Equation 7.25.
Equations 6.20–6.24 (see Section 6.5) are used to calculate the gear-based driver torque
Ta′0 and gear-based forces Fa′0 and Fb′ 0 from the Equation 7.25 solutions. Because the mass
and inertia of the idler gear are not included in Equation 7.25, the results calculated from
this equation for a five-bar mechanism having three gears are approximate solutions.*
Appendices D.3 and D.4 include the MATLAB file user instructions for geared five-bar
dynamic force analysis (for two and three gears, respectively). In these MATLAB files
(which are available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317),
solutions for Equation 7.25 and 6.20–6.24 are calculated.

Example 7.3
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix D.4 MATLAB file, calculate the driver torque
over a complete crank rotation range for the geared five-bar mechanism in Tables E.7.5
and E.7.6. The gear ratio is r = +2. For this mechanism, Fp1 = ( 0, − 1000 ) N, β 0 = 1rad s, and

β = 0.25 rad s 2. Gravity is −9.81 m/s2.
Known Information: Tables E.7.5, E.7.6, and Appendix D.4 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.7.5 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix D.4 MATLAB file. Vectors R 2 , R 4 , R 5 , R6, and R 8 are calculated in the MATLAB
file using vector-loop equations (see Appendix D.4). Figure E.7.6 includes the driver
torque profiles calculated for the geared five-bar mechanism using the Appendix D.4
MATLAB file.

TABLE E.7.5
Geared Five−Bar Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ S 1, ψ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
0.5, 90° 0.75, 32.7304° 0.75, 45° 0.75, 149.9837° 0.75, 0 0.5, 74.14°

TABLE E.7.6
Geared Five−Bar Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and
Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 0 − i0.0831 m1 22.54
R3 − 0.2558 − i0.2955 I1 0.505
R7 0.3247 − i0.1876 m2 29.785
R9 − 0.0356 − i0.0356 I2 5.635
m3 12.075
I3 2.415
m4 75.67
I4 5.635

* While only approximate solutions are calculated using Equation 7.25 for five-bar mechanisms having three
gears, the solutions are most accurate if the mass and inertia of the idler gear are equal to or less than those of
the driving gear.
242 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*32.7304*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75*exp(i*0*pi/180);
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*45*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*74.14*pi/180);
S1 = 0.75*exp(i*149.9847*pi/180);

Fp1 = [0, -1000];

ratio = 2;
g = -9.81;
R1 = -i*0.0831;
R3 = -0.2558 - i*0.2955;
R7 = 0.3247 - i*0.1876;
R9 = -0.0356 - i*0.0356;

m1 = 22.54;
I1 = 0.505;

m2 = 29.785;
I2 = 5.635;

m3 = 12.075;
I3 = 2.415;

m4 = 75.67;
I4 = 5.635;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 360;

angular_vel = 10 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = 0 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.7.5
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix D.4 MATLAB file for Example 7.3.

FIGURE E.7.6
Ta′0 profile for geared five-bar mechanism.

7.6 Watt II Mechanism Analysis

Figure 7.5a illustrates a Watt II mechanism where forces Fp1 and Fp*1 are applied to the inter-
mediate link points p1 and p∗1, respectively. To drive the mechanism, a torque Ta0 is applied
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 243

FIGURE 7.5
(a) Watt II mechanism and (b) link dynamic forces and torques.

about the crank link revolute joint. The user also has the option of specifying torques
Tb0 and Tb∗ about the revolute joints b0 and b∗0, respectively.* The loads on the individual
0
Watt II mechanism links are illustrated in Figure 7.5b. Taking the sum of the forces and
moments for each link according to the conditions ∑F = ma and ∑M = Iα produces two
dynamic equations for each link. Expanding these two equations and separating the force
equation into two equations, where ∑ Fx = maCGx and ∑ Fy = maCGy , ultimately produces
three dynamic equations for each link.
Equation 7.26 includes the center of gravity-load point vectors used for the Watt II
mechanism.

R j = R jx + iR jy , j = 1, 2,...,13 (7.26)

* If the user prefers not to consider the applied force Fp1 or the applied torques Tb0 or Tb∗0 , these quantities can be
specified as zero in the dynamic load equations.
244 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Because the x- and y-components of the total acceleration of the center of gravity of
each link are required in the dynamic load equations, Equation 7.27 includes the accelera-
tion equations for a CG4 and a CG5 . These acceleration equations are identical in form to the
planar four-bar acceleration equations in Section 4.4.3. The acceleration equations for a CG1
through a CG3 are identical to Equation 7.2, since the corresponding links produce a planar
four-bar mechanism.

( ) − α * 2 ( −R ) e i(α*j )
 *j ( −R 9 ) e
a CG4 = A a*1 + iα
i α *j
( j) 9
 *j ( −R 9 ) e ( j ) − α *j
γ j ( −R 7 + R 8 ) e ( j ) − γ 2j ( −R 7 + R 8 ) e ( j ) + iα ( ) ( −R ) e ( ) (7.27)
i γ i γ i α* 2 i α *j
= i 9

( ) − γ * 2 ( −R ) e i( γ *j )
γ *j ( −R 13 ) e
a CG5 = i
i γ *j
( j ) 13
Because the Watt II mechanism includes planar four-bar mechanisms, the dynamic load
equations given in Equations 7.4 and 7.6 are used for the crank and coupler links, respec-
tively, of the planar four-bar mechanism loop a0 –a1–b1–b0 in the Watt II mechanism.
Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the follower link of the planar four-bar
mechanism loop a0 –a1–b1–b0 (where the moment sum is taken about CG3) produces

Fb0 + Fb1 + Fa*1 + m3 g = m3a CG3

*j (7.28)
Tb0 + R6 × Fb1 + R7 × Fb0 + R 8 × Fa*1 = I 3β

Expanding and separating Equation 7.28 produces

Fb0 x + Fb1 x + Fa1* x = m3 aCG3 x

Fb0 y + Fb1 y + Fa1y
* + m3 g = m3 aCG 3 y (7.29)
*
* R8 y + F * R8 x = I 3β j
Tb0 − Fb1 x R6 y + Fb1 y R6 x − Fb0 x R7 y + Fb0 y R7 x − Fa1x a1 y

Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the coupler link of the planar four-bar
mechanism loop b0 − a∗1 − b∗1 − b∗0 (where the moment sum is taken about CG4) produces

−Fa*1 − Fb*1 + Fp*1 + m4 g = m4a CG4

(7.30)
 *j
−R 9 × Fa*1 − R10 × Fb*1 + R 11 × Fp*1 = I 4α

Expanding and separating Equation 7.30 produces

* − F * + F * = m4 aCG 4 x
−Fa1x b1 x p1x

−Fa1* y − Fb1* y + Fp1y

* + m4 g = m4 aCG 4 y (7.31)
 *j
Fa1* x R9 y − Fa1* y R9 x + Fb1* x R10y − Fb1* y R10x − Fp1* x R11y + Fp1* y R11x = I 4α

Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the follower link of the planar four-bar
mechanism loop b0 − a∗1 − b∗1 − b∗0 (where the moment sum is taken about CG5) produces

Fb*0 + Fb*1 + m5 g = m5a CG5

(7.32)
γ *j
Tb*0 + R12 × Fb*1 + R13 × Fb*0 = I 5 
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 245

Expanding and separating Equation 7.32 produces

Fb0* x + Fb1* x = m5 aCG5 x

Fb0* y + Fb1* y + m5 g = m5 aCG5 y (7.33)

Tb0 − Fb1* x R12y + Fb1* y R12x − Fb0* x R13y + Fb0* y R13x = I 5 γ*j

Expressing Equations 7.4, 7.6, 7.29, 7.31 and 7.33 in a combined matrix form produces

 
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 1 − R1yβ j R1xβ j − R2 yβ j R2 xβ j 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 R3 yα j − R3 xα j 0 0 R4 yα j − R4 xα j 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 − R7 yγ j R7 xγ j − R6 yγ j R6 xγ j −R8 yγ j R8 xγ j 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 R9 yα* − R9 xα* 0 0 − R10yα* R10 xα* 
 j j j j 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 − R13yγ * R13 xγ * − R12yγ * R12 xγ * 
 j j j j


   
   m1aCG1x 
 Ta0   
F   m1aCG1y − m1 g 
 a0 x   
 Fa0 y   I1β j 
   
 Fa1 x   m2 aCG2 x − Fp1 x 
 Fa   m2 aCG2 y − m2 g − Fp1 y 
 1y   
 Fb0 x   I 2α j + Fp1 x R5 yα j − Fp1 y R5xα j 
   
 Fb0 y   m3 aCG3 x 
    (7.34)
×  Fb1x = m3 aCG3 y − m3 g
 
F   
 b1y  I 3 
γ j − Tb0
 
 Fa*   m 4 CG 4 x − Fp1x
a * 
 1x   
 Fa*1y   m4 aCG4 y − m4 g − Fp1y * 
   
 Fb*0 x   I 4α
*
 j + Fp1x
* R11 y * − F * R11 x *
p1y 
  
αj αj

 Fb*0 y   m a
5 CG5 x 
   
 Fb*1x  m5 aCG5 y − m5 g
 
   I 5 
γ *j − Tb*0 
 Fb*1y   
246 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

where the x- and y-components of vectors R1 through R13 are Rnxangle j = Rnx cos angle j − ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Rny sin angle j and Rnxangle j = Rnx sin angle j + Rny cos angle j . It can be seen in Equations 7.4,
7.6, 7.29, 7.31, 7.33, and ultimately in Equation 7.34 that the mass and mass moment of inertia
of each link are also required.
Equation 7.34 can be solved using Cramer’s rule to determine the unknown forces and
torque. The unknown Watt II displacement angles (α j, γ j, α *j and γ *j), angular velocities
(α j, γ j, α *j and γ *j), and angular accelerations (α  *j and 
γ j,α
 j ,  γ *j) are calculated from the pla-
nar four-bar equations in Sections 4.4.1–4.4.4. Given such solutions, the corresponding
dynamic forces and torques can be calculated from Equation 7.34.
Appendix D.5 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for Watt II dynamic force
analysis. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions for Equation 7.34 are calculated.

Example 7.4
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix D.5 MATLAB file, calculate the forces at joints
a1, b1, a *1, and b*1 over a complete crank rotation range (at −60° increments) for the
Watt II mechanism in Tables E.7.7 and E.7.8. For this mechanism, Fp1 = ( −500, − 500 ) N,
Fp*1 = ( −1000, 0 ) N, β 0 = −1rad s, and β
 = −0.25 rad s 2 . Also T = T * = 0 and gravity is
b0 b0
−9.81 m/s . 2

Known Information: Tables E.7.7, E.7.8, and Appendix D.5 MATLAB file
Solution Approach: Figure E.7.7 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix D.5 MATLAB file. Vectors R 2 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 8 , R 10, R 11, and R 12 are calculated in
the MATLAB file using vector-loop equations (see Appendix D.5). Table E.7.9 includes
the forces calculated for the Watt II mechanism using the Appendix D.5 MATLAB file.

TABLE E.7.7
Watt II Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
0.5, 90° 0.75, 19.3737° 0.75, 93.2461° 0.75, 0 0.5, 60.7834°

W ,θ
1
* * V ,ρ
1
* * U ,σ*
1
* *
G ,G
1x
*
1y L*1, δ*
0.5, 45° 0.75, 7.9416° 0.75, 60.2717° 0.7244, −0.1941 0.5, 49.3512°

TABLE E.7.8
Watt II Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in
kg−m2)
R1 0 − i0.25 m1 8.05
R3 − 0.3172 − i0.2284 I1 0.805
R7 − 0.1037 – i0.3675 m2 29.785
R9 − 0.3562 − i0.161 I2 5.635
R13 − 0.1860 − i0.3257 m3 33.81
I3 5.635
m4 29.785
I4 5.635
m5 12.075
I5 2.415
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 247

W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*19.3737*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75;
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*93.2461*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*60.7834*pi/180);

W1s = 0.5*exp(i*45*pi/180);
V1s = 0.75*exp(i*7.9416*pi/180);
G1s = 0.7244 - i*0.1941;
U1s = 0.75*exp(i*60.2717*pi/180);
L1s = 0.5*exp(i*49.3512*pi/180);

Fp1 = [-500, -500]; Fp1s = [-1000, 0];

Tb0 = 0; Tbs0 = 0; g = -9.81;

R1 = -i*0.25;
R3 = -0.3172 - i*0.2284;
R7 = -0.1037 - i*0.3675;
R9 = -0.3562 - i*0.161;
R13 = -0.1860 - i*0.3257;

m1 = 8.05; I1 = 0.805;
m2 = 29.785; I2 = 5.635;
m3 = 33.81; I3 = 5.635;
m4 = 29.785; I4 = 5.635;
m5 = 12.075; I5 = 2.415;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = -1;
stop_ang = -360;

angular_vel = -1 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = -0.25 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.7.7
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix D.5 MATLAB file for Example 7.4.

TABLE E.7.9
Watt II mechanism forces (N)
β (°) Fa1 Fb1 Fa*1 Fb*1
0 −689, −855 187, 75 −1186, −685 191, 396
−60 164, −488 −610, −304 −1434, −943 436, 621
−120 1087, −3122 −1603, 2282 −1063, −634 4, 353
−180 −54, −1917 −450, 1098 −946, −639 −63, 344
−240 −885, −1616 359, 805 −970, −637 −45, 343
−300 −1189, −1140 651, 364 −1047, −621 34, 345
−360 −669, −820 173, 80 −1153, −672 180, 387

7.7 Stephenson III Mechanism Analysis

Figure 7.6 a illustrates a Stephenson III mechanism where a force Fp∗ is applied to the
1
intermediate link point p∗1. To drive the mechanism, a torque Ta0 is applied about the crank
link revolute joint. The user also has the option of specifying torques Tb0 and Tb∗ about
0
248 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 7.6
(a) Stephenson III mechanism and (b) link dynamic forces and torques.

the revolute joints b0 and b∗0 , respectively.* The forces on the individual Stephenson III
mechanism links are illustrated in Figure 7.6b. Taking the sum of the forces and moments
for each link according to the conditions ∑F = ma and ∑M = Iα produces two dynamic
equations for each link. Expanding these two equations and separating the force equa-
tion into two equations, where ∑ Fx = maCGx and ∑ Fy = ma CGy , ultimately produces three
dynamic equations for each link.
Equation 7.35 includes the center of gravity-load point vectors used for the Stephenson
III mechanism.

* If the user prefers not to consider the applied force Fp1 or the applied torques Tb0 or Tb∗0 , these quantities can be
specified as zero in the dynamic load equations.
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 249

R j = R jx + iR jy , j = 1, 2,...,12 (7.35)

Because the x- and y-components of the total acceleration of the center of gravity of each
link are required in the dynamic load equations, Equation 7.36 includes the accelera-
tion equations for a CG4 and a CG5 . These acceleration equations are identical in form to the
Stephenson III acceleration equations in Section 4.8.3. The acceleration equations for a CG1
through a CG3 are identical to Equation 7.2, since the corresponding links produce a planar
four-bar mechanism.

( ) − α * 2 ( −R ) e i(α*j ) = iβ W e i(θ+β j ) − β 2W e i(θ +β j )

 *j ( −R 8 ) e
a CG4 = A p1 + iα
i α *j
( j) 8 j 1 j 1

L1e (  *jR 8 e ( j ) + ( α j ) R 8 e ( j )
) − α 2 L e i(δ +α j ) − iα
( j) 1
i δ+α j i α* 2 i α*
+ iα (7.36)

( ) − γ * ( −R ) e i( γ *j )
γ *j ( −R 12 ) e
a CG5 = i
i γ *j
( j ) 12
Because the Stephenson III mechanism includes the planar four-bar mechanism, the
dynamic load equations given in Equations 7.4, 7.6, and 7.8 are used for the crank, cou-
pler, and follower links, respectively, of the planar four-bar mechanism included in the
Stephenson III mechanism.
Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the intermediate link p1 − b∗1 (where the
moment sum is taken about CG4) produces

−Fp1 − Fb1* + Fp1* + m4 g = m4a CG4

(7.37)
 *j
−R 8 × Fp1 − R 9 × Fb*1 + R 10 × Fp*1 = I 4α

Expanding and separating Equation 7.37 produces

−Fp1x − Fb1x* + Fp1* x = m4 aCG4 x

−Fp1y − Fb1* y + Fp1* y + m4 g = m4 aCG4 y (7.38)

 *j
Fp1 x R8 y − Fp1 y R8 x + Fb1x* R9 y − Fb1* y R9 x − Fp1* x R10y + Fp1* y R10x = I 4α

Using the first two dynamic load conditions for the grounded link b∗0 − b∗1 (where the
moment sum is taken about CG5) produces

Fb*0 + Fb*1 + m5 g = m5a CG5

(7.39)
γ *j
Tb*0 + R 11 × Fb*1 + R 12 × Fb*0 = I 5 

Expanding and separating Equation 7.39 produces

Fb0* x + Fb1* x = m5 a CG5 x

Fb0* y + Fb1* y + m5 g = m5 aCG5 y (7.40)

Tb0 − Fb1x* R11y + Fb1* y R11x − Fb0* x R12 y + Fb0* y R12x = I 5 γ*j
250 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Expressing Equations 7.4, 7.6, 7.8, 7.38, and 7.40 in a combined matrix form produces

 
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
1 − R1yβ j R1xβ j − R2 yβ j R2 xβ j 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 − 1 0 0 0 − 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 R3 yα j − R3 xα j 0 0 R4 yα j − R4 xα j −R5 yα j R5 xα j 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 − R7 y γ j
R7 x γ j
− R6 y γ j
R6 x γ j
0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 −1 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 R8 yα* − R8 xα* 0 0 R9 yα* − R9 xα* 
 j j j j

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 − R12yγ * R12 xγ * − R11yγ * R11xγ * 
 j j j j


   
T   m1 aCG1x 
 a0   
Fa0 x   m 1 a CG1 y − m1 g 
   

Fa0 y   I1β j 
 Fa   
m2 aCG2 x
 1x   
 Fa1y   m2 aCG2 y − m2 g 
   
 Fb0 x   I2α j 
 Fb0 y   m3 aCG3 x

   
×  Fb1x  =  m3 aCG3 y − m3 g  (7.41)
F   
 b1y   I 3 
γ j − Tb0 
Fp1x   m4 aCG4 x − Fp1x

  
*

Fp1y   m4 aCG4 y − m4 g − Fp1y 
F  
*

b * 
 0 x  I 4α  j + Fp* R10y * − Fp* R10x *
* 
F *   1x αj 1y αj 
 b0 y
  m5 aCG5 x 
F *   
 b1x   m5 aCG5 y − m5 g 
Fb*   
 1y   I 5 
γ *j − Tb*0 


where the x- and y-components of vectors R1 through R12 are Rnxangle j = Rnx cos angle j − ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Rny sin angle j and Rnyangle j = Rnx sin angle j + Rny cos angle j . It can be seen in Equations 7.4,
7.6, 7.8, 7.38, 7.40, and ultimately in Equation 7.41 that the mass and mass moment of inertia
of each link are also required.
Equation 7.41 can be solved using Cramer’s rule to determine the unknown forces and
torques. The unknown Stephenson III displacement angles α *j and γ *j, angular velocities
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 251

 *j and 
α *j and γ *j, and angular accelerations α γ *j are the same quantities calculated from the
Stephenson III equations in Sections 4.8.1–4.8.4. Given such solutions (along with the solu-
tions for the planar four-bar mechanism), the corresponding dynamic forces and torques
can be calculated from Equation 7.41.
Appendix D.6 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for Stephenson III dynamic force
analysis. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317), solutions for Equation 7.41 are calculated.

Example 7.5
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix D.6 MATLAB file, calculate the forces at joints a1,
b1, p1, and b*1 over a complete crank rotation range (at −60° increments) for the Stephenson
III mechanism in Tables E.7.10 and E.7.11. In this mechanism, Fp*1 = ( 0, − 1000 ) N,
β 0 = −1 rad s, and β
 = −0.25 rad s 2 . Also T = T * = 0 and gravity is −9.81 m/s2.
b0 b0
Known Information: Tables E.7.10, E.7.11, and Appendix D.6 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.7.8 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix D.6 MATLAB file. Vectors R 2 , R4, R 5 , R 6 , R 9 , R 10, and R 11 are calculated in
the MATLAB file using vector-loop equations (see Appendix D.6). Table E.7.12 includes
the forces calculated for the Stephenson III mechanism using the Appendix D.6
MATLAB file.

TABLE E.7.10
Stephenson III Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
0.5, 90° 0.75, 19.3737° 0.75, 93.2461° 0.75, 0 0.5, 60.7834°

V1*, ρ* L*1, δ* U1*, σ* G1∗x , G1∗y

1, 17.1417° 0.5, 63.7091° 1, 76.4844° 0.2159, 0.2588

TABLE E.7.11
Stephenson III Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and
Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 0 − i0.25 m1 8.05
R3 − 0.3172 − i0.2284 I1 0.805
R7 0.0212 − i0.3744 m2 29.785
R8 − 0.3923 − i0.2477 I2 5.635
R12 − 0.1169 − i0.4862 m3 12.075
I3 2.415
m4 43.47
I4 16.1
m5 15.925
I5 5.635
252 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*19.3737*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75;
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*93.2461*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*60.7834*pi/180);

V1s = 1*exp(i*17.1417*pi/180);
G1s = 0.2159 + i*0.2588;
U1s = exp(i*76.4844*pi/180);
L1s = 0.5*exp(i*63.7091*pi/180);

Fp1s = [0, -1000];

Tb0 = 0; Tbs0 = 0; g = -9.81;

R1 = -i*0.25;
R3 = -0.3172 - i*0.2284;
R7 = 0.0212 - i*0.3744;
R8 = -0.3923 - i*0.2477;
R12 = -0.1169 - i*0.4862;

m1 = 8.05; I1 = 0.805;
m2 = 29.785; I2 = 5.635;
m3 = 12.075; I3 = 2.415;
m4 = 43.47; I4 = 16.1;
m5 = 15.295; I5 = 5.635;
start_ang = 0;
step_ang = -1;
stop_ang = -360;

angular_vel = -1 * ones(N+1,1);
angular_acc = -0.25 * ones(N+1,1);

FIGURE E.7.8
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix D.5 MATLAB file for Example 7.4.

TABLE E.7.12
Stephenson III Mechanism Forces (N)
β (°) Fa1 Fb1 Fp1 Fb*1
0 90, −722 34, −527 126, −968 −124, −442
−60 1219, 135 −551, −1208 613, −781 −469, −661
−120 2160, −3768 −1977, 1528 200, −1900 −262, 360
−180 725, −2221 −650, 291 79, −1611 −99, 147
−240 −177, −1802 30, 52 −121, −1439 83, 0
−300 −466, −1217 280, −245 −148, −1185 104, −211
−360 123, −645 31, −517 151, −922 −127, −438

7.8 Mass Moment of Inertia and Computer-Aided Design Software

The mass moment of inertia is a measure of a solid object’s resistance to change in rotational
speed about a particular axis of rotation. This is the quantity used in the dynamic
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 253

load condition ∑M = Iα. The mass moment of inertia of a rotating body is generally
defined as

I=
∫ r dm
m
2
(7.42)

or more specifically as

Ix =
∫ (y
m
2
)
+ z 2 dm

Iy =
∫ (z
m
2
)
+ x 2 dm (7.43)

Iz =
∫ (x
m
2
)
+ y 2 dm

where dm is the mass of an infinitesimally small part of the body and r, x, y, and z are the
distances between dm and the axis of rotation (see Figure 7.7).*
Mass moment of inertia equations are available for a range of primitive solid shapes
and a variety of rotation conditions [6]. Although such equations provide the user with a
convenient means to calculate mass moments of inertia, the user is limited to the geometry
and rotation condition considered in the equations.
With the development of computer-aided design (or CAD) software, specifically in the
area of solid modeling (creating virtual representations of solid geometry), the user can

FIGURE 7.7
Arbitrary body with mass moment of inertia variables.

* Because only planar mechanisms are considered in this chapter, only link rotations about the z-axis and the
subsequent moment of inertia about the z-axis (Iz in Equation 7.43) are considered.
254 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

now readily calculate the mass moment of inertia of any solid shape produced and under
any rotation condition established.* With more accurate CAD-produced inertia values
for mechanism components, the accuracy of calculated quantities such as mechanism
dynamic forces and torques will also be improved. Mass moment of inertia calculation
using CAD software is the preferred approach among engineers today—particularly
when the mechanism geometry considered cannot be accurately represented by primi-
tive geometry.

7.9 Planar Mechanism Dynamic Force Analysis and

Modeling in Simscape MultibodyTM
As has been noted throughout this chapter, Appendices D.1–D.6 include user instructions
for the planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mecha-
nisms in MATLAB files, respectively. In these files, the dynamic force and torque equations
formulated in this chapter are solved. These MATLAB files provide a means for the user to
efficiently conduct planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson
III dynamic force analyses by solving their displacement, velocity, and acceleration equa-
tions along with their dynamic force and torque equations.
This textbook also utilizes Simscape Multibody as an alternate approach for simula-
tion-based dynamic force analysis. A library of Simscape Multibody files is available for
download at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317 to conduct dynamic
force analyses on planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson
III mechanisms†. With these files, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions,
mass properties, applied loads, and driving link parameters, and the dynamic forces and
torques at the mechanism locations of interest are measured. Additionally, the motion of
the mechanism itself is simulated. The Simscape Multibody file user instructions for the
planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mechanisms are
given in Appendices J.1–J.6, respectively.
While the user can specify input according to any unit type for length, force, and torque
in the Appendix D MATLAB files, only two groups of dimensions are available in the
Appendix J Simscape Multibody files. The user can specify length, mass, and force quanti-
ties either in inch, pound-mass, and pound-force, respectively (the US system), or in meter, kilo-
gram, and newton, respectively (the SI system). The user also has the option in the Appendix
J files to convert US system input to SI system output and vice versa.

Example 7.6
Problem Statement: Figure E.7.2 (in Example 7.1) includes plots for mechanism forces Fa0 x ,
Fa0 y , Fb0 x , and Fb0 y . Using the Appendix J.1 Simscape Multibody files, measure the maxi-
mum and minimum values (considering value magnitudes and not directions) for the
planar four-bar mechanism forces in Example 7.1. Consider 1° crank rotation increments.

* Commercial CAD software producers include (but are by no means limited to) Autodesk, PTC, Dassault
Systemes, and Siemens PLM Software.
† This library can also be downloaded from the authors’ server at http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_

mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 255

Known Information: Example 7.1 and Appendix J.1 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.7.9 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix J.1 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.7.13 includes the maximum and mini-
mum force values calculated using the Appendix D.1 MATLAB file and the Appendix
J.1 Simscape Multibody files. Figure E.7.10 is an initial position snapshot of the mecha-
nism animation generated from the Appendix J.1 Simscape Multibody files.

unit_select = 'SI';

W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*19.3737*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75;
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*93.2461*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*60.7834*pi/180);
Fp1 = [0, 0];
Tb0 = 0;
g = -9.81;

R1 = -i*0.25;
R3 = -0.3172 - i*0.2284;
R7 = 0.0212 - i*0.3744;

m1 = 8.05;
I1 = 0.805;

m2 = 29.785;
I2 = 5.635;

m3 = 12.075;
I3 = 2.415;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 360;

angular_vel = 1;
angular_acc = 0;

FIGURE E.7.9
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix J.1 Simscape Multibody file for Example 7.6.

TABLE E.7.13
Calculated Minimum and Maximum Planar Four-Bar Mechanism Forces (N) (Appendix
J.1)
β (°) Appendix D.1 MATLAB File β (°) Appendix J.1 Simscape Multibody Files

Fa0 x max 247 −245.22 246.97 −245.23

Fa0 x min 168 −0.14 168.02 −0.19
Fa0 y max 257 806.31 257.02 806.30
Fa0 y min 284 10.19 283.99 10.19
Fb0 x max 250 279.36 250.01 279.36
Fb0 x min 166 −0.07 166.01 −0.04
Fb0 y max 286 463.81 286.01 463.80
Fb0 y min 214 −0.61 214.03 −0.67
256 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.7.10
Initial position of the planar four-bar mechanism in the Appendix J.1 Simscape Multibody anima-
tion for Example 7.6.

Example 7.7
Problem Statement: The minimum and maximum torque values in Figure E.7.2 (in
Example 7.2) appear at crank displacement angles of 239° and 304°, respectively. Using
the Appendix J.2 Simscape Multibody files, measure the maximum and minimum
torque values for the slider-crank mechanism in Example 7.2.
Known Information: Example 7.2 and Appendix I.2 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.7.11 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix J.2 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.7.14 includes the minimum and maxi-
mum torque values calculated using the Appendix D.2 MATLAB file and the Appendix
J.2 Simscape Multibody files. Figure E.7.12 is an initial position snapshot of the mecha-
nism animation generated from the Appendix J.2 Simscape Multibody files.
While the Appendix D.2 file requires the user to run it twice (once using +μ and again
using −μ) and then filter the results (only keeping data rows where the sliding friction
direction and the slider velocity direction are opposite), only a single run required for
the Appendix J.2 files. This is because the latter includes a filter (a decision operator that
considers the sliding friction direction and the slider velocity direction) to exclude all
invalid result data.

Example 7.8
Problem Statement: Figure E.7.6 (in Example 7.3) includes plots for the driver torque Ta′0 .
Using the Appendix J.4 Simscape Multibody files, measure the maximum and mini-
mum values (considering value directions) for this torque in Example 7.1. Consider 1°
crank rotation increments.
Known Information: Example 7.3 and Appendix J.4 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.7.13 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix J.4 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.7.15 includes the maximum and minimum
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 257

LW1 = 0.5;
theta = 90*pi/180;

LU1 = 0;

LV1 = 0.9014;

F = [0, 0];
mu = 0.5;
g = -9.81;

R1 = -i*0.25;
R3 = -0.3750 + i*0.25;

m1 = 8.05;
I1 = 0.805;

m2 = 14.49;
I2 = 4.025;

m3 = 30;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 360;

angular_vel = 10;
angular_acc = 0;

FIGURE E.7.11
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix J.2 Simscape Multibody file for Example 7.7.

TABLE E.7.14
Calculated Minimum and Maximum Slider-Crank Mechanism Torques (in N-m)
(Appendix J.2)
Appendix D.2 MATLAB File Appendix J.2 SimMechanics Files

Ta0 min = −612.53 at β = 239° Ta0 min = −612.53 at β = 238.94°

Ta0 max = 940.87 at β = 304° Ta0 max = 940.88 at β = 304.05°

torque values calculated using the Appendix D.4 MATLAB file and the Appendix J.4
Simscape Multibody files. Unlike the Appendix D.4 file, the mass (m5) and the inertia
(I5) of the idler gear are used in the Appendix J.4 files (see Appendix J.4). This makes
the results from the latter more accurate. Figure E.7.14 is an initial position snapshot of
the mechanism animation generated from the Appendix J.4 Simscape Multibody files.

Example 7.9
Problem Statement: Repeat Example 7.4 using the Appendix J.5 Simscape Multibody files.
Known Information: Example 7.4 and Appendix J.5 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.7.15 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix J.5 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.7.16 includes the force values calculated
using the Appendix J.5 Simscape Multibody files. Figure E.7.16 is an initial position
snapshot of the mechanism animation generated from the Appendix J.5 Simscape
Multibody files.
258 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.7.12
Initial position of the slider-crank mechanism in the Appendix J.2 Simscape Multibody animation
for Example 7.7.

unit_select = 'SI';

W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*32.7304*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75*exp(i*0*pi/180);
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*45*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*74.14*pi/180);
S1 = 0.75*exp(i*149.9847*pi/180);

Fp1 = [0, -1000];

ratio = 2;
g = -9.81;

R1 = -i*0.0831;
R3 = -0.2558 - i*0.2955;
R7 = 0.3247 - i*0.1876;
R9 = -0.0356 - i*0.0356;

m1 = 22.54; I1 = 0.505;

m2 = 29.785; I2 = 5.635;

m3 = 12.075; I3 = 2.415;

m4 = 75.67; I4 = 5.635;

m5 = 22.54; I5 = 0.505;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 360;

angular_vel = 10;
angular_acc = 0;

FIGURE E.7.13
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix J.4 Simscape Multibody file for Example 7.8.
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 259

TABLE E.7.15
Calculated Minimum and Maximum Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Torques (in N-m)
(Appendix I.4)
Appendix D.4 MATLAB File Appendix J.4 SimMechanics Files (Where m5 = m1 and I 5 = I1 )

Ta′0max = 2618.4 at β = 252° Ta′0max = 2618.4 at β = 252.02°

Ta′0min = −1386.5 at β = 290° Ta′0min = −1386.6 at β = 290°

FIGURE E.7.14
Initial position of the geared five-bar mechanism in the Appendix J.4 Simscape Multibody anima-
tion for Example 7.8.

Example 7.10
Problem Statement: Repeat Example 7.5 using the Appendix J.6 Simscape Multibody files.
Known Information: Example 7.5 and Appendix J.6 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.7.17 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix J.6 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.7.17 includes the force values calculated
using the Appendix J.6 Simscape Multibody files. Figure E.7.18 is an initial position
snapshot of the mechanism animation generated from the Appendix J.6 Simscape
Multibody files.
260 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

unit_select = 'SI';

W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*19.3737*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75;
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*93.2461*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*60.7834*pi/180);
W1s = 0.5*exp(i*45*pi/180);
V1s = 0.75*exp(i*7.9416*pi/180);
G1s = 0.7244 - i*0.1941;
U1s = 0.75*exp(i*60.2717*pi/180);
L1s = 0.5*exp(i*49.3512*pi/180);
Fp1 = [-500, -500]; Fp1s = [-1000, 0];

Tb0 = 0; Tbs0 = 0; g = -9.81;

R1 = -i*0.25;
R3 = -0.3172 - i*0.2284;
R7 = -0.1037 - i*0.3675;
R9 = -0.3562 - i*0.161;
R13 = -0.1860 - i*0.3257;

m1 = 8.05; I1 = 0.805;
m2 = 29.785; I2 = 5.635;
m3 = 33.81; I3 = 5.635;
m4 = 29.785; I4 = 5.635;
m5 = 12.075; I5 = 2.415;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = -60;
stop_ang = -360;

angular_vel = -1;
angular_acc = -0.25;

FIGURE E.7.15
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix J.5 Simscape Multibody file for Example 7.9.

TABLE E.7.16
Calculated Watt II Mechanism Forces (in N) (Appendix J.5)
β (°) Fa1 Fb1 Fa*1 Fb*1
0 −688.87, −854.55 186.91, 74.83 −1185.50, −685.05 190.80, 395.54
−60 164.05, −488.25 −609.87, −303.67 −1433.50, −942.95 436.48, 621.35
−120 1086.70, −3122.10 −1603.30, 2282.10 −1063.20, −633.55 4.37, 352.99
−180.04 −54.85, −1916.60 −449.36, 1097.40 −945.64, −638.55 −63.29, 343.60
−239.95 −884.24, −1616.60 358.03, 805.42 −970.35, −636.66 −44.97, 342.65
−300.05 −1189.20,−1139.90 650.35, 363.31 −1047.10, −621.41 34.37, 345.36
−360 −669.43, −819.90 172.80,79.67 -1153.30,-671.91 180.08,386.63
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 261

FIGURE E.7.16
Initial position of the Watt II mechanism in the Appendix J.5 Simscape Multibody animation for
Example 7.9.

unit_select = 'SI';
W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*19.3737*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75;
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*93.2461*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*60.7834*pi/180);
W1s = 0.5*exp(i*45*pi/180);
V1s = 0.75*exp(i*7.9416*pi/180);
G1s = 0.7244 - i*0.1941;
U1s = 0.75*exp(i*60.2717*pi/180);
L1s = 0.5*exp(i*49.3512*pi/180);
Fp1 = [-500, -500]; Fp1s = [-1000, 0];

Tb0 = 0; Tbs0 = 0; g = -9.81;

R1 = -i*0.25;
R3 = -0.3172 - i*0.2284;
R7 = -0.1037 - i*0.3675;
R9 = -0.3562 - i*0.161;
R13 = -0.1860 - i*0.3257;

m1 = 8.05; I1 = 0.805;
m2 = 29.785; I2 = 5.635;
m3 = 33.81; I3 = 5.635;
m4 = 29.785; I4 = 5.635;
m5 = 12.075; I5 = 2.415;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = -60;
stop_ang = -360;

angular_vel = -1;
angular_acc = -0.25;

FIGURE E.7.17
17 Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix J.6 Simscape Multibody file for Example 7.10.
262 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.7.18
Initial position of the Stephenson III mechanism in the Appendix J.6 Simscape Multibody anima-
tion for Example 7.10.

TABLE E.7.17
Calculated Stephenson III Mechanism Forces (in N) (Appendix J.6)
β (°) Fa1 Fb1 Fp1 Fb1*
0 90.16, −721.59 33.53, −526.58 125.64, −968.46 −124.06, −441.54
−60.02 1218.80, 135.92 −551.02, −1208.40 613.54, −780.57 −468.50, −660.66
−120.01 2159.80, −3767.00 −1976.30,1527.70 200.07, −1899.40 −262.25, 359.71
−180.01 724.63, −2221.10 −649.66, 291.31 79.17, −1610.70 −98.88, 147.01
−240.02 −177.44, −1802.20 29.85, 51.83 −121.36, −1439.10 83.44, −0.18
−300.02 −466.29, −1216.70 279.82, −245.24 −147.59, −1185.30 104.41, −210.67
−360 123.56, −644.49 31.11, −517.27 151.29, −921.52 −127.06, −438.40

7.10 Summary
In terms of structural force analyses for mechanical systems, a dynamic force analysis is
the next type of force analysis to consider beyond a static force analysis. In this type of
analysis, loads are considered for each mechanism link according to Newton’s second law
(∑F = ma, ∑M = Iα). In this chapter, a system of dynamic force and moment equations are
formulated for the planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson
III mechanisms. These equations form sets of linear simultaneous equations that are
solved to determine the dynamic forces and torques present at each mechanism joint. The
Appendix D.1–D.6 MATLAB files provide a means for the user to efficiently conduct planar
four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III dynamic force analyses
by solving their displacement, velocity, and acceleration from Chapter 4 along with their
linear simultaneous equation sets.
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 263

This textbook also utilizes Simscape Multibody as an alternate approach for simulation-
based dynamic load analyses. Using the Appendix J.1–J.6 Simscape Multibody files, the
user can conduct dynamic load analyses on the planar four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-
bar, Watt II, and Stephenson III mechanisms, respectively, as well as simulate mechanism
motion.

References
1. Beer, F. P. and Johnston, E. R. 1988. Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics. 5th edn,
Chapter 16. New York: McGraw-Hill.
2. Myszka, D. H. 2005. Machines and Mechanisms: Applied Kinematic Analysis. 3rd edn, Chapter 14.
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
3. Norton, R. L. 2008. Design of Machinery. 4th edn, Chapter 11. New York: McGraw-Hill.
4. Wilson, C. E. and Sadler, J. P. 2003. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery. 3rd edn, Chapter 10.
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
5. Waldron, K. J. and Kinzel, G. L. 2004. Kinematics, Dynamics and Design of Machinery. 2nd edn,
Chapter 14. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
6. Lindeburg, M. R. 2001. Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual for the PE Exam. 11th edn,
Chapter 58. Belmont, CA: Professional Publications.

Additional Reading
Hibbeler, R. C. 1998. Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics. 8th edn, Chapter 17. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
McGill, D. J. and King, W. W. 1995. Engineering Mechanics: An Introduction to Dynamics. Chapter 2.
Boston: PWS Publishing.

Problems
1. Figure P.7.1 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a hatch from the
opened position to the closed position over a crank rotation of 31.7°. The dimen-
sions for the mechanism at the opened-hatch position are included in Table P.7.1
and the link dynamic parameters are included in Table P.7.2. Gravity is −9.81 m/
s2. Plot the driver torque over a crank rotation range of 31.7° with an initial crank
angular velocity of 0 rad/s and an angular acceleration of 0.175 rad/s2 (using the
Appendix D.1 or J.1 files).
2. Repeat Problem 1 where a constant follower-link torque of Tb0 = 10,000 N-m is also
applied.
3. Figure P.7.2 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a cutting blade
from the opened position to the closed position over a crank rotation of −45°.
The dimensions for the mechanism at the opened-blade position are included in
Table P.7.3 and the link dynamic parameters are included in Table P.7.4. Gravity
is −9.81 m/s2. Plot the force components at the grounded crank revolute joint
264 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.7.1
Hatch mechanism.

TABLE P.7.1
Hatch Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
0.1658 + i3.2649 − 0.7423 − i0.1494 − 0.0462 − i1.6889 − 0.5302 + i4.8044 − 0.3024 − i1.9839

TABLE P.7.2
Hatch Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 −0.0829 − i1.6324 m1 2.8811
R3 0.3024 + i1.9839 I1 10.8216
R7 0.0231 + i0.8445 m2 56.0143
I2 281.0267
m3 1.6092
I3 1.7066

(F )
a0 x , Fa0 y over a crank rotation range of −45° with an initial crank angular velocity
of 0 rad/s and an angular acceleration of −0.55 rad/s2 (using the Appendix D.1 or
J.1 files).
4. Repeat Problem 3 where a constant follower-link torque of Tb0 = 250 N-m is also
applied.
5. Figure P.7.3 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a brake pad
from the released position to the applied position over a crank rotation of 40°.
The dimensions for the mechanism at the released-hatch position are included
in Table P.7.5 and the link dynamic parameters are included in Table P.7.6. A force
of Fp1 = ( 400, 0 ) N is constantly applied and gravity is −9.81 m/s2. Plot the driver
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 265

FIGURE P.7.2
Cutting mechanism.

TABLE P.7.3
Cutting Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
−0.0899 + i1.2955 −0.5523 + i1.237 2.1075 + i0.9489 −2.7497 + i1.5836 1.8547 − i2.0853

TABLE P.7.4
Cutting Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 0.045 − i0.6478 m1 1.2985
R3 −1.8547 + i2.0853 I1 0.8477
R7 −1.0538 − i0.4744 m2 4.6682
I2 40.9753
m3 2.1139
I3 4.0685

torque over a crank rotation range of 40° with an initial crank angular velocity of
0 rad/s and an angular acceleration of 1 rad/s2 (using the Appendix D.1 or J.1 files).
6. For Problem 5, plot the force components at the grounded follower-revolute joint
( )
Fb0 x , Fb0 y .
7. Figure P.7.4 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a latch from
the released position to the applied position over a crank rotation of 70°. The
dimensions for the mechanism at the released-latch position are included in
266 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.7.3
Brake mechanism.

TABLE P.7.5
Brake Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
0.5967 + i1.0893 −1.801 − i1.3932 −0.5121 + i0.6055 −0.6922 − i0.9094 1.0539 + i1.3509

TABLE P.7.6
Brake Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 −0.2983 − i0.5446 m1 1.2526
R3 −1.3766 − i1.2335 I1 0.7543
R7 0.256 − i0.3028 m2 24.2732
I2 106.9483
m3 0.8911
I3 0.2439

Table P.7.7 and the link dynamic parameters are included in Table P.7.8. Gravity is
−9.81 m/s2. Plot the driver torque over a crank rotation range of 70° with an initial
crank angular velocity of 0 rad/s and an angular acceleration of 0.25 rad/s2 (using
the Appendix D.1 or J.1 files).
8 Repeat Problem 7 where a constant follower-link torque of Tb0 = −100 N-m is also
applied.
9 Figure P.7.5 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a wiper blade.
The dimensions for the mechanism are included in Table P.7.9 and the link dynamic
parameters are included in Table P.7.10. Gravity is −9.81 m/s2. Plot the force compo-
nents at the grounded crank revolute joint (Fa0 x , Fa0 y ) over a complete crank rotation
range at a constant crank angular velocity of 5.25 rad/s (using the Appendix D.1 or
J.1 files).
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 267

FIGURE P.7.4
Latch mechanism.

TABLE P.7.7
Latch Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
3.0887 − i2.2929 2.0591 − i1.001 2.5916 − i0.7733 2.5562 − i2.5206 3.7416 + i5.3422

TABLE P.7.8
Latch Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 −1.5444 + i1.1465 m1 3.3504
R3 −3.7416 − i5.3422 I1 17.2769
R7 −1.2958 + i0.3867 m2 12.8341
I2 566.2676
m3 2.4303
I3 6.3265
268 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.7.5
Wiper-blade mechanism.

TABLE P.7.9
Wiper Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
−0.0626 − i0.2727 0.6258 − i0.2874 0.0632 − i0.5601 0.5 + i0 0.3129 − i0.1437

TABLE P.7.10
Wiper Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 0.0313 + i0.1364 m1 0.0177
R3 −0.3129 + i0.1437 I1 0.0081
R7 −0.1023 + i0.9063 m2 0.0386
I2 0.0064
m3 0.0499
I3 0.252

The dimensions for the mechanism at the open gripper position are included in
Table P.7.11 and the link dynamic parameters are included in Table P.7.12. A force
of Fp1 = ( 0, 500 ) N is constantly applied. Gravity is −9.81 m/s2. Determine the maxi-
mum driver torque magnitude Ta0 produced given a crank rotation increment
of 1°, an initial crank angular velocity of 0 rad/s and an angular acceleration of
0.1 rad/s2 (using the Appendix D.1 or J.1 files).
12. Repeat Problem 11 where a force of Fp1 = ( −150, 400 ) N is constantly applied.
13. Figure P.7.7 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a component
from its initial position to its assembled position over a crank rotation of 66°. The
dimensions for the mechanism at the initial component position are included in
Table P.7.13 and the link dynamic parameters are included in Table P.7.14. Gravity
is −9.81 m/s2. Determine the maximum driver torque magnitude Ta0 produced
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 269

FIGURE P.7.6
Gripper mechanism.

TABLE P.7.11
Gripper Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
−0.324 − i0.6408 1.1198 − i0.354 0.5985 + i0.3782 0.1973 − i1.373 2.7357 + i3.415

TABLE P.7.12
Gripper Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 0.162 + i0.3204 m1 0.8308
R3 −1.2711 − i2.4568 I1 0.1924
R7 −0.2993 − i0.1891 m2 8.8936
I2 76.9644
m3 0.8227
I3 0.1868

given a crank rotation increment of 0.1°, an initial crank angular velocity of 0 rad/s
and an angular acceleration of 0.55 rad/s2 (using the Appendix D.1 or J.1 files).
14. Repeat Problem 13 where the minimum and maximum values of Fb0 are deter-
mined (instead of the maximum driver torque magnitude).
15. Figure P.7.8 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a digging
bucket from its initial position to its final position over a crank rotation of −58°.
The dimensions for the mechanism at the initial component position are included
in Table P.7.15 and the link dynamic parameters are included in Table P.7.16. A force
of Fp1 = ( −3182, − 3182 ) N is constantly applied. Gravity is −9.81 m/s2. Determine
the maximum force magnitude Fa1 produced given a crank rotation increment
270 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.7.7
Assembly mechanism.

TABLE P.7.13
Assembly Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
1.5356 − i1.7885 0.0169 + i1.2337 −0.3294 − i0.8093 1.8819 + i0.2545 1.7054 + i0.8903

TABLE P.7.14
Assembly Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 −0.7678 + i0.8943 m1 2.1510
R3 −1.7054 − i0.8903 I1 4.2995
R7 0.1647 + i0.4047 m2 9.3356
I2 43.7912
m3 0.9563
I3 0.3091

of −0.1°, an initial crank angular velocity of 0 rad/s and an angular acceleration of

−0.35 rad/s2 (using the Appendix D.1 or J.1 files).
16. Repeat Problem 15 where the minimum and maximum values of Fb1 are deter-
mined (instead of the maximum force magnitude Fa1 ).
17. Figure P.7.9 illustrates a planar four-bar mechanism used to guide a bucket from
its loading position to its unloading position over a crank rotation of −30°. The
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 271

FIGURE P.7.8
Digging mechanism.

