02/10/2023

4ENT2027

Civil Engineering and Practical Geology

Unit 1: Composition of soils

Dr Mostapha Boulbibane

Outline
 Introduction
 Types of rock
 Igneous, Sedimentary & Metamorphic rocks

 Origin of soil
 Alluvial Fluvial soils
 Glacial soils
 Marine & Organic soils

 Types of soils
 Sands and gravels
 Clays and Silts
 Others

 Clay minerals & Soils fabric

 Comparison between coarse-grained and fine-
grained soils for engineering use

2
 02/10/2023

Introduction

The word 'soil' does not refer to the material seen in gardens and inhabited by,
amongst other things, earthworms. To that we give the term 'Topsoil'. Instead,
soil means all those strata comprising the ground but which are not strong
enough to be rock.

Soils are formed from the physical and chemical weathering of rocks.

1. Physical weathering: involves reduction of size without any change in the

original composition of the parent rock. The main agents responsible for
this process are exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing, and thawing.

2. Chemical weathering: causes both reductions in size and chemical

alteration of the original parent rock. The main agents responsible for
chemical weathering are hydration, carbonation, and oxidation.

Rock Cycle
The rock cycle shows how the three
main types of rocks – igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic are
related to each other.

 Igneous rock: can change into

metamorphic rock or sedimentary
rock.

 Sedimentary rock can change into

metamorphic rock or igneous rock.

 Metamorphic rock can change into

another metamorphic rock, igneous
Figure 1.1 – Rock cycle
or sedimentary rock.

4
 02/10/2023

Types of rock

Rocks: can be divided into 3 basic types;

Igneous rock:
Formed by the solidification of molten magma ejected from deep within
the earth’s mantle (e.g. volcanic eruption).

Sedimentary rock
 The deposits of gravel, sand, silt & clay formed by weathering may
become compacted by overburden pressure & cemented by agents
(such as iron oxide, calcite, dolomite & quartz).
 They fill the spaces between particles & form sedimentary rock.

Metamorphic rock
 Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition & texture of
rocks, without melting, by heat & pressure.
 During metamorphism, new minerals are formed & mineral grains are
sheared to give a foliated texture to metamorphic rocks

Igneous rocks

Are formed when molten rock is cooled down. They are formed by volcanoes
erupt and discharge materials. There two basic types of molten rock:
• Magma – molten rock at some depth below the surface of the earth
• Lava – molten rock discharged from volcanoes at the surface of the earth.

The terms intrusive and extrusive are used to describe igneous rocks formed
beneath the surface and at the surface.

Intrusive rocks:
They have cooled slowly and they have large crystals (e.g. granite, Gabbro
and Diorite)

Extrusive rocks:
They have cooled rapidly and they have small crystals (e.g. Basalt, Rhyolite
and Andesite)

6
 02/10/2023

Igneous rocks
Table 1.1 – Common types of igneous rocks

Intrusive Rocks Extrusive Rocks

Granite Rhyolite
Mottled white, Made up of
red, pink, grey quartz,
and dark potassium and
crystals biotite mica
Gabbro Basalt
Greenish, Black, dark grey,
brownish, dark also greenish
grey and reddish

Diorite Andesite
Between granite Fine grained
and gabbro – rock. Contains
black some minerals
amphibole and common to
mica basalt

Sedimentary rocks

They make up about 75% of the rocks found on the surface of the earth.
Most sedimentary rocks become compacted and cemented together.
They are made from particles resulting from the weathering of other
sedimentary rocks as well as igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Figure 1.2 – Environments for deposition of sedimentary rocks

8
 02/10/2023

Sedimentary rocks

After transportation and deposition sediments rocks will undergo a lithification

process:
Lithification: is the process of changing unconsolidated sediment into a sedimentary
rock. There are three processes and can occur at the same.

