MANUFACTURE OF MONO-OLEFINS FROM

n-PARAFFINS

A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

SELVAVISAGAN B
(810019239035)

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

PETROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

BHARATHIDASAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CAMPUS,
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620024.

ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600025

MARCH 2023
 Manufacture of mono-olefin from n-paraffin

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “ MANUFACTURE OF

MONO – OLEFINS FROM n-PARAFFINS” in TAMILNADU PETROPRODUCTS
LIMITED is a bonafide work carried out by Mr. B. Selvavisagan Reg. No. 810019239035
under my direct supervision in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the award of degree
of Bachelor of Technology in petrochemical Technology to Anna University – BIT Campus.
No part of dissertation has been submitted for any Degree/Diploma or any other academic
award anywhere before.

GUIDE SIGNATURE
Dr.S.VENKATESAN
Professor

Forwarded by,

SIGNATURE

Dr.S.VENKATESAN,
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

EXAMINED ON:

Internal Examiner External Examiner

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work entitled “ MANUFACTURE OF MONO-OLEFINS

FROM n-PARAFFINS” is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award
of the degree in B.Tech, Anna University – BIT campus, Tiruchirappalli, is a record of the
my own work carried out by me during the academic year 2022 – 2023 under the supervision
and guidance of Dr.S.VENKATESAN, Professor Head of the Department, Department of
Petrochemical Technology, Anna University – BIT campus. The extent and source of
information are derived from the existing literature and have been is indicated through the
dissertation at appropriate places. The matter embodied in the work is original and has not
been submitted for the award of any other degree diploma, either in this or any other
university.

( Signature of Candidate )

SELVAVISAGAN B
( 810019239035 )

I certify that the declaration made above by the candidate is true.

( Signature of the Guide )

Dr.S.VENKATESAN
Professor
Department of Petrochemical Technology
Anna University – BIT campus.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A truthful, heartfelt and a deserved acknowledgement come from one’s heart to convey the
real influence others have on one’s work.

I express our sincere gratitude to our head of the department and our project guide
Dr.S.Venkatesan M.Tech, PhD, Professor for giving us the provision to do the project and
guiding us throughout and giving us the opportunity to present the main project. We also
express our sincere thanks to all other staff members for their help and encouragement.

Our special thanks to Mr. Sundaramaran HR Manager who gave us permission to carry out
this project at TPL (Tamilnadu Petroproducts Limited ), Chennai. We thank Mr. Narendran
Senior Technician and Mr. K. Mohanasundaram and other Trainees and employees in TPL
who helped us during project.

I render my heartfelt thanks to all the employees at TPL, Chennai who have spent their time
in helping me to understand the technical aspects of the plant despite their work. Without
encouragement and support of these people our endeavor would never been a success.

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ABSTRACT

Mono – olefins also known as α – olefins play an important role as intermediate in the
production of detergent, used as additives for drilling mud. The availability of mono- olefins
in detergent makes it more bio – degradable. The main aim of this project work is to study on
manufacture of Mono – olefins in Tamil Nadu Petro Products Limited (TPL). The technology
of catalytic dehydrogenation of normal paraffin’s designed by Universal Oil Products (UOP)
is used in Tamil Nadu Petro Product Limited (TPL). This Paraffins Conversion of Olefins
(PACOL) process has the conversion of 12 – 15% and low production of by-products. The
material balance and energy balance for the production have been carried out. A design of
Stripper Column was performed to remove all the light from PACOL reactor and Heat
Exchanger was performed to preheat n-paraffins using shell and tube heat exchanger. Process
economics, plant location and layout and effect of Hydrocarbon on Human health and
environment also studied in this project.