TABLE P.7.15
Digging Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
−2.5208 − i1.3307 −3.6797 − i0.5059 −2.4816 − i3.3521 −3.7189 + i1.5155 −3.3055 − i1.3619

TABLE P.7.16
Digging Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 1.2604 + i0.6654 m1 2.5478
R3 4.1869 − i0.3915 I1 7.3408
R7 1.2408 + i1.676 m2 36.419
I2 677.1258
m3 3.6112
I3 21.8099

dimensions for the mechanism at the initial component position are included in
Table P.7.17 and the link dynamic parameters are included in Table P.7.18. Gravity
is −9.81 m/s2. Determine the maximum driver torque magnitude Ta0 produced
given a crank rotation increment of −1°, an initial crank angular velocity of 0 rad/s
and an angular acceleration of −0.025 rad/s2 (using the Appendix D.1 or J.1 files).
272 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.7.9
Load–unload mechanism.

TABLE P.7.17
Load–Unload Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
−2.8841 + i2.7285 0.1817 + i0.5059 −0.6055 − i3.2954 −2.0968 + i6.5299 −1.7775 − i0.8574

TABLE P.7.18
Load–Unload Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 1.442 − i1.3642 m1 3.4494
R3 1.7775 + i0.8574 I1 18.9215
R7 0.3028 + i1.6477 m2 36.419
I2 174.9659
m3 2.9503
I3 11.6282
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 273

TABLE P.7.19
Slider−Crank Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 U1 µ
0.5, 90° 0.9014 0.25 ±0.15

TABLE P.7.20
Slider−Crank Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in
kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 0 − i0.25 m1 8.05
R3 −0.433 + i0.125 I1 0.805
m2 14.49
I2 4.025
m3 50

TABLE P.7.21
Geared Five-Bar Mechanism Configuration (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 , θ V1 , ρ U1 , σ S1 , ψ G1 x , G1 y L1 , δ
0.35, 90° 0.525, 54.7643° 0.35, 60° 0.525, 115.0279° 0.35, 0 0.35, −15.7645°

Fp1 (N) Gravity Gear Ratio

0, −1000 −9.81 m/s 2 −2

TABLE P.7.22
Geared Five−Bar Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in
kg−m2)
R1 0 − i0.0666 m1 22.54
R3 −0.2132 − i0.1112 I1 0.505
R7 0.1111 − i0.2379 m2 29.785
R9 −0.0074 − i0.0128 I2 5.635
m3 12.075
I3 2.415
m4 75.67
I4 5.635
274 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE P.7.23
Watt II Mechanism Configuration (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
1, 90° 1.5, 19.3737° 1.5, 93.2461° 1.5, 0 1, 60.7834°
∗ ∗
W , θ*
1
*
V , ρ*
1
*
U , σ*
*
1 G ,G
1x 1y L∗1, δ*
1, 45° 1.5, 7.9416° 1.5, 60.2717° 1.4489, −0.3882 1, 49.3512°

Fp1 (N) Fp*1 (N) Tb0 (N-m) Tb*0 (N-m) Gravity

0, −1500 −2500, −1000 0 0 –9.81 m/s2

TABLE P.7.24
Watt II Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 0 − i0.5 m1 8.05
R3 −0.6344 − i0.4568 I1 0.805
R7 −0.2074 − i0.7349 m2 29.785
R9 −0.7123 − i0.322 I2 5.635
R13 −0.3719 − i0.6513 m3 33.81
I3 5.635
m4 29.785
I4 5.635
m5 12.075
I5 2.415

FIGURE P.7.10
Stephenson III digging mechanism.
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 275

TABLE P.7.25
Stephenson III Digging Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1 V1 U1 G1 L1
3.0546 − i1.4686 −0.841 + i1.4363 −1.3089 − i1.5388 3.5225 + i1.5065 −4.0351 − i0.6398

V*
1 L*
1 U *
1 G*
1 Tb0 , Tb*0 (N-m)

2.3984 + i0.629 0.4974 − i1.3665 −1.0591 − i0.1314 −1.0455 − i2.8545 0

TABLE P.7.26
Stephenson III Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 −1.5273 + i0.7343 m1 2.9817
R3 3.7288 − i0.0171 I1 12.0162
R7 0.6545 + i0.7694 m2 2.5865
R8 0.2166 + i0.6934 I2 36.6452
R12 0.5295 + i0.0657 m3 1.8797
I3 2.799
m4 9.1046
I4 80.2505
m5 1.1125
I5 0.5096

FIGURE P.7.11
Stephenson III gripper mechanism.

acceleration is −5 rad/s2. Gravity is −9.81 m/s2. Calculate the driver torque over a
complete crank rotation range (using the Appendix D.2 or J.2 files).
25. Plot Fa0 y (vs. the crank angular displacement) for the slider-crank mechanism in
Problem 24 over a complete crank rotation range, using m3 = 25 kg and m3 = 10 kg.
26. Repeat Problem 24 using F = ( −150, − 50 ) N, an initial crank angular velocity of
−15 rad/s and an angular acceleration of 0 rad/s2.
276 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE P.7.27
Stephenson III Gripper Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
1.0283, 318.4178° 0.5195, 286.4362° 0.9418, 230.6143° 1.5138, − 0.4529 0.7031, 189.1904°
∗ ∗
V , ρ*
1
*
U , σ*
*
1 L , δ*
*
1 G ,G1x 1y Tb0 , Tb*0 (N-m)

5.2881, 319.9647° 0.8666, 236.6216° 3.2742, 11.8113° 3.0869, −3.0198 25, 75

TABLE P.7.28
Stephenson III Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 −0.3846 + i0.3412 m1 1.0811
R3 0.8113 − i1.4891 I1 0.4637
R7 0.2988 + i0.3640 m2 9.1255
R8 −1.6013 + i0.1172 I2 35.7589
R12 0.2384 + i0.3618 m3 1.0111
I3 0.3719
m4 9.1255
I4 64.0933
m5 0.9507
I5 0.3027

TABLE P.7.29
Stephenson III Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
W1, θ V1 , ρ U 1, σ G 1x, G 1y L 1, δ
1, 90° 1.5, 19.3737° 1.5, 93.2461° 1.5, 0 1, 60.7834°
∗ ∗
V , ρ*
1
*
L,δ
*
1
* U ,σ
*
1
* G ,G1x 1y Tb0 , Tb*0 (N-m)

2, 17.1417° 1, 63.7091° 2, 76.4844° 0.4318, 0.5176 −150

TABLE P.7.30
Stephenson III Mechanism Dynamic Parameters (with Length in m, Mass in kg, and Inertia in kg−m2)
R1 0 − i0.5 m1 16.1
R3 −0.6344 − i0.4568 I1 1.61
R7 0.0425 − i0.7488 m2 59.57
R8 −0.7847 − i0.4953 I2 11.27
R12 −0.2337 − i0.9723 m3 24.15
I3 4.83
m4 86.94
I4 32.2
m5 30.59
I5 11.27
Dynamic Force Analysis of Planar Mechanisms 277
8
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears

CONCEPT OVERVIEW
In this chapter, the reader will gain a central understanding regarding

1. Purposes, designs, and functions of spur, planetary, rack and pinion, helical, bevel, and
worm gears
2. Criteria for optimal gear operation and its relationship with gear design variables
and design equations
3. Equations and solution methods for the kinematics of spur, planetary, rack and pin-
ion, helical, bevel, and worm gears

8.1 Introduction
Gears are mechanical components used to transmit motion from one shaft to another. In
Chapters 3 and 4, gears have been introduced in the planar five-bar mechanism. By includ-
ing a gear pair, as illustrated in Figure 3.4, or a gear train (three or more gears), as illustrated
in Figure 4.13, to interconnect the driving links of this mechanism, the rotation of link
a0−a1 is transmitted to link b0−b1.
A simple design to transmit motion between shafts can include cylinders, where friction
maintains the rolling contact between the cylinders (Figure 8.1a). With this design, as long
as the contact between the cylinders is pure rolling (e.g., no slip), the velocity relationships
given in Equation 8.1 hold true. As a result of the friction force being the limiting factor for
the torque capacity of rolling cylinders, motion transmission through rolling cylinders is
limited to low-torque applications in practice.
Replacing the rolling cylinders with gears (Figure 8.1b) maintains the velocity relation-
ships in Equation 8.1 while substantially increasing torque capacity, since the teeth in the
driving gear (also called the pinion) interface or mesh with the teeth of the driven gear.*
With gears, torque capacity is limited to the bending strength of the gear teeth (as opposed
to contact friction in rolling cylinders) [1]. The ratio of the driving and driven gear angular
velocities (in Equation 8.1) is called the velocity ratio (VR).
Although rotation can be transmitted through other mechanical components (e.g., belt-
pulley systems and chain-sprocket systems), gears are commonly used, appearing in
mechanical systems of all sizes. The advantages of gears over belt-pulley, chain-sprocket,
and even linkage systems include higher torque, speed and power capacities, no slip, greater
durability, efficiency, and suitability for confined spaces. As you will see throughout this

* In Figure 8.1b, variables rp1 and rp2 are the pitch circle radii (the pitch circle diameter is presented in Section 8.3.1) of
the driving and driven gears, respectively, and are analogous to r1 and r2 of the rolling cylinders in Figure 8.1a.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003316961-8 279

280 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 8.1
(a) Rolling cylinder pair and (b) gear pair.

chapter, gear types and gear systems vary primarily by the shaft orientations they accom-
modate, the input–output rotation ratios possible, and the overall gear system design.

VP = r1ω 1 = r2ω 2
or
ω 1 r2
= = VR (8.1)
ω 2 r1

8.2 Gear Types
Spur gears (Figure 8.1b) are used to transmit motion between parallel shafts. Figure 8.2a illus-
trates the two types of spur-gear designs: external and internal. In an external gear, the gear
teeth point away from the gear center, while the teeth point toward the center in an internal
gear. An internal gear with an infinite radius forms a rack gear, which, when included with
an external gear, is called a rack and pinion gear. In rack and pinion gears (Figure 8.2b), the
rotational motion of the pinion gear produces the translational motion of the rack gear.

FIGURE 8.2
(a) External and internal gears and (b) rack and pinion gear.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 281

Helical gears can be used to transmit motion between parallel shafts (Figure 8.3a) and non-
parallel shafts that do not intersect (Figure 8.3b). The helical tooth profiles of these gears give
them a greater load-bearing capacity (for increased power transmission), greater wear resis-
tance, quieter operation, greater operating speeds, and smoother operation than spur gears.*
Bevel gears (Figure 8.4) are used to transmit motion between intersecting shafts. Bevel
gears are typically used for shafts that intersect at 90° (although they are not limited to
this angle). Like helical gears, worm gears (Figure 8.5) are used to transmit motion between
orthogonal shafts that do not intersect. Worm gears are used when large reductions in
velocity ratios are required.

FIGURE 8.3
Helical gears on (a) parallel and (b) nonparallel shafts.

FIGURE 8.4
Bevel gear.

* The helical tooth profile results in a greater contact area for helical gear teeth than for a spur gear of the same
thickness and radius. The enhanced capacities noted for the helical gear are the result of the increased contact
area. This statement assumes that the variables common to both gear types have identical values.
282 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 8.5
Worm gear.

8.3 SPUR-Gear Nomenclature and Relationships of Mating Gears

8.3.1 Spur-Gear Nomenclature
Figure 8.6 illustrates the principal features of a spur-gear tooth. The pitch circle represents
the size of the rolling cylinder that would replace the gear (as illustrated in Figure 8.1)*.
The diameter of a pitch circle is called the pitch diameter (represented by the variable dp).†
The number of teeth (represented by the variable N) is the total number of teeth on the
gear. This quantity is always an integer (gear teeth fractions are not used).

FIGURE 8.6
Spur-gear tooth features.

* The point P in Figure 8.1 is the point of contact between the two pitch circles and is called the pitch point.
† While the pitch diameter cannot be directly measured (due to its location within the gear), gears are com-
monly referenced by their pitch diameters.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 283

The circular pitch (represented by the variable pc) is the distance measured along the pitch
circle from one point on a gear tooth to the corresponding point on an adjacent gear tooth.
Given the variables dp and N, an equation for the circular pitch is expressed as

πdp
pc = (8.2)
N
To enable proper operation for mating gears, the circular pitch values for the gears must
be identical.
The gear-tooth profile is constructed from the base circle of the gear and the diameter of
a base circle is called the base circle diameter (represented by the variable db). Section 8.4.5
includes details on how a gear-tooth profile is generated from a base circle.
The face width (represented by the variable F) is the length of a gear tooth in the direction
parallel to the shaft axis.
The addendum (represented by the variable a) is the radial distance from the pitch circle
to the top of a gear tooth and the dedendum (represented by the variable b) is the radial
distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of a gear tooth. The sum of the addendum and
dedendum is called the whole depth (represented by the variable hT). The amount that the
addendum exceeds the dedendum is called the clearance (represented by the variable c).*
The diametral pitch (represented by the variable Pd) is the number of gear teeth per inch of
pitch diameter and can be expressed as
N
Pd = (8.3)
dp
Diametral pitch (also called pitch) is an often-referenced parameter for gear-tooth size
specifications in US customary units (or simply US units). Figure 8.7 includes several stan-
dard gear-tooth sizes and their corresponding diametral pitch values. To enable proper
operation for mating gears, the diametral pitch values for the gears must be identical.
The module (represented by the variable m) is the ratio of pitch diameter to the number of
gear teeth and is expressed as
dp
m= (8.4)
N
The module is an often-referenced parameter in the International System of Units (or simply
SI units) and has a unit of millimeters. It can be seen from Equations 8.3 and 8.4 that the
module is the reciprocal of the diametral pitch. Since the reciprocal of the diametral pitch
has a unit of inches, it should be multiplied by 25.4 mm/in to convert the unit to millime-
ters which are needed for the module.
After substituting Equations 8.4 and 8.3 into Equation 8.2, the circular pitch becomes

πdp π
pc = = = πm (8.5)
N Pd
Most of the gear-tooth features identified in Figure 8.6 are standardized with respect to
the diametral pitch.† Table 8.1 includes several gear-tooth feature equations as given and
certified by the American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) and the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), respectively [2].

* In mating gears, the clearance is the gap between the top of a tooth of one gear and the bottom of a tooth of the
other gear.
† Gear tooth features are also standardized with respect to the circular pitch.
284 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 8.7
Spur-gear tooth size variation with diametral pitch.

TABLE 8.1
Formulas for Spur-Gear Tooth Proportions (20° and 25° Pressure
Angle Involute Full-Depth Teeth ANSI Coarse Pitch)
Diametral Pitch Pd
Tooth Feature to Calculate Known
Addendum, a a = 1/Pd
Dedendum (preferred), b b = 1.25/Pd
Dedendum (shaved or ground teeth), b b = 1.35/Pd
Working depth, hk hk = 2/Pd
Whole depth (preferred), ht ht = 2.25/Pd
Whole depth (shaved or ground teeth), ht ht = 2.35/Pd
Fillet radius, rf rf = 0.3/Pd
Clearance (preferred), c c = 0.25/Pd
Clearance (shaved or ground teeth), c c = 0.35/Pd
Circular tooth thickness, t t = π/2Pd
Source: ANSI B6.1-1968 (R1974). Coarse-pitch spur-gear tooth forms.
New York: American National Standards Institute [3].

Example 8.1
Problem Statement: Using Equations 8.2–8.4, calculate the pitch diameter, diametral pitch,
and module for a spur gear having 20 teeth and a circular pitch of 0.5. Assuming this
gear is an ANSI coarse pitch with a 25° pressure angle (Table 8.1), calculate the working
depth and circular tooth thickness of this gear also.
Known Information: N and pc.
Solution Approach: Figure E.8.1 includes the calculation procedure in the MATLAB®
command window.

8.3.2 Pressure Angle and Involute Tooth Profile

The pressure angle (represented by the variable ϕ) is the angle between the line tangent to both
pitch circles of mating gears (called the pitch line in Figure 8.8) and the line perpendicular to
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 285

>> N = 20;
>> Pc = 0.5;
>> dp = N*Pc/pi

dp =

3.1831

>> Pd = N/dp

Pd =

6.2832

>> m = (dp/N)*25.4

m =

4.0425

>> hk = 2/Pd

hk =

0.3183

>> t = pi/(2*Pd)

t =

0.2500

>>

FIGURE E.8.1
Example 8.1 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

both gear-tooth surfaces at the contact point (called the pressure line in Figure 8.8).* The pres-
sure line is also tangent to both the base circles of the mating gears. The relative gear-tooth
shape is influenced in part by the pressure angle. To enable proper operation of the mating
gears, the pressure angle (like the diametral pitch) values for the gears must be identical.
It can be explained from Figure 8.8 how the pressure angle affects the relative gear-tooth
shape. Because the pressure line is tangent to both base circles, any increase in the pres-
sure angle decreases the size of the base circles. Conversely, any decrease in the pressure
angle increases their size. The radial distance between the base and pitch circles influences
the gear-tooth shape because the specific gear-tooth profile (explained later in this section)
lies along this radial distance only. Most gears today are standardized at pressure angles
of 20° and 25°. Although reducing the pressure angle increases the possibility of poor gear-
tooth engagement (due to interference), it also results in more efficient torque transmission
and smaller radial load transfer to supporting shafts.
Smooth gear motion is achieved when the velocity of the driven gear from gear-tooth
engagement to gear-tooth disengagement is constant.† A requirement for this condition
is that the path of gear-tooth contact is a straight line and that this line must intersect the
point of contact of both pitch circles. Figure 8.9 illustrates three moments of engagement
of two gears: initial tooth engagement (1), an intermediate moment of engagement (2), and
tooth disengagement (3). The points of contact at each of these moments of engagement lie

* Because forces are transmitted in the direction perpendicular to the surfaces of the contacting bodies (and the
pressure line is perpendicular to both contacting gear-tooth surfaces), the forces acting on a gear tooth are
transmitted along the pressure line. The point of contact between the gear surfaces that lies on the pitch circles
is called the pitch point and is represented by the variable P in Figure 8.8.
† This condition also means that the velocity ratio of the driving and driven gears is constant.
286 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 8.8
Pressure angle.

FIGURE 8.9
Gear mating process.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 287

along the line of contact (or contact line) and this line intersects the point of contact between
the pitch circles. Therefore, a constant velocity ratio is ensured for the gears in Figure 8.9.
These requirements for a constant velocity ratio are expressed in the fundamental law of
gearing. In this law, to maintain a constant velocity ratio, the gear-tooth profile must be designed
in such a way that the common normal to both contacting tooth surfaces (the pressure line) passes
through the pitch point on the line of contact.
The involute of a circle is one of the possible curve types that is adequate for a gear-tooth
profile.* An involute curve is produced by unwinding a taut cord from the base circle (hav-
ing a diameter represented by the variable db), and tracing the path produced by a point
on the cord. A gear-tooth profile is formed from a section of the involute curve. Figure 8.10
illustrates the involute curve.
The pressure line and line of contact are identical for gears with involute profiles. The
pressure angle (or the inclination of the line of contact) is determined from the involute
curve section used for the gear tooth. As previously noted in this section, an increase
in the pressure angle decreases the size of the base circles and a decrease in the angle
increases their size. The relationship between the pressure angle (ϕ), the pitch diameter
(dp), and the base circle diameter (db) can be expressed as

db = dp cos φ (8.6)

FIGURE 8.10
Involute gear tooth.

* Another possible curve is called a cycloid, which is the planar path traced by a point on a circle as it rolls on a
fixed surface. An epicycloid is produced by a circle rolling over a fixed circle, and a hypocycloid is produced by
a circle rolling within a fixed circle.
288 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

8.3.3 Gear Center Distance and Contact Ratio

The center distance (represented by variable C) is the center-to-center distance between two
mating gears.* In terms of pitch radii and pitch diameters, the equation for center distance
for external gears can be expressed as

dp 1 + dp 2
Cexternal = rp 1 + rp 2 = (8.7)
2

Substituting the pitch diameters in Equation 8.7 with Equation 8.3 produces

N1 + N 2
Cexternal = (8.8)
2Pd

For a gear pair consisting of an internal and an external gear (Figure 8.2a, for example), the
center distance can be expressed as

dp 1 − dp 2 N 1 − N 2
Cext − int = rp 1 − rp 2 = = (8.9)†
2 2Pd

The contact ratio (represented by the variable mp) is the average number of gear teeth in
contact at any instant in time. A contact ratio of 1.2 (generally the minimum considered
in design) means that one pair of gear teeth is always in contact while another pair is in
contact only 20% of the time. By increasing the contact ratio, more gear teeth are in contact
from the moment of engagement to the moment of disengagement. This results in greater
duration and power transmission (since loads are shared among more teeth), as well as
smoother operation.
A contact ratio equation can be expressed as

Z
mp = (8.10)
pb

where the variable pb is the base pitch (the distance measured along the base circle from one
point on a gear tooth to the corresponding point on an adjacent gear tooth) and the vari-
able Z is the length of the line of contact (from engagement to disengagement). A base pitch
equation can be expressed as

πdp 1 cos φ πdp 2 cos φ

pb = = (8.11)
N1 N2

and a contact line length equation can be expressed as

Z= (rp2 + a2 ) − (r
2
p2 cos φ ) 2
− rp 2 sin φ + (r
p1 + a1 ) − (r
2
p1 cos φ ) 2
− rp 1 sin φ (8.12)

Substituting Equations 8.11 and 8.12 into Equation 8.10 produces a contact ratio equation in
terms of gear-tooth geometry.

* This distance is also the center distance between the two shafts supporting the gears.
† For external-internal gear pairs, the center distance is the (positive) difference between the pitch radii.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 289

Example 8.2
Problem Statement: Given an external gear pair where N1 = 25, N2 = 35 and the circular
pitch for the pinion is pc1 = 0.25, calculate the center distance, base pitch, contact line
length, and contact ratio for the gear pair. Assume the gears are ANSI coarse pitch with
20° pressure angles (Table 8.1).
Known Information: N1, N2, pc1 , and ϕ.
Solution Approach: Figure E.8.2 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window.

8.3.4 Gear-Tooth Interference and Undercutting

As illustrated in Figure 8.9, the contact between mating gear teeth should only occur along
the line of contact. Gear-tooth contact at any other point is known as interference and vio-
lates the required constant velocity ratio condition for gears.* To avoid interference, it is
important that gear-tooth contact only occurs between their involute portions.
Since the involute profile of a gear exists above its base circle (see Figure 8.11), it is impor-
tant to eliminate and/or minimize the noninvolute gear tooth portion below the base circle
to avoid interference. One way to meet this requirement (and subsequently avoid inter-
ference) is by avoiding gears having too few teeth. Inequality Eq. (8.13) determines the
maximum number of gear teeth to avoid interference given the number of pinion teeth

>> N1 = 25;
>> pc1 = 0.25;
>> N2 = 35;
>> phi = 20*pi/180;
>> dp1 = pc1*N1/pi;
>> Pd = N1/dp1;
>> dp2 = N2/Pd;
>> C = (dp1 + dp2)/2

C =

2.3873

>> pb = pi*dp1*cos(phi)/N1

pb =

0.2349

>> a = 1/Pd;
>> Z =...
sqrt((0.5*dp2 + a)^2 - (0.5*dp2*cos(phi))^2) - 0.5*dp2*sin(phi)...
+ sqrt((0.5*dp1 + a)^2 - (0.5*dp1*cos(phi))^2) - 0.5*dp1*sin(phi)

Z =

0.3874

>> mp = Z/pb

mp =

1.6491

>>

FIGURE E.8.2
Example 8.2 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

* Interference also produces excessive gear noise, vibration and wear.

290 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

and pressure angle (in this equation a1 = k/Pd1).*† Table 8.2 includes sample interference-
avoiding gear tooth combinations calculated from Inequality Eq. (8.13).

N 12 sin 2 φ − 4 k 2
N2 < (8.13)
4 k − 2 N 1 sin 2 φ
In addition to avoiding gears having too few teeth, interference can also be avoided by
removing gear-tooth material between the base and dedendum circles. This procedure is
called undercutting. Figure 8.12 illustrates an undercut gear tooth. Because undercutting
removes gear-tooth material (subsequently compromising gear-tooth strength), it should
be avoided if possible.
The minimum number of pinion teeth can be directly calculated by formulating a
second-order polynomial from Inequality Eq. (8.13) and calculating its roots. To achieve
this, the term N 2 < in Inequality Eq. (8.13) is replaced with N 1 = and the second-order poly-
nomial  2 sin ( φ) N 12 − [ 4k ] N 1 − 4k 2 = 0 can be formed. Using k = 1and φ = 20° (from Table
8.2) in the polynomial and calculating its roots produces N 1 = 12.3231 and N 1 = −0.9249 .

FIGURE 8.11
Gear-tooth involute portion.

TABLE 8.2
Sample Gear-Tooth Combinations to Avoid Interference
ϕ = 20° ϕ = 25°
Number of Pinion Max. Number of Number of Pinion Max. Number of
Teeth, N1 Gear Teeth, N2 Teeth, N1 Gear Teeth, N2
Less than 13 Interference Less than 9 Interference
13 16 9 13
14 26 10 32
15 45 11 249

* Since a = 1/Pd in Table 8.1, k = 1 in Inequality Eq. (8.13) for the gear types represented in Table 8.1.
† Inequality Eq. (8.13) can also be expressed as a < rb2 + C 2 sin 2 φ where a is the addendum, rb is the base circle
radius, C is the center-to-center gear distance and ϕ is the pressure angle. Interference occurs when this condi-
tion is violated.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 291

FIGURE 8.12
Undercut gear tooth.

The latter root can be neglected since N must be a positive number with a nonzero integer
component. And since we want the minimum number of pinion teeth, the first root must be
rounded up to the nearest integer, producing N 1 ≥ 13. When this root is included in Inequality
Eq. (8.13), the result is N 2 < 16.4507. And since we want the maximum number of gear teeth, this
value must be rounded down to the nearest integer, producing N 2 ≤ 16. This procedure can be
repeated using φ = 25° (from Table 8.2) to produce N 1 ≥ 9 and N 2 ≥ 13.

8.3.5 Backlash
Backlash is the clearance measured along the pitch circle between the nondriving surfaces
of mating gear teeth (in general, it is the amount of play between mating teeth). Figure
8.13 illustrates mating gear teeth with corresponding backlash labeled. A limited amount
of backlash is necessary to prevent the mating gear teeth from binding with each other.
Backlash also helps to enable gear-tooth lubrication because it provides clearance for

FIGURE 8.13
Backlash in mating gears.
292 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

lubricant flow. Although it is important to include clearance between mating gear teeth for
proper gear operation, excessive backlash can produce inaccurate gear motion as well as
large dynamic loads. AGMA provides tables of recommended backlash ranges [4].

8.4 Helical-Gear Nomenclature

As mentioned in Section 8.2, helical gears can be used to transmit motion between parallel
and nonparallel shafts (also called crossed shafts) that do not intersect.* It was also noted
in that section that helical gears have a greater load-bearing capacity and wear resistance,
quieter and smoother operation than spur gears. These advantages are the result of the
teeth of a helical gear lying at an angle (labeled the helix angle in Figure 8.15) with respect to
the gear’s center axis. This angled tooth profile increases the contact between mating gear
teeth for greater load distribution (resulting in the advantages given).†
There are two designations for helical gears: right-hand and left-hand. As illustrated in
Figure 8.14, the teeth in a right-hand helical gear slope downward-right and the teeth in a
left-hand helical gear slope downward-left. This designation holds true whether the gears
are driving gears or driven gears. Considering these designations, the helical gear illus-
trated in Figure 8.15 is a left-hand helical gear.
As you will notice in this section, the forthcoming formulas for helical gears are simi-
lar to those of spur gears, except for the inclusion of the helix angle (represented by the

FIGURE 8.14
Left-hand and right-hand helical gears.

* When used on nonparallel, nonintersecting shafts, the term crossed helical gears is used to describe the system.
† Although the angled tooth profile makes helical gears more difficult to manufacture than spur gears, they are
often preferred over spur gears due to the advantages given.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 293

FIGURE 8.15
Helical-gear geometry.

variable ψ). In fact, by considering a spur gear to be a special type of helical gear (one
where ψ = 0°), the forthcoming equations are directly applicable to spur gears.
As illustrated in Figure 8.15, there are two directions to consider with helical gears: the
normal direction (labeled B-B) and the transverse direction (labeled A-A). There are sev-
veral helical-gear variables that are given in both the normal and transverse directions.
For example, in Figure 8.15, there is a circular pitch that is given in the transverse direction,
as well one given in the normal direction. Other helical-gear variables that are given in
both directions include the diametral pitch, module, and pressure angle.
n
The normal circular pitch (represented by variable pc ) is the distance measured along the
pitch circle from one point on a gear tooth to the corresponding point on an adjacent gear
tooth in the normal direction (or normal to the gear tooth). The equation for the normal cir-
cular pitch is expressed as

pcn = pc cos ψ (8.14)

The normal diametral pitch (represented by the variable Pdn) is the number of gear teeth per
inch of pitch diameter in the normal direction and can be expressed as

π (8.15)
Pdn =
pcn
The normal module (represented by the variable mn) is the ratio of the pitch diameter to
the number of gear teeth in the normal direction and can be expressed (in a form identical
to Equation 8.5) as
π
pcn = = πmn (8.16)
pdn

and as
294 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

mn
m= (8.17)
cos ψ

The normal pressure angle (represented by the variable ϕn) is the angle the pitch line makes
with the pressure line in the normal direction and can be expressed as

tan φn = tan φ cos ψ (8.18)

As previously noted, Equations 8.14 through 8.18 are directly applicable for spur gears at
ψ = 0°. Therefore, at a helix angle of zero, these equations become identical to their respec-
tive spur-gear equations in Sections 8.3.1 and 8.3.2.
Just as spur gear-tooth features are standardized with respect to the diametral pitch,
helical gear-tooth features are standardized with respect to the normal diametral pitch.
Table 8.3 includes several gear-tooth feature equations as given and certified by AGMA
and ANSI, respectively [5].

TABLE 8.3
Formulas for Helical Gear-Tooth Proportions (14.5°, 20°, and 25° Pressure
Angle Involute ANSI Fine Pitch)
Tooth Feature to Calculate Normal Diametral Pitch Pdn Known
1
Addendum, a a=
pdn

 1.200 
Dedendum, b b =  n  + 0.002(min)
 Pd 
2.000
Working depth, hk hk =
Pdn

 2.200 
Whole depth, ht ht =  n  + 0.200(min)
 Pd 

 0.200 
Clearance (standard), c c =  n  + 0.002(min)
 Pd 

 0.350 
Clearance (shaved or ground teeth), c c =  n  + 0.002(min)
 Pd 
π
Normal circular tooth thickness, tn tn =
2 Pdn
N
Pitch diameter, dp dp =
 Pdn cos Ψ 

Cextrnel =
[ N1 + N 2 ]
Center distance (external), Cexternal  2 Pdn cos Ψ 
 

Cext − int =
[ N1 − N 2 ]
Center distance (ext–int), Cext−int  2 Pdn cos Ψ 
 

Source: ANSI B6.7-1977. Fine-pitch helical-gear tooth forms. New York: American
National Standards Institute [6].
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 295

>> N = 20;
>> pc = 0.5;
>> psi = 35*pi/180;
>> phi = 25*pi/180;
>> pcn = pc*cos(psi);
>> Pdn = pi/pcn

Pdn =

7.6704
>> mn = (1/Pdn)*25.4;
>> m = mn/cos(psi)

m =

4.0425

>> phin = atan(tan(phi)*cos(psi))*180/pi

phin =

20.9057

>> hk = 2/Pdn

hk =

0.2607

>> dp = N/(Pdn*cos(psi))
dp =

3.1831

>>

FIGURE E.8.3
Example 8.3 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

Example 8.3
Problem Statement: Calculate the normal diametral pitch, module, and normal pressure
angle for a helical gear having 20 teeth, a circular pitch of 0.5, and a helix angle of 35°.
Assuming this gear is an ANSI fine pitch with a 25° pressure angle (Table 8.3), calculate
the working depth and pitch diameter of this gear also.
Known Information: N, pc, ψ, and ϕ.
Solution Approach: Figure E.8.3 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window.

8.5 Gear Kinematics
8.5.1 Spur Gears and Gear Trains
By adhering to the fundamental law of gearing, a constant velocity ratio is maintained. In
terms of the variables given in Figure 8.16, Equation 8.1 can be expressed as

VP = rp 1ω 1 = rp 2ω 2
296 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 8.16
Mating-gear pair in motion.

or

ω 1 rp 2
VR = = (8.19)
ω 2 rp 1

where the velocity variable Vp in Figure 8.16 is called the pitch-line velocity: the velocity of
the pitch point (point P) of the mating-gear pair.
The velocity ratio can also be expressed in terms of the pitch diameters or the number of
gear teeth, since dp = 2rp and N = dpPd from Equation 8.3. When expressed in terms of these
variables, Equation 8.19 becomes

ω 1 rp 2 dp 2 N 2
VR = = = = (8.20)
ω 2 rp 1 dp 1 N 1

While Equation 8.20 includes the gear angular velocity ratio ω1/ω2, it can also include the
ratios of gear angular displacement θ1/θ2 or angular acceleration α1/α2.
A group of mating-gear pairs is called a gear train (Figure 8.17). Gear trains are often
used when large velocity reductions are required because the amount of velocity reduc-
tion possible in a single-gear pair for practical use is limited.* Rather than achieve a large
velocity reduction in a single-gear pair, such a reduction is achieved over multiple stages
using multiple gear pairs.
The velocity ratio for a gear train is called a train value. This value is the ratio (of quanti-
ties including those in Equation 8.20) of the initial driving gear to the final output gear in
the gear train. Because a gear train is comprised of multiple gear pairs, the train value is
also the product of the individual velocity ratios of each gear pair in the gear train. If we
define the velocity ratio of each gear pair as VRi (where i = 1, 2, 3 …), the equation for the
train value can be expressed as

ω input
= (VR1 )(VR2 )(VR3 ) ... (8.21)
ω output

* The velocity reduction achieved in a single-gear pair is limited by the maximum number of gear teeth and the
maximum gear size.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 297

FIGURE 8.17
Gear train.

FIGURE 8.18
Gear train with idler gear.

When calculating a train value, it is important to note that if the input and output gears
in an individual gear pair rotate in opposite directions, the corresponding velocity ratio is
negative and the velocity ratio is positive when they rotate in the same direction.
Because the driven gear will always rotate in the opposite direction to the driving gear
in a gear pair, it is necessary to include an idler gear to enable both gears to rotate in the
same direction. Making this gear (Figure 8.18) identical and equivalent in size and number
of teeth, respectively, to the driving gear minimizes both the additional space needed to
include it and its rotation speed. Using Equation 8.21, it can be determined that the train
value for the gear train in Figure 8.18 is indeed positive (and subsequently consistent with
rotation direction of Gears 1 and 3) since it is the product of two negative velocity ratios—
the velocity ratios for gear pairs 1–2 and 2–3.
In addition to gear kinematic motion, knowing the forces and torques acting on spur
gears are important in gear design and operation. Figure 8.19 illustrates the normal force
Fn exerted by the driving gear on the driven gear. Because this force is normal to the con-
tact surfaces of the mating gear teeth at point P, it acts along the pressure line (the line of
contact) and subsequently is orientated at the pressure angle ϕ. The radial and tangential
components of Fn are the radial force Fr and tangent force Ft, and are expressed as

Fr = Fn sin φ (8.22)

Ft = Fn cos φ (8.23)

The radial force is directed toward the gear center and acts to deflect the gear shaft (act-
ing to move the driven gear out of contact with the driving gear). The tangential force is
tangent to the pitch circles at point P and acts to rotate the driven gear.
298 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 8.19
Gear-tooth force and force components.

The torque T produced about the center of a gear is given by

d   dp   dp 
T = Fn  b  = Fn   cos φ = Ft   (8.24)
 2  2  2

The power (in horsepower or hp) transmitted by a rotating gear is given by

Tn FV
hp = = t P (8.25)
63, 025 33, 000

where the gear rotation speed (in revolutions/min) is represented by the variable n.* The
power (in kilowatts or kW) transmitted by a rotating gear is given by

Tω FV
t P
kW = = (8.26)
1, 000, 000 1, 000, 000

where the gear rotation speed (in rad/s) is represented by the variable ω.†

Example 8.4
Problem Statement: Given a train of four gears where N1 = 20, N2 = 35, N3 = 55, N4 = 80,
calculate the train value. Assuming the rotational speed of the input gear is ω1 = 7 rad/s
and the output gear torque is T4 = 150 N-mm, calculate the power transmitted by the
output gear.
Known Information: N1, N2, N3, N4, ω1, and T4.
Solution Approach: Figure E.8.4 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window.

* In Equation 8.25, T is given in inch-pounds, Ft is given in pounds, and VP is given in feet per minute.
† In Equation 8.26, T is given in newton-millimeters, Ft is given in newtons and VP is given in millimeters per
second.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 299

>> N1 = 20;
>> N2 = 35;
>> N3 = 55;
>> N4 = 80;
>> omega1 = 7;
>> T4 = 150;
>> tv = -N2/N1*-N3/N2*-N4/N3

tv =

-4

>> omega4 = omega1*N1/N4;

>> kW = T4*omega4/1000000
kW =

2.6250e-04

>>

FIGURE E.8.4
Example 8.4 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

8.5.2 Planetary Gear Trains

The gear train illustrated in Figure 8.20a is called a planetary gear train.* The name plan-
etary is used to describe this gear system because it consists of a gear (called a planet gear)
that can rotate about a center gear (called a sun gear). Figure 8.20a illustrates the most
basic planetary gear train. In this system, the sun gear is typically connected to an input
shaft and the ring gear is typically connected to an output shaft. The planet gear mates
with both the sun and ring gears and the carrier constrains the planet gear (to rotation
about the sun gear). Although this textbook considers the most basic planetary gear train,
multiple variations of the planetary gear train have been identified and used in practice.†
Figure 8.20b illustrates a simple line diagram (called a skeleton diagram) of the planetary

* Planetary gear trains are also called epicyclic gear trains.

FIGURE 8.20
(a) A simple planetary gear train and (b) skeleton diagram.

† Planetary gear train variations include various combinations of sun, planet, and ring gears.
300 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 8.21
(a) Speed reduction system with (b, c) planetary gear train.

gear train. In this diagram, the planet, sun, ring, and carrier are labeled by the letters P, S,
R, and C, respectively.
Planetary gear trains have several distinct advantages over conventional gear trains.
For example, large velocity reductions can be achieved with a planetary gear train in a
workspace that is more compact than a conventional gear train. Gear ratio changes are also
achieved by constraining different members (gears or carriers) in the planetary gear train.
In transmission systems (where planetary gears are commonly utilized), gear ratios are
changed by computer-operated controls (in automatic transmissions) or manually-operated
controls (in manual transmissions).
Planetary gear trains are commonly used in transmission systems. Figures 8.21b and c
illustrate a planetary gear train used in a speed reduction system (Figure 8.21a). Within
this speed reduction system (as the name implies), the input rotational speed of the driving
shaft is reduced and delivered to the output shaft.
Given the number of teeth in each gear, there is a three-step procedure for calculating
the rotations of each member of the planetary gear train.* The steps of this method are as
follows:
Step 1: Assume any initially fixed member is unconstrained, the motion of the carrier
is fixed, and calculate the rotations of the remaining gears, given a rotation and rotation
direction of any single gear.
Step 2: Assume all members are unconstrained and include the full rotation of all mem-
bers in the direction opposite to the given rotation direction in Step 1.

* This three-step procedure is called the tabular method.

Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 301

FIGURE 8.22
Sun gear conjugating with (a) one, (b) two, and (c) four planet gears.

Step 3: Take the sum of the rotations from Steps 1 and 2 for each member of the gear
train (this procedure is called superposition). The rotations calculated in this step are the
true rotations of the gear train under the initial conditions.
This three-step procedure can be completed in a table of three rows and n columns,
where each row is a step in the procedure and each column is a member of the gear train.
The rotational velocities of each gear can be calculated from the known velocity ratios.
Unlike the simple planetary gear train illustrated in Figure 8.20, the planetary gear train in
Figure 8.22 includes four planet gears. The inclusion of additional planet gears decreases the
normal force transmitted between each sun–planet pair. By reducing Fn, the torque capacity
of the sun gear is increased. This effect is illustrated in Figure 8.22. While a single sun–planet
pair produces a normal force of Fn , this force is reduced by 50% with the inclusion of two
sun–planet pairs (Figure 8.22b). Likewise, Fn is reduced by 75% with the inclusion of four
sun–planet pairs (Figure 8.22c). As a result, the sun gears in Figures 8.22b and c have double
and quadruple the torque capacity, respectively, of the sun gear in Figure 8.22a.*

Example 8.5
Problem Statement: Consider the simple planetary gear train design in Figure 8.20. In
this example, Nsun = 20, Nplanet = 10, Nring = 40. Also, the sun gear is fixed, the input is the
carrier, and the output is the ring gear.† Calculate the rotations of the sun, planet, ring,
and carrier. Also calculate the output rotational speed if the input rotational speed is
ωcarrier = 35 rad/s.
Known Information: Nsun, Nplanet, Nring, and ωsun.
Solution Approach: Equations 8.20 and 8.21 also hold true for gear angular displace-
ments. Knowing this, the angular displacements for the planet and ring gears (Step 1)
can be calculated. Assuming a full counterclockwise sun gear rotation, Figure E.8.5
includes the Step 1 calculation procedure in MATLAB’s command window for the
planet and ring gears.

* The sun–planet force transmitted becomes Fn/Nplanet and the sun torque capacity becomes (Nplanet)T, where Fn
and T are the force transmitted and torque capacity, respectively, and Nplanet is the total number of planet gears.
† If the carrier is fixed, this problem can be solved using Equations 8.20 and 8.21 (tabular method not needed).
302 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Table E.8.1 includes the results calculated for Step 1. In accordance with Step 2, a full
clockwise rotation is specified for all links and Step 3 includes the sum of the results
from Steps 1 and 2. Table E.8.1 also includes the values specified and calculated for Steps
2 and 3, respectively.
With the planetary gear rotations calculated from Step 3 and the known rotation
speed of the carrier, the output rotation speed (the rotation speed of the carrier) can be
calculated using Equations 8.20 and 8.21. Figure E.8.6 includes this calculation proce-
dure in MATLAB’s command window.*

>> Ns = 20;
>> Np = 10;
>> Nr = 40;
>> rot_s = 1;
>> rot_p = rot_s*-Ns/Np

rot_p =

-2

>> rot_r = rot_p*Np/Nr

rot_r =

-0.5000

>>

FIGURE E.8.5
Example 8.5 solution calculation procedure (for Step 1) in MATLAB.

TABLE E.8.1
Planetary Gear Rotation Analysis Table for Example 8.5
Sun Gear Planet Gear Ring Gear Carrier
Step 1 (fixed carrier) 1 –2 –0.5 0
Step 2 (full counterrotation) –1 –1 –1 –1
Step 3 (Step 1 + Step 2) 0 –3 –1.5 –1

>> rot_p = -3;

>> rot_r = -1.5;
>> rot_c = -1;
>> omega_c = 35;
>> omega_p = omega_c*rot_p/rot_c

omega_p =

105

>> omega_r = omega_p*rot_r/rot_p

omega_r =

52.5000

>>

FIGURE E.8.6
Example 8.5 solution calculation procedure (for rotational speed) in MATLAB.

* In this problem, positive and negative rotation values correspond to counterclockwise and clockwise rota-
tions, respectively.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 303

8.5.3 Rack and Pinion Gears

As noted in Section 8.2, in the rack and pinion gear, the rotational motion of the pinion
gear produces the translational motion of the rack gear. In Equation 8.27, the translation
of the rack is represented by the variable Δs and the rotation of the pinion (in radians) is
represented by the variable Δθ. The variables rp and dp are the pitch radius and diameter of
the pinion, respectively.

dp
∆s = rp ∆θ = ∆θ (8.27)
2

The rack and pinion gear is kinematically identical to a gear system consisting of an
external gear (the pinion gear) and an internal gear of infinite radius (the rack gear).
Because of this, the pitch-line velocity VP in a spur-gear pair is identical to the velocity of
the rack in a rack and pinion gear. Therefore, for the rack and pinion gear, Equation 8.19
can be expressed as

dp
VP = Vrack = rp ω = ω (8.28)
2

Where the variables Vrack and ω are the velocity of the rack and the angular velocity of the
pinion, respectively.

Example 8.6
Problem Statement: Calculate the translation and velocity of a rack in a rack and pinion
gear where the pinion rotation, speed, and diameter are π/6 rad, 7 rad/s, and 25 mm,
respectively.
Known Information: Δθ, ω, and dp.
Solution Approach: Figure E.8.7 includes the solution calculation procedure in
MATLAB’s command window.

>> theta = pi/6;

>> omega = 7;
>> dp = 25;
>> s = theta*dp/2

s =

6.5450

>> Vrack = omega*dp/2

Vrack =

87.5000
>>

FIGURE E.8.7
Example 8.6 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.
304 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

8.5.4 Helical Gears

In addition to spur gears, Equations 8.19 and 8.20 are also applicable for the kinematic
analysis of helical gears. Figure 8.23 illustrates the normal force Fn exerted on the driven
helical gear. There are three orientation angles associated with Fn. It has a pressure angle
of ϕ in the transverse direction (direction A-A in Figure 8.15), a pressure angle of ϕn in the
normal direction (direction B-B in Figure 8.15), and a helix angle of ψ, since it is normal to
the helical gear teeth in contact at the pressure point.
As illustrated in Figure 8.23, Fn has three components: a radial component Fr, a tangential
component Ft, and an axial (or thrust) component Fa. These forces are expressed as

Fr = Fn sin φn = Ft tan φ (8.29)

Ft = Fn cos φn cos ψ (8.30)

Fa = Fn cos φn sin Ψ = Ft tan Ψ (8.31)

Like spur-gear forces, Ft contributes to torque and Fr contributes to shaft bending for
helical gears. The axial force component Fa is in the direction parallel to the gear shaft axis
and acts to move the gear along its shaft axis.* As illustrated in Figure 8.24, for pinion gears
having a counterclockwise rotation (using the right-hand rule), Fa acts leftward in left-
hand pinion gears and rightward in right-hand pinion gears. For a clockwise pinion gear
rotation, the direction of Fa is reversed for both gears in Figure 8.24. For the gears that are
directly driven by these pinions, both the rotation direction and Fa direction are the oppo-
site of those in their pinions (assuming only external gears and parallel shafts are used).
The torque and horsepower equations given in Section 8.5.1 for spur gears (Equations
8.24–8.26) are also applicable to helical gears.

FIGURE 8.23
Helical gear-tooth force and force components.

* Helical gears are often fitted with thrust bearings—a particular type of bearing designed to handle axial loads.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 305

FIGURE 8.24
Direction of axial force in helical gears.

Example 8.7
Problem Statement: Calculate the torque and power transmitted by a helical gear having
40 teeth, a circular pitch of 25 mm, and a helix angle of 35°. Assume this gear is an ANSI
fine pitch with a 25° pressure angle (Table 8.3). This gear also has a rotational speed of
7 rad/s and a normal force of 25 N.
Known Information: N, pc, ψ, ϕ, ω, and Fn.
Solution Approach: Figure E.8.8 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window.

>> N = 40;
>> pc = 25;
>> psi = 35*pi/180;
>> phi = 25*pi/180;
>> omega = 7;
>> Fn = 25;
>> pcn = pc*cos(psi);
>> Pdn = pi/pcn;
>> dp = N/(Pdn*cos(psi));
>> phin = atan(tan(phi)*cos(psi));
>> Ft = Fn*cos(phin)*cos(psi);
>> T = Ft*dp/2

T =

3.0447e+03

>> kW = T*omega/1000000

kW =

0.0213

>>

FIGURE E.8.8
Example 8.7 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.
306 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

8.5.5 Bevel Gears

In addition to spur and helical gears, Equations 8.19 and 8.20 are also applicable to the
kinematic analysis of bevel gears. In fact, the rolling cylinder description used to describe
the motion of spur gears become rolling conical wheels for bevel gears.
Figure 8.25 includes several bevel-gear design features. As noted in Section 8.2, bevel
gears are designed to transmit motion between nonparallel shafts that intersect. The shaft
angle (represented by the variable ∑ in Figure 8.25), is the angle between the center axes of
the pinion and gear; although, in many bevel applications, this angle is 90°, bevel gears are
not limited to a right shaft angle orientation.*
The shaft angle is the sum of the pinion-pitch angle and the gear-pitch angle (Figure 8.25).
The pitch angle is the angle of the cone upon which the bevel gear is constructed. The gear-
and pinion-pitch angles are represented by the variables γpinion and γgear, respectively. The
equations for γpinion and γgear can be expressed as

sin ∑
tan γ pinion = (8.32)
N gear
cos ∑ +
N pinion

sin ∑
tan γ gear = (8.33)
N pinion
cos ∑ +
N gear
and the shaft angle can be expressed as

∑= γ pinion + γ gear (8.34)

It can be observed that Equations 8.32 and 8.33 include the velocity ratio Ngear/Npinion.