 Compaction
Over periods of millions of years the thickness of the sediment increases

 Cementation
Sediments are deposited in both fresh and marine water. This water contains
dissolved minerals. As the water passes through the sediment some of the
dissolved minerals are precipitated onto the surface of the sediment particles.

 Crystallisation
The formation of chemical sediments involves the formation of interlocking
crystals. This is the main process in the formation of limestones.

Diagenesis
Weathering and Erosion of pre-existing rocks and minerals

Transportation by water, ice or wind

Deposition (sediment is laid down)

Compaction

Cementation
by silica or
calcite

Recrystallisation

Lithification
Lithification is a process in which sediments compact under pressure, expel fluids and gradually become solid rock

10
 02/10/2023

Sedimentary rocks

Types of sedimentary rocks: there are three main types

 Clastic (detrital)
They are made up from accumulations of clasts which are small pieces of
broken up rock that have been compressed and cemented together

 Chemical (non detrital)

These sediments form when standing water evaporates, leaving behind
dissolved minerals (these conditions prevail in lakes and lagoon).
Deposits of rock salt (NaCl).

 Organic (non detrital)

These form from accumulations of debris resulting from organisms.
o Limestone – from organisms with shells made from calcium carbonate
o Chert – from organisms with shells made from silica

The build-up of dead plant material often in swamps, results in peat which over
a longer period it eventually becomes coal.

11

Sedimentary rocks
Table 1.2 – Common types of Sedimentary rocks

Limestones Mudstones
Shelly limestones Clays
Contain large Soft, very fine
numbers of fossils grained rocks.
held together in a Made up of
cement made kaolinite smectite
from calcite and illite
Oolitic limestones Shales
Sand grain sized More lithified than
particles having clays and splits
rings of calcium into thin
carbonate laminations
Chalk Mudstones
Soft limestone More lithified than
containing more clays and do not
than 90% calcium split as easily as
carbonate shales, grey,
brown, dark
green

12
 02/10/2023

Sedimentary rocks

Table 1.3 – Common Sedimentary rocks

Component Unconsolidated sediment Sedimentary rock

Boulder
Cobble
Coarse gravel Gravel Conglomerate
Medium gravel
Fine gravel
Coarse sand
Medium sand Sand Sandstone
Fine sand
Coarse Silt
Medium silt Silt Siltstone
Fine silt
Clay Clay Mudstone / claystone

13

Metamorphic rocks
The word metamorphic comes from the Greek words ‘meta’ and ‘morph’ meaning
‘change of form’. They are formed by the alteration of igneous, sedimentary or
other metamorphic rocks by means of temperature and/or pressure.
Progression from sedimentary to metamorphic rock

Low grade metamorphic : takes place at relatively

Shale – sedimentary rock
low pressure (300 – 600 MPa) and temperatures
between (100 – 300°C).

Slate – low grade metamorphic

Intermediate grade metamorphic : takes place at
pressure (600 – 1000 MPa) and temperatures
between (300 – 500°C).
Schist – intermediate grade
metamorphic
High grade metamorphic : takes place at relatively
High pressure (> 1000 MPa) and temperatures
between (>500°C).
Gneiss – high grade
metamorphic

14
 02/10/2023

Metamorphic rocks

Figure 1.3 Chart showing approximate temperatures and pressures for grades of metamorphism

15

Metamorphic rocks
Table 1.4 – Common types of Metamorphic rocks

Foliated rocks Non-foliated rocks

Slate Quartzite
Formed by low grade Formed from quartz
metamorphism from rich sandstones.
mudstone or shale at Does not react with
moderate Temps and acids
Pressures
Schist Marble
These are medium to Formed by the
coarse grained alteration of
foliated rocks – made limestone under high
up from a mixture of pressure and/or
quartz and biotite temperature
Gneiss Hornfels
Medium to coarse Fine grained rock
grained with produced by
alternating bands of contact
minerals (quartz and metamorphism.
feldspar).