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TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER TITLE PAGES
5
ABSTARCT

INTRODUCTION
1. 9
1.1. About the Company 10

1.2. General Information 10

1.2.1. Production Volume 10

1.2.1.1. Manufacturing 10

1.2.2. Inadvertent Production 11

1.2.3. Sources Release to Environment 11

1.2.3.1. Production Release 11

1.2.3.2. Other Release 12

2. PROPERTIES OF PARAFFINS 13

3. PACOL DEHYDROGENATION REACTION 14

SYSTEM
3.1. Feed – Linear Paraffins 14

3.2. Reactions Involved 14

4. TYPES OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS 15

4.1. Cracking Process 15

4.2. Olegomerisation 15

4.3. Shell Higher Olefin Process 15

4.4. Olegomerisation of Propylene 15

5. SELECTION OF PROCESS 16

5.1. PACOL Process 17

5.2. Advantages 17

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7. PROCESS FLOW DESCRIPTION 18

7.1. Feed Surge Drum and Pre-treater 18

7.2. Combined Feed Exchanger 19

7.3. Furnace 19

7.4. Reactor 20

7.5. Separator 20

7.6. Define Reactor 21

7.7. Stripper 21

8. CAPACITY DESIGN BASIS 22

8.1. Design Performance 22

8.2. For Define 22

8.3. Alumina Treater 23

9. PROCESS VARIABLES 24

9.1. PACOL Performance 24

9.2. Define Performance 25

9.3. PACOL Variables 25

9.3.1. Temperature 25

9.3.2. Pressure 26

9.3.3. LHSV 26

9.3.4. Hydrogen to Hydrocarbon ratio 26

9.3.5. Water injection 27

9.3.6. Feed 27

9.4. Define variable 28

9.4.1. Pressure 28

9.4.2. LHSV 28

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9.4.3. Temperature 28

9.4.4. Hydrogen to Hydrocarbon ratio 29

9.4.5. Mercaptant 29

10. PROCESS PARAMETER 30

10.1. Specifications 30

11. PLANT STARTUP AND SHUTDOWN 31

11.1. Normal Start up 31

11.1.1. Air Freezing System 31

11.1.2. Establishing Start up Circulation 32

11.2. Shut Down Procedure 32

12. MATERIAL BALANCE 33

12.1. Basis 33

12.2. Feed Drum 33

12.3. Combined Feed Exchanger 34

12.4. Reactor 35

12.5. Product Separator 36

12.6. Define Reactor 38

12.7. Stripper 39

13. ENERGY BALANCE 49

13.1 Combined feed exchanger 50

13.2 Charge Heater 52

13.3 Reactor 53

13.4 Contact condenser 55

13.5 Stripper 56

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13.6 Define Reactor 58

14. DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT 60

14.1 Heat Exchanger 61

14.2 Distillation Column 68

15. SAFETY ASPECTS 73

15.1 Human Health 74

15.2 Environment 74

15.3 Bio – Degradability 74

15.4 Exposure 75

15.5 Category Discussion 75

16. PLANT LOCATION 77

16.1 Layout 78

16.2 Cost 78

16.3 Process Requirement 79

16.4 Operation 79

16.5 Maintenance 79

16.6 Raw material and supply 79

16.7 Markets and Transportation 79

16.8 Power and Fuel supply 79

16.9 Labor and water supply 80

17. COST ESTIMATION 81

18. MATERIAL SAFETY AND DATA SHEET 88

CONCLUSION AND REFERENCE 95

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO

2.1 Properties of PARAFFIN 4

10.1 PACOL Parameters 21

12.3.1 Combined Feed Exchanger Input 25

12.3.2 Combined Feed Exchanger Output 25

12.4.1 Reactor Input 26

12.4.2 Reactor Product 26

12.4.3 Reactor Output 27

12.5.1 Product Separator Input 28

12.5.2 Product Separator Output 28

12.6.1 Define Reactor Input and Output 30

12.7.1 Stripper Input and Output 31

13.1.1 CFE Input Energy 32

13.1.2 CFE Output Energy 33

13.2.1 Furnace Input Energy 34

13.2.2 Furnace Output Energy 34

13.3.1 Reactor Input Energy 35

13.3.2 Reactor Output Energy 35

13.3.3 Reactor input component Heat of Formation 36

13.3.4 Reactor output component Heat of Formation 36

13.4.1 Contact condenser Data Table 37

13.5.1 Stripper Input Energy 38

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13.6.1 Define Input Energy 39