FIGURE 8.25
Mating bevel-gear pair (cross-section view).

* Miter gears are mating bevel gears having equal numbers of teeth, diametral pitches (giving them a 1:1 gear
ratio), and right shaft angle orientations.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 307

Example 8.8
Problem Statement: Calculate the pitch angles for a bevel-gear pair where the pinion and
gear have 30 and 45 teeth, respectively, and the shaft angle is 90°.
Known Information: Npinion, Ngear, and ∑.
Solution Approach: Figure E.8.9 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window.

The forces acting on bevel gears are identical in in terms of force components to those
acting helical gears. Figure 8.26 illustrates the forces exerted in a mating pair of straight-
tooth bevel gears. Equations 8.35–8.37 are the tangential, radial and axial force equations
for a straight-tooth pinion bevel gear.

>> Np = 30;
>> Ng = 45;
>> sigma = 90*pi/180;
>> gamma_p = atan(sin(sigma)/(cos(sigma) + Ng/Np))*180/pi

gamma_p =

33.6901

>> gamma_g = atan(sin(sigma)/(cos(sigma) + Np/Ng))*180/pi

gamma_g =

56.3099
>>

FIGURE E.8.9
Example 8.8 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

FIGURE 8.26
Bevel gear pair force and force components.
308 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Ftpinion = Fn cos φ (8.35)

Frpinion = Fn sin φ cos γ pinion = Ftpinion tan φ cos γ pinion (8.36)

Fapinion = Fn sin φ sin γ pinion = Ftpinion tan φ sin γ pinion (8.37)

Equations 8.38–8.40 are the tangential, radial and axial force equations for the driven
bevel gear.

Ftgear = Fn cos φ = Ftpinion (8.38)

Frgear = Fn sin φ cos γ gear = Ftgear tan φ cos γ gear (8.39)

Fagear = Fn sin φ sin γ gear = Ftgear tan φ sin γ gear (8.40)

As illustrated in Figure 8.26, the radial force on the pinion and the axial force on the
gear are equal in magnitude while the axial force on the pinion and the radial force on
the gear are equal in magnitude. As a result, Equations 8.41 and 8.42 hold true for 90°
shaft orientations. Equations 8.43 and 8.44 result from the 90° shaft orientation condi-
tion γ pinion + γ gear = 90°.

Frpinion = Fagear = Fn sin φ cos γ pinion = Fn sin φ sin γ gear (8.41)

Fapinion = Frgear = Fn sin φ sin γ pinion = Fn sin φ cos γ gear (8.42)

sin γ pinion = sin ( 90° − γ gear ) = cos γ gear (8.43)

cos γ pinion = cos ( 90° − γ gear ) = sin γ gear (8.44)

Because gear torque can be defined as the product of the tangential force and the pitch
radius (Equation 8.24), equations for the pinion and gear torque can be expressed as

Tpinion = Ftpinion rmpinion (8.45)

Tgear = Ftgear rmgear = Ftpinion rmgear (8.46)

where rmpinion and rmgear are the mean pitch radii of the pinion and gear (Figure 8.25).*

Example 8.9
Problem Statement: Consider the bevel gear pair in Example 8.8 where Fn = 400 N ,
rmpinion = 76.2 mm, φ = 25°and ω pinion = 5.25 rad s. For this gear pair, calculate the tangential,
radial and axial forces on the gear, the pinion and gear torque and the power transmitted.
Known Information: Example 8.8, Fn, rmpinion , φ , and ω pinion.
Solution Approach: Figure E.8.10 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window.

* The mean pitch radius for a bevel gear can be calculated using rm = ( di + do ) 4 where di and do are the bevel
gear’s inside and outside pitch diameters respectively.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 309

>> Np = 30;
>> Ng = 45;
>> gamma_p = 33.6901*pi/180;
>> gamma_g = 56.3099*pi/180;
>> Fn = 400;
>> rm_p = 76.2;
>> phi = 25*pi/180;
>> omega_p = 5.25;
>> Ft_g = Fn*cos(phi)

Ft_g =

362.5231

>> Fr_g = Fn*sin(phi)*cos(gamma_g)

Fr_g =

93.7707

>> Fa_g = Fn*sin(phi)*sin(gamma_g)

Fa_g =
140.6558

>> Ft_p = Ft_g;

>> T_p = Ft_p*rm_p

T_p =

2.7624e+04

>> rm_g = rm_p*Ng/Np;

>> T_g = Ft_g*rm_g

T_g =

4.1436e+04

>> kW = T_p*omega_p/1000000

kW =

0.1450

>>

FIGURE E.8.10
Example 8.9 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

8.5.6 Worm Gears
Like helical gears, worm gears are used to transmit motion between nonparallel, nonin-
tersecting shafts and, like planetary gears, worm gears can produce large velocity ratios
in a compact work-space. Although the shafts do not intersect with worm gears, they are
orthogonal to each other. The worm gear is comprised of two mating gears: the larger gear
and the smaller worm. In practice, the worm typically transmits motion to the gear.
Due to the structural resistance and friction resistance between the worm and the gear,
the gear is typically incapable of driving the worm. This means that a stationary worm
will lock the motion of the gear. The self-locking capacity of worm gears can be advanta-
geous in applications where a system is to be locked in position when the power is turned
off (such as a loaded hoist, crane, or jack) for safety.
The worm resembles a screw. In fact, the teeth of the worm are called treads. The number
of worm teeth (or the number of threads) is represented by the variable Nworm. The gear is
310 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 8.27
a) Worm geometry and features (single thread) and (b) trigonometric relationship from worm geometry (Figure
8.27b is not drawn to scale with Figure 8.27a)

often a helical gear, although the involute profile of the gear is often concave (rather than
the usual convex involute profile) to better enclose the worm threads.*
Figure 8.27 includes the geometry of the worm. The worm-pitch diameter, worm pitch and
worm lead angle are represented by variables dpworm , pworm, and λ, respectively. The worm
lead angle and the worm helix angle ψworm are complementary (therefore λ + ψworm = 90°). The
worm-pitch diameter is the diameter of the circle that remains tangent to the pitch diam-
eter of the gear. The worm pitch is the axial distance between one point on a thread to the
corresponding point on an adjacent thread. If we can recall the definitions of these two
terms for spur gears, we can see that the worm-pitch diameter and pitch are defined in a
similar manner as for spur gears. The worm illustrated in Figure 8.27a is a single thread. By
this we mean that the thread is a single helix. Worms that include two helixes have double
thread (and triple thread for three helixes and so on).
Figure 8.27b illustrates the relationship between the thread length, thread lead, and pitch
circumference (or πdpworm ) of a worm. The thread lead is the axial distance that a thread
advances in one revolution of the worm and can be expressed as N worm and Pworm.†
From the trigonometric relationship illustrated in Figure 8.27b, a relationship that
includes the worm geometry features can be expressed as
N worm pworm
tan λ = cot ψ worm = (8.47)
πdpworm
For a mating worm-gear pair, the worm pitch and the circular pitch of the gear must be
identical. Therefore, from Equation 8.5,

π (8.48)
pworm = pcgear =
Pd
Because worm gears are used for shafts that are aligned at 90° angles, the lead angle of the
worm and the helix angle of the gear must be identical.

* The technique of cutting concave gear teeth to better enclose the worm threads is called enveloping worm-gear
teeth and produces a line of contact rather than a point of contact (for better force transfer). In double envelop-
ing, the worm thread is cut concave along its length for even greater contact and force transfer than with
enveloping.
† From this relationship, it can be observed that the leads for single, double, and triple thread worms are one,

two, and three times the worm pitch, respectively.

Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 311

FIGURE 8.28
Worm-gear pair force and force components.

The velocity ratio of a worm-gear pair is defined in the same manner as spur, rack and
pinion, helical, and bevel gears. Considering the notation for a worm-gear pair, the veloc-
ity ratio becomes

ω gear N
= worm
ω worm N gear (8.49)

As noted before, the worm drives the gear.

The forces acting on worms and gears are identical in terms of force components to
those acting on helical gears. Figure 8.28 illustrates the forces exerted in a mating worm-
gear pair. Equations 8.50–8.52 are the tangential, radial, and axial forces acting on the gear
(where ψ is the helix angle of the gear). These equations are identical in form to the helical-
gear equations for the same forces (Equations 8.29–8.31).

Ftgear = Fn cos φn cos ψ (8.50)

Frgear = Fn sin φn = Ftgear tan φ (8.51)

Fagear = Fn cos φn sin ψ = Ftgear tan ψ (8.52)

Because the helix angle of the gear (ψ) and the lead angle of the worm (λ) are identical for
shafts aligned at 90°, for this condition, Equations 8.50 and 8.52 become

Ftgear = Fn cos φn cos λ (8.53)

Fagear = Fn cos φn sin λ = Ftgear tan λ (8.54)

312 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Because torque in gears can be defined as the product of the tangential force and the pitch
radius (Equation 8.24), equations for the torque on the worm and gear can be expressed as

Tworm = Ftworm rpworm (8.55)

Tgear = Ftgear rpgear (8.56)

where rpworm and rpgear are the pitch radii for the worm and gear, respectively.
For ANSI fine-pitch worms and gears, the pitch diameters for the worm and gear are [7]

N worm pworm
dpworm = (8.57)
π tan λ

Npc gear
dpgear = (8.58)
π
From Figure 8.28, it can be observed that Fagear = Ftworm (as well as Ftgear = Faworm and Frgear = Frworm ).
Making this substitution in Equation 8.55, as well as observing that Fagear = Ftgear tan λ in
Equation 8.54, the worm torque equation can be expressed as

Tworm = Fagear rpworm = Ftgear ( tan λ ) rpworm (8.59)

Example 8.10
Problem Statement: Calculate the torque and power transmitted by the gear in a worm-gear
pair. The worm has a single thread and rotates at 15 rad/s and the gear has 40 teeth and a
circular pitch of 15 mm. A normal force of 45 N is applied to the gear. Assume the worm
and gear are ANSI fine pitch with helix and pressure angles of 40º and 20º, respectively.
Known Information: N worm , ω worm , N gear, pcgear , ψ , φ, and Fn.
Solution Approach: Figure E.8.11 includes the calculation procedure in MATLAB’s com-
mand window.

>> Nw = 1;
>> Ng = 40;
>> omega_w = 15;
>> Fn = 45;
>> phi = 20*pi/180;
>> psi = 40*pi/180;
>> pc_g = 15;
>> phin = atan(tan(phi)*cos(psi));
>> Ft_g = Fn*cos(phin)*cos(psi);
>> dp_g = Ng*pc_g/pi;
>> omega_g = omega_w*Nw/Ng;
>> T_g = Ft_g*dp_g/2

T_g =

3.1709e+03

>> kW = T_g*omega_g/1000000

kW =
0.0012

>>

FIGURE E.8.11
Example 8.9 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 313

8.6 Summary
Gears are mechanical components used to transmit motion from one shaft to another.
Although rotation can be transmitted through other mechanical components (e.g., belt-
pulley systems and chain-sprocket systems), gears are more commonly used, appearing
in mechanical systems of all sizes. Gears offer the advantages of higher torque, speed,
and power capacities, no slip, greater durability, efficiency, and suitability for confined
spaces.
Six types of gears are considered in this textbook. Spur gears are used to transmit motion
between parallel shafts. A group of two or more mating-gear pairs form a gear train. Gear
trains are often used to achieve large velocity ratios.
Planetary gear trains have several distinct advantages over conventional gear trains.
For example, large velocity reductions can be achieved with a planetary gear train in a
workspace that is more compact than a conventional gear train. Gear ratio changes are
also achieved by constraining different members (gears or carriers) in the planetary
gear train.
In rack and pinion gears, the rotational motion of the pinion gear produces the trans-
lational motion of the rack gear. Helical gears can be used to transmit motion between
parallel shafts and nonparallel shafts that do not intersect. Bevel gears are used to transmit
motion between intersecting shafts.
Like helical gears, worm gears are used to transmit motion between nonparallel shafts
that do not intersect. Although the shafts do not intersect with worm gears, they are
orthogonal to each other. Worm gears are used when large reduction ratios are required.
For optimal gear operation, the gear-tooth profile must be designed in such a way that the
common normal to both contacting tooth surfaces (the pressure line) passes through the pitch
point on the line of contact. These requirements, which are expressed in the fundamental law
of gearing, ensure a constant velocity ratio (ratio of the driving and driven gear speeds).

References
1. Spotts, M. F., Shoup, T. E., and Hornberger, L. E. 2004. Design of Machine Elements. 8th edn,
pp. 585– 609. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice-Hall.
2. Oberg, E., Jones, F. D., Horton, H. L., and Ryffel, H. H. 2000. Machinery’s Handbook. 26th edn,
pp. 2004–2005. New York: Industrial Press.
3. ANSI B6.1-1968 (R1974). Coarse-pitch spur-gear tooth forms. New York: American National
Standards Institute.
4. Oberg, E., Jones, F. D., Horton, H. L., and Ryffel, H. H. 2000. Machinery’s Handbook. 26th edn,
pp. 2036–2041. New York: Industrial Press.
5. Ibid, p. 2008.
6. ANSI B6.7-1977. Fine-pitch helical-gear tooth forms. New York: American National Standards
Institute.
7. Oberg, E., Jones, F. D., Horton, H. L., and Ryffel, H. H. 2000. Machinery’s Handbook. 26th edn,
p. 2065. New York: Industrial Press.
314 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Additional Reading
Myszka, D. H. 2005. Machines and Mechanisms: Applied Kinematic Analysis. 3rd edn, Chapter 10. Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Norton, R. L. 2008. Design of Machinery. 4th edn, Chapter 9. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Waldron, Kenneth J. and Kinzel, Gary L. 2004. Kinematics, Dynamics and Design of Machinery. 2nd edn,
Chapters 10–12. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Wilson, C. E. and J. P. Sadler 2003. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery. 3rd edn. Chapters 6–8.
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Problems
1. From among the gear types presented in Chapter 8, list the gear type(s) that can
accommodate shafts that are (a) parallel, (b) intersecting, and (c) orthogonal and
nonintersecting.
2. Using Equations 8.2–8.4, calculate the pitch diameter, diametral pitch, and module
for a spur gear having 45 teeth and a circular pitch of 0.6. Assuming this gear is an
ANSI coarse pitch with a 20º pressure angle (Table 8.1), calculate the fillet radius,
addendum, working depth, and circular tooth thickness of this gear also.
3. Using Equations 8.2–8.4, calculate the pitch diameter, diametral pitch, and module
for a spur gear having 45 teeth and a circular pitch of 0.75. Assuming this gear is
an ANSI coarse pitch with a 25º pressure angle (Table 8.1), calculate the clearance,
dedendum, and whole depth (all preferred) of this gear also.
4. Given an external gear pair where N 1 = 45, N 2 = 75 and the circular pitch for the
pinion is pc1 = 0.43, calculate the center distance, base pitch, contact line length,
and contact ratio for the gear pair. Assume the gears are ANSI coarse pitch with
25º pressure angles (Table 8.1).
5. Given an external–internal gear pair where N 1 = 30 , N 2 = 85 and the circular pitch
for the pinion is pc1 = 0.45, calculate the center distance, base pitch, contact line
length, and contact ratio for the gear pair. Assume the gears are ANSI coarse pitch
with 20º pressure angles (Table 8.1).
6. Using Equation 8.13, calculate the maximum number of gear teeth for a pinion
having 16 and 17 teeth and a 20º pressure angle (see footnote regarding variable k
in Inequality (8.13)).
7. Determine which single gear from the gear train illustrated in Figure P.8.1 should
be replaced and explain why?
8. What is the purpose of the idler gear? Describe its design. Also, what general
advantages do helical gears have over spur gears and why?
9. Calculate the normal diametral pitch, module, and normal pressure angle for
a helical gear having 25 teeth, a circular pitch of 0.4 and a helix angle of 45º.
Assuming this gear is an ANSI fine pitch with a 14.5º pressure angle (Table 8.3),
calculate the dedendum, center distance (external, where N 2 = 35), working depth,
and pitch diameter of this gear also.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 315

FIGURE P.8.1
Spur gear train.

10. Calculate the normal diametral pitch, module, and normal pressure angle for a heli-
cal gear having 40 teeth, a circular pitch of 0.3 and a helix angle of 55º. Assuming
this gear is an ANSI fine pitch with a 20º pressure angle (Table 8.3), calculate the
addendum, center distance (internal–external, where N 2 = 125), whole depth, and
clearance (standard) of this gear also.
11. Calculate each of the quantities in Table 8.1 for a gear module of 0.185.
12. Calculate each of the quantities in Table 8.3 for a gear module and helix angle of
0.125 and 45º, respectively. Let N 1 = 20 and N 2 = 45 for an external gear pair, and
N 1 = 20 and N 2 = 90 for an external–internal gear pair.
13. Given a train of four gears where N 1 = 25, N 2 = 35, N 3 = 60, and N 4 = 80, calculate
the train value. Assuming an input gear pitch radius, rotational speed, and torque
of rp 1 = 17 mm , ω 1 = 10rad s, and Τ1 = 125N-mm, respectively, calculate the power
transmitted by each gear.
14. Given a train of six gears where N 1 = 24, N 2 = 40, N 3 = 55, N 4 = 75, N 5 = 115, and
N 6 = 135, calculate the train value. Assuming an input gear pitch radius, rotational
speed, and torque of rp 1 = 15 mm, ω 1 = 8.5rad s, and Τ1 = 230N-mm , respectively,
calculate the power transmitted by each gear.
15. A five-bar mechanism that includes a gear pair is illustrated in Figure P.8.2. Gear
1 is attached to the input link and gear 2 is attached to the output link. The input
link rotates twice as much as the output link, its gear has 33 teeth, a diametral
pitch of 3.117, and a pressure angle of 25°. If gear 1 transmits a torque of 121 N-mm,
what is the torque transmitted by gear 2?
16. A five-bar mechanism that includes a gear train is illustrated in Figure P.8.3. Gear
1 is attached to the input link, gear 2 is an idler gear, and gear 3 is attached to the
output link. The input link rotates three times as much as the output link, its gear
has 54 teeth, a diametral pitch of 1.57, and a pressure angle of 20°. If gear 1 trans-
mits a torque of 75 N-mm, what is the torque transmitted by gear 3?
316 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.8.2
Five-bar mechanism with a gear pair.

FIGURE P.8.3
Five-bar mechanism with a gear train.

17. What general advantages do planetary gear trains have over conventional gear
trains?
18. Consider the simple planetary gear train design in Figure P.8.4. In this example,
N sun = 21, N planet = 17 , N ring = 55 . Also, the carrier is fixed, the input is the sun gear
and the output is the ring gear. Calculate the rotations of the sun, planet, ring, and
carrier. Also, assuming an input gear pitch radius, rotational speed, and torque of
rpsun = 28mm, ω sun = 25rad s , and Τsun = 85 N-mm, respectively, calculate the power
transmitted by each gear.
19. Consider the simple planetary gear train design in Figure P.8.4. In this example,
N sun = 25 , N planet = 16, N ring = 62 . Also, the sun gear is fixed, the input is the carrier
and the output is the ring gear. Calculate the rotations of the sun, planet, ring, and
carrier.
20. Consider the simple planetary gear train design in Figure P.8.4. In this example,
N sun = 23 , N planet = 14, N ring = 77 . Also, the ring gear is fixed, the input is the sun
gear and the output is the carrier. Calculate the rotations of the sun, planet, ring,
and carrier. Also, assuming an input gear pitch radius, rotational speed, and
torque of rpsun = 28mm, ω sun = 41rad s, and Tsun = 65N-mm , respectively, calculate
the power transmitted by each gear.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Gears 317

FIGURE P.8.4
Planetary gear train (see Figure 8.21).

21. Consider the simple planetary gear train design in Figure P.8.4. In this example,
N sun = 23 , N planet = 18, N ring = 51. Also, the ring gear is fixed, the input is the carrier
and the output is the sun gear. Calculate the rotations of the sun, planet, ring, and
carrier.
22. Consider the simple planetary gear train design in Figure P.8.4. In this example,
N sun = 18, N planet = 16, N ring = 56 . Also, the carrier is fixed, the input is the ring gear
and the output is the sun gear. Calculate the rotations of the sun, planet, ring, and
carrier. Also, assuming an input gear pitch radius, rotational speed, and torque
of rpring = 85mm , ω ring = 27 rad s, and Tring = 270N - mm , respectively, calculate the
power transmitted by each gear.
23. Consider the simple planetary gear train design in Figure P.8.4. In this example,
N sun = 32 , N planet = 19, N ring = 89 . Also, the sun gear is fixed, the input is the ring
gear and the output is the carrier. Calculate the rotations of the sun, planet, ring,
and carrier. Also, assuming an input gear pitch radius, rotational speed, and
torque of rpring = 105mm , ω ring = 32 rad s , and Tring = 171N - mm, respectively, calcu-
late the power transmitted by each gear.
24. Describe the types of input–output motion produced by rack and pinion gears.
25. Calculate the translation and velocity of the rack in a rack and pinion gear where
the pinion rotation, speed, and diameter are 3π 4rad, 4.55rad s, and 56mm,
respectively.
26. Calculate the angular displacement and velocity of the pinion in a rack and pinion
gear where the rack displacement, rack speed, and pinion diameter are 132 mm,
24mm s, and 73mm, respectively.
27. Calculate the radial, axial, and tangential forces transmitted by a helical gear hav-
ing 49 teeth and a helix angle of 39º. Assume this gear is an ANSI fine pitch with a
14.5º pressure angle. This gear also has a normal force of 42 N.
28. Calculate the torque and power transmitted by a helical gear having 37 teeth, a
circular pitch of 45 mm and a helix angle of 50º. Assume this gear is an ANSI fine
pitch with a 20º pressure angle (Table 8.3). This gear also has a rotational speed of
18rad s and a normal force of 25 N.
318 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

29. Calculate the pitch angles for a bevel gear pair where the pinion and gear have 38
and 60 teeth respectively and the shaft angle is 90º.
30. For the bevel gears in Problem 8.29, calculate the pitch radius and angular velocity
of the gear if the pinion has an angular velocity of −5.85rad s.
31. For a bevel gear pair where γ pinion = 55°, γ gear = 35° , Fn = 175N, and φ = 20°, calcu-
late the tangential, radial, and axial forces on the gear and pinion.
32. For a bevel gear pair where Ν pinion = 55 , Ν gear = 80, γ pinion = 35°, γ gear = 45°, Fn = 110N,
rmpinion = 75mm, φ = 25°, and ω pinion = 7.25rad s, calculate the torque and the power
transmitted by the gear.
33. While planetary gear trains and worm gears can both achieve large velocity reduc-
tions, what additional capability is provided by worm gears?
34. Calculate the radial, axial, and tangential forces transmitted by the gear in a
worm-gear pair. The worm has 2 threads and the gear has 82 teeth. A normal force
of 18 N is applied to the gear. Assume the worm and gear are ANSI fine pitch with
helix and pressure angles of 34º and 20º, respectively.
35. Calculate the torque and power transmitted by the gear in a worm-gear pair. The
worm has 3 threads and rotates at 29 rad/s and the gear has 65 teeth and a cir-
cular pitch of 21 mm. A normal force of 38 N is applied to the gear. Assume the
worm and gear are ANSI fine pitch with helix and pressure angles of 45º and 25º,
respectively.
9
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams

CONCEPT OVERVIEW
In this chapter, the reader will gain a central understanding regarding

1. Purposes and functions of radial cam systems and follower types

2. Components of follower motion and follower motion types
3. Radial cam follower kinematics
4. Criteria for optimal radial cam operation and its relationship with follower motion
types
5. Radial cam design
6. Criteria for optimal radial cam operation and its relationship with radial cam sys-
tem design equations

9.1 Introduction
A disk cam (also called a radial cam, flat-faced cam, or simply cam) is a mechanical compo-
nent used to convert rotary motion into oscillating rotary or translation motion.* In its
most basic form, a cam system includes a rotating disk member (the cam) that compels the
motion of an oscillating member called the follower. The names disk cam and flat-faced cam
refer to the flat, disk-like shape of the cam geometry. Since the rotating disk cam compels
motion by pushing components away from its center of rotation—or in a radial direction—
the name radial cam is also used.
Among other applications, cam systems are commonly used in the valve trains of inter-
nal combustion engines, particularly in automotive engines. Figure 9.1 illustrates a cam
system used in an overhead valve train. The rotating cams produce an oscillating transla-
tion motion in the rod components which subsequently produce an oscillation rotation
motion in the rocker components. Ultimately, the oscillating motion of the rocker compo-
nents produce an oscillating translation motion in the valve components, causing them
to open and close in a precisely timed manner. The cam system illustrated in Figure 9.1
enables proper fuel entry into the engine and proper exit of the combustion products from
the engine.

* Other common (nonradial) cam types not covered in this text include cam slots, cylindrical cams, yokes, and
wedge cams.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003316961-9 319

320 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 9.1
Overhead valve train and actuation mechanism.

9.2 Follower Types

The types of followers used in disk cam systems vary in terms of their shape and the oscil-
lating motion they exhibit. Figure 9.2 includes five follower types.
The knife-edge follower (Figure 9.2a) translates when in contact with the rotating cam.
Although this type of follower is simple in design, its sharp edge produces high contact
stresses.* The flat-faced follower (Figure 9.2b) also translates when in contact with the rotat-
ing cam. While the contact stresses with this follower type are less concentrated than those
with the knife-edge follower due to its larger contact surface, greater sliding friction forces
are produced with the flat-faced follower due to its larger contact surface. The translat-
ing roller follower (Figure 9.2c) includes an additional rolling wheel component (pinned
to the follower) that rolls over the cam surface.† Though more complex in design that the
knife-edge and flat-faced followers, the rolling wheel of the roller follower produces lower
contact stresses and friction forces. Figures 9.2d and 9.2e are variations of the flat-faced
slider and roller followers, respectively. In these follower variations, a rotational motion is
produced when in contact with a rotating cam.

* Because contact stress is proportional to the rate of wear, an increase in contact stress results in an increase in
component wear rate and subsequently component life.
† The rods in Figure 9.1 are translating roller followers (Figure 9.2c).
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 321

FIGURE 9.2
Translating (a) knife-edge, (b) flat-faced, and (c) roller followers, and rotating (d) flat-faced and (e) roller
followers.

9.3 Follower Motion
9.3.1 Rise, Fall, and Dwell
No matter the type of follower used, a follower displacement profile is comprised of three
distinct displacement profiles: rise, fall, and dwell profiles. These profiles are determined by
the shape of the cam and its rotation direction.
Figure 9.3 illustrates a disk cam rotating counterclockwise direction. This figure also
includes the follower displacement achieved by the rotating cam. As the cam rotates, there
is a steady increase in its radii of curvature (or an increasing rate of change) in the cam
region bounded by radii r1 and r2. As the cam passes through this region, the follower will
be displaced radially away from the cam’s center of rotation (the positive y-direction in
Figure 9.3). Positive follower displacement is called rise.
The radius of curvature is constant in the cam region bounded by radii r2 and r3. Because
of the constant curvature, as the cam rotates through this region, the follower will experi-
ence no displacement at all. Zero follower displacement is called dwell.
There is a steady decrease in radii of curvature (or a decreasing rate of change) in the
cam region bounded by radii r3 and r4. As the cam rotates through this region, the follower
will be displaced radially toward the cam’s center of rotation (the negative y-direction in
Figure 9.3). Negative follower displacement is called fall.
322 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 9.3
Disk cam and follower displacement curve with rise, fall, and dwell regions labeled.

The radius of curvature is also constant in the in the cam region bounded by radii r4
and r1. Because of the constant curvature, as the cam rotates through this region, the fol-
lower will again experience dwell.*
Figure 9.4 illustrates a simple follower displacement diagram. This diagram includes
a rise-dwell-fall-dwell follower displacement interval sequence (identical to the displace-
ment sequence in Figure 9.3). As with all disk cams, the follower displacement sequence is
achieved over a complete (360°) cam rotation cycle. The variables β1 through β4 are the cam
rotation ranges associated with each rise, fall, and dwell interval. The variable h1 is the
follower displacement range for the corresponding rise and fall intervals.

FIGURE 9.4
Simple follower displacement diagram.

* For rotating followers, dwell would correspond to zero rotational displacement and rise and fall would cor-
respond to counterclockwise and clockwise rotations, respectively (or vice versa if the user prefers).
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 323

9.3.2 Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, and Jerk

As we have demonstrated in prior chapters (Chapters 2 and 4, for example), differentiating
a displacement equation produces an equation for velocity and differentiating a velocity
equation produces an equation for acceleration. Determining the follower displacement,
velocity, and acceleration is necessary in cam design. It is also necessary to know the rate of
change in follower acceleration in cam design. This quantity is called jerk. Differentiating
an acceleration equation produces an equation for jerk.
For a cam to operate beyond low-speed applications, its profile must be designed so that
its follower displacement, velocity, and acceleration profiles are continuous throughout a
complete cam rotation cycle. For this condition to be true, the follower jerk profile must be
finite throughout a complete cam rotation cycle. In Sections 9.3.2–9.3.7, we will evaluate
different types of follower motion with respect to the cam design conditions of continuous
displacement, velocity, and acceleration profiles and a finite jerk profile.*

9.3.3 Constant Velocity Motion

Constant velocity motion is the most basic type of follower motion. Here, the follower rise
and fall profiles are defined as linear functions.
Table 9.1 includes the follower rise and fall displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk
equations for constant velocity motion [1]. When expressing these quantities in terms of
cam rotation, the variable θ represents the cam rotation increment over the rotation inter-
val range β.
In Table 9.1, the follower equations are also given in terms of time. When expressed this
way, the cam rotation interval range β becomes the time-interval range T and the rotation
increment θ becomes the time increment t. The quantity in the velocity equations repre-
sents the cam rotation speed.†
Although constant velocity motion is the simplest type of follower motion, it violates the
fundamental law of cam design (given in Section 9.3.2). Figure 9.5 illustrates the follower
displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk profiles for constant velocity motion. Because
the slope is constant in the displacement profile (Figure 9.5a), its derivative becomes a
stepped velocity profile (Figure 9.5b). Such a velocity profile violates the continuous
velocity condition for cam design.

TABLE 9.1
Follower Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, and Jerk
Equations: Constant Velocity Motion
Rise Fall
For 0 < θ < β or 0 < t < T
Displacement, s s = hθ/β = ht/ T

Velocity,

Acceleration,
Jerk,

* These cam design conditions are also called the fundamental law of cam design. Violating these cam design
conditions does not mean a cam design cannot be used, only that it will be limited to low-speed applications.
† The quantity θ is often expressed in units of degrees/time, radians/time, or revolutions/time.
324 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 9.5
Follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) acceleration, and (d) jerk profiles for constant velocity motion.

Because the slopes at the start and end of the stepped velocity profile are infinite, these
infinite slopes appear as infinite spikes in the acceleration profile (Figure 9.5c).* Such an
acceleration profile violates the continuous acceleration condition for cam design. While
an infinite acceleration will not appear in actual cam use, these quantities will appear as
excessive accelerations (impulse or shock loads). Such loads result in excessive cam wear
and damage and will ultimately shorten the life of the cam substantially.
Being the derivative of an acceleration profile having infinite spikes, the follower jerk
profile (Figure 9.5d) also includes infinite spikes. Such a jerk profile violates the finite jerk
condition for cam design.
Appendix E.1 includes the MATLAB® file user instructions for generating constant
velocity motion-based displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk diagrams. In this
MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317), the constant velocity motion equations in Table 9.1 are used.†

Example 9.1
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix E.1 MATLAB file, plot the follower displacement and
velocity profiles under constant velocity motion for the following 6 intervals (with
for each interval): rise (25 mm)-dwell-rise (30 mm)-dwell-fall (55 mm)-dwell. Assume
the cam rotates at a constant speed of 45 rpm.
Known Information: The follower displacement sequence, cam rotation speed, and the
Appendix E.1 MATLAB file.

* In mathematics, these spikes are idealized unit impulses and are known as Dirac delta functions.
† The library of MATLAB files used in this chapter can also be downloaded from the authors’ server http://
www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip..
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 325

FIGURE E.9.1
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix E.1 MATLAB file for Example 9.1.

FIGURE E.9.2
Constant velocity follower (a) displacement and (b) velocity profiles.

Solution Approach: Given the crank rotation speed and the constant cam rotation
value for each interval, we can determine that the each interval has a time period of
. Figure E.9.1 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the Appendix E.1
MATLAB file. Figure E.9.2 illustrates the follower displacement and velocity profiles
calculated from the Appendix E.1 MATLAB file.

9.3.4 Constant Acceleration Motion

Unlike the first-order (or linear) follower displacement profile associated with constant
velocity motion, constant acceleration motion includes a second-order (or parabolic) follower
displacement profile.* Table 9.2 includes the follower rise and fall displacement, velocity,
acceleration, and jerk equations for constant acceleration motion [1]. As shown in this table,
the range (be it a time range or rotation range) is divided so that profiles for each half of the
range are plotted using separate equations.
The parabolic follower displacement profile (Figure 9.6a), when differentiated, produces
a triangular velocity profile (Figure 9.6b). This velocity profile, when differentiated, pro-
duces a stepped acceleration profile (Figure 9.6c). In comparison to the acceleration profile
for constant velocity motion (Figure 9.5c), the acceleration profile for constant acceleration
motion is an improvement because it has a finite height. In addition, for a given angle of

* Constant acceleration motion is also called parabolic motion.

326 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE 9.2
Follower Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, and Jerk Equations: Constant Acceleration Motion
Rise Fall
For 0 < θ < β/2 or 0 < t <T/2
Displacement, s s = 2 h(θ/β)2 = 2 h(t/T)2 s = h−2 h(θ/β)2 = h−2 h(t/T)2
Velocity,

Acceleration,

Jerk, =0 =0
For β/2 < θ < β or T/2 < t < T
Displacement, s s = h−2h[1−θ/β)2 = h−2h[1−t/T]2 s = 2h[1−θ/β)2 = 2h[1−t/T]2
Velocity,

Acceleration,

Jerk,

FIGURE 9.6
Follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) acceleration, and (d) jerk profiles for constant acceleration motion.

rotation and rise, constant acceleration motion produces the smallest acceleration among
the motion types presented in this chapter [2]. However, because the acceleration profile
changes abruptly, shock loads will be produced in the cam system. This discontinuous
acceleration profile also violates the continuous acceleration condition for cam design.
Being the derivative of a stepped acceleration profile, the follower jerk profile (Figure 9.6d)
includes infinite spikes. Such a jerk profile violates the finite jerk condition for cam design.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 327

Appendix E.2 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for generating constant
acceleration motion-based displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk diagrams. In
this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317), the constant acceleration motion equations in Table 9.2 are used.

Example 9.2
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix E.2 MATLAB file, plot the follower displace-
ment, velocity and acceleration profiles under constant acceleration motion for the fol-
lower displacement interval and cam rotation speed data given in Example 9.1.
Known Information: Example 9.1 and Appendix E.2 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.9.3 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix E.2 MATLAB file. Figure E.9.4 illustrates the follower displacement, velocity,
and acceleration profiles calculated from the Appendix E.2 MATLAB file.

FIGURE E.9.3
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix E.2 MATLAB file for Example 9.2.

FIGURE E.9.4
Constant acceleration follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, and (c) acceleration profiles.
328 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

9.3.5 Simple Harmonic Motion

In simple harmonic motion, the follower displacement equations include periodic functions.*
Unlike nonperiodic functions, periodic functions can be differentiated indefinitely with-
out ever producing a constant solution (thus preventing infinite spikes in cam motion pro-
files). Table 9.3 includes the follower rise and fall displacement, velocity, acceleration, and
jerk equations for simple harmonic motion [3].
In simple harmonic motion, a smooth follower displacement profile is produced
(Figure 9.7a). This profile, when differentiated, produces a continuous velocity profile
(Figure 9.7b). This velocity profile, when differentiated, produces a continuous accelera-
tion profile, having steps at its start and end (Figure 9.7c). The acceleration profile from
simple harmonic motion is an improvement over the profile from constant velocity motion
(Figure 9.5c), since it is smooth and continuous within its interval range. Simple harmonic
motion also produces a finite follower jerk profile (Figure 9.7d), thus satisfying the finite
jerk condition for cam design. However, in simple harmonic motion, the acceleration pro-
file changes abruptly at its start and end, producing shock loads in the cam system and
violating the continuous acceleration condition for cam design.

TABLE 9.3
Follower Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, and Jerk Equations: Simple
Harmonic Motion
Rise Fall

For 0 < θ < β or 0 < t < T

Displacement, s

Velocity,

Acceleration,

Jerk,

* Sine and cosine functions (also sine and cosine-based functions) are examples of periodic functions—functions
that repeat their values at regular intervals or periods.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 329

FIGURE 9.7
Follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) acceleration, and (d) jerk profiles for simple harmonic motion.

Appendix E.3 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for generating simple harmonic
motion-based displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk diagrams. In this MATLAB file
(which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317),
the simple harmonic motion equations in Table 9.3 are used.

Example 9.3
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix E.3 MATLAB file, plot the follower displace-
ment, velocity, acceleration, and jerk profiles under simple harmonic motion for the fol-
lower displacement interval and cam rotation speed data given in Example 9.1.
Known Information: Example 9.1 and Appendix E.3 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.9.5 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix E.3 MATLAB file. Figure E.9.6 illustrates the follower displacement, velocity,
acceleration, and jerk profiles calculated from the Appendix E.3 MATLAB file.

FIGURE E.9.5
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix E.3 MATLAB file for Example 9.3.
330 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.9.6
Simple harmonic motion follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) acceleration, and (d) jerk profiles.

9.3.6 Cycloidal Motion
Like simple harmonic motion, the follower displacement equations also include periodic
functions in cycloidal motion. Table 9.4 includes the follower rise and fall displacement,
velocity, acceleration, and jerk equations for cycloidal motion [4].
While smooth and continuous follower displacement and velocity profiles are produced
in cycloidal motion (Figures 9.8a and b), the main advantages with this type of motion
is that its acceleration profile is smooth and continuous (Figure 9.8c) and its jerk profile
(Figure 9.8d) is finite. Because the acceleration profile includes no abrupt changes, the
shock loads resulting from such abrupt changes in acceleration are not produced. Under
cycloidal motion, the cam design conditions for continuous displacement, velocity, and
acceleration profiles and a finite jerk profile are all satisfied. As a result, cycloidal motion-
based cam designs are well suited for high-speed applications.
Appendix E.4 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for generating cycloidal
motion-based displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk diagrams. In this MATLAB file
(which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317),
the cycloidal motion equations in Table 9.4 are used.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 331

TABLE 9.4
Follower Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, and Jerk Equations: Cycloidal Motion
Rise Fall
For 0 < θ < β or 0 < t < T
Displacement, s

Velocity,

Acceleration,

Jerk,

FIGURE 9.8
Follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) acceleration, and (d) jerk profiles for cycloidal motion.
332 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Example 9.4
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix E.4 MATLAB file, plot the follower displace-
ment, velocity, acceleration, and jerk profiles under cycloidal motion for the follower
displacement interval and cam rotation speed data given in Example 9.1.
Known Information: Example 9.1 and Appendix E.4 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.9.7 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix E.4 MATLAB file. Figure E.9.8 illustrates the follower displacement, velocity,
acceleration, and jerk profiles calculated from the Appendix E.4 MATLAB file.

FIGURE E.9.7
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix E.4 MATLAB file for Example 9.4.

FIGURE E.9.8
Cycloidal motion follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) acceleration, and (d) jerk profiles.
(Continued)
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 333

FIGURE E.9.8 (CONTINUED)

Cycloidal motion follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) acceleration, and (d) jerk profiles.

9.3.7 Polynomial Motion

Follower motion functions can also be formulated using polynomials. The primary advan-
tage of polynomial-based follower motion functions is that boundary conditions for fol-
lower displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk can be prescribed. With capability, the
user can ensure that the profiles for these quantities are finite and continuous, and thus
satisfactory according to the cam design conditions in Section 9.3.2. Equation 9.1 includes
the general form of the polynomial function.* In this equation, the variable x becomes θ/β
if cam rotational displacement is considered or t/T if time is considered.

(9.1)

One type of polynomial used to define follower motion is called the 3-4-5 polynomial.
This function begins as a polynomial of order 5 (also called a fifth-order polynomial).
Expressing Equation 9.1 as a fifth-order polynomial where the term θ/β is used in place of
x, the resulting polynomial becomes

(9.2)

To formulate the coefficients C0 through C5 in Equation 9.2 for the rise function, the follow-
ing boundary conditions are specified:

To formulate the coefficients in Equation 9.2 for the fall function, the following boundary
conditions are specified:

Table 9.5 includes the resulting follower rise and fall displacement, velocity, acceleration,
and jerk equations for 3-4-5 polynomial motion.† The name “3-4-5 polynomial” reflects the
exponent orders that appear in these displacement functions. Table 9.5 also includes the
follower velocity, acceleration, and jerk functions.

* The greatest exponent value given in a polynomial determines its order. For example, the function s = C0+ C1x +
C2 x2 + C3x3 is a polynomial of order 3 (or a third-order polynomial) because its greatest exponent is 3.
† Using the given boundary conditions, the coefficients C , C , and C become zero in the 3–4–5 polynomial.
0 1 2
334 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE 9.5
Follower Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, and Jerk Equations: 3-4-5 Polynomial
Motion
Rise Fall
For 0 < θ < β or 0 < t < T
Disp., s

Vel.,

Acc.,

Jerk,

FIGURE 9.9
Follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) acceleration, and (d) jerk profiles for 3–4–5 polynomial motion.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 335

The follower displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk profiles produced from the
3-4-5 polynomial all satisfy the continuity and finite conditions for cam design (Figure 9.9).
In addition to cycloidal motion-based cam designs, 3-4-5 polynomial motion-based cam
designs are also well suited for high-speed applications.
Appendix E.5 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for generating 3-4-5 polynomial
motion-based displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk diagrams. In this MATLAB file
(which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317),
the 3-4-5 polynomial motion equations in Table 9.5 are used.

Example 9.5
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix E.5 MATLAB file, plot the follower displace-
ment, velocity, acceleration, and jerk profiles under 3-4-5 polynomial motion for the
follower displacement interval and cam rotation speed data given in Example 9.1.
Known Information: Example 9.1 and Appendix E.5 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.9.9 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix E.5 MATLAB file. Figure E.9.10 illustrates the follower displacement, velocity,
acceleration, and jerk profiles calculated from the Appendix E.5 MATLAB file.

FIGURE E.9.9
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix E.5 MATLAB file for Example 9.5.

FIGURE E.9.10
Polynomial (3-4-5) motion follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) acceleration, and (d) jerk
profiles.
(Continued)
336 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.9.10 (CONTINUED)

Polynomial (3-4-5) motion follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) acceleration, and (d) jerk profiles.

Another type of polynomial used to define follower motion is called the 4-5-6-7 polyno-
mial. This function begins as a polynomial of order 7 (also called a seventh-order polyno-
mial). Expressing Equation 9.1 as a seventh-order polynomial where the term θ/β is used
in place of x, the resulting polynomial becomes

(9.3)

To formulate the coefficients C0 through C7 in Equation 9.3 for the rise function, the fol-
lowing boundary conditions are specified:

To formulate the coefficients in Equation 8.3 for the dwell function, the following bound-
ary conditions are specified:

Table 9.6 includes the resulting follower rise and fall displacement, velocity, acceleration,
and jerk equations for 4-5-6-7 polynomial motion.* The name “4-5-6-7 polynomial” reflects
the exponent orders that appear in these displacement functions. Table 9.6 also includes
the follower velocity, acceleration, and jerk functions.
The follower displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk profiles produced from
the 4-5-6-7 polynomial all satisfy the continuity and finite conditions for cam design
(Figure 9.10). In addition to cycloidal and 3-4-5 polynomial motion-based cam designs,
4-5-6-7 polynomial motion-based cam designs are also well suited for high-speed
applications.

* Using the given boundary conditions, the coefficients C0, C1, C2, and C3 become zero in the 4-5-6-7 polynomial.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 337

TABLE 9.6
Follower Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, and Jerk Equations: 4–5–6–7 Polynomial Motion
Rise Fall

For 0 < θ < Β or 0 < t < T

Disp., s

Vel.,

Acc.,

Jerk.,
338 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 9.10
Follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) acceleration, and (d) jerk profiles for 4–5–6–7 polynomial motion.

Appendix E.6 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for generating 4-5-6-7
polynomial motion-based displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk diagrams. In
this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317), the 4-5-6-7 polynomial motion equations in Table 9.6 are used.

Example 9.6
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix E.6 MATLAB file, plot the follower displace-
ment, velocity, acceleration, and jerk profiles under 4-5-6-7 polynomial motion for the
follower displacement interval and cam rotation speed data given in Example 9.1.
Known Information: Example 9.1 and Appendix E.6 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.9.11 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix E.6 MATLAB file. Figure E.9.12 illustrates the follower displacement, velocity,
acceleration, and jerk profiles calculated from the Appendix E.6 MATLAB file.

FIGURE E.9.11
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix E.6 MATLAB file for Example 9.6.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 339

FIGURE E.9.12
Polynomial (4-5-6-7) motion follower (a) displacement, (b) velocity, (c) acceleration, and (d) jerk
profiles.

9.4 Disk Cam Design and Pressure Angle

The actual shape of a disk cam is designed from the follower displacement profile.
Figure 9.11 illustrates the disk cam design features and nomenclature. The cam profile is
produced by wrapping the follower displacement profile over the base circle—the small-
est circle centered at the cam’s axis of rotation. Because the size of the base circle will
ultimately determine the size of the cam produced, its size is typically restricted to the
340 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 9.11
Disk cam nomenclature.

workspace restrictions for the cam application.* The radius of the base circle is represented
by variable r base in Figure 9.11.
The x and y coordinates of the disk cam profile can be formulated as

(9.4)

The prime circle (defined by variable rprime) is a circle drawn through a point on the fol-
lower (called the trace point) while the follower is at a position of zero radial displace-
ment (also called a home position). For the roller follower illustrated in Figure 9.11, the trace
point is drawn through the center of the roller. As a result, the prime circle radius for a
roller follower is the sum of the base circle radius and the radius of the follower roller
(or rprime = r base+ rroller). The path traced by the follower over the rotating cam (at the trace
point) is called the pitch curve.
As noted in Chapter 8, for two contacting surfaces, the contact force between the surface
pair is oriented in the direction normal to the common tangent of the surface pair. For a
cam and follower, as for gears, the orientation angle of the contact force is called the pres-
sure angle. In a cam with a translating follower, this angle is formed by the common normal
and the axis of translation of the follower. Figure 9.12 illustrates the contact force and pres-
sure angle of a disk cam and offset roller follower.
As shown in Figure 9.12, the contact force can have two components: components acting
along the direction of and normal to the direction of follower motion. The contact force com-
ponent acting in the direction of follower motion is necessary for effective follower opera-
tion. The contact force component acting normal to the follower motion direction produces
side-thrust loads on the cam and follower.† Designers often attempt to minimize the latter
contact force component. In practice, pressure angles do not exceed ±30° for translating fol-
lowers and ±45° for rotating followers [5]. Techniques to reduce the pressure angle in radial
cams include increasing the size of the base circle, decreasing the follower offset (represented
by the variable ɛ in Figures 9.11 and 9.12), and modifying the follower displacement profile.
A general pressure-angle equation for a disk cam and translating roller follower can be
expressed as

* For a given cam shape, a larger base circle will typically result in improved force transmission than a smaller
base circle.
† These side-thrust loads contribute to the lateral deflection of the follower.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 341

FIGURE 9.12
Offset cam system and pressure angle.