16
 02/10/2023

Origin and Types of Soil

(A) RESIDUAL SOILS

These soils are formed in-situ by chemical breakdown (weathering) of rock.
They are most likely to occur beneath level ground surfaces where
weathering has produced a soil with little tendency to move (i.e. no
transportation of the products of weathering).
 Tend to be stony, clayey sandy silts.
 Extent of weathering varies in degree and depth.
 These soils are common in South of England where there has been no
glaciation to disturb.
Topsoil

Increase in Stoney
rock clayey silt
content
downwards Clayey
rock debris

Bedrock

Figure 1.4 – Typical profile

17

Origin and Types of Soil

(B) TRANSPORTED SOILS

Sedimentation of eroded, and probably weathered, rock at some distance from

the original source. The agent may have been gravity, wind or water, or these
acting in some combination.

Alluvial soils, also called Fluvial soils, are soils that were transported by river and
streams. The composition of these soils depends on the environment under which
they were transported and is often different from the parent rock. The profile of
alluvial soils usually consists of layers of different soils. Much our construction
activities has been and is occurring in and on alluvial soils.

Glacial soils are soils that were transported and deposited by glaciers.

Marine soils are soils deposited in a marine environment.

Most of the UK, and much of the rest of the world, is covered at the surface, to a
greater or shallower depth, by deposits resulting from geomorphological action
during the Ice Ages.

18
 02/10/2023

Origin and Types of Soil

(B) TRANSPORTED SOILS

Organic soils

These soils contain large amounts of decomposed animal and vegetable matter,
are usually a dark brown/grey or black colour and give off a distinctive odour. Peat,
a special form of organic soil, is a dark brown spongy material consisting almost
entirely of decomposed vegetable matter.

19

Origin and Types of Soil

TYPES
Common descriptive terms such as gravels, sands, silts and clays are used to identify
specific textures in soils. We will refer to these soil textures as soil types; that is, sand is one
soil type, clay is another. Texture refers to the appearance or feel of a soil.

Sands and gravels are grouped together as coarse-grained soils. Coarse grained soils
feel gritty and hard. The coarseness of soils is determined from knowing the distribution of
particles sizes, which is the primary means of classifying coarse grained soils. usually clean
(no clay particles (fines)) thus resulting in a permeable mass. Sand is often found on its
own, gravel is less often found without sand.

Clays and silts are fine-grained soils. Fine grained soils feel smooth. To characterize fine-
grained soils, we need further information on the type of minerals present and their
contents. The response of fine-grained soils to loads, known as the mechanical
behaviour, depends on the type of predominant minerals present.

20
 02/10/2023

Origin and Types of Soil

TYPES
Silt: is often wind originated (Aeolian soil) and can also be alluvially deposited. Relatively
uncommon in the UK, but it is widespread in hotter climates especially the Middle East
and China.

Clay is perhaps the commonest UK soil. Generally made up of clay- and silt-sized particles.
There are widespread deposits in lowland areas - usually of marine or lacustrine origin.
- Tends to soften in wet weather; is compressible to varying degrees; is usually rather weak
(thus prone to land slipping on steep slopes)

Others
 Peat: In situ product of decayed vegetation. Found principally in moor land and
estuarial areas. Highly compressible.

 Rock: In soil mechanics terms this is material which is too strong to be classed as soil.
Considered as incompressible blocks bounded by weak joints.

 Mixed: Several soils are mixed versions of the above e.g. sandy clay, peaty clay etc.

 Fill: When soil has been affected by human activity (e.g. earthworks) and/or
contains débris, the soil is known as Made Ground or Fill.