13.6.2 Define Output Energy 39

13.6.3 Heat of Formation input component 40

13.6.4 Heat of Formation output component 40

14.1.1 Design Data 41

14.2.1 Suction Pressure 51

14.2.1 Discharge Pressure 53

15.1 Application 56

18.1.1 Equipment Cost Estimation 63

18.7.1 Labor Cost 66

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

6.1 Block Diagram 8

6.2 Flow Diagram 8

12.2.1 Feed Surge Drum 24

12.3.1 Combined feed Exchanger 25

12.4.1 Reactor 27

12.5.1 Separator 29

12.6.1 Define Reactor 30

12.7.1 Stripper 31

12.8 Material Balance Flow Chart 31

13.7 Energy Balance Flow Chart 39

14.1 Heat Exchanger 41

14.2 Distillation Column 48

17.1 Plant Layout 61

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INTRODUCTION

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1. INTRODUCTION

The (C6-C14) alkenes are mono- olefins. In general, they are colourless liquids
that show decreasing vapor pressure and water solubility with increasing alkyl chain length.
The characteristic feature of the alkene structure is the C-C double bond. The characteristic
reactions of an alkene are those that take place at the double bond, the most typical being an
electrophilic addition reaction.

1.1.ABOUT THE COMPANY:

Tamil Nadu Petroproducts Limited (TPL), was born in the year 1984 with the
objective of setting up a world class Linear Alkyl Benzene (LAB) manufacturing facility.
TPL grew in strength by thinking differently, laying down a fundamental platform for
financial strength and responding to customer requirements with innovative products and
services. The company's strong emphasis on continuous upgradation of technology to match
the state of art has been the prime reason for its success in realizing its full potential and its
confident march into the competitive future.

TPL's excellent track record and its achievements in a short time frame stand out
distinctly, propelled by continuous upgradation of technology, nurturing talent and focussing
on utmost customer satisfaction

LAB finds extensive application in the manufacture of domestic detergents,

institutional and industrial cleaners. The LAB market for TPL is evolving on a stable market
platform, growing day-to-day with a dominant market share for its brand "SUPERLAB"

It is not an exaggeration to state that around 40% of the detergents used in

households for fabrics washing constitute TPL's products. The per capita consumption of
LAB used in the detergents in the country has a very large latent potential from the current
level, as India is one of the largest consumer markets in the Asia-Pacific Region with an
emerging economic outlook. TPL manufactures caustic soda, using a membrane cell process,
as both lye and solid based on customer requirements. Caustic soda is soluble in water,
ethanol and methanol, It is a deliquescent alkali and readily absorbs moisture and carbon
dioxide from air.

1.2 GENERAL INFORMATION ON EXPOSURE

1.2.1. Production Volume

1.2.1.1. Manufacturing

The major commercial processes used in the production of linear olefins

are the cracking of petrochemical waxes, and oligomerization of ethylene using the
Ziegler process, or a modern modification of it. They may also be made as a by-
product from the liquefaction of coal. In the past, linear olefins were produced by the

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chlorination-DE chlorination of linear alkanes; however, it is likely that this process is

no longer used on a commercial basis. The ethylene oligomerization process can
produce better-defined mixtures limited to even-numbered carbon chains, yet rich in
terminal (alpha) olefins Product distribution can be controlled by adjusting the
process parameters and by the choice of catalyst.

United States aggregate production ranges as of 1998 for all members of

the (C-Cia) alkenes are 100-500 million pounds (45,360-226,800 tons). When looking
at previous production ranges dated from 1986 there does appear to be an increase in
production for dodecene and tetradecene from 1-100 million pounds (453,6 tons-
45,360 tons) to 100-500 million pounds (45.360-226,800 tams).