(9.5)

where

(9.6)

In these equations, the variables s, and are the displacement and velocity of the follower
and the rotational velocity of the cam, respectively (all previously defined in this chapter). To
consider a cam and in-line follower using Equations 9.5 and 9.6, the offset variable ɛ should be
zero. To ensure interaction between a cam and a translating roller follower, (meaning
).
In a cam with a rotating follower, the pressure angle is formed by the common normal
and the velocity vector of the follower arm (which is perpendicular to the follower arm).*
Figure 9.13 illustrates the contact force and pressure angle of a disk cam and rotating roller
follower.
A general pressure-angle equation for a disk cam and rotating roller follower (Figure 9.14)
can be expressed as

(9.7)

where

(9.8)

* While the velocity vector is always perpendicular to the follower arm, its direction depends on the rotation
direction of the follower arm (clockwise or counterclockwise).
342 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 9.13
Cam system with rotating roller follower and pressure angle.

FIGURE 9.14
Disk cam with rotating roller follower nomenclature.

The variable L in Equation 9.8 is the length of the follower’s rotating arm (between the
arm’s center of rotation and the center of the roller). The variable Dy in this equation is the
distance along the y-axis between the arm’s center of rotation and the cam’s center of rota-
tion. As illustrated in Figure 9.14, both centers of rotation are along the y-axis. To ensure
interaction between a cam and a rotating roller follower, L–Dy ≤ s + r base

Example 9.7
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix E.6 MATLAB file, plot the radial cam profile
for the follower displacement interval given in Example 9.1. Use a 100 mm base circle
radius.
Known Information: Example 9.1 and Appendix E.6 MATLAB file.
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 343

FIGURE E.9.13
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix E.6 MATLAB file for Example 9.7.

FIGURE E.9.14
Disk cam profile from 4-5-6-7 polynomial motion (with dashed base circle).

Solution Approach: Figure E.9.13 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix E.6 MATLAB file. Figure E.9.14 illustrates the disk cam profile produced from
Equation 9.4 (which is utilized in the Appendix E.6 MATLAB file).

Example 9.8
Problem Statement: Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in
Example 9.6, plot the pressure angle profile for a translating follower. Assume a zero
offset, a base circle radius of 100 mm and a roller radius of 5 mm.
Known Information: Displacement and velocity results from Example 9.6, Equations 9.5
and 9.6, and .
Solution Approach: From Example 9.6, we know that the cam rotates at a constant speed
of 45 rpm (or 4.71 rad/s). Because a zero offset condition is assumed, the pressure angle
equation is reduced to Equation 9.6 (where ). Figure E.9.15 illustrates the resulting
pressure angle profile.

Example 9.9
Problem Statement: Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in
Example 9.6, calculate the pressure angle for a rotating follower at a cam rotation of
344 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.9.15
Pressure angle profile for 4-5-6-7 polynomial cam and translating follower.

FIGURE E.9.16
Example 9.9 solution calculation procedure in MATLAB.

radians. Assume a base circle radius of 100 mm, a roller radius of 5 mm, a follower
arm length of 275 mm and a center-to-center y-axis distance of 250 mm.
Known Information: Displacement and velocity results from Example 9.6, Equations 9.7
and 9.8, , , and .
Solution Approach: From Example 9.6, we know that can cam rotates at a constant
speed of 45 rpm (or 4.71 rad/s). From Example 9.6, it can be determined that at a cam
rotation of radians (or 270°), and . Figure E.9.16
includes the calculation procedure for a single pressure angle value in MATLAB’s
command window.

9.5 Summary
A disk cam is a mechanical component used to convert rotation motion into oscillating
rotation or translation motion. In its most basic form, a cam system includes a rotating disk
member (the cam) that compels the motion of an oscillating member called the follower.
Among other applications, cam systems are commonly used in the valve trains of internal
combustion engines, particularly in automotive engines.
The types of followers used in disk cam systems vary in terms of their shape, motion
and contact stress. Common follower types include the knife-edge, flat-faced, and roller
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 345

followers. Followers are designed to exhibit either translating motion or rotational motion
when in contact with a rotating cam.
A follower displacement profile is comprised of three distinct displacement profiles: the
rise, fall, and dwell profiles. These profiles are determined by the rate of change in the
radius of curvature of the cam and its rotation direction. The first, second, and third deriv-
atives of a follower displacement function produce follower velocity, acceleration, and jerk
functions. In cam design for high-speed applications, the follower displacement, velocity,
and acceleration profiles must be continuous and the follower jerk profile must be finite
over a complete cam rotation cycle. These conditions are expressed in the fundamental law
of cam design.
Common types of follower motion include constant velocity, constant acceleration, sim-
ple harmonic, cycloidal motion, and polynomial motion. Of these follower motion types,
both cycloidal and polynomial motion fully satisfy the conditions for continuous and finite
follower motion profiles and are subsequently suitable for high-speed applications. In the
Appendix E.1 through E.6 MATLAB files, the user can produce follower displacement,
velocity, acceleration, and jerk profiles for constant velocity, constant acceleration, simple
harmonic, cycloidal motion, and polynomial motion (both 3-4-5 and 4-5-6-7 polynomials).
For two contacting surfaces, the contact force between the surface pair is oriented in the
direction normal to the common tangent of the surface pair. For a cam and follower, as for
gears, the orientation angle of the contact force is called the pressure angle. The contact
force can have two components: components acting along the direction of and normal to
the direction of follower motion. The contact force component acting in the direction of
follower motion is necessary for effective follower operation. The contact force compo-
nent acting normal to the follower motion direction produces side-thrust loads on the cam
and follower. Designers often attempt to minimize the latter contact force component. In
practice, pressure angles do not exceed 30° for translating followers and 45° for rotating
followers.

References
1. Oberg, E., Jones, F. D., Horton, H. L., and Ryffel, H. H. 2000. Machinery’s Handbook. 26th edn, p.
2165. New York: Industrial Press.
2. Ibid., pp. 2165–2166.
3. Ibid., p. 2166.
4. Ibid., p. 2167.
5. Ibid., pp. 2176–2178.

Additional Reading
Myszka, D. H. 2005. Machines and Mechanisms: Applied Kinematic Analysis. 3rd edn, Chapter 9. Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Norton, R. L. 2008. Design of Machinery. 4th edn, Chapter 8. New York: McGraw-Hill.
346 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Waldron, K. J. and Gary, L. K. 2004. Kinematics, Dynamics and Design of Machinery. 2nd edn, Chapter 8.
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Wilson, C. E. and Sadler, J. P. 2003. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery. 3rd edn, Chapter 5. Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Problems
1. Of the six follower motion types presented in this chapter, which type produces
the smallest acceleration?
2. Of the six follower motion types presented in this chapter, which types fully sat-
isfy the fundamental law of cam design?
3. In comparison to cams produced from follower motion types that fully satisfy the
fundamental law of cam design, what is the primary limitation of cams produced
from follower motion types that do not fully satisfy this law?
4. What are the structural effects in a cam follower system that does not fully satisfy
the fundamental law of cam design?
5. Describe a primary similarity and difference between the motion in a cam fol-
lower system and a rack and pinion gear.
6. Plot constant velocity motion-based follower displacement and velocity profiles
for the follower displacement data given in Table P.9.1. Consider a cam rotation
speed of 75 rad/s and a cam base circle radius of 15 mm.
7. Plot constant velocity motion-based follower displacement and velocity profiles
for the follower displacement data given in Table P.9.2. Consider a cam rotation
speed of 85 rad/s and a cam base circle radius of 15 mm.
8. Plot the cam profiles using the follower displacement data from Problems 6 and 7.
9. Plot constant acceleration motion-based follower displacement, velocity, and accel-
eration profiles for the follower displacement data given in Table P.9.1. Consider a
cam rotation speed of 70 rad/s and a cam base circle radius of 15 mm.
10. Plot constant acceleration motion-based follower displacement, velocity, and accel-
eration profiles for the follower displacement data given in Table P.9.2. Consider a
cam rotation speed of 80 rad/s and a cam base circle radius of 15 mm.

TABLE P.9.1
Follower Dwell-Rise-Dwell-Fall Displacement
Data
Rotation Total Follower
Event Range Displacement (mm)
Dwell 90° 0
Rise 60° 4
Dwell 30° 4
Fall 180° 0
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 347

TABLE P.9.2
Follower Rise-Dwell-Fall-Dwell-Fall-Dwell
Displacement Data
Rotation Total Follower
Event Range Displacement (mm)
Rise 60° 3
Dwell 60° 3
Fall 60° 1.5
Dwell 60° 1.5
Fall 60° 0
Dwell 60° 0

11. Plot the cam profiles using the follower displacement data from Problems 9 and 10.
12. Plot simple harmonic motion-based follower displacement, velocity, acceleration,
and jerk profiles for the follower displacement data given in Table P.9.3. Consider a
cam rotation speed of 55 rad/s and base circle radius of 20 mm.
13. Plot simple harmonic motion-based follower displacement, velocity, acceleration,
and jerk profiles for the follower displacement data given in Table P.9.4. Consider a
cam rotation speed of 55 rad/s and base circle radius of 20 mm.

TABLE P.9.3
Follower Rise-Dwell-Fall-Dwell-Rise-Dwell-Fall-
Dwell Displacement Data
Rotation Total Follower
Event Range Displacement (mm)
Rise 15° 3.5
Dwell 65° 3.5
Fall 30° 0
Dwell 50° 0
Rise 60° 2
Dwell 90° 2
Fall 35° 0
Dwell 15° 0

TABLE P.9.4
Follower Dwell-Rise-Dwell-Rise-Dwell-Fall
Displacement Data
Rotation Total Follower
Event Range Displacement (mm)
Dwell 15° 0
Rise 45° 1.5
Dwell 30° 1.5
Rise 90° 4
Dwell 45° 4
Fall 135° 0
348 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

14. Plot the cam profile using the follower displacement data from Problem 12.
15. Plot cycloidal motion-based follower displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk
profiles for the follower displacement data given in Table P.9.3. Consider a cam
rotation speed of 25 rad/s and base circle radius of 20 mm.
16. Plot cycloidal motion-based follower displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk
profiles for the follower displacement data given in Table P.9.4. Consider a cam
rotation speed of 50 rad/s and base circle radius of 20 mm.
17. Plot the cam profile using the follower displacement data from Problem 16.
18. Plot 3-4-5 polynomial motion-based follower displacement, velocity, acceleration,
and jerk profiles for the follower displacement data given in Table P.9.5. Consider a
cam rotation speed of 40 rad/s and base circle radius of 25 mm.
19. Plot 3-4-5 polynomial motion-based follower displacement, velocity, acceleration,
and jerk profiles (and the corresponding cam profile) for the follower displacement
data given in Table P.9.6. Consider a cam rotation speed of 40 rad/s and base circle
radius of 25 mm.
20. Plot the cam profile using the follower displacement data from Problem 18.
21. Plot 4-5-6-7 polynomial motion-based follower displacement, velocity, accelera-
tion, and jerk profiles (and the corresponding cam profile) for the follower dis-
placement data given in Table P.9.5. Consider a cam rotation speed of 35 rad/s and
base circle radius of 25 mm.

TABLE P.9.5
Follower Rise-Dwell-Rise-Dwell-Fall-Dwell-Fall-Dwell
Displacement Data
Rotation Total Follower
Event Range Displacement (mm)
Rise 60° 2.5
Dwell 30° 2.5
Rise 60° 5
Dwell 30° 5
Fall 80° 3.5
Dwell 50° 3.5
Fall 25° 0
Dwell 25° 0

TABLE P.9.6
Follower Dwell-Rise-Dwell-Fall Displacement Data
Rotation Total Follower
Event Range Displacement (mm)
Dwell 30° 0
Rise 150° 5
Dwell 30° 5
Fall 150° 0
Design and Kinematic Analysis of Disk Cams 349

22. Plot 4-5-6-7 polynomial motion-based follower displacement, velocity, accel-

eration, and jerk profiles for the follower displacement data given in Table P.9.6.
Consider a cam rotation speed of 35 rad/s and base circle radius of 25 mm.
23. Plot the cam profile using the follower displacement data from Problem 22.
24. Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in Problem 6, plot
the pressure angle profile for a translating follower. Assume no offset and a roller
radius of 3.75 mm.
25. Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in Problem 12, plot
the pressure angle profile for a translating follower. Assume no offset and a roller
radius of 5 mm.
26. Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in Problem 18, plot
the pressure angle profile for a translating follower. Assume no offset and a roller
radius of 3.9 mm.
27. Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in Problem 10, plot
the pressure angle profile for a translating follower. Assume a 5 mm offset and a
roller radius of 2.75 mm.
28. Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in Problem 16, plot
the pressure angle profile for a translating follower. Assume a 15 mm offset and a
roller radius of 1.75 mm.
29. Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in Problem 22, plot
the pressure angle profile for a translating follower. Assume a 3 mm offset and a
roller radius of 3.95 mm.
30. Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in Problem 6, plot the
pressure angle profile for a rotating follower. Assume a roller radius of 3.5 mm, a
follower arm length of 275 mm and a center-to-center y-axis distance of 280 mm.
31. Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in Problem 12, plot the
pressure angle profile for a rotating follower. Assume a roller radius of 5.75 mm, a
follower arm length of 300 mm and a center-to-center y-axis distance of 280 mm.
32. Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in Problem 18, plot the
pressure angle profile for a rotating follower. Assume a roller radius of 1.75 mm, a
follower arm length of 290 mm and a center-to-center y-axis distance of 280 mm.
33. Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in Problem 10, plot
the pressure angle profile for a rotating follower. Assume a roller radius of 3.5 mm,
a follower arm length of 295 mm and a center-to-center y-axis distance of 300 mm.
34. Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in Problem 16, plot the
pressure angle profile for a rotating follower. Assume a roller radius of 5.75 mm, a
follower arm length of 285 mm and a center-to-center y-axis distance of 300 mm.
35. Using the follower displacement and velocity data produced in Problem 22, plot the
pressure angle profile for a rotating follower. Assume a roller radius of 2.25 mm, a
follower arm length of 275 mm and a center-to-center y-axis distance of 300 mm.
10
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms

CONCEPT OVERVIEW
In this chapter, the reader will gain a central understanding regarding

1. Advantages and disadvantages of spatial mechanisms and the ongoing aim of

spatial mechanism modeling
2. Intermediate and total spatial kinematics of the RRSS, RSSR, and 4R spherical
mechanisms
3. Planar mechanism kinematic analysis using spatial mechanism kinematic models

10.1 Introduction
Planar mechanisms are restricted to motion in two-dimensional or planar space. Spatial
mechanisms can exhibit three-dimensional or spatial motion. Spatial mechanism motion
is predominantly determined by the degrees of freedom of the mechanism joints used and
spatial orientation of the joints.
The cylindrical joint (Figure 3.9) can enable spatial mechanism motion because this joint
has a translational degree of freedom (DOF) along the z-axis in addition to the planar rota-
tional DOF about the z-axis. The spherical joint (Figure 3.9) can enable spatial mechanism
motion because this joint has rotational DOFs about the x- and y-axes in addition to the pla-
nar rotational DOF about the z-axis. Even revolute and prismatic joints (Figure 3.9), though
possessing only a single DOF, will enable spatial mechanism motion when ­positioned to
have joint axes (or lines of action in the case of prismatic joints) that are skewed to the x–y
plane.
Because spatial mechanisms have the capacity to exhibit 3D motion, they offer a greater
variety of possible motions and are structurally more general than planar mechanisms.
However, because the equations for spatial mechanism analysis are often much larger
in scale and greater in complexity than those for planar mechanisms, their real-world
applications are often limited. In practice, it is not uncommon to find complicated planar
mechanism solutions when, in fact, a simpler spatial mechanism solution is possible. It is,
therefore, an ongoing task to devise simple methods of calculation, to produce design aids
with diagrams, and to set design standards for spatial mechanisms [1].
This textbook considers three types of four-bar spatial mechanisms: the revolute-revolute-
spherical-spherical or RRSS, the revolute-revolute-revolute-revolute spherical or 4R spherical, and the
revolute-spherical-spherical-revolute or RSSR mechanisms (Figures 3.7a, b, and c, respectively)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003316961-10 351

352 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

[2, 3]. The RRSS, 4R spherical, and RSSR are among the more basic four-bar spatial mechanisms
in terms of the types of joints used and the required linkage assembly conditions for motion.

10.2 RRSS Mechanism Analysis

10.2.1 Displacement Equations
The revolute-revolute-spherical-spherical mechanism or RRSS mechanism (Figure 10.1) is
a spatial four-link mechanism with a mobility of 2 (with L = 4 and J1 = J3 = 2). Although
one DOF of the RRSS mechanism enables it to be crank driven, the other DOF is produced
by the follower link. The follower link (link b0 –b1 in Figure 10.1) is bounded by spherical
joints. As a result, this link can rotate about its own axis of symmetry. This DOF is called a
passive degree of freedom. Passive DOFs generally do not contribute to the overall kinematic
motion of a mechanism.*
Suh and Radcliffe presented displacement equations for the RRSS mechanism [4]. The
following follower-link constant-length equation forms the basis for the RRSS displace-
ment equations:

(10.1)

The rotation of the crank and coupler links (links a 0 –a1 and a1–b1, respectively, in Figure
10.1) and the rotation of the crank moving pivot joint axis ua1 about the crank fixed pivot
joint axis ua0 (by rotation angle θ) are given by

(10.2)

(10.3)

(10.4)

FIGURE 10.1
RRSS mechanism displacement variables.

* The passive DOFs associated with the RSSR and RRSS mechanisms generally do not contribute to mechanism
motion because the effects of these DOFs are typically highly localized.
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 353

The global displacement of the follower moving pivot b1 is expressed as

(10.5)

The rotational displacement matrices and [Rα,ua] are identical in form to Matrix 2.28.
Substituting Equation 10.5 into Equation 10.1 produces

(10.6)

In Equation 10.6,

(10.7)*

(10.8)

(10.9)

(10.10)

and

(10.11)

The two coupler-link rotation-angle solutions (α) for Equation 10.6 are

(10.12)†

With α known, the displaced RRSS moving pivot b from Equation 10.5 and also the
displaced RRSS coupler point p from Equation 10.13 can be calculated.
As noted in Section 4.10, two sets of link displacement angles are calculated (for a given
crank displacement angle) in algebraic four-bar mechanism displacement equations.
The ± term in Equation 10.12 corresponds to two coupler displacement angle solutions—
one solution for each mechanism assembly configuration.
The global displacement of an arbitrary RRSS coupler point p1 is expressed as

(10.13)

* Matrix I in Equations 10.7 and 10.33 is a 3 × 3 identity matrix.

† This coupler-link displacement angle is not measured with respect to the initial coupler position (like the

planar four-bar mechanism for example), but with respect to the crank link.
354 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

where

(10.14)

The RRSS variables a0, a1, ua0, ua1, b0, b1, and p1 are 3 × 1 vectors containing x-, y-, and
z-components.

10.2.2 Velocity Equations
Figure 10.2 includes the velocity variables for the RRSS mechanism. The following equa-
tion, the derivative of the follower-link constant-length equation, forms the basis for the
RRSS velocity equations:

(10.15)

The global velocity of the RRSS moving pivot b1 (variable in Equation 10.15) is expressed
as

(10.16)

where

(10.17)

The rotational velocity matrices and are identical in form to Matrix 2.33.
In an identical form, the global velocity of an arbitrary RRSS coupler point p1 is expressed
as

(10.18)

where

(10.19)

FIGURE 10.2
RRSS mechanism velocity variables.
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 355

Substituting Equations 10.16 and 10.17 into Equation 10.15 and solving for the coupler
angular velocity. · produces the coupler angular velocity equation

(10.20)

With known, the displaced RRSS moving pivot velocity from Equation 10.16 and also
the displaced RRSS coupler point velocity from Equation 10.18 can be calculated.
Lastly, the global velocity of the RRSS moving pivot a1 is expressed as

(10.21)

which is identical in form to Equations 10.17 and 10.19.

10.2.3 Acceleration Equations
Figure 10.3 includes the acceleration variables for the RRSS mechanism. The following
equation, the second derivative of the follower-link constant-length equation, forms the
basis for the RRSS acceleration equations:

(10.22)

The global acceleration of the RRSS moving pivot b1 (variable in Equation 10.22) is
expressed as

(10.23)

FIGURE 10.3
RRSS mechanism acceleration variables.
356 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

where

(10.24)

The matrices and that appear in Equations 10.23 and 10.24 become zero, since
ua0 and ub0, being grounded, do not exhibit motion [5]. The rotational acceleration matri-
ces and are identical in form to Matrix 2.37.
In an identical form, the global acceleration of an arbitrary RRSS coupler point p1 is
expressed as

(10.25)

where

(10.26)

Substituting Equations 10.23 and 10.24 into Equation 10.22 and solving for the coupler
angular acceleration produces the coupler angular acceleration equation

(10.27)

With known, the displaced RRSS moving point acceleration from Equation 10.23 and
also the displaced RRSS coupler point velocity from Equation 10.25 can be calculated.
Lastly, the global acceleration of the RRSS moving pivot a1 is expressed as

(10.28)

which is identical in form to Equations 10.24 and 10.26.

Appendix F.1 includes the MATLAB® file user instructions for RRSS displacement,
velocity, and acceleration analysis. This MATLAB file (which is available for download
at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317) utilizes the RRSS displacement,
velocity, and acceleration equations presented in Sections 10.2.1–10.2.3.*
Although the equations presented in Sections 10.2.1–10.2.3 are presented for the spatial
RRSS mechanism, the same equations can also be used for the displacement, velocity, and
acceleration analysis of a planar four-bar mechanism (specifically, a planar RRSS mecha-
nism). To accomplish this, the user should specify planar mechanism values for the RRSS
mechanism variables (e.g., ua0 = ua1 = (0, 0, 1) and a0z = a1z = b0z = b1z = p1z = 0).†

Example 10.1
Problem Statement: Figure E.10.1 illustrates an RRSS mechanism use to guide a solar
panel. Using the Appendix F.1 MATLAB file, calculate the solar panel positions (the

* The library of MATLAB files used in this chapter can also be downloaded from the authors’ server http://
www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
† Due to the passive DOF of the follower link, rotation angles for this link cannot be directly calculated in the

RRSS mechanism equations, even when restricted to planar motion (unlike the planar four-bar equations in
Section 4.3).
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 357

displaced values of points , , and ) achieved by the RRSS mechanism in Table E.10.1
at crank displacement angles of 50°, 100°, and 200°.
Known Information: Table E.10.1 and Appendix F.1 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.10.2 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix F.1 MATLAB file. Table E.10.2 includes the spatial coordinates of , , and
calculated using the Appendix F.1 MATLAB file for the three crank displacement angles.
The dimensions in Table E.10.1 and the results in Table E.10.2 are for the initial RRSS
mechanism configuration (which corresponds to the first branch in the Appendix F.1
MATLAB file).*

FIGURE E.10.1
RRSS mechanism used to guide a solar panel.

TABLE E.10.1
RRSS Mechanism Dimensions
Variable Value
a0 −0.0576, 0.2890, −1.4112
a1 0.1452, −2.5421, −1.18
ua0 −0.0003, 0.0814, 0.9967
ua1 0.304, 0.0992, 0.9475
b0 0.0851, 0.457, 0.5096
b1 1.7725, 5.1566, 0.6499
p1 1.7321, 0, −1
q1 1.2321, 0, −1.866
r1 1.9486, 0, −1.125

* The Appendix F.1 MATLAB file produces results for both the initial (branch 1) and second (branch 2) RRSS
mechanism configurations.
358 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.10.2
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix F.1 MATLAB file for Example 10.1.

TABLE E.10.2
Solar Panel Positions Achieved by RRSS Mechanism
θ P q r
50° 1.0926, 1.3848, −1.0402 0.7287, 0.9589, −1.8685 1.2045, 1.5598, −1.1793
100° −0.1671, 1.7348, −1.0237 −0.1141, 1.1570, −1.8382 −0.2507, 1.9244, −1.1637
200° −1.7270, −0.0051, −0.9672 −1.2325, 0.0396, −1.8352 −1.9224, −0.1086, −1.0839

10.3 RSSR Mechanism Analysis

10.3.1 Displacement Equations
The revolute-spherical-spherical-revolute or RSSR mechanism (Figure 10.4) is a spatial
four-bar mechanism having two degrees of freedom (with L = 4 and J1 = J3 = 2), the rotation
of the coupler link (link a1–b1) about its own axis of symmetry being a passive DOF.
Suh and Radcliffe presented displacement equations for the RSSR mechanism [6]. The
following coupler-link constant-length equation forms the basis for the RSSR displacement
equations:

(10.29)

The rotation of the crank and follower links (links a0 –a1 and b0 –b1, respectively, in
Figure 10.4) about their fixed pivot joint axes by crank and follower rotation angles θ and ϕ,
respectively, are given by

(10.30)

and

(10.31)

The rotational displacement matrices and are identical in form to Matrix 2.28.
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 359

FIGURE 10.4
RSSR mechanism displacement variables.

Substituting Equations 10.30 and 10.31 into Equation 10.29 produces

(10.32)
In Equation 10.32,

(10.33)

(10.34)

(10.35)

In Equations 10.33–10.35, matrices and are identical in form to Equations 10.10

and 10.11. The two follower-link rotation-angle solutions (ϕ) for Equation 10.32 are

(10.36)*

With ϕ known, the displaced RSSR moving pivot b from Equation 10.32 can be calcu-
lated. The variables a 0, a1, ua 0, b0, b1, and ub0 are 3 × 1 vectors containing x-, y-, and
z-components.

10.3.2 Velocity Equations

Figure 10.5 includes the velocity variables for the RSSR mechanism. The following equa-
tion, the derivative of the coupler-link constant-length equation, forms the basis for the
RSSR velocity equations:

(10.37)

* Like Equation 10.12, there are two ϕ solutions corresponding to the two RSSR assembly configurations (the
open and crossed configurations) for every θ value.
360 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 10.5
RSSR mechanism velocity variables.

The global velocity of the RSSR moving pivot b1 (variable in Equation 10.37) is expressed as

(10.38)

and the global velocity of the RSSR moving pivot a1 (variable in Equation 10.38) is
expressed as

(10.39)

The rotational velocity matrices and are identical in form to Matrix 2.33.
Substituting Equations 10.38 and 10.39 into Equation 10.37 and solving for the follower
angular velocity produces the follower angular velocity equation

(10.40)

With known, the displaced RSSR moving pivot velocity from Equation 10.38 can be
calculated.

10.3.3 Acceleration Equations
Figure 10.6 includes the acceleration variables for the RSSR mechanism. The following
equation, the second derivative of the coupler-link constant-length equation, forms the
basis for the RSSR acceleration equations:

(10.41)

The global acceleration of the RSSR moving pivot b1 (variable in Equation 10.41) is
expressed as

(10.42)
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 361

FIGURE 10.6
RSSR mechanism acceleration variables.

and the global acceleration of the RSSR moving pivot a1 (variable in Equation 10.41) is
expressed as

(10.43)*

The rotational acceleration matrices and are identical in form to Matrix

2.37.
Substituting Equations 10.42 and 10.43 into Equation 10.41 and solving for the follower
angular acceleration produces the follower angular acceleration equation

(10.44)

With known, the displaced RSSR moving pivot acceleration from Equation 10.42 can
be calculated.
Appendix F.2 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for RSSR displacement, veloc-
ity, and acceleration analysis. This MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://
www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317) utilizes the RSSR displacement, velocity, and
acceleration equations presented in Sections 10.3.1–10.3.3.
Like the RRSS mechanism equations in Section 10.2, the RSSR equations can also be
used for the displacement, velocity, and acceleration analysis of a planar four-bar mecha-
nism (specifically, a planar RSSR mechanism). To accomplish this, the user should specify
planar mechanism values for the RSSR mechanism variables (e.g., and
a0z = a1z = b0z = b1z = 0).†

* In Equation 10.42 (and similarly in Equation 10.43), the term [Pub0] (b–b 0)· corresponds to the tangential accel-
eration and the term 2 [Pub0] [Pub0] (b–b 0) corresponds to the normal acceleration.
† Due to the passive DOF of the coupler link, rotation angles for this link cannot be directly calculated in the

RSSR mechanism equations, even when restricted to planar motion (unlike the planar four-bar equations in
Section 4.3).
362 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Example 10.2
Problem Statement: Figure E.10.3 illustrates an RSSR mechanism used in a steering sys-
tem. All of the gear pairs shown have 1:1 gear ratios. Using the Appendix F.2 MATLAB
file, calculate the wheel rotation angles achieved by the RSSR mechanism in Table E.10.3
over a steering wheel displacement angle range of 50° (at 10° increments).
Known Information: Table E.10.3 and Appendix F.2 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.10.4 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix F.2 MATLAB file. Table E.10.4 includes the wheel rotation angles calculated
using the Appendix F.2 MATLAB file over the steering wheel displacement angles.
The dimensions in Table E.10.3 and the results in Table E.10.4 are for the initial RSSR
mechanism configuration (which corresponds to the first branch in the Appendix F.2
MATLAB file).*

FIGURE E.10.3
RSSR mechanism used in a steering system.

TABLE E.10.3
RSSR Mechanism Dimensions
Variable Value
a0 0, 0, −0.4023
a1 0.3356, −0.0708, −0.4023
ua0 0, 0, 1
b0 1, −2.3885, 0
b1 1, −2.3885, 0.73
ub0 0, −1, 0

* The Appendix F.2 MATLAB file produces results for both the initial (branch 1) and second (branch 2) RSSR
mechanism configurations.
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 363

FIGURE E.10.4
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix F.2 MATLAB file for Example 10.2.

TABLE E.10.4
Wheel Rotation Angles Achieved by RSSR Mechanism
θ (°) ϕ (°)
10 15.041
20 29.998
30 44.907
40 60.009
50 76.05

10.4 Four-Revolute Spherical Mechanism Analysis

The revolute-revolute-revolute-revolute spherical mechanism or four-revolute spheri-
cal mechanism or simply 4R spherical mechanism (Figure 10.7) is a single-DOF four-bar
mechanism that exhibits spherical motion—a unique type of spatial motion [7].* Contrary to
Gruebler’s equation, from which a mobility of −2 is calculated for the 4R spherical mecha-
nism (with L = J1 = 4), it actually has a mobility of 1.† Because the links of the 4R spherical
mechanism are circular arcs (with all links having a common center) and the mechanism
joint axes all intersect at that common center, the links of this mechanism have spherical
surface workspaces.
The RRSS kinematic equations introduced in Section 10.2 can be applied directly to the
4R spherical mechanism (Figure 10.8) [8]. This application is particularly useful for calcu-
lating 4R spherical mechanism link positions, velocities, and accelerations. To apply the
RRSS kinematic equations, the user should specify the appropriate 4R spherical mecha-
nism values for a0, a1, b0, b1, p1, ua0, and ua1. The variables a0, a1, b0, and b1 should all lie
on the surface of a sphere and variables ua0 and ua1 should intersect at the center of the
sphere. If it is assumed that the 4R spherical mechanism should lie on a sphere of unit
radius (rsphere = 1), then a0 = ua0 and a1 = ua1.

* While planar mechanisms have planar-surface workspaces and most spatial mechanisms have volume work-
spaces, spherical mechanisms have spatial-surface workspaces.
† Mechanisms like the 4R spherical mechanism, having true DOFs that are contrary to Gruebler’s equation, are

called paradoxes or maverick mechanisms.

364 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE 10.7
4R spherical mechanism.

FIGURE 10.8
RRSS mechanism configured as a 4R spherical mechanism.

FIGURE 10.9
RSSR mechanism configured as a 4R spherical mechanism.

The RSSR kinematic equations introduced in Section 10.3 can be applied directly to the
4R spherical mechanism (Figure 10.9) [9]. This application is particularly useful for cal-
culating 4R spherical mechanism link angular positions, velocities, and accelerations. To
apply the RSSR kinematic equations, the user should specify the appropriate 4R spherical
mechanism values for a0, a1, b0, b1, ua0, and ub0. The variables a0, a1, b0, and b1 should all
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 365

lie on the surface of a sphere and variables ua0 and ub0 should intersect at the center of
the sphere. If it is assumed that the 4R spherical mechanism should lie on a sphere of unit
radius (rsphere = 1), then a0 = ua0 and b0 = ub0.

Example 10.3
Problem Statement: Figure E.10.5 illustrates a 4R Spherical mechanism used in a folding
wing system. Using the Appendix F.1 MATLAB file, calculate the location and velocity
of point achieved by the 4R Spherical mechanism in Table E.10.5 over a crank dis-
placement angle range of 168° (at 28° increments). The rotational speed of the crank is
0.5 revolutions/min.
Known Information: Table E.10.5 and Appendix F.1 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.10.6 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix F.1 MATLAB file. Table E.10.6 includes the location and velocity values
calculated using the Appendix F.1 MATLAB file. The dimensions in Table E.10.5 and
the results in Table E.10.6 are for the initial RRSS mechanism configuration (which cor-
responds to the first branch in the Appendix F.1 MATLAB file).

Example 10.4
Problem Statement: Figure E.10.7 illustrates the initial and final positions of a 4R Spherical
mechanism used to displace a camera (affixed to the follower link). The mechanism

FIGURE E.10.5
4R Spherical mechanism used in a folding wing system.

TABLE E.10.5
4R Spherical Mechanism Dimensions (with Link Lengths in m)
Variable Value
a0 0.2612, 0.7274, 0.6346
a1 −0.0151, 0.9879, 0.1552
b0 0.1793, 0.9837, 0.0172
b1 −0.1761, 0.2162, 0.9603
p1 −0.2081, 0.1675, 0.8227
366 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.10.6
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix F.1 MATLAB file for Example 10.3.

TABLE E.10.6
Wing Point Locations and Velocities Achieved by 4R Spherical
Mechanism
θ (°) p (m) (m/s)
28 0.1998, 0.0772, 0.838 0.0261, −0.0059, −0.0057
56 0.4058, 0.0319, 0.7632 0.0195, −0.0041, −0.0102
84 0.5745, −0.0011, 0.6466 0.0168, −0.003, −0.0149
112 0.7174, −0.0252, 0.4827 0.0136, −0.0021, −0.0203
140 0.8209, −0.04, 0.2697 0.0082, −0.001, −0.0251
168 0.8637, −0.0434, 0.023 0.0007, 0.0003, −0.0271

FIGURE E.10.7
4R Spherical camera rotation mechanism at (left) initial and (right) final positions.

dimensions are , , , and

. Given a 180° crank displacement, calculate the result-
ing follower angular displacement using the Appendix F.2 MATLAB file.
Known Information: Appendix F.2 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.10.8 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix F.2 MATLAB file. A follower displacement of 80.255° was calculated. The 4R
Spherical dimensions and results given in this example problem are for the initial RSSR
mechanism configuration (which corresponds to the first branch in the Appendix F.2
MATLAB® file).
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 367

FIGURE E.10.8
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix F.2 MATLAB file for Example 10.4.

10.5 Planar Four-Bar Kinematic Analysis Using

RRSS and RSSR Kinematic Equations
As noted in this chapter, the kinematic equations for the spatial RRSS and RSSR mecha-
nisms can also be applied to the planar four-bar mechanism. To consider four-bar mecha-
nism motion in the x-y plane, the z-components of a0, a1, b0, b1, and p1 should be specified
as zero (therefore ).* Also, the joint axis vectors should be along
the z-axis (therefore, ua0 = ua1 = ub0 = (0,0,1)).
Slider-crank mechanisms can also be modeled using the RRSS and RSSR kinematic equa-
tions. While an infinite follower length cannot be specified for a planar four-bar mecha-
nism (to perfectly replicate a slider-crank mechanism), a follower length can be specified to
produce an acceptable maximum slider error.† For example, a planar four-bar mechanism
having a crank length of 1, a coupler length of 2.23, and a follower length of 100,000 will
produce a maximum slider error in the order of 10−5.

Example 10.5
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix F.1 MATLAB file, repeat Example 4.2 using the
displacement equations for the spatial RRSS mechanism. When expressed as x–y coordi-
nates, the mechanism dimensions in Table E.4.2 become , ,
, , and .
Known Information: Example 4.2 and Appendix F.1 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.10.9 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix F.1 MATLAB file. Figure E.10.10 includes the level-luffing crane and coupler
curve calculated. The crane dimensions and results given in this figure are for the initial
RRSS mechanism configuration (which corresponds to the first branch in the Appendix
F.1 MATLAB file).

Example 10.6
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix F.1 MATLAB file, calculate the minimum and
maximum slider velocities for the slider-crank mechanism in Example 4.6 using the dis-
placement equations for the spatial RRSS mechanism. When expressed as x–y coordinates,

* If additional coupler points are used (e.g., coupler points q1 or r 1), their z-components should also be zero.
† A slider-crank mechanism is kinematically identical to a planar four-bar mechanism having an infinite

follower length (see Chapter 3).

368 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.10.9
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix F.1 MATLAB file for Example 10.5.

FIGURE E.10.10
Level-luffing crane mechanism with calculated coupler curve.

the mechanism dimensions in Table E.4.5 become , , and

. Let .
Known Information: Example 4.6 and Appendix F.1 MATLAB file.
Solution Approach: Figure E.10.11 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix F.1 MATLAB file. Maximum and minimum slider velocities of ±122.69 cm/s
were calculated. The mechanism dimensions and results given in this example are for
the initial RRSS mechanism configuration (which corresponds to the first branch in the
Appendix F.1 MATLAB file).

FIGURE E.10.11
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix F.1 MATLAB file for Example 10.6.
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 369

Example 10.7
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix F.2 MATLAB file, plot the follower angular dis-
placement versus the crank angular displacement (for both mechanism branches) for the
mechanism in Example 4.2. When expressed as x–y coordinates, the mechanism dimen-
sions in Table E.4.2 become , , ,
and .
Known Information: Example 4.2 and Appendix F.2 MATLAB file
Solution Approach: Figure E.10.12 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix F.2 MATLAB file. Figure E.10.13 includes the follower versus crank angular
displacement plots for the level-luffing crane mechanism calculated using the Appendix
F.2 MATLAB file.

FIGURE E.10.12
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix F.2 MATLAB file for Example 10.7.

FIGURE E.10.13
Follower versus crank angular displacement plots for level-luffing crane mechanism.
370 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

10.6 Spatial Mechanism Kinematic Analysis and

Modeling in Simscape MultibodyTM
As has been noted throughout this chapter, Appendices F.1 and F.2 include user instruc-
tions for the RRSS and RSSR mechanism MATLAB files, respectively. In these files, the dis-
placement, velocity, and acceleration equations formulated in this chapter are solved. The
Appendix F.1 and F.2 MATLAB files provide means for the user to efficiently conduct RRSS
and RSSR kinematic analyses by calculating solutions from their displacement, velocity,
and acceleration equations.
This textbook also utilizes Simscape Multibody as an alternate approach for simulation-
based kinematic analysis. A library of Simscape Multibody files is available for download
at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317 to conduct RRSS and RSSR mecha-
nism displacement, velocity, and acceleration analyses.* With these files, the user specifies
the mechanism link dimensions and driving link parameters (e.g., crank displacements,
velocities, and accelerations) and measures the calculated displacements, velocities, and
accelerations of the mechanism locations of interest. Additionally, the motion of the mech-
anism itself is simulated. The Simscape Multibody file user instructions for the RRSS and
RSSR mechanisms are given in Appendices K.1 and K.2, respectively.

Example 10.8
Problem Statement: Repeat Example 10.1 using the Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody files.
Known Information: Example 10.1 and Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.10.14 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the Appendix
K.1 Simscape Multibody files. Table E.10.7 includes the solutions calculated using the
Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody files. Figure E.10.15 is an initial position snapshot of the
mechanism animation generated from the Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody files

a0 = [-0.0576, 0.289, -1.4112]';

a1 = [0.1452, -2.5421, -1.18]';
ua0 = [-0.0003, 0.0814, 0.9967]';
ua1 = [0.304, 0.0992, 0.9475]';
b0 = [0.0851, 0.457, 0.5096]';
b1 = [1.7725, 5.1566, 0.6499]';
p1 = [1.7321, 0, -1]';
q1 = [1.2321, 0, -1.866]';
r1 = [1.9486, 0, -1.125]';

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 50;
stop_ang = 200;

angular_vel = 0;
angular_acc = 0;

FIGURE E.10.14
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody file for Example 10.8.

* This library can also be downloaded from the authors’ server at http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_
mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 371

TABLE E.10.7
Solar Panel Positions Achieved by RRSS Mechanism
θ p q r
49.978° 1.0932, 1.3844, −1.0402 0.7292, 0.9587, −1.8686 1.2052, 1.5594, −1.1793
99.993° −0.1669, 1.7350, −1.0239 −0.1140, 1.1572, −1.8383 −0.2504, 1.9246, −1.1638
200.000° −1.7271,−0.0052, −0.9672 −1.2325, 0.0395, −1.8352 −1.9225, −0.1086, −1.0839

FIGURE E.10.15
Initial position of the RRSS mechanism in the Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody animation for
Example 10.8.

Example 10.9
Problem Statement: Repeat Example 10.2 using the Appendix K.2 Simscape Multibody files.
Known Information: Example 10.2 and Appendix K.2 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.10.16 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix K.2 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.10.8 includes the solutions calculated using
the Appendix K.2 Simscape Multibody files. Figure E.10.17 is an initial position snapshot
of the mechanism animation generated from the Appendix K.2 Simscape Multibody files.

a0 = [0, 0, -0.4023]';
a1 = [0.3356, -0.0708, -0.4023]';
ua0 = [0, 0, 1]';
b0 = [1, -2.3885, 0]';
b1 = [1, -2.3885, 0.73]';
ub0 = [0, -1, 0]';

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 10;
stop_ang = 50;

angular_vel = 0;
angular_acc = 0;

FIGURE E.10.16
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix K.2 Simscape Multibody file for Example 10.9.
372 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE E.10.8
Wheel Rotation Angles Achieved by RSSR
Mechanism
θ (°) ϕ (°)
10.010 15.0570
19.980 29.9680
30.006 44.9170
39.976 59.9720
50.000 76.0500

FIGURE E.10.17
Initial position of the RSSR mechanism in the Appendix K.2 Simscape Multibody animation for
Example 10.9.

Example 10.10
Problem Statement: Repeat Example 10.3 using the Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody files.
Known Information: Example 10.3 and Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: Figure E.10.18 includes the input specified (in bold text) in the
Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.10.9 includes the solutions calculated using
the Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody files. Figure E.10.19 is a final position snapshot of
the mechanism animation generated from the Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody files.
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 373

a0 = [0.2612, 0.7274, 0.6346]';

a1 = [-0.0151, 0.9879, 0.1552]';
ua0 = a0;
ua1 = a1;
b0 = [0.1793, 0.9837, 0.0172]';
b1 = [-0.1761, 0.2162, 0.9603]';
p1 = [-0.2081, 0.1675, 0.8227]';
q1 = p1;
r1 = p1;

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 28;
stop_ang = 168;

angular_vel = 0.5*pi/30;
angular_acc = 0;

FIGURE E.10.18
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody file for Example 10.10.

TABLE E.10.9
Wing Point Locations and Velocities Achieved by 4R Spherical
Mechanism
θ [°] p [m] [m/sec]
27.999 0.1998, 0.0772, 0.8381 0.0261, −0.0059, −0.0057
56.001 0.4058, 0.0319, 0.7632 0.0195, −0.0041, −0.0102
84.000 0.5745, −0.0011, 0.6467 0.0168, −0.0030, −0.0149
112.000 0.7173, −0.0252, 0.4827 0.0136, −0.0021, −0.0203
140.000 0.8209, −0.0399, 0.2697 0.0082, −0.0010, −0.0251
168.000 0.8636, −0.0433, 0.0231 0.0007, 0.0003, −0.0271

FIGURE E.10.19
Final position of the 4R spherical mechanism in the Appendix K.1 Simscape Multibody animation
for Example 10.10. (The links of the 4R spherical mechanism are depicted as straight (rather than
as circular arcs) in the Simscape Multibody animation window.)
374 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

10.7 Summary
Just as planar mechanisms are configured so that mechanism motion is restricted to
two-dimensional space, spatial mechanisms are configured to exhibit motion in three-
dimensional space. Spatial mechanism motion is determined in part by the mobility
of the mechanism joints used and the spatial orientation of the joints. The four-bar
spatial mechanisms considered in this chapter are the RRSS, RSSR, and 4R spherical
mechanisms.
Because spatial mechanisms can exhibit spatial motion, they offer a greater variety of
possible motions and are structurally more general than planar mechanisms. However,
because spatial mechanism analysis equations are often much greater in scale and com-
plexity than planar mechanism equations, their applications in practice are often limited.
It is therefore an ongoing task to devise simple methods of calculation, to produce design
aids with diagrams, and to set design standards for spatial mechanisms.
Suh and Radcliffe presented displacement, velocity, and acceleration equations for the
RRSS and RSSR mechanisms. These displacement equations can be directly applied to the
4R spherical mechanism and even the planar four-bar mechanism. In the Appendix F.1
and F.2 MATLAB files, the displacement, velocity, and acceleration equations for the RRSS
and RSSR mechanisms are used.
This textbook also utilizes Simscape Multibody as an alternate approach for simulation-
based kinematic analyses. Using the Appendix K.1 and K.2 Simscape Multibody files, the
user can conduct displacement, velocity, and acceleration analyses on the RRSS, RSSR, and
4R spherical mechanisms, respectively, as well as simulate mechanism motion.

References
1. Capellen, W. M. 1966. Kinematics—A survey in retrospect and prospect. Mechanism and
Machine Theory, 1: 211–228.
2. Russell, K., Shen, Q., and Sodhi, R. 2014. Mechanism Design: Visual and Programmable Approaches.
Chapter 7. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
3. Suh, C. H. and Radcliffe, C. W. 1978. Kinematics and Mechanisms Design. Chapter 4. New York:
John Wiley.
4. Ibid, pp. 83–85.
5. Ibid, p. 85.
6. Ibid, pp. 79–80.
7. Waldron, K. J. and Kinzel, G. L. 2004. Kinematics, Dynamics and Design of Machinery. 2nd edn,
pp. 340–347. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
8. Russell, K., Shen, Q., and Sodhi, R. 2014. Mechanism Design: Visual and Programmable Approaches.
pp. 137–141. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
9. Ibid, pp. 141–143.
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 375

Problems
1. The general fixed and moving pivot variables for the RRSS mechanism in spatial
motion are

Express , , , , , and for an RRSS mechanism restricted to motion in

the X–Z plane.
2. The general fixed and moving pivot variables for the RSSR mechanism in spatial
motion are

Express , , , , , and for an RSSR mechanism restricted to motion in

the Y–Z plane.