21

Comparison of coarse-grained and fine-grained soils for engineering use:

PARTICLE SIZES AND MINERAL CONTENT (as per all current text books)

Table 1.5
Soil Name Size range (mm)
Clay < 0.002
Silt 0.002 – 0.06
Sand 0.06 – 2
Gravel 2 – 60
Cobbles 60 - 200
Boulders > 200

Note:
- Soil containing particles above 0.002 mm has a mineral content similar to the
parent rock from which it was created.
- Particles smaller than 0.002 mm, although having a chemical content similar
to the parent rock, have a different crystalline structure and are known as
clay minerals

22
 02/10/2023

Origin and Types of Soil

Clay minerals Are of “plate-like” form & having high specific surface
(e.g. surface area to mass ratio)
o Basic structure unit consists of silica tetrahedron & alumina octahedron.
o These units will combine to form sheet structure ( )
o Combination / stacking of basic sheet structure with different types of
bonding.

Silica sheets

Aluminum sheets Figure 1.5 – Structure of kaolinite and illite.

23

Origin and Types of Soil

Clay minerals
1) Kaolinite

Structure: single sheet of silica tetrahedrons + 1 sheet of alumina

octahedrons
(silica-alumina) with tight hydrogen bonding. It may consist over 100 stacks.

2) Illite

Structure: a sheet of alumina octahedrons + 2 sheets of silica tetrahedrons.

Octahedrons sheet: partial substitution of Al by Mg & Iron; & in tetrahedral
sheet: partial substitution of silicon by Al. The bonding is fairly weak due to
the non-exchangeable potassium ions bonding.

3) Montmorillonite

Structure: same as illite. Octahedral sheet: partial substitution of Al by Mg.

The bonding is very weak due the water molecules & exchangeable cations
other than potassium. Swelling may occur due to water being adsorbed
between combined sheets.

24
 02/10/2023

Origin and Types of Soil

Soil Fabrics

Soil particles are assumed rigid.

During deposition, the mineral particles are arranged into structural frameworks
Each particle is in random contact with neighboring particles. The environment
under which deposition takes place influences the structural framework that is
formed.

Two common types of soil fabric – flocculated and dispersed are formed during
soil deposition as shown schematically below:

Flocculated structure – Flocculated structure – Dispersed

saltwater environment freshwater environment
Figure 1.6 – Soil fabric

25

Comparison of coarse-grained and fine-grained soils for engineering use:

Coarse-grained soils:
 Good load-bearing capacities and good drainage qualities, and
 Their strength are volume change characteristics are not significantly affected
by change in moisture conditions.
 They are practically incompressible when dense, but significant volume
changes can occur when they are loose.

Fine-grained soils:
 Poor load-bearing capacities compared with coarse-grained soils.
 Fine-grained soils are practically impermeable, change volume and strength with
variations in moisture conditions and are frost susceptible.
 The engineering properties of coarse-grained soils are controlled mainly by the grain
size of the particles and their structural arrangement.
 The engineering properties of fine-grained soils are controlled by mineralogical
factors rather than grain size.
Thin layers of fine-grained soils: Special attention need to be paid to fine-grained soils
even within thick deposits of coarse-grained soils, as this may cause geotechnical
failures.

26
 02/10/2023

Comparison of coarse-grained and fine-grained soils for engineering use:

Sands and gravels

 Equi-dimensional grains, small surface area to volume ratio.
 Gravitational forces predominate. Such soils are often termed
___________Granular____________

In any engineering soil, the ‘framework’ of solid particles is referred to as the _Soil
Skeleton_, and the spaces between the particles as ______Voids_______.

Below the water table, voids will generally be filled with_____Water_______ Above
the water table, voids may contain ____Air______, or ____Water____

When voids are completely filled with water, the soil is _Saturated__ When voids
contain air and water, the soil is __Partially Saturated_____

27

Comparison of coarse-grained and fine-grained soils for engineering use:

Clays

Small plate-like shapes, only a few molecules thick, with large surface area
to volume ratio. Surface forces predominate resulting in
_______suction____________

Soils with a significant quantity of clay mineral particles exhibit ‘plasticity’

and are often described as _____Cohesive_____________

Plasticity in Clay Soils: Plasticity is the ability to undergo non-recoverable

deformation without cracking or crumbling. It is exhibited by most clay soils
at intermediate water contents.