3. From the dimensions provided for the hatch mechanism in Problem 4.1, it can
be determined that , , ,
, and . Tabulate the coordinates of
coupler points and (where ) over the −30° crank rotation
range at −5° rotation increments (using the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files).
4. From the dimensions provided for the loading–unloading mech-
anism in Problem 4.2, it can be determined that ,
, , , and
. Tabulate the coordinates of coupler points and
(where ) over the −22.7° crank rotation range at −4.54° rotation
increments (using the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files).
5. For the mechanism in Problem 3, plot the velocity magnitude of coupler point
p1 versus the crank displacement angle over the −30° crank rotation range at −1°
rotation increments (using the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files). Consider an
initial crank angular velocity and an angular acceleration value of −1.25 rad/s and
0 rad/s2, respectively.
6. From the dimensions provided for the component assembly mech-
anism in Problem 4.6, it can be determined that ,
, , , and
. Tabulate the coordinates of coupler points and
(where ) over the 66.375° crank rotation range at 7.375° rotation
increments (using the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files).
7. From the dimensions provided for the digging mechanism in Problem 4.7, it can
be determined that , , ,
376 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

, and . Tabulate the coordinates

of coupler points and (where ) over the −57.4° crank rota-
tion range at −8.2° rotation increments (using the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB
files).
8. For the mechanism in Problem 7, tabulate the velocity and acceleration values of
coupler points p1 and q1 over the −57.4° crank rotation range at −8.2° rotation incre-
ments (using the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files). Consider an initial crank
angular velocity and an angular acceleration value of −1 rad/s and 0.499 rad/s2,
respectively.
9. For the slider-crank mechanism in Problem 4.16, a maximum slider displacement
of 12.675 cm is achieved at a crank displacement of 273°. At this crank displacement,
a slider velocity and acceleration of 0.0829 cm/s and −15.609 cm/s2, respectively,
are also achieved. Expressing the dimensions of this slider-crank mechanism as
, , , and ,
calculate the slider displacement, velocity, and acceleration at the same crank dis-
placement (using the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files).
10. For the slider-crank mechanism in Example 4.6, a maximum slider displacement
of 2.5 cm is achieved at a crank displacement of 315°. At this crank displacement,
a slider velocity and acceleration of 0.0000 cm/s and −16,667 cm/s2, respectively,
are also achieved. Expressing the dimensions of this slider-crank mechanism as
a0 = (0, 0, 0), a1 = (0.7071, 0.7071, 0), b1 = (2.03, 0, 0), and b0 = (2.03, −1000000, 0), calcu-
late the slider displacement, velocity, and acceleration at the same crank displace-
ment (using the Appendix F.2 or K.2 MATLAB files).
11. From the dimensions provided for the leveling crane mechanism in Problem 4.3, it
can be determined that , , ,
and . Tabulate the follower displacement angles over the −35°
crank rotation range at −5° rotation increments (using the Appendix F.2 or K.2
MATLAB files).
12. From the dimensions provided for the wiper blade mechanism in Problem 4.15,
it can be determined that , , , and
. Tabulate the follower angular displacement, velocity, and
acceleration values over the 45° crank rotation range at 5° rotation increments
(using the Appendix F.2 or K.2 MATLAB files).
13. Using the planar RRSS mechanism dimensions in Table P.10.1, plot the paths traced
by coupler point (for both mechanism branches) over a complete crank rotation
(using the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files). Consider crank rotation increments
of 1°.
14. Using the planar RRSS mechanism dimensions in Table P.10.1, produce plots of the
coupler displacement angle versus the crank displacement angle (for both mech-
anism branches) over a complete crank rotation (using the Appendix F.1 or K.1
MATLAB files). Consider crank rotation increments of 1°.
15. Using the planar RSSR mechanism dimensions in Table P.10.2, produce plots of
the follower displacement angle versus the crank displacement angle (for both
mechanism branches) over a complete crank rotation (using the Appendix F.2 or
K.2 MATLAB files). Consider crank rotation increments of 1°.
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 377

TABLE P.10.1
Planar RRSS Mechanism Dimensions
Variable Values
a0 0, 0, 0
a1 0, 1.125, 0
ua0 0, 0, 1
ua1 0, 0, 1
b0 1.4063, 0, 0
b1 1.3779, 1.4059, 0
p1 0.5135, 2.126, 0

TABLE P.10.2
Planar RSSR Mechanism Dimensions
Variable Values
a0 0, 0, 0
a1 0, 1.55, 0
ua0 0, 0, 1
b0 2.325, 0, 0
b1 2.1227, 2.2464, 0
ub0 0, 0, 1

TABLE P.10.3
RRSS Mechanism Dimensions (mm)
Variable Value
a0 0, 0, 0
a1 0, 22.86, 0
ua0 0, 0, 1
ua1 0,
b0 45.72, 0, 0
b1 45.72, 45.72, −11.43
p1 12.7, 31.75, 0

16. For the RRSS mechanism in Table P.10.3, tabulate the location, velocity, and accel-
eration of coupler point (for the 1st mechanism branch only) over a complete
crank rotation (using the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files). Consider a crank
rotation increment of 30° with an initial angular velocity and angular acceleration
of 0.75rad/s and 0.25 rad/s2, respectively.
17. For the RRSS mechanism dimensions in Example 10.1, calculate the velocities of
coupler points p1, q1, and r1 (for the first mechanism branch only) at the end of
the 200° crank rotation range, considering an initial rotational velocity of 1.8 rad/s
and rotational acceleration of −0.45 rad/s2 (using the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB
378 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE P.10.1
RRSS solar panel mechanism.

files). Assume the RRSS mechanism length dimensions in Example 10.1 are given
in meters.
18. Figure P.10.1 illustrates an RRSS mechanism used to guide a solar panel. Table
P.10.4 includes the planned solar panel positions to be reached and the corre-
sponding RRSS crank displacement angles. Determine the actual solar panel posi-
tions reached at these crank displacement angles (using the Appendix F.1 or K.1
MATLAB files).
19. For the RRSS mechanism in Figure P.10.1, calculate the accelerations of coupler
points p1, q1, and r 1 at 50° and 90° crank rotations considering an initial rotational
velocity of 1.9 rad/s and rotational acceleration of −1.1 rad/s2 (using the Appendix
F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files). Assume the RRSS mechanism length dimensions in
Example 10.1 are given in meters.
20. If it was suggested that the solar panel be guided by the follower link of the RRSS
mechanism in Figure P.10.1 (rather than the coupler link), explain why this option
is practical or not.
21. For the RSSR mechanism in Table P.10.5, produce plots of the follower displace-
ment angle versus the crank displacement angle for both mechanism branches
over a complete crank rotation (using the Appendix F.2 MATLAB files).
22. For the RSSR mechanism in Table P.10.5, produce plots of the follower angular
velocity versus the crank displacement angle for both mechanism branches over
a complete crank rotation (using the Appendix F.2 MATLAB files). Consider
an initial crank rotational velocity of 1.3 rad/s and a rotational acceleration of
0 rad/s2.

TABLE P.10.4
Planned Solar Panel Positions for RRSS Mechanism
θ (°) p q r
50 1.2247, 1.2247, −1 0.8712, 0.8712, −1.8660 1.3778, 1.3778, −1.1250
90 0, 1.7321, −1 0, 1.2321, −1.8660 −0.0631, 1.9416, −1.1210
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 379

23. For the RSSR mechanism in Table P.10.5, produce plots of the follower angular
acceleration versus the crank displacement angle for both mechanism branches
over a complete crank rotation (using the Appendix F.2 MATLAB files). Consider
an initial crank rotational velocity of 1.3 rad/s and a rotational acceleration of
−0.13 rad/s2.
24. For the RSSR steering mechanism in Example 10.2, determine the maximum
steering-wheel rotation and corresponding tire rotation that can be achieved if
an initial angular velocity and angular acceleration of 1.15 rad/s and −0.95 rad/s2,
respectively, were applied to the steering wheel. Consider crank rotation incre-
ments of 1°. Use the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files.
25. Would the coupler link of the RSSR steering mechanism (see Example 10.2) make a
practical alternative for guiding the motion of the tire instead of the follower link?
26. Using the 4R Spherical mechanism dimensions in Table P.10.6, calculate the path
traced by coupler point for both mechanism branches over a complete crank
rotation (using the Appendix F.1 MATLAB files). Consider crank rotation incre-
ments of 30°.
27. Using the 4R spherical mechanism dimensions in Table P.10.6, calculate the veloci-
ties of coupler point p1 for both mechanism branches over a complete crank rota-
tion (using the Appendix F.1 MATLAB files). Consider crank rotation increments
of 30°, an initial crank rotational velocity of 0 rad/s, and a rotational acceleration of
0.3 rad/s2.
28. Figure P.10.2 illustrates a 4R Spherical mechanism used to guide a folding wing.
Table P.10.7 includes the planned folding wing positions to be reached and the cor-
responding 4R Spherical mechanism crank displacement angles. Determine the
actual folding wing positions reached at these crank displacement angles (using
the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files).
29. For the 4R spherical mechanism in Figure P.10.2, calculate the velocities of coupler
points p1, q1, and r 1 at 29°, 47.5°, and 54.5° crank rotations considering an initial
rotational velocity of 1.5 rad/s and a rotational acceleration of −1.18 rad/s2 (using
the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files). Assume the 4R spherical mechanism
length dimensions in Figure P.10.2 are given in meters.
30. For the 4R spherical mechanism in Figure P.10.2, calculate the accelerations of
coupler points p1, q1, and r1 at 29°, 47.5°, and 54.5° crank rotations, considering
an initial rotational velocity of 0 rad/s and a rotational acceleration of 0.45 rad/s2
(using the Appendix F.1 or K.1 MATLAB files). Assume the 4R spherical mecha-
nism length dimensions in Figure P.10.2 are given in meters.

TABLE P.10.5
RSSR Mechanism Dimensions (m)
Variable Value
a0 0, 0, 0
a1 −0.4125, 0.7145, 0
ua0 0, 0, 1
b0 1.65, 0, 0
b1 1.65, 1.5938, −0.427
ub0 0,
380 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE P.10.6
4R Spherical Mechanism Dimensions (mm)
Variable Value
a0 0, 0, 29.21
ua0 0, 0, 1
a1 0, 11.1787, 26.9872
ua1 0, 0.3827, 0.9239
b0 29.21 0, 0
b1 14.605, −25.2959, 0
p1 16.5884, −5.2724, 23.4585

FIGURE P.10.2
4R spherical folding-wing mechanism.

31. Using the 4R Spherical mechanism dimensions in Table P.10.8, produce plots of the
follower displacement angle versus the crank displacement angle (for both mecha-
nism branches) over a complete crank rotation (using the Appendix F.2 MATLAB
file). Consider crank rotation increments of 1.3°.
32. Using the 4R spherical mechanism dimensions in Table P.10.8, produce plots of the
follower angular velocity versus the crank displacement angle (for both mecha-
nism branches) over a complete crank rotation (using the Appendix F.2 MATLAB
file). Consider crank rotation increments of 1°, an initial crank rotational velocity
of 0 rad/s, and a rotational acceleration of 0.1 rad/s2.
33. Using the 4R spherical mechanism dimensions in Table P.10.8, produce plots of
the follower angular acceleration versus the crank displacement angle (for both
TABLE P.10.7
Planned Solar Panel Positions for 4R Spherical Mechanism
θ (°) p q r
29 0.1384, 0.0891, 0.8492 0.4976, 0.2489, 0.6624 0.2570, 0.2970, 0.7707
47.5 0.4964, 0.0163, 0.7082 0.6714, 0.3156, 0.4449 0.5074, 0.2611, 0.6500
54.5 0.7683, −0.0329, 0.3960 0.7575, 0.3608, 0.2106 0.7197, 0.2119, 0.4304
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 381

TABLE P.10.8
4R Spherical Mechanism Dimensions
Variable Value
a0 0, 0, 29.21
ua0 0, 0, 1
a1 0, 11.1787, 26.9872
b0 29.21, 0, 0
ub0 1, 0, 0
b1 14.605, −25.2959, 0

mechanism branches) over a complete crank rotation (using the Appendix F.2
MATLAB files). Consider crank rotation increments of 1.3°, an initial crank rota-
tional velocity of 3 rad/s, and a rotational acceleration of −0.3 rad/s2.
34. Using the 4R spherical mechanism in Example 10.4, produce plots of the follower
angular velocity versus the crank displacement angle (for the first mechanism
branch only) over the given crank rotation (using the Appendix F.2 or K.2 MATLAB
files). Consider crank rotation increments of 1°, an initial crank rotational velocity
of 0 rad/s, and a rotational acceleration of 0.6 rad/s2.
35. Using the 4R Spherical mechanism in Example 10.4, produce plots of the follower
angular acceleration versus the crank displacement angle (for the 1st mecha-
nism branch only) over the given crank rotation (using the Appendix F.2 or K.2
MATLAB file). Consider crank rotation increments of 1°, an initial crank rotational
velocity of 1 rad/s and rotational acceleration of −0.15 rad/s2.
11
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators

CONCEPT OVERVIEW
In this chapter, the reader will gain a central understanding regarding

1. Distinctions and disadvantages of robotic manipulators in comparison to classical

linkages
2. Matrix-based formulation of displacement equation systems for Cartesian, cylindri-
cal, spherical, articulated, and SCARA robots
3. Forward kinematics of Cartesian, cylindrical, spherical, articulated, and SCARA
robots
4. Inverse kinematics and workspace of Cartesian, cylindrical, spherical, articulated,
and SCARA robots

11.1 Introduction
As explained in Chapter 1 and demonstrated throughout this textbook, a linkage (also com-
monly called a mechanism) is an assembly of links and joints where the motion of one link
compels the motion of another link in a controlled manner. To enable controlled mechanism
motion, they are either initially designed to have a single degree of freedom or ultimately
configured (in the case of the geared five-bar mechanism) to have a single degree of freedom.
Conventional planar and spatial linkages include the four-bar, slider-crank, geared five-bar,
Watt, Stephenson, RRSS, RSSR, and 4R spherical linkages presented in Chapters 4 and 10.
Like the linkages presented in Chapters 4 and 10, a robotic manipulator (commonly called
a robot) also includes an assembly of links and joints and is designed to produce a con-
trolled output motion. In addition to links and joints, however, a robotic manipulator
also includes electronic circuitry, computer-controlled actuators to compel link motion, and is
guided by a computer program. Because robotic manipulators include both mechanical and
electronic components, they are classified as electro-mechanical systems.
To achieve a controlled motion, each joint in a robotic manipulator can be controlled
independently. As a result, there is no degree of freedom limit that robotic manipulators
can be theoretically designed to have.*
Another common distinction between linkages and robotic manipulators is in their
overall design. All of the linkages presented in Chapters 4 and 10 have closed-loop designs.
With this design, at least two joints in a linkage are connected to ground (thus forming

* Robotic manipulators are generally limited to six DOFs because a spatial body has a maximum mobility of six.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003316961-11 383

384 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

p1

p1

(a) (b)

FIGURE 11.1
(a) Four-bar mechanism and coupler curve and (b) robotic manipulator and workspace.

a closed loop). While robotic manipulators can have closed-loop designs, they often have
open loops, where only one joint is connected to ground.
Figure 11.1 includes a planar four-bar mechanism and a planar, 2-DOF, open-loop robotic
manipulator. While coupler Point p1 on the four-bar mechanism (in the given location on
the coupler link) can only trace the curve illustrated, Point p1 on the robotic manipulator
can trace any path within the shaded annular area or workspace.* Because of the open-loop
construction of the robotic manipulator and its mobility, this single manipulator can trace
a greater variety of distinct paths than any number of planar four-bar mechanisms.
So, when compared to linkages, robotic manipulators offer advantages such as greater
variability—specifically for motion-specific and path-specific tasks. Being computer con-
trolled, robotic manipulators also offer advantages regarding greater precision, accuracy,
and repeatability. Lastly, robotic manipulators have the capacity for remote operation as well
as autonomous operation since they can be guided by computer programs (as opposed to
mechanisms, which often require a degree of manual operation).
It is becoming increasingly difficult to find an industry where robotic manipulators are
not employed, either directly or indirectly. Common industries where robotic manipula-
tors are widely employed (both in product manufacturing and operation) include auto-
motive, aerospace, defense, electronics, and medicine. The number of applications for robotic
systems is rapidly on the increase, since new robotic manipulator capabilities and more
practical robot manipulator designs are continually being developed and produced [1].

11.2 Terminology and Nomenclature

To describe the spatial position and orientation of each link in a robotic manipulator,
coordinate systems are rigidly attached to each link. These coordinate systems are called

* The workspace is the area or volume (for spatial robots) of space that the robot can reach.
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 385

Tool
Y2 X2
2) Z2 (Link 2 frame)
in k
(L Y1
S-joint End effector X1

Z1 (Link 1 frame)
(Link 1)

C-joint Y0
X0
(a) Ground (Link 0) (b) Z0 (Link 0 frame)

FIGURE 11.2
(a) Robotic manipulator with joint and link descriptions and (b) frames.

frames. In Figure 11.2b, frames are attached to Link 0 (called the base frame), Link 1, and Link
2. The positions and orientations between the frames are modeled through transformation
matrices (Section 2.5). The general transformation matrix and its application will be fur-
ther discussed in Sections 11.4–11.6.
A robotic manipulator often includes a component at its free end called an end effector. The
end effector can serve to handle any tool or component. It can also be the working end of
the tool itself if the end effector fully constrains the tool. One common end effector used in
robotic manipulators is a gripper. In Figure 11.2, the end effector of the robotic manipulator
is a gripper that holds the tool. The tool is assumed to be fully constrained by the gripper.*

11.3 Robotic Manipulator Mobility and Types

In Chapter 3, it was noted that Gruebler’s Equation is used to determine the mobility of a
linkage. These equations can also be used to determine the mobility of robotic manipula-
tors. For planar and spatial robotic manipulators, Gruebler’s Equations become

DOFPLANAR = 3 ( L − 1) − 2 J1 (11.1)

DOFSPATIAL = 6 ( L − 1) − 5 J1 − 4 J 2 − 3 J 3 (11.2)

where only 1-DOF joints are used in the planar robotic manipulator and only 1-, 2-, or
3-DOF joints are used in the spatial manipulator.†
Figure 11.3 includes the types of 1-, 2-, and 3-DOF joints used in the robotic manipulators
presented in this chapter. Although a robotic manipulator can be designed to include any

* If the tool was not fully constrained by the gripper, an additional frame attached to the tool (called a tool frame)
would have been included.
† As with mechanisms, for robotic manipulators, the ground link should also be counted among the total num-
ber of links (L) in Gruebler’s Equation.
386 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

δθ Z

Revolute (R) joint Prismatic (P) joint

(1 DOF) (1 DOF)

δθ y
δθ Z

δθ x δθZ

Cylindrical (C) joint Spherical (S) joint

(2 DOF) (3 DOF)

FIGURE 11.3
Example robotic manipulator joint types.

joint type, the revolute, prismatic, cylindrical, and spherical are among those joint types
most commonly used in practice.
Figure 11.4 illustrates the five spatial robotic manipulator types considered in this chap-
ter. These particular robotic manipulator configurations are among those commonly

R
(a) (b)

R
R R
R
R

R R

(c) (d) (e)

FIGURE 11.4
(a) Cartesian (P-P-P), (b) cylindrical (R-P-P), (c) spherical (R-R-P), (d) articulated (R-R-R), and (e) SCARA
(R-R-C) robots.
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 387

>> L = 4;
>> J1 = 3;
>> DOF_RRR = 6*(L - 1) -5*J1

DOF_RRR =

>> L = 4;
>> J1 = 2;
>> J2 = 1;
>> DOF_RRC = 6*(L - 1) - 5*J1 - 4*J2

DOF_RRC =

4
>>

FIGURE E.11.1
Example 11.1 calculation procedure in MATLAB.

utilized in industrial applications [2]. The designations P-P-P, R-P-P, R-R-P, R-R-R, and R-R-C
in Figure 11.4 denote the joint types and joint sequences used in the robotic manipulators.
The P-P-P robotic manipulator is commonly known as a Cartesian robot because its
degrees of freedom are along the x, y, and z-axes of the Cartesian frame. The R-P-P and
R-R-P robotic manipulators are commonly known as cylindrical and spherical robots, respec-
tively, because their motion is consistent with cylindrical and spherical joints, respectively.
The R-R-R and R-R-C robotic manipulators are commonly known as articulated and Selective
Compliance Assembly/Articulated Robot Arm (or SCARA) robots, respectively.

Example 11.1
Problem Statement: Calculate the mobility values for the R-R-R and R-R-C robotic
manipulators.
Known Information: Equation 11.2 and Figure 11.3.
Solution Approach: The R-R-R robotic manipulator is comprised of four links inter-
connected with three revolute joints. Since there are four links and the revolute joint
has a s­ ingle degree of freedom, L = 4 and J1 = 3 in Equation 11.2 for the R-R-R robotic
manipulator.
The R-R-C is comprised of four links interconnected with two revolute joints and one
cylindrical joint. Since there are four links and the cylindrical joint has two degrees of
freedom, L = 4, J1 = 2, and J2 = 1 in Equation 11.2 for the R-R-C robotic manipulator.
Figure E.11.1 includes the calculation procedure in the MATLAB® command window.

11.4 The General Transformation Matrix

In Section 2.5, a general spatial transformation matrix was presented. This matrix is used
to calculate point coordinates originally established in one link coordinate frame (Frame j)
in reference to another link coordinate frame (Frame i) in a robotic manipulator. If we
recall, the general spatial transformation matrix can be expressed as
388 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

 R11 R12 R13 ∆x 

 
R21 R22 R23 ∆y 
T = 
j[ ]
i
(11.3)
R R32 R33 ∆z 
 31 
 0 0 0 1 

where:
R11 = cos δy cos δz
R12 = sin δx sin δy cos δz − cos δx sin δz
R13 = cos δx sin δy cos δz + sin δx sin δz
R 21 = cos δy sin δz
R 22 = sin δx sin δy sin δz + cos δx cos δz
R 23 = cos δx sin δy sin δz − sin δx cos δz
R31 = −sin δy
R32 = sin δx cos δy
R33 = cos δx cos δy

In this matrix, variables δx, δy, and δz are the angular rotations about a frame’s x-, y-, and
z-axes, respectively, and variables Δx, Δy, and Δz are the linear translations along the frame’s
x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively.*
Given j{p}, the spatial coordinates of a point p in Frame j, the coordinates of this point
with respect to Frame i or j{p} can be calculated as

i
{p} = ij [T ] j {p} (11.4)

where the spatial coordinates of p in Frame j are j{p} = {px py pz 1}T.†

In Figure 11.5, the robotic manipulator in Figure 11.2b is again considered where Frames
0, 1, and 2 are attached to ground, Link 1 and Link 2, respectively. In this figure, Point
p1 is attached to Link 1 and its coordinates are given with respect to Frame 1. Point p2 is
attached to Link 2 and its coordinates are given with respect to Frame 2.
To calculate the value of Point p1 with respect to the base frame, Equation 11.4 becomes
0
{p1 } = 01 [T ]1 [p1 ] (11.5)

where 0{p1} is the value of p1 with respect to the base frame (Frame X0−Y0−Z0 in Figure 11.5).‡
The transformation matrix 1 [T ] considers Frames 0 and 1. This matrix includes angular
0

displacements δ1x, δ1y, and δ1z, and linear displacements Δ1x, Δ1y, and Δ1z.
To calculate the value of Point p2 with respect to the base frame, Equation 11.5 becomes

0
{p2 } = 01 [T ] 21 [T ]2 {p2 } = 20 [T ]2 {p2 } (11.6)

* In a general planar transformation matrix, variables δx, δy, and Δz in the general spatial transformation matrix
are all zero.
† The planar coordinates of p in Frame j would be j{p} = {p p p 1}T.
x y 0
‡ A value given with respect to the base frame is also called a global value.
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 389

Y2 X2
p2 Z2
Y1

X1
Z1
p1

Y0
X0
Z0

FIGURE 11.5
Robotic manipulator with frames and points.

where 0{p2} is the value of p2 with respect to the base frame. Because the transformation
matrix 1 [T ] already considers Frames 0 and 1, including the transformation matrix 2 [T ]
0 1

(which considers Frames 1 and 2) and taking the product of these two matrices produces a
single transformation matrix that considers Frames 0 and 2. This matrix includes all of the
displacement variables in 1 [T ] as well as the additional angular displacements δ2x, δ2y, and
0

δ2z, and linear displacements Δ2x, Δ2y, and Δ2z.

Let us now assume an additional frame X3−Y3−Z3 is attached to the tool and the coordi-
nates of a point p3 are given with respect to this frame (Frame 3). To calculate the value of
p3 with respect to the base frame, Equation 11.6 becomes

0
{p3 } = 01 [T ] 21 [T ] 23 [T ] 3{p3 } = 20 [T ] 23 [T ] 3{p3 } = 03 [T ] 3{p3 } (11.7)

where 0{p3} is the value of p3 with respect to the base frame. Because the transformation
matrix 2 [T ] already considers Frames 0 and 2, including the transformation matrix 3 [T ]
0 2

(which considers Frames 2 and 3) and taking the product of these two matrices produces a
single transformation matrix that considers Frames 0 and 3. This matrix includes all of the
displacement variables in 2 [T ] as well as the additional angular displacements δ3x, δ3y, and
0

δ3z, and linear displacements Δ3x, Δ3y, and Δ3z.

From Equations 11.5 to 11.7, it can be observed that as an additional final frame is intro-
duced, the transformation matrix to calculate the global coordinates of a point in the
final frame becomes an increasing product of the transformation matrices for each frame.
Knowing this, given a group of N frames, the transformation matrix to calculate the global
coordinates of a point in the Nth frame can be expressed as
0
N [T ] = 01 [T ] 21 [T ] 23 [T ]… N −N1 [T ]* (11.8)

Therefore, given N{pN}, the spatial coordinates of a point pN in Frame N, the global coordi-
nates of this point with respect to the base frame or 0{pN} can be calculated as
0
{pN } = N0 [T ]N {pN } (11.9)

* When calculating the product of three or more matrices in Equation 11.8, it should be done in right-to-left
order.
390 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

The coordinate frame x, y, and z rotations and translation variables presented in this sec-
tion are analogous to Denavit–Hartenberg (or DH) parameters. Like the δ and Δ variables,
DH parameters are also used to attach reference frames to links. In classical DH nota-
tion, only rotations about and translations along coordinate frame x- and z-axes are used.
Therefore, with the y-axis rotations and translations eliminated, the general transforma-
tion matrix becomes
*
 cos δ z − cos δ x sin δ z sin δ x sin δ z ∆ x cos δ z 
 
 sin δ z cos δ x cos δ z − sin δ x cos δ z ∆ x sin δ z 
j[ ]
i
T =  (11.10)
 0 sin δ x cos δ x ∆z 
 0 0 0 1 
 

Example 11.2

Problem Statement: Calculate the elements of transformation matrix 3 [T ] for the coordi-
0

nate frame displacement values given in Table E.11.1.

Known Information: Matrix 11.3 and Table E.11.1.
Solution Approach: Because all variables in Matrix 11.3, with the exception of those
given in Table E.11.1, are zero, this matrix can be simplified. Figure E.11.2 includes the
calculation procedure in MATLAB’s command window.

TABLE E.11.1
Frame Displacement Variables (with Unitless Link Lengths)
Frames δx δy δz Δx Δy Δz
1 wrt 0 0 0 55° 0 0 0
2 wrt 1 0 0 0 0 0 1.75
3 wrt 2 0 0 0 3 0 0

>> d1z = 55*pi/180;

>> D2z = 1.75;
>> D3x = 3;
>> T01 = [cos(d1z), -sin(d1z), 0, 0; sin(d1z), cos(d1z), 0, 0;...
0, 0, 1, 0; 0, 0, 0, 1];
>> T12 = [1, 0, 0, 0; 0, 1, 0, 0; 0, 0, 1, D2z; 0, 0, 0, 1];
>> T23 = [1, 0, 0, D3x; 0, 1, 0, 0; 0, 0, 1, 0; 0, 0, 0, 1];
>> T03 = T01*T12*T23

T03 =

0.5736 -0.8192 0 1.7207

0.8192 0.5736 0 2.4575
0 0 1.0000 1.7500
0 0 0 1.0000

>>

FIGURE E.11.2
Example 11.2 calculation procedure in MATLAB.

* In classical DH notation, the variables θ, α, d, and r are used instead of δz, δx, Δz, and Δz, respectively.
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 391

11.5 Forward Kinematics
11.5.1 Definition and Application
In forward kinematics, the link dimensions and joint motion of a robotic manipulator are
known and the corresponding output motion of the links (usually the end effector) is
calculated [3]. By formulating an equation system for a robotic manipulator (an equation
system to calculate the motion of specific link points) and prescribing the link dimen-
sions and joint motions, the resulting link motion is calculated. The most common appli-
cation for forward kinematics is for determining end effector motion (e.g., tool paths and
orientations).

11.5.2 P-P-P
Figure 11.6 includes the frames specified for the P-P-P robotic manipulator. The transfor-
mation matrix 3 [T ] is required to formulate equations to calculate the global position of
0

p3 on the end effector. To facilitate this procedure, Table 11.1 includes the displacement
variables required to align Frame 1 to 0, Frame 2 to 1, and Frame 3 to 2. As this table
indicates, a combination of three linear displacements is utilized in the P-P-P robotic
manipulator.

X2

Z2

∆2y Z3

X1

Y0 Z1
X0

FIGURE 11.6
P-P-P robotic manipulator with frames and point.

TABLE 11.1
Frame Displacement Variables for the P-P-P Robotic Manipulator
Frames δx δy δz Δx Δy Δz
1 wrt 0 0 0 0 Δ1x 0 0
2 wrt 1 0 0 0 0 Δ2y 0
3 wrt 2 0 0 0 0 0 Δ3z
392 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

From the information given in Table 11.1, the only nonzero variables are Δ1x, Δ2y, and Δ3z.
As a result, Matrix 11.8 becomes

 1 0 0 ∆ 1x  1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0 
  0 1 0 ∆2y  0 1 0 0 
0 1 0 0
0
3 [T ] = [T ] [T ]
0
1
1
2
2
3 [T ] =   
0 0 1 ∆3z

 0 0 1 0  0 0 1 0  
 0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1  
 0 0 0 1 
(11.11)

Using this transformation matrix and Equation 11.9 produces the following system of
equations to calculate the global coordinates of p3:
0
p3 x = 3 p3 x + ∆ 1 x
0
p3 y = 3 p3 y + ∆ 2 y (11.12)
0
p3 z = 3 p3 z + ∆ 3 z

In the P-P-P robotic manipulator, the linear displacement variables Δ1x, Δ2y, and Δ3z are not
often assigned constant values because they correspond to the translational displacements
of the prismatic joints. More often, displacement ranges are assigned to these variables.

Example 11.3
Problem Statement: Using the joint displacements given in Table E.11.2, calculate the
global path points achieved by the end effector of the P-P-P robotic manipulator. In this
example, 3{p3} = [0, −1, 0]T.
Known Information: Equation 11.12 and Table E.11.2.
Solution Approach: Table E.11.3 includes the global end effector path point coordinates
calculated using Equation 11.12.

TABLE E.11.2
P-P-P Robotic Manipulator Joint Displacements
Point Δ1x Δ2y Δ3z
1 0.5 1.1 −0.1
2 1 1.2 −0.15
3 1.5 1.3 −0.3
4 2 1.2 −0.45
5 2.5 1.1 −0.60

TABLE E.11.3
P-P-P Robotic Manipulator Path Point Coordinates
0 0 0
Point p3 x p3 y p3z
1 0.5 0.1 −0.1
2 1 0.2 −0.15
3 1.5 0.3 −0.3
4 2 0.2 −0.45
5 2.5 0.1 −0.60
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 393

11.5.3 R-P-P
Figure 11.7 includes the frames specified for the R-P-P robotic manipulator. The transfor-
mation matrix 3 [T ] is required to formulate equations to calculate the global position of p3
0

on the end effector. To facilitate this procedure, Table 11.2 includes the displacement vari-
ables required to align Frame 1 to 0, Frame 2 to 1, and Frame 3 to 2. As this table indicates,
a combination of a single angular displacement and two linear displacements are utilized
in the R-P-P robotic manipulator.
From the information given in Table 11.2, the only nonzero variables are δ1z, Δ2z, and Δ3x.
As a result, Matrix 11.8 becomes

 cos δ 1z − sin δ 1z 0 0  1 0 0 0  1 0 0 ∆3x 

   
 sin δ 1z cos δ 1z 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0
3 [ T ] =
0
1 [ T ] 1
2 [ T ] 2
3 [ T ] =


 0 0 1 ∆2z
 
0 0 1 0  0 0 1 0 
  0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1 
 0 0 0 1 
(11.13)

Z2

X2
Z3

X3

Z1

Z0

X1
X0

FIGURE 11.7
R-P-P robotic manipulator with frames and point.

TABLE 11.2
Frame Displacement Variables for the R-P-P Robotic Manipulator
Frames δx δy δz Δx Δy Δz
1 wrt 0 0 0 δ1z 0 0 0
2 wrt 1 0 0 0 0 0 Δ2z
3 wrt 2 0 0 0 Δ3x 0 0

Using this transformation matrix and Equation 11.9 produces the following system of
equations to calculate the global coordinates of p3:
394 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

0
p3 x = 3 p3 x cos δ 1z − 3 p3 y sin δ 1z + ∆ 3 x cos δ 1z
0
p3 y = 3 p3 x sin δ 1z + 3 p3 y cos δ 1z + ∆ 3 x sin δ 1z (11.14)
0
p3 z = 3 p3 z + ∆ 2 z
In the R-P-P robotic manipulator, the linear and angular displacement variables Δ2z, Δ3x,
and δ1z are not often assigned constant values because they correspond to the translational
displacements, the prismatic joints, and the rotational displacements of the revolute joint.
More often, displacement ranges are assigned to these variables.
Appendix G.1 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for R-P-P robotic manipulator for-
ward kinematics. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317), Equation 11.14 is used to calculate the global coordinates of p3.*

Example 11.4
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix G.1 MATLAB file with the joint displacements
given in Table E.11.4, calculate the global path points achieved by the end effector of the
R-P-P robotic manipulator. In this example, {p3 } = [ 0, 0, −1] .
3 T

Known Information: Table E.11.4 and Appendix G.1 MATLAB file.

Solution Approach: The data for columns δ 1z, ∆ 2z, and ∆ 3x in Table E.11.4 are first speci-
fied in the file RPP_Input.csv. Figure E.11.3 includes the input specified (in bold text) in
the Appendix G.1 MATLAB file and Table E.11.5 includes the global end effector path
point coordinates calculated.

p3_3 = [0, 0, -1];

FIGURE E.11.3
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix G.1 MATLAB file for Example 11.4.

TABLE E.11.4
R-P-P Robotic Manipulator Joint Displacements
Point δ1z (°) Δ2z Δ3x
1 12 1.1 −0.1
2 24 1.2 −0.15
3 36 1.3 −0.3
4 48 1.2 −0.45
5 60 1.1 −0.60

TABLE E.11.5
R-P-P Robotic Manipulator Path Point Coordinates
0 0 0
Point p3 x p3 y p3z
1 −0.0978 −0.0208 0.1000
2 −0.1370 −0.0610 0.2000
3 −0.2427 −0.1763 0.3000
4 −0.3011 −0.3344 0.2000
5 −0.3000 −0.5196 0.1000

* The library of MATLAB files used in this chapter can also be downloaded from the authors’ server http://
www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 395

11.5.4 R-R-P
Figure 11.8 includes the frames specified for the R-R-P robotic manipulator. The transfor-
mation matrix 3 [T ] is required to formulate equations to calculate the global position of p3
0

on the end effector. To facilitate this procedure, Table 11.3 includes the displacement vari-
ables required to align Frame 1 to 0, Frame 2 to 1, and Frame 3 to 2. As this table indicates,
a combination of two angular displacements and three linear displacements are utilized
in the R-R-P robotic manipulator.
From the information given in Table 11.3, the only nonzero variables are δ1z, δ2x, and Δ3z
and the terms representing Δ2z and Δ3y.* As a result, Matrix 11.8 becomes
0
3 [T ] = 01 [T ] 21 [T ] 23 [T ]
 cos δ 1z − sin δ 1z 0 0  1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0 
  
sin δ 1z cos δ 1z 0 cos δ 2 x − sin δ 2 x 0  0 1 0 l2

= 
0 0   
 0 sin δ 2 x cos δ 2 x l1   0 0 1 ∆3z 
 0 0 1 0   
 0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1 
(11.15)

FIGURE 11.8
R-R-P robotic manipulator with frames and point.

TABLE 11.3
Frame Displacement Variables for the R-R-P Robotic Manipulator
Frames δx δy δz Δx Δy Δz
1 wrt 0 0 0 δ1z 0 0 0
2 wrt 1 Δ2x 0 0 0 0 l1
3 wrt 2 0 0 0 0 l2 Δ3z

* In Table 11.3, Δ2z = l1 and Δ3y = l2.

396 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Using the resulting transformation matrix and Equation 11.9 produces the following
­system of equations to calculate the global coordinates of p3:

0
p3 x = 3 p3 x cos δ 1z − 3 p3 y sin δ 1z cos δ 2 x + 3 p3 z sin δ 1z sin δ 2 x − l2 sin δ 1z cos δ 2 x

+ ∆ 3 z sin δ 1z sin δ 2 x

0
p3 y = 3 p3 x sin δ 1z + 3 p3 y cos δ 1z cos δ 2 x − 3 p3 z cos δ 1z sin δ 2 x + l2 cos δ 1z cos δ 2 x
  
− ∆ 3 z cos δ 1z sin δ 2 x

0
p3 z = 3 p3 y sin δ 2 x + 3 p3 z cos δ 2 x + l2 sin δ 2 x + ∆ 3 z cos δ 2 x + l1 (11.16)

In the R-R-P robotic manipulator, variables l1 and l2 are assigned constant values because
they represent constant link lengths. The angular and linear displacement variables δ1z,
δ2x, and Δ3z, however, correspond to the rotational displacements of the revolute joints and
the translational displacements of the prismatic joint. More often, displacement ranges are
assigned to these variables.
Appendix G.2 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for R-R-P robotic manipula-
tor forward kinematics. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://
www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317), Equation 11.16 is used to calculate the global
coordinates of p3.

Example 11.5
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix G.2 MATLAB file with the joint displacements
given in Table E.11.6, calculate the global path points achieved by the end effector of
the R-R-P robotic manipulator. In this example, l1 = l2 = 0.5 (unitless link lengths) and
{p3 } = [ 0, 0, 0]T .
3

Known Information: Table E.11.6 and Appendix G.2 MATLAB file.

Solution Approach: The data for columns δ 1z, δ 2x , and ∆ 3z in Table E.11.6 are first speci-
fied in the file RRP_Input.csv. Figure E.11.4 includes the input specified (in bold text) in
the Appendix G.2 MATLAB file and Table E.11.7 includes the global end effector path
point coordinates calculated.

l1 = 0.5;
l2 = 0.5;
p3_3 = [0, 0, 0];

FIGURE E.11.4
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix G.2 MATLAB file for Example 11.5.

TABLE E.11.6
R-R-P Robotic Manipulator Joint Displacements
Point δ1z (°) δ 2x (°) Δ3z
1 12 10 0.5
2 24 20 1
3 36 30 1.5
4 48 40 2
5 60 50 2.5
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 397

TABLE E.11.7
R-R-P Robotic Manipulator Path Point Coordinates
0 0 0
Point p3 x p3 y p3z
1 −0.0843 0.3967 1.0792
2 −0.0520 0.1168 1.6107
3 0.1863 −0.2564 2.0490
4 0.6707 −0.6039 2.3535
5 1.3802 −0.7969 2.4900

11.5.5 R-R-R
Figure 11.9 includes the frames specified for the R-R-R robotic manipulator. The transfor-
mation matrix 3 [T ] is required to formulate equations to calculate the global position of
0

p3 on the tool. To facilitate this procedure, Table 11.4 includes the displacement variables
required to align Frame 1 to 0, Frame 2 to 1, and Frame 3 to 2. As this table indicates, a
combination of three angular displacements and two linear displacements are utilized in
the R-R-R robotic manipulator.
From the information given in Table 11.4, the only nonzero variables are δ1z, δ2x, and δ3x,
and the terms representing Δ2z and Δ3y.* As a result, Matrix 11.8 becomes
0
3 [T ] = 01 [T ] 21 [T ] 23 [T ]
 cos δ 1z − sin δ 1z 0 0  1 0 0 0  1 0 0 0 
  0 cos δ 2 x − sin δ 2 x 0   0 cos δ 3 x − sin δ 3 x l2 
=  sin δ 1z cos δ 1z 0 0   
 0 0 1 0  0 sin δ 2 x cos δ 2 x l1   0 sin δ 3 x cos δ 3 x 0 
   
 0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1  0 0 0 1 
(11.17)

FIGURE 11.9
R-R-R robotic manipulator with frames and point.

* In Table 11.4, Δ2z = l1 and Δ3y = l2.

398 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE 11.4
Frame Displacement Variables for the R-R-R Robotic Manipulator
Frames δx δy δz Δx Δy Δz
1 wrt 0 0 0 δ1z 0 0 0
2 wrt 1 δ2x 0 0 0 0 l1
3 wrt 2 δ3x 0 0 0 l2 0

Using the resulting transformation matrix and Equation 11.9 produces the following sys-
tem of equations to calculate the global coordinates of p3:
0
p3 x = 3 p3 x cos δ 1z + 3 p3 y ( sin δ 1z sin δ 2 x sin δ 3 x − sin δ 1z cos δ 2 x cos δ 3 x )

+ 3 p3 z ( sin δ 1z cos δ 2 x sin δ 3 x + sin δ 1z sin δ 2 x cos δ 3 x ) − l2 sin δ 1z cos δ 2 x

0
p3 y = 3 p3 x sin δ 1z + 3 p3 y ( cos δ 1z cos δ 2 x cos δ 3 x − cos δ 1z sin δ 2 x sin δ 3 x )

+ 3 p3 z ( − cos δ 1z cos δ 2 x sin δ 3 x − cos δ 1z sin δ 2 x cos δ 3 x ) + l2 cos δ 1z cos δ 2 x

0
p3 z = 3 p3 y ( sin δ 2 x cos δ 3 x + cos δ 2 x sin δ 3 x ) + 3 p3 z ( cos δ 2 x cos δ 3 x − sin δ 2 x sin δ 3 x )
(11.18)
+ l2 sin δ 2 x + l1

In the R-R-R robotic manipulator, variables l1 and l2 are assigned constant values because
they represent constant link lengths. The angular and linear displacement variables δ1z,
δ2x, and δ3x, however, correspond to the rotational displacements of the revolute joints.
More often, displacement ranges are assigned to these variables.
Appendix G.3 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for R-R-R robotic manipula-
tor forward kinematics. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://
www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317), Equation 11.18 is used to calculate the global
coordinates of p3.

Example 11.6
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix G.3 MATLAB file with the joint displacements
given in Table E.11.8, calculate the global path points achieved by the end effector of
the R-R-R robotic manipulator. In this example, l1 = l2 = 0.5 (unitless link lengths) and
{p3 } = [ 0, 1, 0]T .
3

Known Information: Table E.11.8 and Appendix G.3 MATLAB file.

Solution Approach: The data for columns δ 1z, δ 2x , and δ 3x in Table E.11.8 are first speci-
fied in the file RRR_Input.csv. Figure E.11.5 includes the input specified (in bold text) in
the Appendix G.3 MATLAB file and Table E.11.9 includes the global end effector path
point coordinates calculated.

TABLE E.11.8
R-R-R Robotic Manipulator Joint Displacements
Point δ1z (°) δ 2x (°) δ 3x (°)
1 12 10 −5
2 24 20 −10
3 36 30 −15
4 48 40 −20
5 60 50 −25
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 399

l1 = 0.5;
l2 = 0.5;
p3_3 = [0, 1, 0];

FIGURE E.11.5
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix G.3 MATLAB file for Example 11.3.

TABLE E.11.9
R-R-R Robotic Manipulator Path Point Coordinates
0 0 0
Point p3 x p3 y p3z
1 −0.0877 1.4561 0.6740
2 −0.1489 1.3289 0.8447
3 −0.1988 1.1318 1.0088
4 −0.2533 0.8851 1.1634
5 −0.3235 0.6139 1.3056

11.5.6 R-R-C
Figure 11.10 includes the frames specified for the R-R-C robotic manipulator. The transfor-
mation matrix 3 [T ] is required to formulate equations to calculate the global position of
0

p3 on the tool. To facilitate this procedure, Table 11.5 includes the displacement variables
required to align Frame 1 to 0, Frame 2 to 1, and Frame 3 to 2. As this table indicates, a
combination of three angular displacements and four linear displacements are utilized in
the R-R-C robotic manipulator.

FIGURE 11.10
R-R-C robotic manipulator with frames and point.
400 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

TABLE 11.5
Frame Displacement Variables for the R-R-C Robotic Manipulator
Frames δx δy δz Δx Δy Δz
1 wrt 0 0 0 δ1z 0 0 l1
2 wrt 1 0 0 δ2z l2 0 0
3 wrt 2 0 0 δ3z l3 0 Δ3z

Using the information given in Table 11.5, the nonzero variables are δ1z, δ2z, δ3z, Δ3z, and
the terms representing Δ1z, Δ2x, and Δ3x.* As a result, Matrix 11.8 becomes

0
3 [T] = 01 [T] 21[T] 23 [T]
 cos δ 1z − sin δ 1z 0 0   cos δ 2 z − sin δ 2 z 0 l2   cos δ 3 z − sin δ 3 z 0 l3 
   
sin δ 1z cos δ 1z 0 0   sin δ 2 z cos δ 2 z 1 0   sin δ 3 z cos δ 3 z 0 0
= 
 0 0 1 l1  0 0 0 1  0 0 1 ∆3z 
   
 0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1 
(11.19)

Using the resulting transformation matrix and Equation 11.9 produces the following sys-
tem of equations to calculate the global coordinates of p3:

0
p3 x = 3 p3 x ( cos δ 1z cos δ 2 z − sin δ 1z sin δ 2 z ) cos δ 3 z + ( − cos δ 1z sin δ 2 z − sin δ 1z cos δ 2 z ) sin δ 3 z 

+ 3 p3 y  − ( cos δ 1z cos δ 2 z − sin δ 1z sin δ 2 z ) sin δ 3 z + ( − cos δ 1z sin δ 2 z − sin δ 1z cos δ 2 z ) cos δ 3 z 

+ l3 ( cos δ 1z cos δ 2 z − sin δ 1z sin δ 2 z ) + l2 cos δ 1z

0
p3 y = 3 p3 x ( sin δ 1z cos δ 2 z + cos δ 1z sin δ 2 z ) cos δ 3 z + ( cos δ 1z cos δ 2 z − sin δ 1z sin δ 2 z ) sin δ 3 z 

+ 3 p3 y  − ( sin δ 1z cos δ 2 z + cos δ 1z sin δ 2 z ) sin δ 3 z + ( cos δ 1z cos δ 2 z − sin δ 1z sin δ 2 z ) cos δ 3 z 

+ l3 ( sin δ 1z cos δ 2 z + cos δ 1z sin δ 2 z ) + l2 sin δ 1z

0
p3 z = 3 p3 z + l1 + ∆ 3 z. (11.20)

In the R-R-C robotic manipulator, variables l1, l2, and l3 are assigned constant values
because they represent constant link lengths. The angular and linear displacement vari-
ables δ1z, δ2z, δ3z, and Δ3y, however, correspond to the rotational and translational displace-
ments of the revolute and prismatic joints, respectively. More often, displacement ranges
are assigned to these variables.

* In Table 11.5, Δ1z = l1, Δ2x = l2, and Δ3x = l3.

Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 401

Appendix G.4 includes the MATLAB file user instructions for R-R-C robotic manipula-
tor forward kinematics. In this MATLAB file (which is available for download at https://
www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317), Equation 11.20 is used to calculate the global
coordinates of p3.

Example 11.7
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix G.4 MATLAB file with the joint displacements
given in Table E.11.10, calculate the global path points achieved by the end effector of
the R-R-C robotic manipulator. In this example, l1 = 1, l2 = l3 = 0.5 (unitless link lengths),
and {p3 } = [ 1, 0, 0 ] .
3 T

Known Information: Table E.11.10 and Appendix G.4 MATLAB file.

Solution Approach: The data for columns δ 1z, δ 2x , δ 3z , and ∆ 3z in Table E.11.10 are first
specified in the file RRC_Input.csv. Figure E.11.6 includes the input specified (in bold
text) in the Appendix G.4 MATLAB file and Table E.11.11 includes the global end effector
path point coordinates calculated.

TABLE E.11.10
R-R-C Robotic Manipulator Joint Displacements
Point δ1z (°) δ 2z (°) δ 3z (°) Δ3z
1 12 −5 15 −0.1000
2 24 −10 30 −0.2000
3 36 −15 45 −0.3000
4 48 −20 60 −0.2000
5 60 −25 75 −0.1000

l1 = 1;
l2 = 0.5;
l3 = 0.5;
p3_3 = [1, 0, 0];

FIGURE E.11.6
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix G.4 MATLAB file for Example 11.4.

TABLE E.11.11
R-R-C Robotic Manipulator Path Point Coordinates
0 0 0
Point p3 x p3 y p3z
1 1.9125 0.5395 0.9000
2 1.6613 1.0190 0.8000
3 1.2780 1.3866 0.7000
4 0.8109 1.6057 0.8000
5 0.3176 1.6595 0.9000
402 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

11.6 Inverse Kinematics

11.6.1 Definition and Application
While the robotic manipulator dimensions are known and the end effector motion is
calculated in forward kinematics, in inverse kinematics, the end effector motion and link
dimensions are known and the joint motion required to achieve the end effector motion is
calculated [4–7]. Inverse kinematics is often described as the reverse of forward kinematics. It
is accomplished by calculating joint motion solutions (using the same forward-kinematics-
based equation system for a robotic manipulator) given the end effector motion and link
lengths. The most common application for inverse kinematics is to determine the joint
motion required to achieve the required end effector motion (e.g., the joint motion required
to achieve tool paths and orientations).*

11.6.2 P-P-P
Because Equation 11.12 includes three equations each containing a single unknown vari-
able (Δ1x, Δ2y, and Δ3z, respectively), these unknowns can be calculated algebraically for the
inverse kinematics of the P-P-P robotic manipulator.
Solving for Δ1x, Δ2y, and Δ3z in Equation 11.12 produces

∆ 1 x = 0 p3 x − 3 p3 x

∆ 2 y = 0 p3 y − 3 p3 y (11.21)

∆ 3 z = 0 p3 z − 3 p3 z

From Equation 11.21, the user can specify the global end effector coordinates 0{p3}, the end
effector coordinates in Frame 3 0{p3}, and calculate the required displacements of each
prismatic joint in the P-P-P robotic manipulator (Δ1x, Δ2y, and Δ3z).
The global path point coordinates 0{p3} should be prescribed from within the workspace
of the P-P-P robotic manipulator. This ensures that the prescribed points will be achieved
by the robotic manipulator. As shown in Figure 11.11, the P-P-P robotic manipulator has a
cubic (or a rectangular cuboid) workspace with outer x, y, and z dimensions of ∆ 1xmax, ∆ 2 ymax
and ∆ 3 zmax, respectively (the maximum prismatic joint translations).

Example 11.8
Problem Statement: Calculate the P-P-P joint displacements required to achieve the global
path points given in Table E.11.12. In this example, {p3 } = [ 0, −1, 0 ] .
3 T

Known Information: Equation (11.21) and Table E.11.12.

Solution Approach: Table E.11.13 includes the joint displacements calculated using
Equation (11.21). Figure E.11.7 includes the initial and final positions of the P-P-P robotic
manipulator over the range of prescribed global end effector points.

* Inverse kinematics is similar to motion generation and path generation (see Chapter 5). The key distinction
between dimensional synthesis and inverse kinematics is that, with the latter, joint displacements are calculated
(rather than link dimensions).
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 403

∆2y max

Y0
X0

Z0

FIGURE 11.11
P-P-P robotic manipulator and workspace.

TABLE E.11.12
P-P-P Robotic Manipulator End Effector Path Point Coordinates
0 0 0
Point p3 x p3 y p3z
1 0.683 0.375 0.2165
2 0.6764 0.4521 0.2566
3 0.6569 0.5306 0.289
4 0.625 0.6083 0.3125
5 0.5817 0.6826 0.3266
6 0.5283 0.7514 0.3307
7 0.4665 0.8125 0.3248
8 0.3981 0.8641 0.309
9 0.3252 0.9047 0.2838
10 0.25 0.933 0.25

TABLE E.11.13
P-P-P Robotic Manipulator Joint Displacements
Point Δ1x Δ2y Δ3z
1 0.683 1.375 0.2165
2 0.6764 1.4521 0.2566
3 0.6569 1.5306 0.289
4 0.625 1.6083 0.3125
5 0.5817 1.6826 0.3266
6 0.5283 1.7514 0.3307
7 0.4665 1.8125 0.3248
8 0.3981 1.8641 0.309
9 0.3252 1.9047 0.2838
10 0.25 1.933 0.25
404 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.11.7
P-P-P robotic manipulator in (semitransparent) initial and final positions.

11.6.3 R-P-P
Unlike Equation 11.12, the joint displacement variables δ1z, Δ2x, and Δ3x in Equation 11.14
­cannot be calculated algebraically. With unknowns δ1z, Δ2x, and Δ3x, Equation 11.14 becomes
a set of three nonlinear simultaneous equations. A root-finding method (see Section 4.2)
is required for the inverse kinematics of the R-P-P robotic manipulator. Appendix G.5
includes the user instructions for the MATLAB file to calculate joint displacement solu-
tions for Equation 11.14 given 3{p3} and a prescribed range of values for 0{p3}.
As shown in Figure 11.12, the R-P-P robotic manipulator has a cylindrical workspace
(having a center axis that is collinear with Δ2z) with outer cylinder height and radius
dimensions of ∆ 2 zmax and ∆ 3 xmax, respectively (the maximum prismatic joint translations).

∆2z max

Z0
Y0
X0

FIGURE 11.12
R-P-P robotic manipulator and workspace.
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 405

Example 11.9
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix G.5 MATLAB file, calculate the R-P-P joint dis-
placements required to achieve the global path points given in Table E.11.12. In this
example, {p3 } = [ 0, 0, −1] .
3 T

Known Information: Table E.11.12 and Appendix G.5 MATLAB file.

Solution Approach: The data for columns 0 p3 x , 0 p3 y , and 0 p3 z in Table E.11.12 are first
specified in the file RPP_Input.csv. Figure E.11.8 includes the input specified (in bold
text) in the Appendix G.5 MATLAB file and Table E.11.14 includes the joint displace-
ments calculated. Figure E.11.9 includes the initial and final positions of the R-P-P
robotic manipulator over the range of prescribed global end effector points.

p3_3 = [0, 0, -1];

FIGURE E.11.8
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix G.5 MATLAB file for Example 11.9.

TABLE E.11.14
R-P-P Robotic Manipulator Joint Displacements
Point δ1z (°) Δ2z Δ3x
1 28.7689 1.2165 0.7792
2 33.7584 1.2566 0.8136
3 38.929 1.289 0.8444
4 44.2242 1.3125 0.8722
5 49.5629 1.3266 0.8968
6 54.8894 1.3307 0.9185
7 60.1375 1.3248 0.9369
8 65.264 1.309 0.9514
9 70.2287 1.2838 0.9614
10 74.9998 1.25 0.9659

FIGURE E.11.9
R-P-P robotic manipulator in initial and final positions.
406 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

11.6.4 R-R-P
The joint displacement variables δ1z, δ2x, δ3z in Equation 11.16 cannot also be calculated
algebraically. With unknowns δ1z, δ2x, δ3z, Equation 11.16 becomes a set of three nonlin-
ear simultaneous equations. Like the R-P-P robotic manipulator, a root-finding method is
also required for the inverse kinematics of the R-R-P robotic manipulator. Appendix G.6
includes the user instructions for the MATLAB file to calculate joint displacement solu-
tions for Equation 11.16 given 3{p3} and a prescribed range of values for 0{p3}.
As shown in Figure 11.13, the R-R-P robotic manipulator has a spherical workspace (hav-
ing center coordinates center = (0, 0, l1)) with an outer radius dimension of

router = ( l2 )2 + ( ∆ 3 z max )2

Example 11.10
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix G.6 MATLAB file, calculate the R-R-P joint dis-
placements required to achieve the global path points given in Table E.11.12. In this
example, l1 = l2 = 0.5 (unitless link lengths) and {p3 } = [ 0, 0, 0 ] .
3 T

Known Information: Table E.11.12 and Appendix G.6 MATLAB file.

Solution Approach: The data for columns 0 p3 x , 0 p3 y , and 0 p3 z in Table E.11.12 are first
specified in the file RRP_Input.csv. Figure E.11.10 includes the input specified (in bold
text) in the Appendix G.6 MATLAB file and Table E.11.15 includes the joint displace-
ments calculated. Figure E.11.11 includes the initial and final positions of the R-R-P
robotic manipulator over the range of prescribed global end effector points.

l1 = 0.5;
l2 = 0.5;
p3_3 = [0, 0, 0];

FIGURE E.11.10
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix G.6 MATLAB file for Example 11.10.

TABLE E.11.15
R-R-P Robotic Manipulator Joint Displacements
Point δ1z (°) δ 2x (°) Δ3z
1 −61.2311 32.9191 −0.6614
2 −56.2416 37.2735 −0.6864
3 −51.0710 40.9089 −0.7124
4 −45.7758 43.7775 −0.7388
5 −40.4371 45.8699 −0.7644
6 −35.1105 47.1905 −0.7889
7 −29.8625 47.7679 −0.8115
8 −24.7360 47.6333 −0.8316
9 −19.7713 46.8339 −0.8491
10 −15.0002 45.4141 −0.8634
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 407

FIGURE E.11.11
R-R-P robotic manipulator in initial and final positions.

l2
(0, 0, l1)

l1

Z0
Y0

X0

FIGURE 11.13
R-R-P robotic manipulator and workspace.

11.6.5 R-R-R
The joint displacement variables δ1z, δ2x, and δ3x in Equation 11.18 cannot also be calcu-
lated algebraically. With unknowns δ1z, δ2x, and δ3x, Equation 11.18 becomes a set of three
­nonlinear simultaneous equations. Like the R-P-P and R-R-P robotic manipulators, a root-­
finding method is also required for the inverse kinematics of the R-R-R robotic manipula-
tor. Appendix G.7 includes the user instructions for the MATLAB file to calculate joint
displacement solutions for Equation 11.18 given 3{p3} and a prescribed range of values
for 0{p3}.
As shown in Figure 11.14, the R-R-R robotic manipulator has a spherical workspace (hav-
ing center coordinates center = (0, 0, l1)) with an outer radius dimension of router = l2 + ‖3{p3}‖
where 3{p3} = [0, 0p3y, 0p3z]T.
408 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

(0, 0, l1) l2

l1 {p3}
Z0 Y0 0{p
3}

X0

FIGURE 11.14
R-R-R robotic manipulator and workspace.

Example 11.11
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix G.7 MATLAB file, calculate the R-R-R joint dis-
placements required to achieve the global path points given in Table E.11.12. In this
example, l1 = l2 = 0.5 (unitless link lengths) and {p3 } = [ 0, 1, 0 ] .
3 T

Known Information: Table E.11.12 and Appendix G.7 MATLAB file.

Solution Approach: The data for columns 0 p3 x , 0 p3 y , and 0 p3 z in Table E.11.12 are first
specified in the file RRR_Input.csv. Figure E.11.12 includes the input specified (in bold
text) in the Appendix G.7 MATLAB file and Table E.11.16 includes the joint displace-
ments calculated. Figure E.11.13 includes the initial and final positions of the R-R-R
robotic manipulator.

l1 = 0.5;
l2 = 0.5;
p3_3 = [0, 1, 0];

FIGURE E.11.12
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix G.7 MATLAB file for Example 11.11.

TABLE E.11.16
R-R-R Robotic Manipulator Joint Displacements
Point δ1z (°) δ 2x (°) δ 3x (°)
1 −61.2311 74.3302 −124.2298
2 −56.2416 75.2908 −121.9275
3 −51.0710 75.4719 −119.5001
4 −45.7758 74.9234 −117.0128
5 −40.4371 73.7565 −114.5580
6 −35.1106 72.0287 −112.1872
7 −29.8625 69.8373 −109.9699
8 −24.7360 67.2585 −107.9608
9 −19.7713 64.3666 −106.2017
10 −15.0002 61.2454 −104.7446
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 409

FIGURE E.11.13
R-R-R robotic manipulator in initial and final positions.

11.6.6 R-R-C
The joint displacement variables δ1z, δ2x, δ3z, and Δ3y in Equation 11.20 cannot also be cal-
culated algebraically. With unknowns δ1z, δ2x, δ3z, and Δ3y, Equation 11.20 becomes a set of
three nonlinear simultaneous equations. Like the R-P-P, R-R-P, and R-R-R robotic manip-
ulators, a root-finding method is also required for the inverse kinematics of the R-R-C
robotic manipulator. Appendix G.8 includes the user instructions for the MATLAB file to
calculate joint displacement solutions for Equation 11.20 given 3{p3} and a prescribed range
of values for 0{p3}.
As shown in Figure 11.15, the R-R-C robotic manipulator has a cylindrical workspace
(having a center axis that is collinear with l1) with outer height and radius dimensions of
∆ 3 zmax and router = l1 + l2, respectively.

l2

l1 l3 ∆3z max
Z0

X0

FIGURE 11.15
R-R-C robotic manipulator and workspace.
410 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Example 11.12
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix G.8 MATLAB file, calculate the R-R-C joint dis-
placements required to achieve the global path points given in Table E.11.12. In this
example, l1 = 1, l2 = l3 = 0.5 (unitless link lengths), and {p3 } = [ 0, 1, −1] .
3 T

Known Information: Table E.11.14 and Appendix G.8 MATLAB file.

Solution Approach: The data for columns 0 p3 x , 0 p3 y , and 0 p3 z in Table E.11.12 are first
specified in the file RRC_Input.csv. Figure E.11.14 includes the input specified (in bold
text) in the Appendix G.8 MATLAB file and Table E.11.17 includes the joint displace-
ments calculated. Figure E.11.15 includes the initial and final positions of the R-R-C
robotic manipulator over the range of prescribed global end effector points.

l1 = 1;
l2 = 0.5;
l3 = 0.5;
p3_3 = [0, 1, -1];

FIGURE E.11.14
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix G.8 MATLAB file for Example 11.12.

TABLE E.11.17
R-R-C Robotic Manipulator Joint Displacements
Point δ1z (°) δ 2z (°) δ 3z (°) Δ3z
1 −35.4860 −5.7728 46.9980 0.2165
2 −30.0170 −4.5237 44.2350 0.2566
3 −24.5330 −3.1631 41.6230 0.2890
4 −19.0690 −1.7162 39.1470 0.3125
5 −13.6890 −0.21255 36.8220 0.3266
6 −8.4370 1.3269 34.6550 0.3307
7 −3.3822 2.8823 32.6820 0.3248
8 1.4188 4.4435 30.9450 0.3090
9 5.9070 6.0036 29.4950 0.2838
10 10.0190 7.5616 28.3930 0.2500

FIGURE E.11.15
R-R-C robotic manipulator in initial and final positions.
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 411

11.7 Robotic Manipulator Kinematic Analysis and

Modeling in Simscape MultibodyTM
As has been noted throughout this chapter, Appendices G.1–G.8 include MATLAB file
user instructions for R-P-P, R-R-P, R-R-R, and R-R-C forward and inverse kinematics. In
these files, the global end effector coordinates are calculated for prescribed joint displace-
ments (in Appendices G.1–G.4) and the joint displacements are calculated for prescribed
global end effector coordinates (in Appendices G.5–G.8).
This textbook also utilizes Simscape Multibody as an alternate approach for simula-
tion-based kinematic analysis. A library of Simscape Multibody files is also available for
download at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317 for R-P-P, R-R-P, R-R-R,
and R-R-C forward kinematics*. In addition to calculating the global end effector coor-
dinates for prescribed joint displacements, the motion of the robotic manipulator is also
simulated over the joint displacements. The Simscape Multibody file user instructions for
the forward kinematic analysis of the R-P-P, R-R-P, R-R-R, and R-R-C robotic manipulators
are given in Appendices L.1–L.4, respectively.

Example 11.13
Problem Statement: Using the Appendix L.4 Simscape Multibody files, calculate the
R-R-C end effector coordinates given the joint displacements in Example 11.12.
Known Information: Example 11.12 and Appendix L.4 Simscape Multibody files.
Solution Approach: The data for columns δ 1z, δ 2 z , δ 3z , and ∆ 3z in Table E.11.17 are first
specified in the file RRC_Input.csv. Figure E.11.16 includes the input specified (in bold

l1 = 1;
l2 = 0.5;
l3 = 0.5;
p3_3 = [0, 1, -1];

FIGURE E.11.16
Specified input (in bold text) in the Appendix L.4 Simscape Multibody file for Example 11.13.

TABLE E.11.18
Calculated R-R-C Robotic Manipulator End Effector Coordinates
0 0 0
Point p3 x p3 y p3z
1 0.6830 0.3749 0.2164
2 0.6764 0.4519 0.2565
3 0.6569 0.5305 0.2889
4 0.6251 0.6082 0.3125
5 0.5818 0.6825 0.3266
6 0.5284 0.7513 0.3307
7 0.4666 0.8124 0.3248
8 0.3983 0.8640 0.3090
9 0.3254 0.9046 0.2839
10 0.2502 0.9330 0.2501

* This library can also be downloaded from the authors’ server at http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_
mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
412 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

FIGURE E.11.17
Intermediate position of the R-R-C robotic manipulator in the Appendix L.4 Simscape Multibody
animation for Example 11.13.

text) in the Appendix L.4 Simscape Multibody file. Table E.11.18 includes the global
R-R-C end effector coordinates calculated. These coordinates are identical to the pre-
scribed end effector coordinates given in Table E.11.12. Figure E.11.17 is an intermediate
position snapshot of the robotic manipulator animation generated from the Appendix
L.4 Simscape Multibody files.
Identical end effector coordinates to those in Table E.11.18 can be replicated for the
R-P-P, R-R-P, and R-R-R robotic manipulators by using the joint displacements and
dimension input data in Examples 11.9, 11.10, and 11.11, respectively (in the Appendix
L.1, L.2 and L.3 Simscape Multibody files, respectively).

11.8 Summary
Like a linkage, a robotic manipulator (commonly called a robot) includes an assembly of
links and joints and is designed to produce a controlled output motion. In addition to links
and joints, however, a robotic manipulator also includes electronic circuitry, computer-
controlled actuators to compel link motion, and is guided by a computer program. Because
robotic manipulators include both mechanical and electronic components, they are classi-
fied as electro-mechanical systems.
Another common distinction between linkages and robotic manipulators is in their
overall design. Linkages commonly have closed-loop designs. With this design, at least
two joints in a linkage are connected to ground (thus forming a closed loop). While robotic
manipulators can have closed-loop designs, they often have open loops, where only one
joint is connected to ground.
The five spatial robotic manipulator types considered in this chapter are the Cartesian,
cylindrical, spherical, articulated, and SCARA robots. They are commonly known as the
P-P-P, R-P-P, R-R-P, R-R-R, and R-R-C robotic manipulators, respectively. By prescribing
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 413

coordinate frames for each link in a robotic manipulator and establishing displacement
variables between each frame, equation systems are formulated (using the general spa-
tial transformation matrix) to calculate the motion of any link in the robotic manipulator.
This textbook includes a library of MATLAB files for the forward kinematics (Appendices
G.1–G.4) and the inverse kinematics (Appendices G.5–G.8) of the R-P-P, R-R-P, R-R-R, and
R-R-C robotic manipulators. In forward kinematics, the link dimensions and joint motion
of a robotic manipulator are known and the corresponding output motion of the links
(usually the end effector) is calculated. In inverse kinematics, the end effector motion
and link dimensions are known and the joint motion required to achieve the end effec-
tor motion is calculated. Inverse kinematics is often described as the reverse of forward
kinematics.
This textbook also includes a library of MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
forward kinematics (Appendices L.1–L.4) of the R-P-P, R-R-P, R-R-R, and R-R-C robotic
manipulators. In addition to calculating the global values for the end effector point p3, the
motion of the robotic manipulator is also simulated in the Appendix L files.

References
1. International Federation of Robotics. Industrial robots: Statistics. http://www.ifr.org. Accessed
May 18, 2015.
2. Lewis, F. L., D. M. Dawson, and C. T. Abdallah. 2004. Robot Manipulator Control: Theory and
Practice. 2nd edn. Section 1.2. New York: Marcel Dekker.
3. Craig, J. J. 2005. Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and Control. 3rd edn. Chapter 3. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
4. Ibid, Chapter 4.
5. Nikiv, S. B. 2001. Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Systems and Applications. pp. 76–82. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
6. Jazar, R. N. 2007. Theory of Applied Robotics: Kinematics, Dynamics and Control. Chapter 6.
New York: Springer.
7. Kurfess, T. R. 2005. Robotic and Automation Handbook. Chapter 3. New York: CRC Press.

Additional Reading
Sandor, G. N. and A. G. Erdman. 1984. Advanced Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis. Volume 2.
Chapter 6. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Wilson, C. E. and J. P. Sadler. 2003. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery. 3rd edn. Chapter 12. Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
414 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Problems
1. Explain some of the design similarities and distinctions between robotic manipu-
lators and the linkages presented in Chapters 4 and 10.
2. Explain some of the advantages robotic manipulators have over the linkages pre-
sented in Chapters 4 and 10.
3. Calculate the mobility values for the P-P-P, R-P-P, and R-R-P robotic manipulators.
4. Using Matrix (11.3) calculate the transformation matrix 1 [T ] for angular displace-
0

ments δ 1x = 12° and δ 1z = −35°, and linear displacements ∆ 1x = 5.75 and ∆ 1y = −2.75
between coordinate frames 0 and 1.
5. Including Matrix (11.3), calculate the transformation matrix 2 [T ] for the displace-
0

ment data given in Problem 4 and angular displacements δ 2y = 30° and δ 2z = 15°,
and linear displacements ∆ 2x = 15 , ∆ 2y = −8, and ∆ 2z = 5 between coordinate frames
1 and 2.
6. Calculate the transformation matrix 3 [T ] for the coordinate frame displacement
0

values given in Table P.11.1.

7. Explain the distinction between a transformation matrix formulated using
­Denavit–Hartenberg parameters and the transformation matrix given in
Matrix 11.3.
8. Calculate the {p3 } coordinates produced by the P-P-P robotic manipulator given
0

the joint displacements

∆ 1x = 1 + t , ∆ 2 y = t 1.45 , ∆ 3 z = −2t 0.25 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 10

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also {p3 } = [ 0, −1, 0]T .

3

9. Using the Appendix G.1 or L.1 files, calculate the {p3 } coordinates produced by
0

the R-P-P robotic manipulator given the joint displacements

δ 1z = t , ∆ 2 z = t 35° , ∆ 3 x = ( t 40° )
1.65
, 0 ≤ t ≤ 90°

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also {p3 } = [ 0, 0, −1]T .

3

10. Using the Appendix G.1 or L.1 files, calculate the {p3 } coordinates produced by
0

the R-P-P robotic manipulator given the joint displacements

δ 1z = ( 90° ) sin t , ∆ 2 z = t 55° , ∆ 3 x = ( t 40° )

1.35
, 0 ≤ t ≤ 180°

TABLE P.11.1
Frame Displacement Variables
Frames δx δy δz Δx Δy Δz
1 wrt 0 20° 0 0 0 2.85 0
2 wrt 1 0 0 15° 0 0 −7.75
3 wrt 2 0 −65° 0 0 7.5 0
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 415

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also

3
{p3 } = [ 2, 0, −1.5]T .
11. Using the Appendix G.2 or L.2 files, calculate the
0
{p3 } coordinates produced by
the R-R-P robotic manipulator given the joint displacements

δ 1z = t , δ 2 x = −2t , ∆ 3 z = t 55° , 0 ≤ t ≤ 45°

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, l1 = l2 = 2 and

3
{p3 } = [ 0, 0, 0]T.
12. Using the Appendix G.2 or L.2 files, calculate the {p3 } coordinates produced by
0

the R-R-P robotic manipulator given the joint displacements

δ 1z = ( 65° ) sin 1.75t , δ 2 x = −t 2.5, ∆ 3 z = t 65° , 0 ≤ t ≤ 90°

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, l1 = 2, l2 = 3.5, and

3
{p3 } = [ 0, 0, 0]T .
13. Using the Appendix G.3 or L.3 files, calculate the {p3 } coordinates produced by
0

the R-R-R robotic manipulator given the joint displacements

δ 1z = 2.5t , δ 2 x = −1.1t , δ 3 x = 3.8t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 30°

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, l1 = 2, l2 = 1.5, and

3
{p3 } = [ 0, 0.25, 0]T .
14. Using the Appendix G.3 or L.3 files, calculate the {p3 } coordinates produced by
0

the R-R-R robotic manipulator given the joint displacements

δ 1z = ( 70° ) sin 2t , δ 2 x = ( 35° ) sin 2t , δ 3 x = ( 40° ) sin 2t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 90°

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, l1 = 2, l2 = 4.5, and

3
{p3 } = [1, 0.25, 2 ]T .
15. Using the Appendix G.4 or L.4 files, calculate the {p3 } coordinates produced by
0

the R-R-C robotic manipulator given the joint displacements

δ 1z = 5t , δ 2 z = −3t , δ 3 z = 2, ∆ 3 z = −t 100° , 0 ≤ t ≤ 30°

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, l1 = l2 = l3 = 1 and

3
{p3 } = [ 0,1, −0.1]T .
16. Using the Appendix G.4 or L.4 files, calculate the {p3 } coordinates produced by
0

the R-R-C robotic manipulator given the joint displacements

δ 1z = ( 90° ) sin 4t , δ 2 z = ( 120° ) sin 2t , δ 3 z = t 1.75, ∆ 3 z = −t 150° , 0 ≤ t ≤ 90°

416 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, l1 = l2 = l3 = 1 and

{p3 } = [ 2,1, −2 ]T.
3

17. In robotic manipulator design, what are the objectives in and applications for for-
ward and inverse kinematics?
18. Describe the shape and dimensions of the workspace of a P-P-P robotic manipula-
tor with maximum translation distances (in meters) of ∆ 1xmax = 1.65, ∆ 2 ymax = 2.85,
and ∆ 3 zmax = 3.2.
19. Calculate the joint displacements of the P-P-P robotic manipulator required to
achieve the curve

0
p3 x = 1.5 + cos ( t ) , 0
p3 y = 2.75 + sin ( t ) , 0
p3 z = t 2 π , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 π

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, {p3 } = [ 0, −1, 0 ] .

3 T

20. Describe the shape and outer dimensions of the workspace of an R-P-P robotic
manipulator with maximum translation distances (in meters) of ∆ 2 zmax = 8 and
∆ 3 xmax = 5.75 .
21. Describe the shape and outer dimensions of the workspace of an R-P-P robotic
manipulator with maximum translation distances (in meters) of ∆ 2 zmax = 7.5 and
∆ 3 xmax = 3.75 .
22. Using the Appendix G.5 files, calculate the joint displacements of the R-P-P robotic
manipulator required to achieve the curve

0
p3 x = 4cos ( t ) , 0
p3 y = 6sin ( t ) , 0
p3 z = t 90° , 0 ≤ t ≤ 360°

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, {p3 } = [ 2, −1, 0 ] .

3 T

23. Using the Appendix G.5 files, calculate the joint displacements of the R-P-P robotic
manipulator required to achieve the curve

0
p3 x = t 1.25 , 0
p3 y = t 2 , 0
p3 z = 1 + t 1.75 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 18

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also,

3
{p3 } = [ −1, 3, 0]T .
24. Describe the shape and outer dimensions of the workspace of an R-R-P robotic
manipulator with link lengths (in meters) l1 = l2 = 10 and a maximum translation
distance of ∆ 3 zmax = 8.
25. Describe the shape and outer dimensions of the workspace of an R-R-P robotic
manipulator with link lengths (in meters) l1 = 4.5 and l2 = 3 , and a maximum
translation distance of ∆ 3 zmax = 1.75.
26. Using the Appendix G.6 files, calculate the joint displacements of the R-R-P robotic
manipulator required to achieve the curve

0
p3 x = 1.75cos ( t ) , 0
p3 y = 5.5sin ( t ) , 0
p3 z = sin ( t ) , 0 ≤ t ≤ 360°
Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 417

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, l1 = l2 = 2.5 and

3
{p3 } = [ 0, 0, 0]T .
27. Using the Appendix G.6 files, calculate the joint displacements of the R-R-P robotic
manipulator required to achieve the curve

0
p3 x = 7.15 + t 360° , 0
p3 y = 5.72 sin ( t ) , 0
p3 z = 0.52, 0 ≤ t ≤ 360°

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, l1 = 2.5 , l2 = 2 , and

3
{p3 } = [ 0, 0, 0]T .
28. Describe the shape and outer dimensions of the workspace of an R-R-R robotic
manipulator with link lengths (in meters) l1 = 12.5 and l2 = 4, and {p3 } = [ 0, 2, 0 ] .
3 T

29. Describe the shape and outer dimensions of the workspace of an R-R-R
robotic manipulator with link lengths (in meters) l1 = 8.25 and l2 = 3.75, and
3
{p3 } = [ 0, 2,1]T .
30. Using the Appendix G.7 files, calculate the joint displacements of the R-R-R robotic
manipulator required to achieve the curve

0
p3 x = 3sin ( t ) , 0
p3 y = 2.5cos ( t ) , 0
p3 z = 1.5cos ( t ) , 0 ≤ t ≤ 180°

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, l1 = l2 = 3.75 and

3
{p3 } = [ 3,1.5, 0.75]T .
31. Using the Appendix G.7 files, calculate the joint displacements of the R-R-R robotic
manipulator required to achieve the curve

0
p3 x = −2 + t 45° , 0
p3 y = sin ( t ) , 0
p3 z = 2t 45° , 0 ≤ t ≤ 90°

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, l1 = 2.5 , l2 = 3 , and

3
{p3 } = [1.5, 0,1.7 ]T .
32. Describe the shape and outer dimensions of the workspace of an R-R-C robotic
manipulator with link lengths (in meters) l2 = 2 , l3 = 1.25 and a maximum transla-
tion distance of ∆ 3 zmax = 5.
33. Describe the shape and outer dimensions of the workspace of an R-R-C robotic
manipulator with link lengths (in meters) l1 = 1.25 , l2 = 2.95 and a maximum trans-
lation distance of ∆ 3 zmax = 4.5.
34. Using the Appendix G.8 files, calculate the joint displacements of the R-R-C robotic
manipulator required to achieve the curve

t −t
0
p3 x = sin ( t ) , 0
p3 y = cos ( t ) , 0
p3 z = t 30° , 0 ≤ t ≤ 180°
45° 45°

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, l1 = 3.25 , l2 = l3 = 1.5, and

3
{p3 } = [ 0,1, −0.5]T.
418 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

35. Using the Appendix G.8 files, calculate the joint displacements of the R-R-C robotic
manipulator required to achieve the curve

−t −t
0
p3 x = sin ( t ) , 0
p3 y = cos ( t ) , 0
p3 z = t 45° , 0 ≤ t ≤ 180°
120° 60°

Consider at least 10 equally-spaced curve points. Also, l1 = 2, l2 = l3 = 1.75, and

3
{p3 } = [ 0, 0.5, −0.5]T .
Appendix A: User Information and
Instructions for MATLAB®

A.1 Required MATLAB Toolkits

To utilize the MATLAB and Simscape MultibodyTM files that accompany this textbook
(available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/book/9781032328317), the fol-
lowing toolkits must be included when installing MATLAB:

• Symbolic Math Toolbox: Required for performing symbolic mathematics

• Optimization Toolbox: Required for solving equations (e.g., simultaneous equation sets)
• Simscape Multibody, Simscape and Simulink: Required for running Simscape Multibody
files

To view the installed toolkits, the user can type the command ver in the MATLAB
command window. The MATLAB and Simscape Multibody™ files that accompany this
textbook can also be downloaded from the author’s server http://www.softalink.com/
kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip

A.2 Description of MATLAB Operators and Functions

For additional descriptions of the functions and operators given in Table A.1, please refer
to www. mathworks.com/help/matlab/.

A.3 Preparing and Running Files in MATLAB and

Operations in Simscape Multibody
To execute commands in MATLAB, the user can simply type them line by line in the
MATLAB command window (labeled in Figure A.1). This window appears by default in
MATLAB. All of the MATLAB commands illustrated in throughout this textbook were
implemented using this approach. After typing commands in one line, the user can use
the “Enter” button to advance to the text line.*

* Unlike commands in the MATLAB command line, commands in the MATLAB editor do not include prompts
(the symbol >>) that precedes every command in the MATLAB command window.

419
420 Appendix A

TABLE A.1
MATLAB Functions and Operators Used throughout This Textbook
Function or Operator Description
+−×÷^ Add, subtract, multiply, divide, and exponent (respectively)
; When this operator is used at the end of a command, the results
from the command are not displayed
i or j Complex coefficient
pi π (3.14159…)
sqrt(x) Square root of x
atan2(y,x) The angle between the positive x-axis and the point given by
the coordinates (x, y)
abs(x) Absolute value of a real value or magnitude of a complex value
norm(x) Vector or matrix norm (‖x2‖)
exp(x) Exponent (ex)
syms var_names real Defines symbolic variables (e.g., syms X Y Z real makes
variables X, Y, and Z symbolic variables)
syms name(t) t real Defines time-based symbolic variables (e.g., syms X(t) Y(t) Z(t)
t real makes variables X, Y and Z time-based symbolic
variables)
diff(F) Calculates the first derivative of function F symbolically
diff(V, N) Calculates the Nth derivative of function F symbolically
expand(expr) Symbolic expansion (of polynomials and functions)
simplify(expr) Algebraic simplification
sin(x) Sine function
cos(x) Cosine function
Name = [N1, N2, N3…] Defines a row vector
Name(cell number) Calls a vector cell (e.g., Name(1)=N1 in previous vector)
Name[N11, N12, N13…; N21, N22, Defines a matrix
N23…; N31, N32, N33…]
Name(row#, col#) Calls a matrix cell (e.g., Name(2,3)=N23 in previous matrix)
‘ When this operator is used at the end of a matrix or vector, the
matrix or vector is transposed
Inv(A) The inverse of matrix A ([A]−1)
A/b The solution to the matrix system [A]x=b (x=[A]−1 b)
… When this operator is used at the end of a command, the
command can continue on the next line
f =@(var1, var2…) expression When this operator is used before a function expression, an
anonymous function is defined
(e.g., for f = x2 + 2y, f =@(x, y) x^2 + 2*y)
[x,fval] = fsolve(fx,x0) Solves a system of nonlinear equations fx (where fx=[eq1; eq2;
eq3…]) for unknown variables x (where x=[var1, va2, var3…]).
The variable x0 includes the initial unknown variable values.

As a set of commands becomes more extensive, the user may prefer to save them as a
MATLAB file. To do this, the user can enter the commands in the MATLAB editor ­window
(labeled in Figure A.1) and save them as a script (a *.m file). The MATLAB editor w­ indow
can be launched using the “Ctrl + N” buttons or either of the New Script buttons e­ ncircled
in Figure A.1.
Appendix A 421

FIGURE A.1
MATLAB command and editor windows and New Script buttons (encircled).

FIGURE A.2
MATLAB editor toolbar with run button (encircled).

To run files in MATLAB, the user can either use the “F5” button or select the Run button.
Figure A.2 illustrates the MATLAB editor toolbar with the Run button encircled. This
toolbar appears once a MATLAB file is opened.
There are two windows that appear automatically when running Simscape Multibody
files: the model window and the animation window.* Figure A.3 illustrates the model window
for Appendix H.1. In this window, Simscape Multibody models are constructed. Because
the contents in the model window should never be edited in any way, the user should
minimize this window whenever it appears.
Figure A.4 illustrates the animation window for Appendix H.1. In this window, the
motion of the model (under the user-prescribed dimension and driving link parameters)
is simulated. Figure A.5 illustrates the toolbar for the animation window. This toolbar

* The Simscape Multibody files are associated with Appendices H through L.

422 Appendix A

FIGURE A.3
Simscape Multibody model window (for Appendix H.1).

FIGURE A.4
Simscape Multibody animation window (for Appendix H.1).
Appendix A 423

FIGURE A.5
Simscape Multibody animation window toolbar.

includes options to adjust view settings and play speed, as well as animation recording
settings (among others).

A.4 Description of Simscape Multibody Functions

For additional descriptions of the functions given in Table A.2, please refer to
www. mathworks.com/help/matlab/.

TABLE A.2
Simscape Multibody Interface Functions Used Throughout This Textbook
Function Description
open_system(obj) To open the Simscape Multibody environment and the
simulation model name specified
set_param(Object,ParameterName,Value,... To customize simulation parameters. In this textbook, the
ParameterNameN,ValueN) customized parameters are ‘StopTime’ and ‘Refine’
sim(model) To start the simulation
evalin(workspace,expression) To retrieve simulation results data from the Simscape
Multibody environment and make it visible in the MATLAB
main workspace

During the simulation process, a popup window will appear. This window includes a
3D animation of the mechanism which is rendered by the Simscape Multibody 3D engine.
Towards the end of the simulation, the simulation model is preconfigured to have the
simulation engine invoke the Post_Simulation_Task.m file
424 Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems

A.5 Rerunning MATLAB and Simscape Multibody

Files with Existing *.csv Files
When rerunning a MATLAB and Simscape Multibody file when its *.csv file is open, the
user could (1) rename the *.csv file (to prevent it from being overwritten), (2) store the
*.csv file in a different folder (also to prevent it from being overwritten), or (3) close the *.csv
file in the same folder (so that it may be overwritten). Attempting to rerun a MATLAB and
Simscape Multibody file with its originally named *.csv file open and stored in its original
­location will prevent the new results from being written (and produce an error message)
because a new *.csv file cannot be written when a *.csv file having the same name is in use
in the same folder.

A.6 Minimum Precision Requirement for Appendix File User Input

The default precision tolerance for link vector loops in the MATLAB and Simscape
Multibody files is 0.0002. Vector-loop errors beyond this tolerance are not allowed. An
error ­indicating this violation will appear in the command line. When specifying link
vectors in any of the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files (e.g., vector lengths, vector
angles, or vector c­ omponents), noninteger values should be specified to at least four deci-
mal places.*

* The only exceptions for this requirement are integer values or noninteger values that include a string of zeros
before the fourth decimal place (e.g., ½ = 0.5000 = 0.5, ¼ = 0.2500 = 0.25, 5/4 = 1.2500 = 1.25).
Appendix B: User Instructions for
Chapter 4 MATLAB® Files

B.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism

The Appendix B.1 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Kinematic_ Planar_ 4Bar.m for the
kinematic analysis of planar four-bar mechanisms*. To conduct a kinematic analysis, the
user specifies the mechanism link dimensions and the crank motion parameters in this
file. Values are specified for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, and L1 (Figure B.1a). Values are
also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ ang), the crank rotation increment (step_
ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular veloc-
ity (angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_ acc) of the crank.† Figure B.2 illustrates
the user-input sections of the file Kinematic_ Planar_ 4Bar.m, with sample values in bold
type.‡ While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponential form,
they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the dimensions and driving link parameters in the file Kinematic_
Planar_4Bar.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file, one file (filename Disp_
Vel_ Acc.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft®
Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank link rotation incre-
ment.§ The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure B.1b.

B.2 Planar Four-Bar Fixed and Moving Centrode Generation

The Appendix B.2 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Centrodes.m for planar four-bar
(and slider-crank) fixed and moving centrode generation.¶ For centrode generation, the
user specifies the mechanism’s fixed and moving pivots in this file. Values are specified
for pivot variables a0, a1, b0, and b1 for a planar four-bar mechanism (Figure B.3a) or a

* The library of MATLAB files presented in this appendix can also be downloaded from the authors’ server
http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
† If no crank angular velocity or acceleration values are specified, time cannot be calculated and the text NaN is
written to the time column of the *.csv file.
‡ The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
§ At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written to the *.csv file.
¶ The folder functions must also accompany the file Centrodes.m. This folder includes auxiliary files that are used

by Centrodes.m.

425
426 Appendix B

FIGURE B.1
(a) Planar four-bar mechanism and (b) output variables.

FIGURE B.2
Sections of Kinematic_ Planar_4Bar.m with sample values in bold.

slider-crank mechanism (Figure B.3b). Figure B.4 illustrates the user-input section of the
file Centrodes.m, with sample values in bold type.*
After specifying the fixed and moving pivots in the file Centrodes.m, the next step is to
run this file. When running this file, two files (filenames Fixed_Centrode.csv and Moving_
Centrode.csv) are written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft
Excel) that include calculated mechanism fixed and moving instant centers at each crank
link rotation increment. When considering the slider-crank mechanism for centrode gen-
eration, the user should specify a length b0 –b1 (or the y coordinate of b0) that produces

* The first and second cells for the fixed and moving pivots in Centrodes.m (see Figure B.4) correspond to the
pivot’s x- and y-components.
Appendix B 427

FIGURE B.3
(a) Planar four-bar and (b) slider-crank mechanism fixed and moving pivots.

FIGURE B.4
Section of Centrodes.m with sample values in bold.

an acceptable sliding error for b1. For example, in Example 4.8, using b0= (2, −100,000)
produces translations of b1 that are accurate to five decimal places. Also, when running
Centrodes.m, a window appears where the four-bar mechanism and its fixed and moving
centrodes are displayed.

B.3 Slider-Crank Mechanism
The Appendix B.3 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Kinematic_Slider_Crank.m for the
kinematic analysis of slider-crank mechanisms. To conduct a kinematic analysis, the user
specifies the mechanism link dimensions and the crank motion parameters in this file.
Values are specified for link variables W1, V1, and U1 (Figure B.5a). Values are also specified
for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final
crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity (angular_vel)
428 Appendix B

FIGURE B.5
(a) Slider-crank mechanism and (b) output variables.

FIGURE B.6
Sections of Kinematic_ Slider_Crank.m with sample values in bold.

and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank.* Figure B.6 illustrates the user-input
sections of the file Kinematic_Slider_Crank.m, with sample values in bold type.†
After specifying the dimensions and driving link parameters in the file Kinematic_ Slider_
Crank.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file, one file (filename Disp_Vel_
Acc.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft Excel)

* If no crank angular velocity or acceleration values are specified, time cannot be calculated and the text NaN is
written to the time column of the *.csv file.
† The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
Appendix B 429

FIGURE B.7
(a) Geared five-bar mechanism and (b) output variables.

that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank link rotation increment.* The
calculated mechanism output is included in Figure B.5b.

B.4 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Two Gears)

The Appendix B.4 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Kinematic_5Bar_2Gears.m for the
kinematic analysis of geared five-bar mechanisms having two gears. To conduct a kine-
matic analysis, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions and the crank motion
parameters in this file. Values are specified for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, S1, and the
gear ratio (Figure B.7a). Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the
crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are
specified for the angular velocity (angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the
crank.† Figure B.8 illustrates the user-input sections of the file Kinematic_Geared_5Bar.m,
with sample values in bold type.‡ While most of the link vector values in this figure appear
in polar exponential form, they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex
forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the dimensions and driving link parameters in the file Kinematic_
Geared_ 5Bar.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file, one file (filename
Disp_ Vel_ Acc.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with
Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank link rotation
increment.§ The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure B.7b.

* At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written to the *.csv file.
† If no crank angular velocity or acceleration values are specified, time cannot be calculated and the text NaN is
written to the time column of the *.csv file.
‡ The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
§ At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written to the *.csv file.
430 Appendix B

FIGURE B.8
Sections of Kinematic_Geared_ 5Bar.m with sample values in bold.

B.5 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Three Gears)

The Appendix B.5 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Kinematic_5Bar_3Gears.m for the kinematic
analysis of geared five-bar mechanisms having three gears. The procedure to use this
MATLAB file is identical to the procedure given in Section B.4.

B.6 Watt II Mechanism

The Appendix B.6 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Kinematic_Watt_II.m for the
kinematic analysis of Watt II mechanisms. To conduct a kinematic analysis, the user speci-
fies the mechanism link dimensions and the crank motion parameters in this file. Values
are specified for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, (Figure B.9a).
Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation incre-
ment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the
angular velocity (angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank.* Figure

* If no crank angular velocity or acceleration values are specified, time cannot be calculated and the text NaN is
written to the time column of the *.csv file.
Appendix B 431

FIGURE B.9
(a) Watt II mechanism and (b) output variables.

FIGURE B.10
Sections of Kinematic_Watt_ II.m with sample values in bold.
432 Appendix B

B.10 illustrates the user-input sections of the file Kinematic_Watt_II.m, with sample values
in bold type.* While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponen-
tial form, they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in
Equation 2.1.
After specifying the dimensions and driving link parameters in the file Kinematic_Watt_
II.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file, one file (filename Disp_Vel_
Acc.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft Excel)
that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank link rotation increment.†
The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure B.9b.

B.7 Stephenson III Mechanism

The Appendix B.7 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Kinematic_ Stephenson_ III.m for the

FIGURE B.11
(a) Stephenson III mechanism and (b) output variables.

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
† At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written to the *.csv file.
Appendix B 433

kinematic analysis of Stephenson III mechanisms. To conduct a kinematic analysis, the user
specifies the mechanism link dimensions and the crank motion parameters in this file.
Values are specified for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, (Figure B.11a).
Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment
(step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular
velocity (angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank.* Figure B.12
illustrates the user-input sections of the file Kinematic_ Stephenson_ III.m, with sample
values in bold type.† While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in polar
exponential form, they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex forms
given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the dimensions and driving link parameters in the file Kinematic_
Stephenson_ III.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file, one file (filename
Disp_Vel_ Acc.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with

FIGURE B.12
Sections of Kinematic_ Stephenson_ III.m with sample values in bold.

Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank link rotation
increment.‡ The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure B.11b.

* If no crank angular velocity or acceleration values are specified, time cannot be calculated and the text NaN is
written to the time column of the *.csv file.
† The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
‡ At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written to the *.csv file.
Appendix C: User Instructions for
Chapter 6 MATLAB® Files

C.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism

The Appendix C.1 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Static_Planar_4Bar.m for the static
force analysis of planar four-bar mechanisms*. To conduct a static force analysis, the user
specifies the mechanism link dimensions, coupler force, gravitational constant, center
of mass vectors, link masses, and the crank motion parameters in this file. Values are
specified for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, the coupler force , the gravitational constant
g, the center of mass vectors R1 through R 3, and link masses m1 through m3 (Figure C.1a).
Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment
(step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Figure C.2 illustrates the user-input sec-
tions of the file Static_Planar_4Bar.m, with sample values in bold type.† While most of the
link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponential form, they can all be specified
in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, static analysis data, and driving link param-
eters in the file Static_Planar_4Bar.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file,
one file (filename Static_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compat-
ible with Microsoft® Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank
link rotation increment.‡ The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure C.1b.

C.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism

The Appendix C.2 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Static_Slider_Crank.m for the static
force analysis of slider-crank mechanisms. To conduct a static force analysis, the user
specifies the mechanism link dimensions, slider force, static friction coefficient, gravi-
tational constant, center of mass vectors, link masses, and the crank motion parameters
in this file. Values are specified for link variables W1, V1, U1, the slider force F, the static
friction coefficient ± µ, the gravitational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1, R 2, and
link masses m1 through m3 (Figure C.3a). Values are also specified for the initial crank angle
(start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang).

* The library of MATLAB files presented in this appendix can also be downloaded from the authors’ server
http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
† The unit for crank angular rotation is degree.
‡ At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written in the *.csv file.

435
436 Appendix C

FIGURE C.1
(a) Planar four-bar mechanism and (b) output variables (angle τ shown in a).

FIGURE C.2
Sections of Static_Planar_4Bar.m with sample values in bold.
Appendix C 437

FIGURE C.3
(a) Slider-crank mechanism and (b) output variables.

FIGURE C.4
Sections of Static_Slider_Crank.m with sample values in bold.
438 Appendix C

Figure C.4 illustrates the user-input sections of the file Static_Slider_Crank.m, with sample
values in bold type.*
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, static analysis data, and driving link param-
eters in the file Static_Slider_Crank.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file,
one file (filename Static_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compat-
ible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank link
rotation increment.* The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure C.3b.

C.3 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Two Gears)

The Appendix C.3 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Static_5Bar_2Gears.m for the static force anal-
ysis of geared five-bar mechanisms having two gears. To conduct a static force analysis, the

FIGURE C.5
(a) Geared five-bar mechanism and (b) output variables.

* At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written in the *.csv file.
Appendix C 439

FIGURE C.6
Sections of Static_5Bar_2Geare.m with sample values in bold.

user specifies the mechanism link dimensions, gear ratio, intermediate link force, gravita-
tional constant, center of mass vectors, link masses, and the crank motion parameters in this
file. Values are specified for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, S1, the intermediate link force ,
the gear ratio, the gravitational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1 through R4, and link
masses m1 through m4 (Figure C.5a). Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_
ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Figure C.6
illustrates the user-input sections of the file Static_5Bar_2Gear.m, with sample values in bold
type.* While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponential form,
they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, static analysis data, and driving link param-
eters in the file Static_5Bar_2Gear.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file,
one file (filename Static_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compat-
ible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank link
rotation increment.† The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure C.5b.