Consider a block of plastic clay: - If it is dried out it __Shrinks_____

If it is then broken down it _Crumbles_______

On re-mixing with water it _Hydrates______

28
 02/10/2023

Soil Profile

If an excavation is made through previously undisturbed ground, the

following materials are usually encountered:

Topsoil A layer of organic soil, usually not more than 500mm thick, in
which decomposed vegetable matter is often found.

Soil The soft geological deposits extending from subsoil to bedrock.

Can usually be excavated by hand tools.

Rock Igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rocks.

Hard material requires machine excavation or drill and blast.

Groundwater A reservoir of underground water. The upper surface of this

water may occur at any depth and is known as the water table
level (G.W.L.).

Topsoil
A typical vertical section in the side of the GWL
Soil
excavation would appear as shown here;
Bedrock

29

Rapid methods of classification

Rapid methods of classification are appropriate for identification in the field,
or where laboratory facilities are not available. A combination of sound
judgement based on experience and simple tests is used in conjunction with
Tables (1-5) given below

Particle size
Gravel sizes > 2mm and are apparent visually; sand < 2mm tend to cling
together when damp and they feel gritty between fingers; silts < 0.06 mm feel
abrasive, but not gritty; clays < 2mm feel greasy.

Grading
If over 65% of the soil particles are greater than 0.06 mm, the soil should be
described as coarse-grained, i.e. either a SAND or a GRAVEL.
If over 35% of the soil is less than 0.06 m, it is fine-grained i.e. SILT or CLAY

To distinguish between silt and clay, rub the wet soil between fingers: clay
tends to stick to the fingers, whereas silt only leaves them slightly dusty.

30
 02/10/2023

The essential points are:

1. Soils are derived from the weathering of rocks and are commonly described
by textural terms such as gravels, sands, silts, and clays.

2. Particle size is used to distinguish various soil textures.

3. Clays are composed of three main types of mineral-kaolinite, illite, and

montmorillonite.

4. The clay minerals consist of silica and alumina sheets that are combined to
form layers. The bonds between layers play a very important role in the
mechanical behavior of clays.

5. A thin layer of water is bonded to the mineral surfaces of soils and significantly
influences the physical and mechanical characteristics of fine-grained soils.

6. Fine-grained soils have much larger surface areas than coarse-grained soils
and are responsible for the major physical and mechanical differences
between coarse-grained and fine-grained soils.

7. The engineering properties of fine-grained soils depend mainly on

mineralogical factors.

31

Questions:

Which of the following is not intrusive igneous rocks?

a) They are formed beneath the surface of the earth
b) They are ejected from volcanoes
c) They have cooled slowly
d) They have large crystals

Which of the following is not one of the three basic rock types?
a) Metamorphic
b) Volcanic
c) Sedimentary
d) Igneous

Which of the following is not a clay mineral ?

a) Illite
b) Kaolinite
c) Calcite
d) Smectite

32
 02/10/2023

Questions:

What percentage of the rocks at the earth’s surface are sedimentary?

a) 65%
b) 85%
c) 75%
d) 95%

Which of the following is not part of the lithification process of sedimentary soils?
a) Compaction
b) Cementation
c) Transportation
d) Crystallisation

Which of the following is sedimentary rocks is clastic?

a) Sandstone
b) Limestone
c) Coal
d) Gypsum

33

Questions:

Which of the following is not a grade of metamorphism?

a) Ultra grade
b) Low grade
c) Intermediate grade
d) High grade

Which grade of metamorphism would occur at a temperature of 200 ºC and a

pressure of 200 MPa?
a) High grade
b) Low grade
c) Intermediate grade
d) None – the rock would melt
(i) Metamorphism generally decreases the rock density. True or False

(ii) Metamorphism does not melt the rock. True or False

(iii) Igneous rock can change into metamorphic rock or sedimentary rock. T or F

(iv) Metamorphism generally increases the porosity of the rock. True or False

34