C.4 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Three Gears)

The Appendix C.4 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Static_5Bar_3Gears.m for the static

* The unit for crank angular rotation is degree.

† At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written in the *.csv file.
440 Appendix C

force analysis of geared five-bar mechanisms having three gears. The procedure to use
this MATLAB file is identical to the procedure given in Section C.3.

C.5 Watt II Mechanism
The Appendix C.5 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Static_Watt_II.m for the static force
analysis of Watt II mechanisms. To conduct a static force analysis, the user specifies the
mechanism link dimensions, coupler forces, gravitational constant, center of mass vec-
tors, link masses, and the crank motion parameters in this file. Values are specified for

FIGURE C.7
(a) Watt II mechanism and (b) output variables.
Appendix C 441

FIGURE C.8
Sections of Static_Watt_II.m with sample values in bold.

link variables , the coupler forces and , the gravi-

tational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1 through R 5, and link masses m1 through
m5 (Figure C.7a). Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank
rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Figure C.8 illustrates the
user-input sections of the file Static_Watt_II.m, with sample values in bold type.* While
most of the link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponential form, they can all
be specified in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, static analysis data, and driving link param-
eters in the file Static_Watt_II.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file, one
file (filename Static_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible
with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank link
rotation increment.† The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure C.7b.

* The unit for crank angular rotation is degree.

† At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written in the *.csv file.
442 Appendix C

C.6 Stephenson III Mechanism

The Appendix C.6 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Static_Stephenson_III.m for the
static force analysis of Stephenson III mechanisms. To conduct a static force analysis, the
user specifies the mechanism link dimensions, intermediate link force, gravitational con-
stant, center of mass vectors, link masses, and the crank motion parameters in this file.
Values are specified for link variables and the intermediate

FIGURE C.9
(a) Stephenson III mechanism and (b) output variables.
Appendix C 443

FIGURE C.10
Sections of Static_Stephenson_III.m with sample values in bold.

link force , the gravitational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1 through R 5, and
link masses m1 through m5 (Figure C.9a). Values are also specified for the initial crank
angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_
ang). Figure C.10 illustrates the user-input sections of the file Static_Stephenson_III.m, with
sample values in bold type.* While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in
polar exponential form, they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex
forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, static analysis data, and driving link
parameters in the file Static_Stephenson_III.m, the next step is to run this file. When run-
ning this file, one file (filename Static_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a
format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output
at each crank link rotation increment.† The calculated mechanism output is included in
Figure C.9b.

* The unit for crank angular rotation is degree.

† At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written in the *.csv file.
Appendix D: User Instructions for
Chapter 7 MATLAB® Files

D.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism

The Appendix D.1 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Dynamic_Planar_4Bar.m for the
dynamic force analysis of planar four-bar mechanisms*. To conduct a dynamic force analy-
sis, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions, coupler force and follower torque,
gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link masses, link mass moments of inertia,
and the crank motion parameters in this file. Values are specified for link variables W1,
V1, G1, U1, L1, the coupler force , the follower torque , the gravitational constant g, the
center of mass vectors R1, R 3, and R 7, link masses m1 through m3, and link mass moments
of inertia I1 through I3 (Figure D.1a). Values are also specified for the initial crank angle
(start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang).
Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity (angular_vel) and angular acceleration
(angular_acc) of the crank. Figure D.2 illustrates the user-input sections of the file Dynamic_
Planar_4Bar.m, with sample values in bold type.† While most of the link vector values in
this figure appear in polar exponential form, they can all be specified in any of the rectan-
gular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, dynamic analysis data, and driving link
parameters in the file Dynamic_Planar_4Bar.m, the next step is to run this file. When running
this file, one file (filename Dynamic_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a
format compatible with Microsoft® Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output
at each crank link rotation increment.‡ The calculated mechanism output is included in
Figure D.1b.

D.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism

The Appendix D.2 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Dynamic_Slider_Crank.m for the
dynamic force analysis of slider-crank mechanisms. To conduct a dynamic force analysis,
the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions, slider force, dynamic friction coeffi-
cient, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link masses, link mass moments of

* The library of MATLAB files presented in this appendix can also be downloaded from the authors’ server
http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
† The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degree, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
‡ At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written in the *.csv file.

445
446 Appendix D

FIGURE D.1
(a) Planar four-bar mechanism and (b) output variables (angle τ not shown).

inertia, and the crank motion parameters in this file. Values are specified for link vari-
ables W1, V1, U1, the slider force F, the dynamic friction coefficient ±µ, the gravitational
constant g, the center of mass vectors R1 and R 3, link masses m1 through m3, and link
mass moments of inertia I1 and I2 (Figure D.3a). Values are also specified for the initial
crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle
(stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity (angular_vel) and angular
acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure D.4 illustrates the user-input sections of the
file Dynamic_Slider_Crank.m, with sample values in bold type.* While some the link vec-
tor values in this figure appear in rectangular form, they can all be specified in any of the
rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, dynamic analysis data, and driving link
parameters in the file Dynamic_Slider_Crank.m, the next step is to run this file. When run-
ning this file, one file (filename Dynamic_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in
a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output
at each crank link rotation increment.† The calculated mechanism output is included in
Figure D.3b.

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degree, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
† At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written to the *.csv file.
Appendix D 447

FIGURE D.2
Sections of Dynamic_Planar_4Bar.m with sample values in bold.

D.3 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Two Gears)

The Appendix D.3 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Dynamic_5Bar_2Gear.m for the
dynamic force analysis and simulation of geared five-bar mechanisms having two gears.
To conduct a dynamic force analysis, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions,
gear ratio, intermediate link force, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link
masses and mass moments of inertia, and the crank motion parameters in this file.
Values are specified for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, S1, the gear ratio, the intermedi-
ate link force Fp1, the gravitational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1, R 3, R 7, and
R 9, link masses m1 through m4, and link mass moments of inertia I1 through I4 (Figure
D.5a). Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation
increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for
the angular velocity (angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank.
448 Appendix D

FIGURE D.3
(a) Slider-crank mechanism and (b) output variables.

Figure D.6 illustrates the user-input sections of the file Dynamic_5Bar_2Gear.m, with
sample values in bold type.* While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in
polar exponential form, they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex
forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, dynamic analysis data, and driving
link parameters in the file Dynamic_5Bar_2Gear.m, the next step is to run this file. When
running this file, one file (filename Dynamic_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named
Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mecha-
nism output at each crank link rotation increment.† The calculated mechanism output is
included in Figure D.5b.

D.4 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Three Gears)

The Appendix DJ.4 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Dynamic_5Bar_3Gear.m for the
dynamic force analysis and simulation of geared five-bar mechanisms having three gears.
The procedure to use this MATLAB file is identical to the procedure given in Section D.3.

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degree, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
† At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written to the *.csv file.
Appendix D 449

FIGURE D.4
Sections of Dynamic_Slider_Crank.m with sample values in bold.

D.5 Watt II Mechanism
The Appendix D.5 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/
p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Dynamic_Watt_II.m for the dynamic
force analysis and simulation of Watt II mechanisms. To conduct a dynamic force analy-
sis, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions, coupler link forces and follower
torques, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link masses and mass moments of
inertia, and the crank motion parameters in this file. Values are specified for link variables
W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, , the coupler forces and , the follower torques
and , the gravitational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1, R 3, R 7, R9, and R13, link
masses m1 through m5, and link mass moments of inertia I1 through I5 (Figure D.7a). Values
are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_
ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular veloc-
ity (angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure D.8 illustrates
450 Appendix D

FIGURE D.5
(a) Geared five-bar mechanism and (b) output variables.

the user-input sections of the file Dynamic_Watt_II.m, with sample values in bold type.*
While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponential form, they
can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, dynamic analysis data, and driving link
parameters in the file Dynamic_Watt_II.m, the next step is to run this file. When running
this file, one file (filename Dynamic_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a
format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output
at each crank link rotation increment.† The calculated mechanism output is included in
Figure D.7b.

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degree, rad/sec, and rad/sec2, respectively.
† At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written to the *.csv file.
Appendix D 451

FIGURE D.6
Sections of Dynamic_5Bar_2Gear.m with sample values in bold.

D.6 Stephenson III Mechanism

The Appendix D.6 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Dynamic_Stephenson_III.m for
the dynamic force analysis and simulation of Stephenson III mechanisms. To conduct a
dynamic force analysis, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions, coupler link
force and follower torques, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link masses and
mass moments of inertia, and the crank motion parameters in this file. Values are speci-
fied for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, the coupler force , the follower
torques and , the gravitational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1, R 3, R 7, R 8,
and R12, link masses m1 through m5, and link mass moments of inertia I1 through I5 (Figure
D.9a). Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation
increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for
452 Appendix D

FIGURE D.7
(a) Watt II mechanism and (b) output variables.

the angular velocity (angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank.
Figure D.10 illustrates the user-input sections of the file Dynamic_Stephenson_III.m, with
sample values in bold type.* While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in
polar exponential form, they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex
forms given in Equation 2.1.

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degree, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively
Appendix D 453

FIGURE D.8
Sections of Dynamic_Watt_II.m with sample values in bold.

After specifying the mechanism dimensions, dynamic analysis data, and driving link
parameters in the file Dynamic_Stephenson_III.m, the next step is to run this file. When run-
ning this file, one file (filename Dynamic_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in
a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output
at each crank link rotation increment.* The calculated mechanism output is included in
Figure D.9b.

* At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the text Inf is written to the *.csv file.
454 Appendix D

FIGURE D.9
(a) Stephenson III mechanism and (b) output variables.
Appendix D 455

FIGURE D.10
Sections of Dynamic_Stephenson_III.m with sample values in bold.
Appendix E: User Instructions for
Chapter 9 MATLAB® Files

E.1 S, V Profile Generation and Cam Design: Constant Velocity Motion

The Appendix E.1 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Cam_Const_Vel.m for the kine-
matic analysis and design of radial cams for constant velocity motion.* To conduct a con-
stant velocity-based kinematic analysis, the user specifies the follower displacement event
sequence, the displacement event ranges, the end values for each displacement event, the
cam rotation speed, and the cam base circle radius.†
To demonstrate how values are specified in Cam_Const_Vel.m, Figure E.1 illustrates an
arbitrary follower rise-dwell-fall-dwell displacement event sequence, while Figure E.2
includes the corresponding values (in bold type) specified in Cam_Const_Vel.m.‡
Rise, fall, and dwell events are specified using R, F, and D (in single quotes in a row matrix),
respectively. Because Figure E.1 presents a rise-dwell-fall-dwell sequence, the sequence (R,
D, F, D) appears in Figure E.2. Next, the rotation ranges for each displacement event appear
in Figure E.2 (representing [β1, β2, β3, β4]). The rotation ranges should be integers and have
a sum of 360°. Next, the displacement value at the end of each displacement event appears.
Because the profile in Figure E.1 achieves an arbitrary maximum displacement of 2, the
sequence (2, 2, 0, 0) (representing [s1, s2, s3, s4]) appears in Figure E.2. Lastly, both the cam
rotation speed and base radius appear in Figure E.2.
After specifying the follower displacement event sequence parameters, cam rotation
speed, and cam base circle radius in the file Cam_Const_Vel.m, the next step is to run this file.
When running this file, one file (filename DVAJ.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a
format compatible with Microsoft® Excel) that includes the calculated follower displacement
and velocity curve data, and the corresponding cam profile data, at 1° increments.

E.2 S, V, A Profile Generation and Cam Design:

Constant Acceleration Motion
The Appendix E.2 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Cam_Const_Acc.m for the

* The library of MATLAB files presented in this appendix can also be downloaded from the authors’ server
http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
† The units for the displacement interval range and cam rotation speed are degrees and rad/s, respectively.
‡ While this figure illustrates a rise-dwell-fall-dwell displacement event sequence (for demonstration), the user

can specify displacement event sequences of any number and any combination of displacement events.

457
458 Appendix E

FIGURE E.1
Follower rise-dwell-fall-dwell displacement event sequence.

FIGURE E.2
Sections of Cam_Const_Vel.m with sample values in bold.

kinematic analysis and design of radial cams for constant acceleration motion. To conduct
a constant acceleration-based kinematic analysis, the user specifies the follower displace-
ment event sequence, the displacement event ranges, the end values for each displacement
event, the cam rotation speed, and the cam base circle radius.*
To demonstrate how values are specified in Cam_Const_Acc.m, Figure E.3 illustrates an
arbitrary follower rise-dwell-fall-dwell displacement event sequence, while Figure E.4
includes the corresponding values (in bold type) specified in Cam_Const_Acc.m.†
Rise, fall, and dwell events are specified using R, F, and D (in single quotes in a row
matrix), respectively. Because Figure E.3 presents a rise-dwell-fall-dwell sequence, the
sequence (R, D, F, D) appears in Figure E.4. Next, the rotation ranges for each displacement
event appear in Figure E.4 (representing [β1, β2, β3, β4]). The rotation ranges should be
integers and have a sum of 360°. Next, the displacement value at the end of each displace-
ment event appears. Because the profile in Figure E.3 achieves an arbitrary maximum
displacement of 2, the sequence (2, 2, 0, 0) (representing [s1, s2, s3, s4]) appears in Figure E.4.
Lastly, both the cam rotation speed and base radius appear in Figure E.4.

* The units for the displacement interval range and cam rotation speed are degrees and rad/s, respectively.
† While this figure illustrates a rise-dwell-fall-dwell displacement event sequence (for demonstration), the user

can specify displacement event sequences of any number and any combination of displacement events
Appendix E 459

FIGURE E.3
Follower rise-dwell-fall-dwell displacement event sequence.

FIGURE E.4
Sections of Cam_Const_Acc.m with sample values in bold.

After specifying the follower displacement event sequence parameters, cam rotation
speed, and cam base circle radius in the file Cam_Const_Acc.m, the next step is to run
this file. When running this file, one file (filename DVAJ.csv) is written to a folder named
Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated follower
displacement, velocity and acceleration data, and the corresponding cam profile data, at
1° increments.

E.3 S, V, A, J Profile Generation and Cam

Design: Simple Harmonic Motion
The Appendix E.3 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Cam_SHM.m for the kinematic
analysis and design of radial cams for simple harmonic motion. To conduct a simple
harmonic-based kinematic analysis, the user specifies the follower displacement event
460 Appendix E

sequence, the displacement event ranges, the end values for each displacement event, the
cam rotation speed, and the cam base circle radius.*
To demonstrate how values are specified in Cam_SHM.m, Figure E.5 illustrates an
arbitrary follower rise-dwell-fall-dwell displacement event sequence, while Figure E.6
includes the corresponding values (in bold type) specified in Cam_SHM.m.†
Rise, fall, and dwell events are specified using R, F, and D (in single quotes in a row matrix),
respectively. Because Figure E.5 presents a rise-dwell-fall-dwell sequence, the sequence
(R, D, F, D) appears in Figure E.6. Next, the rotation ranges for each displacement event
appear in Figure E.6 (representing [β1, β2, β3, β4]). The rotation ranges should be integers and
have a sum of 360°. Next, the displacement values at the end of each displacement event
appear. Because the profile in Figure E.5 achieves an arbitrary maximum displacement
of 2, the sequence (2, 2, 0, 0) (representing [s1, s2, s3, s4]) appear in Figure E.6. Lastly, both the
cam rotation speed and base radius appear in Figure E.6.

FIGURE E.5
Follower rise-dwell-fall-dwell displacement event sequence.

FIGURE E.6
Sections of Cam_SHM.m with sample values in bold.

* The units for the displacement interval range and cam rotation speed are degrees and rad/s, respectively.
† While this figure illustrates a rise-dwell-fall-dwell displacement event sequence (for demonstration), the user

can specify displacement event sequences of any number and any combination of displacement events.
Appendix E 461

After specifying the follower displacement event sequence parameters, cam rotation
speed, and cam base circle radius in the file Cam_SHM.m, the next step is to run this
file. When running this file, one file (filename DVAJ.csv) is written to a folder named
Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated follower
­displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk data, and the corresponding cam profile data,
at 1° increments.

E.4 S, V, A, J Profile Generation and Cam Design: Cycloidal Motion

The Appendix E.4 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Cam_Cycloidal.m for the kinematic
analysis and design of radial cams for cycloidal motion. Both the data specified in and
calculated from Cam_Cycloidal.m are identical to those described in Appendix E.3.

E.5 S, V, A, J Profile Generation and Cam

Design: 3-4-5 Polynomial Motion
The Appendix E.5 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Cam_345_Poly.m for the kinematic
­analysis and design of radial cams for 3-4-5 polynomial motion. Both the data specified
in and c­ alculated from Cam_345_Poly.m are identical to those described in Appendix E.3.

E.6 S, V, A, J Profile Generation and Cam Design:

4-5-6-7 Polynomial Motion
The Appendix E.6 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Cam_4567_Poly.m for the kinematic
analysis and design of radial cams for 4-5-6-7 polynomial motion. Both the data specified
in and calculated from Cam_4567_Poly.m are identical to those described in Appendix E.3.
Appendix F: User Instructions for
Chapter 10 MATLAB® Files

F.1 RRSS Mechanism

The Appendix F.1 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Kinematic_RRSS.m for the kine-
matic analysis of RRSS mechanisms.* To conduct a kinematic analysis, the user specifies
the mechanism point coordinates and the crank motion parameters in this file. Values are
specified for link variables a0, ua0, a1, ua1, b0, b1, p1, q1, and r 1 (Figure F.1a). Values are also
specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang),
and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity
(angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure F.2 illustrates the
user-input sections of the file Kinematic_RRSS.m, with sample values in bold type.†
After specifying the dimensions and driving link parameters in the file Kinematic_
RRSS.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file, two files (filenames
RRSS_branch1.csv and RRSS_branch2.csv) are written to a folder named Results (in a format
compatible with Microsoft® Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each
crank link rotation increment for both RRSS branches.‡ The calculated mechanism output
is included in Figure F.1b.
The initial RRSS mechanism configuration corresponds to the mechanism dimensions
specified in the Appendix F.1 MATLAB file (see Figure F.2). The results for this configuration
are included in the file RRSS_branch1.csv. The results for the second mechanism configura-
tion are included in the file RRSS_branch2.csv.

F.2 RSSR Mechanism

The Appendix F.2 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB file Kinematic_RSSR.m for the kine-
matic analysis of RSSR mechanisms. To conduct a kinematic analysis, the user specifies
the mechanism point coordinates and the crank motion parameters in this file. Values are
specified for link variables a0, ua0, a1, b0, ub0, and b1 (Figure F.3a). Values are also specified
for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final
crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity (angular_vel)

* The library of MATLAB files presented in this appendix can also be downloaded from the authors’ server
http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
† The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
‡ At crank rotation increments where circuit defects occur, the coupler-link motion data written to the *.csv file

appear as complex numbers.

463
464 Appendix F

FIGURE F.1
(a) RRSS mechanism and (b) output variables.

FIGURE F.2
Sections of Kinematic_RRSS.m with sample values in bold.

and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure F.4 illustrates the user-input
sections of the file Kinematic_RSSR.m, with sample values in bold type.*
After specifying the dimensions and driving link parameters in the file Kinematic_
RSSR.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file, two files (filenames
RSSR_branch1.csv and RSSR_branch2.csv) are written to a folder named Results (in a format

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
Appendix F 465

FIGURE F.3
(a) RSSR mechanism and (b) output variables.

FIGURE F.4
Sections of Kinematic_RSSR.m with sample values in bold.

compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each
crank link rotation increment for both RSSR branches.* The calculated mechanism output
is included in Figure F.3b.
The initial RSSR mechanism configuration corresponds to the mechanism dimensions
specified in the Appendix F.2 MATLAB file (see Figure F.4). The results for this configu-
ration are included in the file RSSR_branch1.csv. The results for the second mechanism
configuration are included in the file RSSR_branch2.csv.

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
Appendix G: User Instructions for
Chapter 11 MATLAB® Files

G.1 R-P-P Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics

The Appendix G.1 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes two MATLAB files for R-P-P robotic manipulator for-
ward kinematics.* These two files are described in Table G.1. To conduct an R-P-P forward
kinematics analysis, the user specifies the R-P-P joint displacements in the file RPP_Input.
csv. This file is compatible with Microsoft® Excel. Also, {3p3} is specified in the file RPP_FK.m.
Figure G.1 illustrates the user-input section of this file, with sample values in bold type.
After specifying the R-P-P joint displacements in RPP_Input.csv and {3p3} in RPP_FK.m,
the next step is to run RPP_FK.m. When running this file, one file (filename RPP_p3.csv)
is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that
includes the {0p3} values calculated for the given {3p3} value and joint displacement values.

G.2 R-R-P Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics

The Appendix G.2 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317) includes two MATLAB files for R-R-P robotic manipulator forward kine-
matics. These two files are described in Table G.2. To conduct an R-R-P forward kinematics
analysis, the user specifies the R-R-P joint displacements in the file RRP_Input.csv. This file
is compatible with Microsoft Excel. Also, {3p3}, l1, and l2 are specified in the file RRP_FK.m.
Figure G.2 illustrates the user-input section of this file, with sample values in bold type.
After specifying the R-R-P joint displacements in RRP_Input.csv and {3p3}, l1, and l2 in RRP_
FK.m, the next step is to run RRP_FK.m. When running this file, one file (filename RRP_p3.csv)
is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes
the {0p3} values calculated for the given {3p3}, length, and joint displacement values.

G.3 R-R-R Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics

The Appendix G.3 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes two MATLAB files for R-R-R robotic manipulator

* The library of MATLAB files presented in this appendix can also be downloaded from the authors’ server
http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.

467
468 Appendix G

FIGURE G.1
Section of RPP_FK.m with sample values in bold.

TABLE G.1
Appendix G.1 MATLAB Files
Filename Use of File
RPP_Input.csv To specify joint displacements
RPP_FK.m To specify {3p3} and write output (in a
file compatible with Microsoft Excel)

FIGURE G.2
Section of RRP_FK.m with sample values in bold.

TABLE G.2
Appendix G.2 MATLAB Files
Filename Use of File
RRP_Input.csv To specify joint displacements
RRP_FK.m To specify {3p3}, l1, and l2, and write
output (in a file compatible with
Microsoft Excel)

forward kinematics. These two files are described in Table G.3. To conduct an R-R-R for-
ward ­kinematics analysis, the user specifies the R-R-R joint displacements in the file RRR_
Input.csv. This file is compatible with Microsoft Excel. Also, {3p3}, l1, and l2 are specified in
the file RRR_FK.m. Figure G.3 illustrates the user-input section of this file, with sample
values in bold type.
After specifying the R-R-R joint displacements in RRR_Input.csv and {3p3}, l1, and l2 in
RRR_FK.m, the next step is to run RRR_FK.m. When running this file, one file (filename
RRR_p3.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft
Excel) that includes the {0p3} values calculated for the given {3p3}, length, and joint
­displacement values.
Appendix G 469

TABLE G.3
Appendix G.3 MATLAB Files
Filename Use of File
RRR_Input.csv To specify joint displacements
RRR_FK.m To specify {3p3}, l1, and l2, and
write output (in a file compatible
with Microsoft Excel)

FIGURE G.3
Section of RRR_FK.m with sample values in bold.

G.4 R-R-C Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics

The Appendix G.4 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes two MATLAB files for R-R-C robotic manipulator
­forward kinematics. These two files are described in Table G.4. To conduct an R-R-C for-
ward kinematics analysis, the user specifies the R-R-C joint displacements in the file RRC_
Input.csv. This file is compatible with Microsoft Excel. Also, {3p3}, l1, l2 and l3 are specified
in the file RRC_FK.m. Figure G.4 illustrates the user-input section of this file with sample
values in bold type.

FIGURE G.4
Section of RRC_FK.m with sample values in bold.

TABLE G.4
Appendix G.4 MATLAB Files
Filename Use of File
RRC_Input.csv To specify joint displacements
RRC_FK.m To specify {3p3}, l1, l2 and l3, and write
output (in a file compatible with
Microsoft Excel)
470 Appendix G

FIGURE G.5
Section of RPP_IK.m with sample values in bold.

After specifying the R-R-C joint displacements in RRC_Input.csv and {3p3}, l1, l2 and l3 in
RRC_FK.m, the next step is to run RRC_FK.m. When running this file, one file (­filename
RRC_p3.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft
Excel) that includes the {0p3} values calculated for the given {3p3}, length, and joint
­displacement values.

G.5 R-P-P Robotic Manipulator Inverse Kinematics

The Appendix G.5 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes two MATLAB files for R-P-P robotic manipulator
inverse kinematics. These two files are described in Table G.5. To conduct an R-P-P inverse
­kinematics analysis, the user specifies the global R-P-P end-effector coordinates ({0p3}) in
the file RPP_Input.csv. This file is compatible with Microsoft Excel. Also, {3p3} is specified
in the file RPP_IK.m. Figure G.5 illustrates the user-input section of this file with sample
values in bold type.
After specifying the global R-P-P end effector coordinates in RPP_Input.csv and {3p3}
in RPP_IK.m, the next step is to run RPP_IK.m. When running this file, one file (filename
RPP_Joints.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft
Excel) that includes the joint displacement values calculated for the given {0p3} and {3p3}
values.

G.6 R-R-P Robotic Manipulator Inverse Kinematics

The Appendix G.6 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes two MATLAB files for R-R-P robotic manipulator

TABLE G.5
Appendix G.5 MATLAB Files
Filename Use of File
RPP_Input.csv To specify global end effector
coordinates
RPP_IK.m To specify {3p3} and write output
(in a file compatible with
Microsoft Excel)
Appendix G 471

FIGURE G.6
Section of RRP_IK.m with sample values in bold.

TABLE G.6
Appendix G.6 MATLAB Files
Filename Use of File
RRP_Input.csv To specify global end effector coordinates
RRP_IK.m To specify {3p3}, l1, and l2, and write
output (in a file compatible with
Microsoft Excel)

inverse kinematics. These two files are described in Table G.6. To conduct an R-R-P inverse
­kinematics analysis, the user specifies the global R-R-P end effector coordinates ({0p3}) in
the file RRP_Input.csv. This file is compatible with Microsoft Excel. Also, {3p3}, l1, and l2 are
specified in the file RRP_IK.m. Figure G.6 illustrates the user-input section of this file with
sample values in bold type.
After specifying the global R-R-P end effector coordinates in RRP_Input.csv and {3p3},
l1, and l2 in RRP_IK.m, the next step is to run RRP_IK.m. When running this file, one file
(filename RRP_Joints.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with
Microsoft Excel) that includes the joint displacement values calculated for the given {0p3},
{3p3}, l1, and l2 values.

G.7 R-R-R Robotic Manipulator Inverse Kinematics

The Appendix G.7 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes two MATLAB files for R-R-R robotic manipulator
inverse kinematics. These two files are described in Table G.7. To conduct an R-R-R inverse
kinematics analysis, the user specifies the global R-R-R end-effector coordinates ({0p3}) in
TABLE G.7
Appendix G.7 MATLAB Files
Filename Use of File
RRR_Input.csv To specify global end effector
coordinates
RRR_IK.m To specify {3p3}, l1, and l2, and
write output (in a file
compatible with Microsoft
Excel)
472 Appendix G

FIGURE G.7
Section of RRR_IK.m with sample values in bold.

the file RRR_Input.csv. This file is compatible with Microsoft Excel. Also, {3p3}, l1, and l2 are
specified in the file RRR_IK.m.
Figure G.7 illustrates the user-input section of this file with sample values in bold type.
After specifying the global R-R-R end effector coordinates in RRR_Input.csv and {3p3}, l1,
and l2 in RRR_IK.m, the next step is to run RRR_IK.m. When running this file, one file
(filename RRR_Joints.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with
Microsoft Excel) that includes the joint displacement values calculated for the given {0p3},
{3p3}, l1, and l2 values.

G.8 R-R-C Robotic Manipulator Inverse Kinematics

The Appendix G.8 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes two MATLAB files for R-R-C robotic manipulator
inverse kinematics. These two files are described in Table G.8. To conduct an R-R-C inverse
kinematics analysis, the user specifies the global R-R-C end effector coordinates ({0p3}) in
the file RRC_Input.csv. This file is compatible with Microsoft Excel. Also, {3p3}, l1, l2, and l3
are specified in the file RRC_IK.m. Figure G.8 illustrates the user-input section of this file
with sample values in bold type.

TABLE G.8
Appendix G.8 MATLAB Files
Filename Use of File
RRC_Input.csv To specify global end effector coordinates
RRC_IK.m To specify {3p3}, l1, l2, and l3, and write output
(in a file compatible with Microsoft Excel)

FIGURE G.8
Section of RRC_IK.m with sample values in bold.
Appendix G 473

After specifying the global R-R-C end effector coordinates in RRC_Input.csv and {3p3}, l1,
l2, and l3 in RRC_IK.m, the next step is to run RRC_IK.m. When running this file, one file
(filename RRC_Joints.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with
Microsoft Excel) that includes the joint displacement values calculated for the given {0p3},
{3p3}, l1, l2, and l3 values.
Appendix H: User Instructions for Chapter 4
MATLAB® and Simscape Multibody TM Files

H.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism

The Appendix H.1 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the kinematic
analysis and simulation of planar four-bar mechanisms. These files are described in Table H.1.*
To conduct a kinematic analysis, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions and the
crank motion parameters in the file Kinematic_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m. Values are specified for
link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, and L1 (Figure H.1a). Values are also specified for the initial crank
angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang).
Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity (angular_vel) and angular acceleration
(angular_acc) of the crank. Figure H.2 illustrates the user-input sections of the file Kinematic_
Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m, with sample values in bold type.† While most of the link vector values
in this figure appear in polar exponential form, they can all be specified in any of the rectan-
gular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions and driving link parameters in the file
Kinematic_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file,
one file (filename Disp_Vel_Acc.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compat-
ible with Microsoft® Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank
link rotation increment.‡ The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure H.1b.
When running Kinematic_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears
where the motion of the planar four-bar mechanism is simulated over the defined crank
rotation range (see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes
functions that preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder
can be deleted, however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

H.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism

The Appendix H.2 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the kinematic
analysis and simulation of slider-crank mechanisms. These files are described in Table H.2.
To conduct a kinematic analysis, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions and the

* The MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files presented in this appendix can also be downloaded from the authors’
server http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
† The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
‡ If the mechanism experiences a circuit defect (or if the crank decelerates to a zero velocity state), results

beyond this point are not written to the *.csv file.

475
476 Appendix H

TABLE H.1
Appendix H.1 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Kinematic_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions and
crank link controls
Kinematic_Planar_4Bar_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate
mechanism motion
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with
Microsoft Excel)

FIGURE H.1
(a) Planar four-bar mechanism and (b) output variables.

FIGURE H.2
Sections of Kinematic_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.
Appendix H 477

TABLE H.2
Appendix H.2 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Kinematic Slider_Crank_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions and
crank link controls
Kinematic_Slider_Crank_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate
mechanism motion
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible
with Microsoft Excel)

FIGURE H.3
(a) Slider-crank mechanism and (b) output variables.

crank motion parameters in the file Kinematic_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m. Values are speci-

fied for link variables W1, V1, and U1 (Figure H.3a). Values are also specified for the initial
crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle
(stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity (angular_vel) and angular
acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure H.4 illustrates the user-input sections of the
file Kinematic_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m, with sample values in bold type.*
After specifying the mechanism dimensions and driving link parameters in the file
Kinematic_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this
file, one File (filename Disp_Vel_Acc.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format
compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each
crank link rotation increment.† The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure H.3b.
When running Kinematic_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears
where the motion of the slider-crank mechanism is simulated over the defined crank rota-
tion range (see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes func-
tions that preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can
be deleted, however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

H.3 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Two Gears)

The Appendix H.3 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the kinematic
analysis and simulation of geared five-bar mechanisms having two gears. These files are
described in Table H.3. To conduct a kinematic analysis, the user specifies the mechanism link

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
† If the mechanism experiences a circuit defect (or if the crank decelerates to a zero velocity state), results

beyond this point are not written to the *.csv file.

478 Appendix H

FIGURE H.4
Sections of Kinematic_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

TABLE H.3
Appendix H.3 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Kinematic_5Bar_2Gears_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions and crank
link controls
Kinematic_5Bar_2Gears_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate
mechanism motion
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with
Microsoft Excel)
Make_Gear.m To generate the spur gears in the geared five-bar
dist.m mechanism animation and simulate their
rotateZ.m motion, files dist.m, rotateZ.m and scaleXY.m are
scaleXY.m used in the file Make_Gear.m.

dimensions and the crank motion parameters in the file Kinematic_5Bar_2Gears_Simulate.m.

Values are specified for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, and S1 (Figure H.5a).* Values are speci-
fied for the gear ratio and the number of teeth in the driving gear. Values are also speci-
fied for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final
crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity (angular_vel) and
angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure H.6 ­illustrates the user-input sections of
the file Kinematic_5Bar_2Gears_Simulate.m, with sample values in bold type.† While most of the
link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponential form, they can all be specified in
any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.

* While the user can specify the number of gear teeth in the geared five-bar mechanism, this is optional since
the gears are cosmetic and thus serve no functional purpose in the mechanism animation.
† The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
Appendix H 479

FIGURE H.5
(a) Geared five-bar mechanism and (b) output variables.

%---------------------------------------------------------------
% Here, values for the geared 5-bar mechanism variables W1, V1,
% G1, U1, L1 and S1 are assigned. Only negative gear ratio
% values should be specified.

W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*32.7304*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75*exp(i*0*pi/180);
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*45*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*74.1400*pi/180);
S1 = 0.75*exp(i*149.9847*pi/180);
ratio = -2;

% Number of teeth of the driving gear

Na = 20;
%---------------------------------------------------------------

%---------------------------------------------------------------
% Here, values for the start, step and stop displacement angles
% for the crank link are assigned.

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 360;
%---------------------------------------------------------------

%---------------------------------------------------------------
% Here, values for crank link angular velocity and angular
% acceleration are assigned.

angular_vel = 1;
angular_acc = 0;
%---------------------------------------------------------------

FIGURE H.6
Sections of Kinematic_5Bar_2Gears_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

After specifying the mechanism dimensions and driving link parameters in the file
Kinematic_5Bar_2Gears_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file,
one file (filename Disp_Vel_Acc.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format com-
patible with Microsoft® Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank
link rotation increment.† The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure H.3b.
When running Kinematic_5Bar_2Gear_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears
where the motion of the geared five-bar mechanism is simulated over the defined crank
rotation range (see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes
functions that preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder
can be deleted however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

† If the mechanism experiences a circuit defect (or if the crank decelerates to a zero-velocity state), results
beyond this point are not written to the *.csv file.
480 Appendix H

TABLE H.4
Appendix H.4 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Kinematic_5Bar_3Gears_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions and crank link controls
Kinematic_5Bar_3Gears_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)
Make_Gear.m To generate the spur gears in the geared five-bar mechanism
dist.m animation and simulate their motion, files dist.m, rotateZ.m and
rotateZ.m scaleXY.m are used in the file Make_Gear.m.
scaleXY.m

H.4 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Three Gears)

The Appendix H.4 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
kinematic analysis and simulation of geared five-bar mechanisms having three gears.
These files are described in Table H.4. The procedure to use these MATLAB and Simscape
Multibody files is identical to the procedure given in Appendix H.3.

H.5 Watt II Mechanism
The Appendix H.5 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
kinematic analysis and simulation of Watt II mechanisms. These files are described in Table
H.5. To conduct a kinematic analysis, the user specifies the mechanism link d ­ imensions
and the crank motion parameters in the file Kinematic_Watt_II_Simulate.m. Values are
­specified for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, (Figure H.7a). Values are
also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation i­ ncrement (step_ang),
and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the a­ ngular ­velocity
(angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure H.8 ­illustrates the
user-input sections of the file Kinematic_Watt_II_Simulate.m with sample values in bold

TABLE H.5
Appendix H.5 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Kinematic_Watt_II_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions and
crank link controls
Kinematic_Watt_II_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate
mechanism motion
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with
Microsoft Excel)
Appendix H 481

FIGURE H.7
(a) Watt II mechanism and (b) output variables.

FIGURE H.8
Sections of Kinematic_Watt_II_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.
482 Appendix H

type.* While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponential form,
they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions and driving link parameters in the file
Kinematic_Watt_II_Simulate, the next step is to run this file. When running this file, one file
(filename Disp_Vel_Acc.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with
Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank link rotation
increment.†† The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure H.7b.

TABLE H.6
Appendix H.6 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Kinematic_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions and
crank link controls
Kinematic_Stephenson_III_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate
mechanism motion
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with
Microsoft Excel)

FIGURE H.9
(a) Stephenson III mechanism and (b) output variables.

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
† If the mechanism experiences a circuit defect (or if the crank decelerates to a zero velocity state), results

beyond this point are not written to the *.csv file.

Appendix H 483

FIGURE H.10
Sections of Kinematic_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

When running Kinematic_Watt_II_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears where

the motion of the Watt II mechanism is simulated over the defined crank rotation range
(see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes functions that
preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can be deleted,
however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

H.6 Stephenson III Mechanism

The Appendix H.6 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the kinematic
analysis and simulation of Stephenson III mechanisms. These files are described in Table H.6.
To conduct a kinematic analysis, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions and the
crank motion parameters in the file Kinematic_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m. Values are speci-
fied for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, (Figure H.9a). Values are also
specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and
the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity (angular_
vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure H.10 illustrates the user-input
sections of the file Kinematic_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m with sample values in bold type.*

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
484 Appendix H

While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponential form, they can
all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions and driving link parameters in the file
Kinematic_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file,
one file (filename Disp_Vel_Acc.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compat-
ible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank link
rotation increment.† The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure H.9b.
When running Kinematic_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears
where the motion of the Stephenson III mechanism is simulated over the defined crank
rotation range (see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes
functions that preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder
can be deleted, however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

† If the mechanism experiences a circuit defect (or if the crank decelerates to a zero velocity state), results
beyond this point are not written to the *.csv file.
Appendix I: User Instructions for Chapter 6
MATLAB® and Simscape Multibody Files

I.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism

The Appendix I.1 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for
the static force analysis and simulation of planar four-bar mechanisms. These files are
described in Table I.1.* To conduct a static force analysis, the user first selects the preferred
unit system (either Metric or English units) for the written mechanism output.
After selecting the unit system, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions, coupler
force, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link masses, and the crank motion param-
eters in the file Static_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m. Values are specified for link variables W1, V1,
G1, U1, L1, the coupler force, the gravitational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1 through
R3, and link masses m1 through m3 (Figure I.1a) according to the Metric or English units listed
in the file (Figure I.2). Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank
rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Figure I.2 illustrates the
user-input sections of the file Static_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m, with sample values in bold type.†
While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponential form, they can
all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, static analysis data, and driving link param-
eters in the file Static_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file. When running
this file, one file (filename Static_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format
compatible with Microsoft® Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each
crank link rotation increment.‡ The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure I.1b.
When running Static_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears where
the motion of the planar four-bar mechanism is simulated over the defined crank rotation
range (see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes functions
that preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can be
deleted, however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

I.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism

The Appendix I.2 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the

* The library of MATLAB files presented in this appendix can also be downloaded from the authors’ server
http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
† The unit for crank angular rotation is degrees.
‡ When the mechanism experiences a circuit defects occur, results are no longer written to the *.csv file.

485
486 Appendix I

TABLE I.1
Appendix I.1 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Static_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions, coupler force, and crank
link controls
Static_Planar_4Bar_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion.
rotz.m file rotz.m is used in the file Static_Planar_4Bar_Model.slx.
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)

static force analysis and simulation of slider-crank mechanisms. These files are described
in Table I.2. To conduct a static force analysis, the user first selects the preferred unit sys-
tem (either Metric or English units) for the written mechanism output.
After selecting the unit system, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions, slider
force, static friction coefficient, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link masses,
and the crank motion parameters in this file Static_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m. Values are
specified for link variables W1, V1, U1, the slider force F, the static friction coefficient ±µ, the
gravitational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1, R 2, and link masses m1 through m3
(Figure I.3a) according to the Metric or English units listed in the file (Figure I.4). Values are
also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang),

FIGURE I.1
(a) Planar four-bar mechanism and (b) output variables (angle τ shown in a).
Appendix I 487

FIGURE I.2
Sections of Static_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

TABLE I.2
Appendix I.2 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Static_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions, coupler force, and crank
link controls
Static_Slider_Crank_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion.
rotz.m File rotz.m is used in the file Static_Slider_Crank_Model.slx.
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)

and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Figure I.4 illustrates the user-input sections of the file
Static_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m, with sample values in bold type.*
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, static analysis data, and driving link
parameters in the file Static_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file. To run
the file, the user can use the “F5” button or the Run Static_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m button
in the toolbar. When running this file, one file (filename Static_Loads.csv) is written to a
folder named Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calcu-
lated mechanism output at each crank link rotation increment. The calculated mechanism
output is included in Figure I.3b.

* The unit for crank angular rotation is degrees.

488 Appendix I

FIGURE I.3
(a) Slider-crank mechanism and (b) output variables.

FIGURE I.4
Sections of Static_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.
Appendix I 489

TABLE I.3
Appendix I.3 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files Files
Filename Use of File
Static_5Bar_2Gear_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions, link force, and crank link controls
Static_5Bar_2Gear_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion.
rotz.m File rotz.m is used in the file Static_5Bar_2Gear_Model.slx.
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)
Make_Gear.m To generate the spur gears in the geared five-bar mechanism animation
dist.m and simulate their motion, files dist.m, rotateZ.m, and scaleXY.m are used
rotateZ.m in the file Make_Gear.m.
scaleXY.m

When running Static_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears where

the motion of the slider-crank mechanism is simulated over the defined crank rotation
range (see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes functions
that preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can be
deleted, however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

I.3 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Two Gears)

The Appendix I.3 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
static force analysis and simulation of geared five-bar mechanisms having two gears. These
files are described in Table I.3. To conduct a static force analysis, the user first selects the
preferred unit system (either Metric or English units) for the written mechanism output.
After selecting the unit system, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions, inter-
mediate link force, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link masses, and the
crank motion parameters in the file Static_5Bar_2Gear_Simulate.m. Values are specified for
link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, S1, the intermediate link force Fp1, the gear ratio, the gravi-
tational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1 through R4, and link masses m1 through
m4 (Figure I.5a) according to the Metric or English units listed in the file (Figure I.6). Values
are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_
ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Figure I.6 illustrates the user-input sections of the
file Static_5Bar_2Gear_Simulate.m, with sample values in bold type.* While most of the link
vector values in this figure appear in polar exponential form, they can all be specified in
any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, static analysis data, and driving link param-
eters in the file Static_5Bar_2Gear_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file. When running
this file, one file (filename Static_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format
compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each
crank link rotation increment.† The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure I.5b.
When running Static_5Bar_2Gear_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears where
the motion of the geared five-bar mechanism is simulated over the defined crank rotation
range (see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes functions

* The unit for crank angular rotation is degrees.

† When the mechanism experiences a circuit defects occur, results are no longer written to the *.csv file.
490 Appendix I

FIGURE I.5
(a) Geared five-bar mechanism and (b) output variables.

that preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can be
deleted, however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

I.4 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Three Gears)

The Appendix I.4 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
static force analysis and simulation of geared five-bar mechanisms having three gears.
These files are described in Table I.4. The procedure to use these MATLAB and Simscape
Multibody files is identical to the procedure given in Section I.3.

I.5 Watt II Mechanism
The Appendix I.5 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
static force analysis and simulation of Watt II mechanisms. These files are described in
Appendix I 491

%---------------------------------------------------------------
% Here, values for the geared 5-bar mechanism variables W1, V1,
% G1, U1, L1 and S1 are assigned. The link force Fp1, gear
% ratio, gravity "g", center of mass vectors R1, R2, R3 and R4
% and link masses are specified here also.
% Only negative gear ratio values should be specified.
%
% Available units are the following:
% 'SI' (Metric) : Length [meter], Mass [kg] and Force [N]
% 'US' (English): Length [inch], Mass [lbm] and Force [lbf]

unit_select = 'SI';

W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*32.7304*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75 + i*0;
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*45*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*74.1400*pi/180);
S1 = 0.75*exp(i*149.9847*pi/180);
ratio = -2;
Fp1 = [-2500,-3000];
g = -9.81;

R1 = 0 + i*0.0831;
R2 = 0.2558 + i*0.2955;
R3 = -0.3247 + i*0.1876;
R4 = 0.0356 + i*0.0356;

m1 = 22.54; m2 = 29.785; m3 = 12.075; m4 = 75.67;

% Number of teeth of the driving gear

Na = 20;
%---------------------------------------------------------------

%---------------------------------------------------------------
% Here, values for the start, step and stop displacement angles
% for the crank link are assigned.

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 60;
%---------------------------------------------------------------

FIGURE I.6
Sections of Static_5Bar_2Gear_Simulate.m with sample values in bold (see Appendix H.3 for an explanation of
specifying the number of driving gear teeth).

TABLE I.4
Appendix I.4 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Static_5Bar_3Gear_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions, link force, and crank link controls
Static_5Bar_3Gear_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion.
rotz.m File rotz.m is used in the file Static_5Bar_3Gear_Model.slx.
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)
Make_Gear.m To generate the spur gears in the geared five-bar mechanism animation
dist.m and simulate their motion. Files dist.m, rotateZ.m and scaleXY.m are used
rotateZ.m in the file Make_Gear.m.
scaleXY.m

Table I.5. To conduct a static force analysis, the user first selects the preferred unit system
(either Metric or English units) for the written mechanism output.
After selecting the unit system, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions, cou-
pler forces, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link masses, and the crank motion
parameters in the file Static_Watt_II_Simulate.m. Values are specified for link variables W1,
V1, G1, U1, L1, W1*, V1*, G1*, U1*, L1*, the coupler forces Fp1 and, Fp1*, the gravitational constant
g, the center of mass vectors R1 through R 5, and link masses m1 through m5 (Figure I.7a)
492 Appendix I

FIGURE I.7
(a) Watt II mechanism and (b) output variables.

according to the Metric or English units listed in the file (Figure I.8). Values are also speci-
fied for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the
final crank angle (stop_ang). Figure I.8 illustrates the user-input sections of the file Static_
Watt_II_Simulate.m, with sample values in bold type.* While most of the link vector values
in this figure appear in polar exponential form, they can all be specified in any of the
rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, static analysis data, and driving link param-
eters in the file Static_Watt_II_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this
file, one file (filename Static_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format com-
patible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank
link rotation increment.† The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure I.7b.

* The unit for crank angular rotation is degrees.

† When the mechanism experiences a circuit defects occur, results are no longer written to the *.csv file.
Appendix I 493

FIGURE I.8
Sections of Static_Watt_II_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

TABLE I.5
Appendix I.5 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Static_Watt_II_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions, coupler force, and crank link controls
Static_Watt_II_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion.
rotz.m File rotz.m is used in the file Static_Watt_II_Model.slx.
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)

When running Static_Watt_II_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears where the

motion of the Watt II mechanism is simulated over the defined crank rotation range (see
Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes functions that pre-
clude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can be deleted,
however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).
494 Appendix I

TABLE I.6
Appendix I.6 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Static_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions, coupler force, and crank
link controls
Static_Stephenson_III_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion.
rotz.m File rotz.m is used in the file Static_Stephenson_III_Model.slx.
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)

FIGURE I.9
(a) Stephenson III mechanism and (b) output variables.

I.6 Stephenson III Mechanism

The Appendix I.6 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the static
force analysis and simulation of Stephenson III mechanisms. These files are described in
Appendix I 495

FIGURE I.10
Sections of Static_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

Table I.6. To conduct a static force analysis, the user first selects the preferred unit system
(either Metric or English units) for the written mechanism output.
After selecting the unit system, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions,
intermediate link force, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link masses, and
the crank motion parameters in the file Static_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m. Values are
specified for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, V1*, G1* , U1* , L1*, and the intermediate link
force, Fp1 the gravitational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1 through R 5, and link
masses m1 through m5 (Figure I.9a) according to the Metric or English units listed in the
file (Figure I.10). Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank
rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Figure I.10 illustrates
the user-input sections of the file Static_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m, with sample values in
bold type.* While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponen-
tial form, they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in
Equation 2.1.

* The unit for crank angular rotation is degrees.

496 Appendix I

After specifying the mechanism dimensions, static analysis data and driving link
parameters in the file Static_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file.
When running this file, one file (filename Static_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named
Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mecha-
nism output at each crank link rotation increment.* The calculated mechanism output is
included in Figure I.9b.
When running Static_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears
where the motion of the Stephenson III mechanism is simulated over the defined crank
rotation range (see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes
functions that preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder
can be deleted, however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

* When the mechanism experiences a circuit defects occur, results are no longer written to the *.csv file.
Appendix J: User Instructions for Chapter 7
MATLAB® and Simscape Multibody Files

J.1 Planar Four-Bar Mechanism

The Appendix J.1 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
dynamic force analysis and simulation of planar four-bar mechanisms*. These files are
described in Table J.1. To conduct a static force analysis, the user first selects the preferred
unit system (either Metric or English units) for the written mechanism output.
After selecting the unit system, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions,
coupler force and follower torque, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link
masses, link mass moments of inertia, and the crank motion parameters in the file
Dynamic_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m. Values are specified for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1,
L1, the coupler force , the follower torque , the gravitational constant g, the center
of mass vectors R1, R 3, and R 7, link masses m1 through m3, and link mass moments of
inertia I1 through I3 (Figure J.1a) according to the Metric or English units listed in the file
(Figure J.2). Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rota-
tion increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified
for the angular velocity (angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank.
Figure J.2 illustrates the user-input sections of the file Dynamic_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m,
with sample values in bold type.† While most of the link vector values in this figure
appear in polar exponential form, they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and
complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, dynamic analysis data, and driving link
parameters in the file Dynamic_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file.
When running this file, one file (filename Dynamic_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named
Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft® Excel) that includes the calculated mecha-
nism output at each crank link rotation increment.‡ The calculated mechanism output is
included in Figure J.1b.
When running Dynamic_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears
where the motion of the planar four-bar mechanism is simulated over the defined crank
rotation range (see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes
functions that preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder
can be deleted, however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

* The library of MATLAB files presented in this appendix can also be downloaded from the authors’ server
http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.zip.
† The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
‡ If the mechanism experiences a circuit defect (or if the crank decelerates to a zero velocity state), results

beyond this point are not written to the *.csv file.

497
498 Appendix J

TABLE J.1
Appendix J.1 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Dynamic_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions, mass parameters, coupler
force, and crank link controls
Dynamic_Planar_4Bar_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion.
rotz.m File rotz.m is used in the file Dynamic_Planar_4Bar_Model.slx.
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)

FIGURE J.1
(a) Planar four-bar mechanism and (b) output variables (angle τ shown in Figure I.2a).

J.2 Slider-Crank Mechanism

The Appendix J.2 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for
the dynamic force analysis and simulation of slider-crank mechanisms. These files are
described in Table J.2. To conduct a static force analysis, the user first selects the preferred
unit system (either Metric or English units) for the written mechanism output.
After selecting the unit system, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions,
slider force, dynamic friction coefficient, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors,
link masses and mass moments of inertia, and the crank motion parameters in the file
Appendix J 499

FIGURE J.2
Sections of Dynamic_Planar_4Bar_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

TABLE J.2
Appendix J.2 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Dynamic_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions, mass parameters, slider
force, and crank link controls
Dynamic_Slider_Crank_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism
rotz.m motion. File rotz.m is used in the file Dynamic_Slider_Crank_
Model.slx.
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)

Dynamic_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m. Values are specified for link variables W1, V1, U1, the
slider force F, the dynamic friction coefficient ±µ, the gravitational constant g, the center
500 Appendix J

FIGURE J.3
(a) Slider-crank mechanism and (b) output variables.

of mass vectors R1 and R 3, link masses m1 through m3, and link mass moments of inertia
I1 and I2 (Figure J.3a) according to the Metric or English units listed in the file (Figure J.4).
Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment
(step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular
velocity (angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure J.4 illus-
trates the user-input sections of the file Dynamic_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m, with sample
values in bold type.*
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, dynamic analysis data, and and driving
link parameters in the file Dynamic_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this
file. When running this file, one file (filename Dynamic_Loads.csv) is written to a folder
named Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated
mechanism output at each crank link rotation increment. The calculated mechanism out-
put is included in Figure J.3b.
When running Dynamic_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears
where the motion of the slider-crank mechanism is simulated over the defined crank rota-
tion range (see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes func-
tions that preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can
be deleted, however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

J.3 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Two Gears)

The Appendix J.3 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the dynamic
force analysis and simulation of geared five-bar mechanisms having two gears. These files

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
Appendix J 501

FIGURE J.4
Sections of Dynamic_Slider_Crank_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

are described in Table J.3. To conduct a static force analysis, the user first selects the pre-
ferred unit system (either Metric or English units) for the written mechanism output.
After selecting the unit system, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions,
intermediate link force, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link masses, mass
moments of inertia, and the crank motion parameters in the file Dynamic_5Bar_2Gear_
Simulate.m. Values are specified for link variables W1, V1, G1, U1, L1, S1, the intermedi-
ate link force , the gravitational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1, R 3, R 7, and
R9, link masses m1 through m4, and link mass moments of inertia I1 through I4 (Figure
502 Appendix J

TABLE J.3
Appendix J.3 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Dynamic_5Bar_2Gear_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions, mass parameters,
coupler force, and crank link controls
Dynamic_5Bar_2Gear_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion.
rotz.m File rotz.m is used in the file Dynamic_5Bar_2Gear_Model.slx.
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)
Make_Gear.m To generate the spur gears in the geared five-bar mechanism
dist.m animation and simulate their motion. Files dist.m, rotateZ.m and
rotateZ.m scaleXY.m are used in the file Make_Gear.m.
scaleXY.m

FIGURE J.5
(a) Geared five-bar mechanism and (b) output variables.

J.5a) according to the Metric or English units listed in the file (Figure J.6). Values are also
specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang),
and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity
Appendix J 503

%---------------------------------------------------------------
% Here, values for the geared 5-bar mechanism variables W1, V1,
% G1, U1, L1 and S1 are assigned. The link force Fp1, gear
% ratio, gravity "g", center of mass vectors R1, R3, R7 and R9,
% link masses and link mass moments of inertia are specified
% here also. Only negative gear ratio values should be
% specified.
%
% Available units are the following:
% 'SI' (Metric) : Length [meter], Mass [kg] and Force [N]
% 'US' (English): Length [inch], Mass [lbm] and Force [lbf]

unit_select = 'SI';
W1 = 0.5*exp(i*90*pi/180);
V1 = 0.75*exp(i*32.7304*pi/180);
G1 = 0.75 + i*0;
U1 = 0.75*exp(i*45*pi/180);
L1 = 0.5*exp(i*74.1400*pi/180);
S1 = 0.75*exp(i*149.9847*pi/180);

Fp1 = [0,-1000]; ratio = -2; g = -9.81;

R1 = 0 - i*0.0831; R3 = -0.2558 - i*0.2955;

R7 = 0.3247 - i*0.1876; R9 = -0.0356 - i*0.0356;

R2 = R1 + W1; R4 = R3 + V1; R5 = R3 + L1; R6 = R7 + S1;

R8 = R9 + U1;

m1 = 22.54; I1 = 0.505;
m2 = 29.785; I2 = 5.635;
m3 = 12.075; I3 = 2.415;
m4 = 75.67; I4 = 5.635;

% Number of teeth of the driving gear

Na = 20;
%---------------------------------------------------------------

%---------------------------------------------------------------
% Here, values for the start, step and stop displacement angles
% for the crank link are assigned.

start_ang = 0;
step_ang = 1;
stop_ang = 360;
%---------------------------------------------------------------
%---------------------------------------------------------------
% Here, values for crank link angular velocity and angular
% acceleration are assigned.

angular_vel = 1;
angular_acc = 0;
%---------------------------------------------------------------

FIGURE J.6
Sections of Dynamic_5Bar_2Gear_Simulate.m with sample values in bold (see Appendix H.3 for an explanation
of specifying the number of the number of driving gear teeth).

(angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure J.6 illustrates the
user-input sections of the file Dynamic_5Bar_2Gear_Simulate.m, with sample values in bold
type.* While most of the link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponential form,
they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, dynamic analysis data, driving link param-
eters in the file Dynamic_5Bar_2Gear_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file. When run-
ning this file, one file (filename Dynamic_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in
a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
504 Appendix J

TABLE J.4
Appendix J.4 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Dynamic_5Bar_3Gear_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions, mass parameters, coupler
force, and crank link controls
Dynamic_5Bar_3Gear_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion.
rotz.m File rotz.m is used in the file Dynamic_5Bar_3Gear_Model.slx.
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)
Make_Gear.m To generate the spur gears in the geared five-bar mechanism
dist.m animation and simulate their motion. Files dist.m, rotateZ.m and
rotateZ.m scaleXY.m are used in the file Make_Gear.m.
scaleXY.m

at each crank link rotation increment.* The calculated mechanism output is included in
Figure J.5b.
When running Dynamic_5Bar_2Gear_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears
where the motion of the geared five-bar mechanism is simulated over the defined crank
rotation range (see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes
functions that preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder
can be deleted, however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

J.4 Geared Five-Bar Mechanism (Three Gears)

The Appendix J.4 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
dynamic force analysis and simulation of geared five-bar mechanisms having three gears.
These files are described in Table J.4.
The procedure to use these MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files is identical to the
procedure given in Appendix J.3. In the file Dynamic_5Bar_3Gear_Simulate.m, the user also
specifies values for variables m5 and I5 (the mass and mass moment of inertia of the idler
gear, respectively).

TABLE J.5
Appendix J.5 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Dynamic_Watt_II_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions, mass parameters, coupler
force, and crank link controls
Dynamic_Watt_II_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion.
rotz.m File rotz.m is used in the file Dynamic_Watt_II_Model.slx.
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)

* If the mechanism experiences a circuit defect (or if the crank decelerates to a zero velocity state), results
beyond this point are not written to the *.csv file.
Appendix J 505

FIGURE J.7
(a) Watt II mechanism and (b) output variables.

J.5 Watt II Mechanism

The Appendix J.5 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.com/p/
book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the dynamic
force analysis and simulation of Watt II mechanisms. These files are described in Table
J.5. To conduct a static force analysis, the user first selects the preferred unit system (either
Metric or English units) for the written mechanism output.
After selecting the unit system, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions, coupler
link forces and follower torques, gravitational constant, center of mass vectors, link masses
506 Appendix J

FIGURE J.8
Sections of Dynamic_Watt_II_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

and mass moments of inertia, and the crank motion parameters in the file Dynamic_Watt_
II_Simulate.m. Values are specified for link variables , the
coupler forces and , the follower torques and , the gravitational constant g, the
center of mass vectors R1, R 3, R 7, R9, and R13, link masses m1 through m5, and link mass
moments of inertia I1 through I5 (Figure J.7a) according to the Metric or English units listed
in the file (Figure J.8) Values are also specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the
crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are
specified for the angular velocity (angular_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the
Appendix J 507

crank. Figure J.8 illustrates the user-input sections of the file Dynamic_Watt_II_Simulate.m,
with sample values in bold type.* While most of the link vector values in this figure appear
in polar exponential form, they can all be specified in any of the rectangular and complex
forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, dynamic analysis data, and driving link
parameters in the file Dynamic_Watt_II_Simulate, the next step is to run this file. When
running this file, one file (filename Dynamic_Loads.csv) is written to a folder named Results
(in a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism out-
put at each crank link rotation increment.† The calculated mechanism output is included
in Figure J.7b.
When running Dynamic_Watt_II_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears where
the motion of the Watt II mechanism is simulated over the defined crank rotation range
(see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes functions that
preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can be deleted,
however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

J.6 Stephenson III Mechanism

The Appendix J.6 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for
the dynamic force analysis and simulation of Stephenson III mechanisms. These files are
described in Table J.6. To conduct a static force analysis, the user first selects the preferred
unit system (either Metric or English units) for the written mechanism output.
After selecting the unit system, the user specifies the mechanism link dimensions,
coupler link force and follower torques, gravitational constant, center of mass vec-
tors, link masses and mass moments of inertia, and the crank motion parameters in
the file Dynamic_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m. Values are specified for link variables
, the coupler force , the follower torques and ,
the gravitational constant g, the center of mass vectors R1, R 3, R 7, R 8, and R12, link masses
m1 through m5, and link mass moments of inertia I1 through I5 (Figure J.9a) according to the
Metric or English units listed in the file (Figure J.10). Values are also specified for the initial
crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final crank angle

TABLE J.6
Appendix J.6 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Dynamic_Stephenon_III_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions, mass parameters,
coupler force, and crank link controls
Dynamic_Stephenson_III_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion.
rotz.m File rotz.m is used in the file Dynamic_Stephenson_III_Model.slx.
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
† If the mechanism experiences a circuit defect (or if the crank decelerates to a zero velocity state), results

beyond this point are not written to the *.csv file.

508 Appendix J

FIGURE J.9
(a) Stephenson III mechanism and (b) output variables.

(stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity (angular_vel) and angular
acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure J.10 illustrates the user-input sections of the
file Dynamic_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m, with sample values in bold type.* While most of
the link vector values in this figure appear in polar exponential form, they can all be speci-
fied in any of the rectangular and complex forms given in Equation 2.1.
After specifying the mechanism dimensions, dynamic analysis data, and driving link
parameters in the file Dynamic_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m., the next step is to run this
file. When running this file, one file (filename Dynamic_Loads.csv) is written to a folder
named Results (in a format compatible with Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
Appendix J 509

FIGURE J.10
Sections of Dynamic_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

mechanism output at each crank link rotation increment.* The calculated mechanism out-
put is included in Figure J.9b.
When running Dynamic_Stephenson_III_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears
where the motion of the Stephenson III mechanism is simulated over the defined crank
rotation range (see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes
functions that preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder
can be deleted, however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

* If the mechanism experiences a circuit defect (or if the crank decelerates to a zero velocity state), results
beyond this point are not written to the *.csv file.
Appendix K: User Instructions for Chapter 10
MATLAB® and Simscape Multibody Files

K.1 RRSS Mechanism

The Appendix K.1 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and SimMechanics files for the kine-
matic analysis and simulation of RRSS mechanisms*. These three files are described in
Table K.1. To conduct a kinematic analysis, the user specifies the mechanism point coordi-
nates and the crank motion parameters in the file Kinematic_RRSS_Simulate.m. Values are
specified for link variables a0, ua0, a1, ua1, b0, b1, p1, q1, and r1 (Figure K.1a). Values are also
specified for the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and
the final crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity (angu-
lar_vel) and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure K.2 illustrates the user-
input sections of the file Kinematic_RRSS_Simulate.m, with sample values in bold type.†
After specifying the dimensions and driving link parameters in the file Kinematic_
RRSS_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file, one file (file-
name Disp_Vel_Acc.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with
Microsoft® Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank link rota-
tion increment.‡ The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure K.1b.
When running Kinematic_RRSS_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears where
the motion of the RRSS mechanism is simulated over the defined crank rotation range
(see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes functions that
preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can be deleted,
however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

K.2 RSSR Mechanism

The Appendix K.2 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
kinematic analysis and simulation of RSSR mechanisms. These files are described in Table
K.2. To conduct a kinematic analysis, the user specifies the mechanism point coordinates

* The MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files presented in this appendix can also be downloaded from the
authors’ server http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_FILES.
zip.
† The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
‡ If the mechanism experiences a circuit defect (or if the crank decelerates to a zero velocity state), results
beyond this point are not written to the *.csv file.

511
512 Appendix K

TABLE K.1
Appendix K.1 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Kinematic_RRSS_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions and crank link controls,
M_xform.m file M_xform.m is used in the file Kinematic_RRSS_Simulate.m.
Kinematic_RRSS_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)

FIGURE K.1
(a) RRSS mechanism and (b) output variables.

FIGURE K.2
Sections of Kinematic_RRSS_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.
Appendix K 513

and the crank motion parameters in the file Kinematic_RSSR_Simulate.m. Values are speci-
fied for link variables a0, ua0, a1, b0, ub0, and b1 (Figure K.3a). Values are also specified for
the initial crank angle (start_ang), the crank rotation increment (step_ang), and the final
crank angle (stop_ang). Lastly, values are specified for the angular velocity (angular_vel)
and angular acceleration (angular_acc) of the crank. Figure K.4 illustrates the user-input
sections of the file Kinematic_RSSR_Simulate.m, with sample values in bold type.*
After specifying the dimensions and driving link parameters in the file Kinematic_
RSSR_Simulate.m, the next step is to run this file. When running this file, one file (file-
names Disp_Vel_Acc.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with
Microsoft Excel) that includes the calculated mechanism output at each crank link rotation
increment.†The calculated mechanism output is included in Figure K.3b.
When running Kinematic_RSSR_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears where
the motion of the RSSR mechanism is simulated over the defined crank rotation range
(see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes functions that
preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can be deleted,
however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

TABLE K.2
Appendix K.2 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
Kinematic_RSSR_Simulate.m To specify mechanism link dimensions and crank link controls,
M_xform.m file M_xform.m is used in the file inematic_RSSR_Simulate.m.
Kinematic_RSSR_Model.slx To calculate mechanism output and simulate mechanism motion
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write mechanism output (compatible with Microsoft Excel)

FIGURE K.3
(a) RSSR mechanism and (b) output variables.

* The units for crank angular rotation, velocity, and acceleration are degrees, rad/s, and rad/s2, respectively.
† If the mechanism experiences a circuit defect (or if the crank decelerates to a zero velocity state), results

beyond this pointare not written to the *.csv file.

514 Appendix K

FIGURE K.4
Sections of Kinematic_RSSR_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.
Appendix L: User Instructions for Chapter 11
MATLAB® and Simscape Multibody Files

L.1 R-P-P Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics

The Appendix L.1 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
forward kinematic analysis and simulation of R-P-P robotic manipulators. These files are
described in Table L.1.* To conduct an R-P-P forward kinematics analysis, the user speci-
fies the R-P-P joint displacements in the file RPP_Input.csv. This file is compatible with
Microsoft® Excel. Also, 3{p3} is specified in the file RPP_FK_Simulate.m. Figure L.1 illus-
trates the user-input section of this file, with sample values in bold type.
After specifying the R-P-P joint displacements in RPP_Input.csv and 3{p3} in RPP_FK_
Simulate.m, the next step is to run RPP_FK_Simulate.m. When running this file, one file
(filename RPP_p3.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible with
Microsoft Excel) that includes the 0{p3} values calculated for the given 3{p3} value and joint
displacement values.
When running RPP_FK_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears where the motion
of the R-P-P robotic manipulator is simulated over the defined joint displacements (see
Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes functions that pre-
clude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can be deleted,
however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

L.2 R-R-P Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics

The Appendix L.2 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
forward kinematic analysis and simulation of R-R-P robotic manipulators. These files are
described in Table L.2. To conduct an R-R-P forward kinematics analysis, the user speci-
fies the R-R-P joint displacements in the file RRP_Input.csv. This file is compatible with
Microsoft Excel. Also, 3{p3}, l1, and l2 are specified in the file RRP_FK_Simulate.m. Figure L.2
illustrates the user-input section of this file, with sample values in bold type.
After specifying the R-R-P joint displacements in RRP_Input.csv and 3{p3}, l1, and l2 in
RRP_FK_Simulate.m, the next step is to run RRP_FK_Simulate.m. When running this file,
one file (file-name RRP_p3.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible

* The MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files presented in this appendix can also be downloaded from
the authors’ server http://www.softalink.com/kruss/kin_dyn_mech_sys_3rd_ed/MATLAB_SIMMECH_
FILES.zip.

515
516 Appendix L

TABLE L.1
Appendix L.1 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
RPP_Input.csv To specify joint displacements
RPP_FK_Simulate.m To specify 3{p3}
RPP_FK_Model.slx To calculate manipulator output and simulate manipulator motion
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write manipulator output (in a file compatible with Microsoft
Excel)

FIGURE L.1
Section of RPP_FK_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

TABLE L.2
Appendix L.2 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
RRP_Input.csv To specify joint displacements
RRP_FK_Simulate.m To specify 3{p3}, l1, and l2
RRP_FK_Model.slx To calculate manipulator output and simulate manipulator motion
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write manipulator output (in a file compatible with Microsoft
Excel)

FIGURE L.2
Section of RRP_FK_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

FIGURE L.3
Section of RRR_FK_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.
Appendix L 517

TABLE L.3
Appendix L.3 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
RRR_Input.csv To specify joint displacements
RRR_FK_Simulate.m To specify 3{p3}, l1, and l2
RRR_FK_Model.slx To calculate manipulator output and simulate manipulator motion
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write manipulator output (in a file compatible with Microsoft Excel)

TABLE L.4
Appendix L.4 MATLAB and Simscape Multibody Files
Filename Use of File
RRC_Input.csv To specify joint displacements
RRC_FK_Simulate.m To specify 3{p3}, l1, l2, and l3
RRC_FK_Model.slx To calculate manipulator output and simulate manipulator motion
Post_Simulation_Task.m To write manipulator output (in a file compatible with Microsoft Excel)

with Microsoft Excel) that includes the 3{p3} values calculated for the given3{p3}, length,
and joint displacement values.
When running RRP_FK_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears where the motion
of the R-R-P robotic manipulator is simulated over the defined joint displacements (see
Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes functions that pre-
clude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can be deleted,
however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).

L.3 R-R-R Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics

The Appendix L.3 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
forward kinematic analysis and simulation of R-R-R robotic manipulators. These files are
described in Table L.3. To conduct an R-R-R forward kinematics analysis, the user speci-
fies the R-R-R joint displacements in the file RRR_Input.csv. This file is compatible with
Microsoft Excel. Also, 3{p3}, l1, and l2 are specified in the file RRR_FK_Simulate.m. Figure
L.3 illustrates the user-input section of this file, with sample values in bold type.
After specifying the R-R-R joint displacements in RRR_Input.csv and 3{p3}, l1, and l2 in
RRR_FK_Simulate.m, the next step is to run RRR_FK_Simulate.m. When running this file,
one file (filename RRR_p3.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible
with Microsoft Excel) that includes the 0{p3} values calculated for the given 3{p3}, length,
and joint displacement values.
When running RRR, a graphical user interface appears where the motion of the R-R-R
robotic manipulator is simulated over the defined joint displacements (see Appendix A.3).
Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes functions that preclude recompiling
the model in future simulations. This optional folder can be deleted, however (e.g., if folder
storage space is inadequate).
518 Appendix L

FIGURE L.4
Section of RRC_FK_Simulate.m with sample values in bold.

L.4 R-R-C Robotic Manipulator Forward Kinematics

The Appendix L.4 folder (which is available for download at https://www.routledge.
com/p/book/9781032328317) includes the MATLAB and Simscape Multibody files for the
forward kinematic analysis and simulation of R-R-C robotic manipulators. These files are
described in Table L.4. To conduct an R-R-C forward kinematics analysis, the user speci-
fies the R-R-C joint displacements in the file RRC_Input.csv. This file is compatible with
Microsoft Excel. Also, 3{p3}, l1, l2, and l3 are specified in the file RRC_FK_Simulate.m. Figure
L.4 illustrates the user-input section of this file, with sample values in bold type.
After specifying the R-R-C joint displacements in RRC_Iinput.csv and 3{p3}, l1, l2, and l3 in
RRC_FK_Simulate.m, the next step is to run RRC_FK_Simulate.m. When running this file,
one file (filename RRC_p3.csv) is written to a folder named Results (in a format compatible
with Microsoft Excel) that includes the 0{p3} values calculated for the given 3{p3}, length,
and joint displacement values.
When running RRC_FK_Simulate.m, a graphical user interface appears where the
motion of the R-R-C robotic manipulator is simulated over the defined joint displacements
(see Appendix A.3). Also, the folder slprq is written. This folder includes functions that
preclude recompiling the model in future simulations. This optional folder can be deleted,
however (e.g., if folder storage space is inadequate).
Index

A Binding position, 53
Branch defect, 135–137
Acceleration equations, 63–64, 83–89, 93–95,
elimination, 142–146, 167
104–105, 355–358, 355–358
coupler angular, 356
follower angular, 360
C
RRSS, 356
RSSR, 360 Cam joint, 46, 56, 59
Addendum, 283, 286 Cam profile, 339
AGMA, see American Gear Manufacturers Cartesian robot, 386, 387
Association (AGMA) forward kinematics, 391–392
Aircraft in flight, 4 inverse kinematics, 402–404
Aircraft landing-gear example and motion Cayley diagram, 109–112, 120
generation, 137 Center distance, 288–289
American Gear Manufacturers Association Centrode, 78–80, 89–90, 119, 120, 425–427
(AGMA), 283, 292 Change point mechanism, 51
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), Circuit defect, 53–54, 57, 74, 136, 425
283, 294 Circular motion, see Pure rotation
Angular acceleration, 65–66, 93, 95, 105, 108 Circular pitch, 283, 293, 310
coupler, 70, 356 Clearance, 283
follower, 360 Closed-loop design, 383
matrix, 31 Coefficient matrix, 22
Angular velocity, 78, 104, 108, 155–156, 227 Cognate construction, 109–111
coupler, 68, 82, 355 Column matrix, 23
crank, 78, 92 transpose, addition, subtraction, and
follower, 157, 360 multiplication of, 23–26
gear, 279, 296 Compacting mechanism, 7–8
link, 64–66, 93, 155 Complex motion, 5, 6, 10, 41, 45–45, 56
matrix, 31 Complex number, 36
time and driver, 108 addition, 15–16
ANSI, see American National Standards forms, 13–15
Institute (ANSI) multiplication and differentiation, 17–20
Aronhold–Kennedy theorem, 76 Constant acceleration motion, 325–327, 457–459
Articulated robot, 387 Constant velocity motion, 323–325, 457
forward kinematics, 397–399, 467–468, Contact force, 340–342, 345
517–518 Contact line, 287
inverse kinematics, 407–409, 471 length, 288
Assembly configurations, 108 Contact ratio, 288–289
Coriolis acceleration, 66, 87
Coupler, 41, 50, 179, 230, 249, 352
B
angular acceleration, 70, 356
Backlash, 291 angular velocity, 68, 82, 355
Base circle, 285, 287, 289, 290, 298, 339–340, 342 displacement angles, 75, 140, 154, 160, 353
diameter, 283, 287 locations of interest kinematics, 70–75
Base frame, 385, 388–389 path points, 146
Base pitch, 288 position, 137
Bevel gears, 281, 306–309, 313 Cramer’s rule, 27, 37, 70, 82, 84, 149, 154, 157,
Binary link, 46 191–201, 232–250

519
520 Index

Crank displacement angles, 91, 134, 151, 154, Displacement equations, 66–67, 80–81, 85, 91–92,
165, 166 100–102, 352–354, 358–359
Crank link, 41, 67, 109, 179, 230, 352 follower, 328, 330
Crank-rocker mechanism, 50, 52 formulation of, 63
Crossed shafts, 292 DOF, see Degrees of freedom (DOF)
Cycloid, 287 Door linkage, 74
Cycloidal motion, 330–333, 461 Double-crank mechanism, 50, 53
Cylindrical joint, 46, 56, 351, 386, 387 Double enveloping, 310
Cylindrical robot, 386, 387 Double-rocker mechanism, 50–52
forward kinematics, 393–394, 467–468, 515–517 Double thread, 310
inverse kinematics, 404–405, 470 Drag-link, see Double-crank mechanism
Dynamic force analysis, of planar
mechanisms, 227
D
dynamic loading in planar space, 228
Dedendum, 283 four-bar mechanism analysis, 228–233
Degrees of freedom (DOF), 3, 46–47, 56, 187, 351 geared five-bar mechanism analysis, 237–242
passive, 352 mass moment of inertia and computer-aided
and paradoxes, 55–56 design software, 252–254
Denavit–Hartenberg (DH) parameters, 390 planar mechanism and modeling in
Diametral pitch, 283 Simscape Multibody, 254–262
Dimensional synthesis, 7, 133 slider-crank mechanism analysis, 234–237
branch and order defects, 135–137 Stephenson III mechanism analysis, 247–252
elimination, 142–146 Watt II mechanism analysis, 242–247
kinematic analysis vs., 134 Dynamics, meaning of, 1
mechanism dimensions, 160–165
path generation vs. motion generation,
E
146–147
planar four-bar function generation finitely Electro-mechanical systems, 383
separated positions (FSPs) and End effector, 385
multiply separated positions (MSPs), Enveloping worm-gear teeth, 310
155–160 Epicycloid, 287
three precision points, 151–155 External gear, 280, 288
planar four-bar motion generation, 137–141
Stephenson III motion generation, 147–151
F
subcategories of, 135
Disk cam, 319 Face width, 283
design and pressure angle, 339–344 Filemon’s construction, 142–143
follower motion, 321–339 Fixed centrode, 78–79, 90, 119–120, 426
constant acceleration motion, 325–327 Fixed pivot, 110, 142, 352, 425
constant velocity motion, 323–325 Flat-faced cam, see Disk cam
cycloidal motion, 330–333 Flat-faced follower, 320, 321
displacement, velocity, acceleration, and Follower angular acceleration equation, 361
jerk,≈323 Follower displacement angles, 134, 152, 154,
polynomial motion, 333–339 165, 166
rise, fall, and dwell profiles, 321–322 Follower link, 41, 50–52, 55–57, 77, 109, 142, 143,
simple harmonic motion, 328–330 146, 151, 355
follower types in, 320–321 Follower motion
nomenclature, 340 constant acceleration motion, 325–327
Displacement angles, 113, 151–152, 154, 165 constant velocity motion, 323–325
coupler, 75, 147, 154, 160, 353 cycloidal motion, 330–333
crank, 102, 134, 151, 154, 165, 166 displacement, velocity, acceleration, and
dyad, 102, 139–140, 142 jerk, 323
follower, 134, 151, 154, 165, 166 polynomial motion, 333–339
Index 521

rise, fall, and dwell profiles, 321–322 rack and pinion gears, 303
simple harmonic motion, 328–330 spur gears and gear trains, 295–298
Forward kinematics worm gears, 309–312
definition and application, 391 pressure angle and involute tooth profile,
P-P-P robotic manipulator, 391–392 284–287
R-P-P robotic manipulator, 393–394, spur-gear nomenclature, 282–284
467–468, 515 types, 280–282
R-R-C robotic manipulator, 399–401, Gear-tooth interference and undercutting, 289–291
469–470, 518 Gear train, 42, 91, 190–191, 279
R-R-P robotic manipulator, 395–397, 467, and spur-gear, 295–298
515–516 Global acceleration, 94, 104, 355–356, 360
R-R-R robotic manipulator, 397–399, Global velocity, 92, 103, 354, 360
467–469, 517 Grashof’s criteria, 50–51, 57
Frames, 385, 388–390 Gripper, 385
Free choices, in equations, 139, 149 Ground link, 2, 43, 47, 140, 249
Friction force, 185, 235, 236, 279, 320 Gruebler’s equation, 46, 55, 56, 66, 80, 385
Full joint, see Lower pair
Function curve, with precision points, 152
H
Function generation, 7, 10, 134
finitely separated positions (FSPs) and Half joint, see Higher pair
multiply separated positions (MSPs), Helical gear, 281, 304–305, 309–311, 313
155–160 left-hand, 292, 304
planar four-bar mechanism, 160, 165, 166 nomenclature, 292–295
three precision points, 151–155 right-hand, 292, 304
Fundamental law of gearing, 287 Helix angle, 292–294, 310, 311
Higher pair, 46
Home position, 340
G
Hypocycloid, 287
Geared five-bar mechanism, 42–43
acceleration equations, 93–95
I
displacement equations, 91–92
dynamic force analysis, 237–242 IC, see Instant center (IC)
kinematics of intermediate link locations of Identity matrix, 26, 353
interest, 95–97 Idler gear, 297
MATLAB, 429–430, 438–440, 447–449, Image pole, 145, 146
477–478, 480, 489, 500, 502, 504 Imaginary component, 14–16, 67–69, 119, 138–139
static force analysis, 187–192 In-line slider crank, 81
velocity equations, 92–93 Instant center (IC), 76–80, 119, 426
Gear joint, 46, 56 Interference, 289
Gear mating process, 286 Intermediate acceleration, 32
Gear pair, 56, 91, 190–191, 279, 280 Intermediate and total spatial motion, 29–33
Gear-pitch angle, 306 Intermediate displacement, 31
Gear ratio, 91, 190, 300, 313 Intermediate velocity, 31
Gears, 279–280 Internal gear, 28
backlash, 292–293 International System of Units, 8, 283
center distance and contact ratio, 288–289 Inverse kinematics
gear-tooth interference and undercutting, definition and application, 402
289–291 P-P-P, 402–404
helical-gear nomenclature, 292–295 R-P-P, 404–405, 470
kinematics, 295–312 R-R-C, 409–410, 472–473
bevel gears, 306–309 R-R-P, 406–407, 470–471
helical gears, 304–305 R-R-R, 407–409, 471–472
planetary gear trains, 299–302 Involute gear tooth, 287
522 Index

J M
Jerk, 323 Mass moment of inertia and computer-aided
Joints, 46 design software, 252–254
cam, 46, 56 MATLAB, 9, 10, 14–18, 159–160, 301–305, 390
cylindrical, 46, 56, 351, 386 calculation procedure, see individual entries
full, 46 constant acceleration motion, 457–459
gear, 46, 56 constant velocity motion, 457
half, 46 cycloidal motion, 461
prismatic, 46, 56, 80, 386, 392, 400 equation formulation in, 88–89
revolute, 46, 66, 76–100, 179–198, 228–248, 386 functions and operators, 420
spherical, 46, 56, 351, 352, 386 geared five-bar mechanism, 429, 438–439,
447–449, 477–479, 489–490, 500–504
planar four-bar mechanism, 425–427, 435,
K
445, 475, 485, 497–498
Kinematics, 1–2; see also individual entries 3-4-5 polynomial motion, 461
chains and mechanisms, 2–3 4-5-6-7 polynomial motion, 461
dimensional synthesis and, 134, 160–165 precision requirement, 424
fundamental concepts in, 41–56 preparing and running files in, 419–422
mathematical concepts in, 13–36 rerunning files with existing *.csv files, 424
mechanism motion types, 5–6 R-P-P robotic manipulator forward
mobility, planar, ad spatial mechanisms, 3–5 kinematics, 467–468, 515–516
planar mechanisms and, 63–119 inverse kinematics, 470
software resources, 9 R-R-C manipulator forward kinematics,
synthesis, 7–8, 10 469–470, 518
units and conversion, 8–9 inverse kinematics, 472–473
Knife-edge follower, 320, 321 R-R-P robotic manipulator forward
kinematics, 467, 515
inverse kinematics, 470–471
L
R-R-R manipulator forward kinematics, 467,
Level-luffing crane mechanism, 71–73, 146, 178, 468, 517
367, 369 inverse kinematics, 471–472
Linear equation, 22, 37, 154 RRSS mechanism, 463, 464, 511–512
Linear motion, see Pure translation RSSR mechanism, 463, 511–514
Linear simultaneous equation systems and simple harmonic motion, 459–461
matrices, 22–23, 37 slider-crank mechanism, 427–429, 435–438,
Linkage, 383; see also Mechanism; Planar 445–447, 475–477, 485–489, 498–500
mechanism kinematic analysis; Spatial Stephenson III mechanism, 432–433,
mechanisms 442–443, 451–455, 483–484, 494–496,
Links 507–509
angular velocity, 64, 93, 155 vector first-order differentiation procedure
binary, 46 in, 19
crank, 41, 67, 109, 179, 230, 352 Watt II mechanism, 430–432, 440–441,
drag, see Double-crank mechanism 449–451, 480–483, 490–494, 505–507
follower, 41, 50–56, 77, 109, 142–151, 355 Matrix, 22–23, 68, 139
ground, 3, 43, 46, 47, 142, 249 angular acceleration, 31
velocity and acceleration components and, angular velocity, 31
64–66 coefficient, 22
rotating, 64 column, 22–27
rotating-sliding, 66 combined, 181–195, 231–246, 250
ternary, 46 identity, 26, 353
Load points, 229, 234, 238 inversion, 26–29
Lower pair, 46 products, 26
Index 523

row, 23 Periodic functions, 328

spatial angular acceleration matrix, 31 Pinion-pitch angle, 306
spatial angular displacement matrix, 29 Pitch circle, 282, 284, 287, 291
spatial angular velocity matrix, 31 Pitch circumference, 310
square, 24, 26 Pitch curve, 340
transformation matrix, 33–36, 387–401 Pitch diameter, 282, 288, 293, 306
Maverick mechanisms, see Paradoxes worm, 309, 311
mechanisms Pitch-line velocity, 296
Mechanism inversion, 54–55, 57 Pitch point, 287
Mechanism mobility, 46–48, 56 Planar four-bar mechanism, 41, 42, 54, 56, 112
Mechanisms, 2, 10; see also Linkage acceleration equations, 68–70
Module, 283 branch defect, 135
Motion generation, 7, 10, 134, 143, 165 with circuit defect, 53
analytical, 134, 142 coupler locations of interest kinematics, 70–75
path generation vs., 146–147 displacement equations, 66
planar four-bar mechanism, 137–141, 160 dyads, 137
with prescribed timing, 140, 142, 165 dynamic force analysis, 228–233
Stephenson III mechanism, 147–151, 160 function generation, 160, 165
Moving centrode, 79–80, 89–90, 120, 425–427 finitely separated positions (FSPs) and
Moving pivot, 142–146, 352–356, 359–361, 425 multiply separated positions (MSPs),
155–160
three precision points, 151–155
N
instant center, centrodes, and centrode
Newton’s first law, 1, 7, 177, 178, 209 generation, 76–80
Newton’s second law, 1, 227, 228, 262 MATLAB, 425–427, 435, 445, 475, 485, 497–498
Newton–Raphson method, 64, 119 motion generation, 137–141
flowchart, 64 RRSS and RSSR kinematic equations and, 367
Nodes, 46–47 static force analysis, 179–183
Normal acceleration, 68–69, 88–88, 93–94, 104 synthesis and analysis vectors for, 161
Normal circular pitch, 293 vectors and vector expressions in, 161
Normal diametral pitch, 293, 294 velocity equations, 67–68
Normal direction, 293, 294 Planar mechanism kinematic analysis, 63
Normal force, 185, 235, 297, 301, 304 cognate construction, 109–111
Normal module, 293 four-bar mechanism analysis, 66–80
Normal pressure angle, 294 geared five-bar mechanism analysis, 91–97
Number of teeth, 282, 300 link velocity and acceleration components
Number synthesis, 7, 10, 49–50, 56 and, 64–66
mechanism configurations, 108–109
and modeling in Simscape Multibody,
O
112–119
Offset cam system and pressure angle, 340 numerical solution method for two
Open loop design, 384 simultaneous equations, 64
Order defect, 136, 165–166 slider-crank mechanism analysis, 80–90
elimination, 142–146 Stephenson III mechanism analysis, 100–108
Overhead valve train and actuation time and driver angular velocity, 108
mechanism, 319, 320 Watt II mechanism analysis, 97–100
Planar multiloop six-bar mechanism, 44–45
Planetary gear trains, 299–302
P
Planet gear, 299, 301, 302
Paradox mechanisms, 55 Pliers, 42, 177, 178
Parking automobile, 6 in open and closed positions, 3
Passive degree of freedom, 55, 352 in plane, 5
Path generation, 134, 135, 146, 165 Point coordinates, 20, 35–37, 387, 393–402
524 Index

Polar exponential form, 14, 17, 18 Roberts diagram, 110

Polar forms, of vector, 14 Robotic manipulators, 5, 383, 384
Pole triangle, 145 forward kinematics
3-4-5 Polynomial, 333, 334, 336, 461 definition and application, 391
4-5-6-7 Polynomial, 336–338, 343–344, 461 P-P-P, 391–392
Polynomial motion, 333–339 R-P-P, 393–394
P-P-P robotic manipulator, see Cartesian robot R-R-C, 399–401
Precision points, 147, 151–155, 157, 166 R-R-P, 395–397
Pressure angle, 339 R-R-R, 397–399
equation, for disk cam and translating roller inverse kinematics
follower, 340 definition and application, 402
and involute tooth profile, 284–287 P-P-P, 402–404
and offset cam system, 341 R-P-P, 404–405
profile, for 4-5-6-7 polynomial cam and R-R-C, 409–410
translating follower, 344 R-R-P, 406–407
Pressure line, 285–287, 294, 297, 313 R-R-R, 407–409
Prime circle, 340 kinematic analysis, and Simscape Multibody
Prismatic joint, 46, 56, 80, 392, 396, 400 modeling, 411
Pure rotation, 5, 6, 10, 41, 43, 56 mobility and types, 385–387
Pure translation, 5, 6, 10, 41, 56 terminology and nomenclature, 384–385
transformation matrix, 387–390
Robotic system, with reference frames, 35
Q
Roller follower, 320–321
Qualitative kinematic analysis, 63 rotating
Quantitative kinematic analysis, 63 and cam system, 341
Quasi-static state, 177, 227 and disc cam, 342
Rolling conical wheels, 306
Rolling cylinder pair, 55, 279, 280
R
Rolling-sliding contact, 46
4R, see Revolute-revolute-revolute-revolute (4R) Root-finding method, 64, 119, 134, 404,
spherical mechanism 406, 407–409
Rack and pinion gear, 280, 303–304, 313 Rotating link, 64
Rack gear, 280, 303, 313 Rotating-sliding link, 66
Radial cam, see Disk cam Row matrix, 23
Radial force, 297, 308 R-P-P robotic manipulator, see Cylindrical robot
Real component, 14, 67–68, 81, 119, 138–139 R-R-C robotic manipulator, see Selective
Rectangular form, of vector, 14, 16 Compliance Assembly/Articulated
Revolute joint, 46, 66, 76–100, 179–198, 228–247, 386 Robot Arm
Revolute-revolute-revolute-revolute (4R) (SCARA) robot
spherical R-R-P robotic manipulator, see Spherical robot
mechanism, 45, 54, 363–367 R-R-R robotic manipulator, see Articulated
Revolute-revolute-spherical-spherical (RRSS) robot
mechanism, 45, 55–57 RRSS, see Revolute-revolute-spherical-spherical
acceleration equations, 352–358 (RRSS) mechanism
displacement equations, 352–354 RSSR, see Revolute-spherical-spherical-revolute
MATLAB, 463, 511 (RSSR) mechanism
velocity equations, 354–355
Revolute-spherical-spherical-revolute (RSSR)
S
mechanism, 45, 55–57
acceleration equations, 360–363 SCARA, see Selective Compliance Assembly/
displacement equations, 358–359 Articulated Robot Arm (SCARA) robot
MATLAB, 463–465, 511–514 Screw axis, 5, 10
velocity equations, 359–360 Screw motion, 5, 6, 10
Index 525

Selective Compliance Assembly/Articulated Spur-gear

Robot Arm (SCARA) robot, 386, 387 features, 282
forward kinematics, 399–401, 469–470, 518 and gear trains, 295–299
inverse kinematics, 409–411, 472 nomenclature, 282–284
Shaft angle, 306 size variation with diametral pitch, 284
Simple harmonic motion, 328–330, 459–461 types, 280
Simscape Multibody, 9–10, 112–120, 203–209, Square matrix, 24, 26
254–262, 370–373, 475–518 Static force analysis, of planar mechanisms,
operations in, 419–423 177–178
precision requirement, 424 four-bar mechanism analysis, 179–183
rerunning files with existing *.csv files, 424 geared five-bar mechanism analysis, 187–192
Simultaneous equations planar mechanism and modeling in
linear, 22–23, 27, 37, 165, 209, 262 Simscape Multibody, 203–209
nonlinear, 67, 92, 102, 119, 404, 406–409 slider-crank mechanism analysis, 184–187
numerical solution method for, 64 static loading in planar space, 178
Single thread, 310 Stephenson III mechanism analysis, 198–202
Slider-crank mechanism, 41, 42, 54, 77 Watt II mechanism analysis, 192–197
acceleration equations, 83–89 Statics, meaning of, 1
centrode generation, 89–90 Stephenson III mechanism, 44–46, 63
displacement equations, 80–81, 85 acceleration equations, 68–70
dynamic force analysis, 234–237 displacement equations, 100–102
instant centers and circle diagram, 78 dynamic force analysis, 247–252
MATLAB, 427–429, 435–438, 445–447, kinematics of intermediate link locations of
475–477, 485–489, 498–500 interest, 105–108
static force analysis, 184–187 MATLAB, 432–433, 442–443, 451–455,
velocity equations, 81–82, 85 483–484, 494–496, 507–510
Spatial angular acceleration matrix, 31 motion generation, 146–151
Spatial angular displacement matrix, 29 static force analysis, 198–202
Spatial angular velocity matrix, 31 synthesis and analysis vectors for, 160
Spatial four-bar mechanism, 45–46 vectors and vector expressions in, 161
types of, 45 velocity equations, 103–104
Spatial mechanisms, 351 Sun gear, 299, 301
4R spherical analysis, 363–367 Superposition, 301
and modeling in Simscape Multibody,
370–373
T
planar four-bar kinematic analysis using
RRSS and RSSR kinematic equations, Tabular method, 299–300
367–369 Tangent force, 297, 298
RRSS mechanism analysis Tangential acceleration, 68, 83, 87–88, 93–94, 104
acceleration equations, 355–358 Tangential velocity, 67, 82, 83, 92, 103
displacement equations, 352–354 Ternary link, 46
velocity equations, 354–355 Thread lead, 310
RSSR mechanism analysis Thread length, 310
acceleration equations, 360–363 Threads, 31
displacement equations, 358–359 Thrust bearings, 304
velocity equations, 359–360 Time and driver angular velocity, 108
Spatial motion, of two-body system, 30 Tool frame, 385
Spatial rotation, of arbitrary body, 30 Torque, see individual entries
Speed reduction system, 300 Total acceleration, 32, 69, 83, 230
Spherical joint, 46, 56, 351, 352, 387 Total velocity, 31, 66
Spherical robot, 387 Trace point, 340
forward kinematics, 395–397, 467, 515 Train value, 296
inverse kinematics, 406–407, 470–471 Transformation matrix, 33–36, 387–401
526 Index

Transmission angle, 50–53, 57, 61 Velocity ratio (VR), 279, 296, 301, 306, 311
vs. crank displacement angle plot, 113 Vibration analysis, 233
Transverse direction, 293 VR, see Velocity ratio (VR)
Triple-rocker mechanism, 50, 78
inverted, 78
Triple thread, 310 W
Type synthesis, 7, 10, 33
Waldron’s construction, 143, 145
Watt II mechanism, 45, 63, 97–100
U dynamic force analysis, 242–247
MATLAB, 430–432, 440–441, 449–451,
Undercutting, 290
480–483, 490–494, 505–507
Unit matrix, see Identity matrix
static force analysis, 192–197
US customary units, 8, 283
Whole depth, 283
Workspace, 384, 402, 406
V Worm gears, 281, 309–312
Worm helix angle, 310
Valve train assembly, 5–6
Worm lead angle, 310
Vector; see also individual entries
Worm pitch, 310
first-order differentiation procedure in
Worm-pitch diameter, 310, 312
MATLAB, 16
in loop, in two-dimensional complex space,
15, 16, 18 X
and point representation, 20–21
second-order differentiation procedure in x-Direction, 178, 230–244, 249–250, 359, 402
MATLAB, 19 x-y Plane, 3, 178, 351, 367
in two-dimensional complex space, 14 x-y-z Plane, 4, 33–34
Vector-loop, 37, 63, 70, 105, 119
errors, 424 Y
for four-bar mechanism, 137, 153, 157, 165, 166
standard-form, 138 y-Direction, 178, 185, 230–249, 342, 351, 387–390
Stephenson III motion generation, 147–151
sum, 18, 81, 85, 102
Z
Velocity equations, 67–68, 81–83, 92–93, 103–104,
354–355, 359–360 z-Direction, 177, 351, 359, 367, 387, 402