The production volume of 1- decene in Europe for 1999 is reported to be

around 100,000 tons and the volume for the processing of 1-docene as an intermediate
in the production of other chemicals, in Europe for 1999, is estimated to be 160,000
tons.

1.22. Inadvertent Production

Inadvertent production of individual components of the (Ca Cia) alkenes

reportedly occurs from the thermal destruction of some petroleum-based products. 1-
Hexene, 1-decene and 1-dodecene are not manufactured by the petroleum industry as
discrete products, but are present in naphtha and light distillate intermediate refinery
process streams due to incidental production during catalytic cracking and pyrolysis.

Concentration of these compounds, in petroleum process streams and in finished

products ranges from less than 1 to 10% (volume basis) and 0 to 3.6% (volume basis),
respectively. Levels in aviation gasoline and diesel fuels have been estimated to be
one-tenth those in automotive gasoline.

1.2.3. Sources of Release to the Environment

1.23.1. Production Releases

Atmospheric emissions of alpha olefins from manufacturing are expected

to be small. Olefins might be released to the atmosphere in small quantities due to
leaks in process equipment used during production of the compounds. It is likely that
the alpha olefins are released in aqueous effluents and atmospheric emissions from
manufacturing, use operations and from fuel processing and combustion.

1.2.3.2. Other Releases to the Environment:

(a) Releases from by-products other than industrial:

1- Hexene has been identified in the gases produced during structural

fires and in the field-burning of agricultural plastic. The commercial liquefaction of
coal by the solvent refining process can produce hexene and other olefins, along with

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the desired hydrocarbon products. 1- Hexene has been identified in the exhaust of
roadway vehicles. Hexene and octene have been identified as products of combustion
of polyethylene. 1-Hexene, 1-octene and 1-decens, have been identified in the
emission of high-altitude jet aircraft engines. 1-Hexene was detected in the air of a
high-volume gasoline service station, at concentrations of up to 0.1 ppm. Ce Olefins
(isomers unspecified) were reported to comprise 1.8% of gasoline.

(b) Natural Occurrence:

1-bexene, 1-decene and 1-dodecene probably do not occur naturally in
crude oils. Some specific isomers of the (C6-C14) alkenes have been identified as naturally
occurring compounds. 1-Hexene was identified as a product of the microbial breakdown of
the natural terpene b carotene 1-Octene has been identified as a major volatile constituent of
irradiated fresh chicken. 1-Decene has been isolated from the leaves and rhizome of the plant
Farfugium japonicum. 1- Decene has been detected as the initial product in the microbial
degradation of n-decane.

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PROPERTIES
OF
PARAFFINS

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2. PROPERTIES OF PARAFFINS

PROPERTY:
Table 2.1

PROPERTY UNIT C10-13 C11-12 C11-14 C12-14

Appearance - Clear Clear liquid Clear Clear

liquid liquid liquid
Odour - None None None None

Colour Say bolt +30 +30 +30 +30

Average Molecular g/mole 185 193 174 186

Weight

Carbon Distribution - C10 ~ 13 C11 ~ 12 C11 ~ 14 C12 ~ 14

Density Kg/l at 0.749 0.749 0.756 0.762

15℃
Flash Point ℃ 73 76 84 92

Total n-Paraffins % 98.9 98.9 98.7 98.6

Aromatics % 0.16 0.16 0.2 0.3

Sulfur ppm 1max 1max 1max 1max

Bromine index mg/100g 10 10 12 15

Aniline Point ℃ 83 84 85 88

Distillation Range
(at 1.013 Bar)

IBP ℃ 185 193 200 220

FBP ℃ 230 213 239 237

Kinematic Viscosity centistoke 1.83 1.90 2.21 2.61

Pour Point ℃ -19 -22 -10 -6

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PACOL
DEHYDROGENATION
SYSTEM

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3. PACOL DEHYDROGENATION REACTION SYSTEM

3.1. FEED-LINEAR PARAFFIN:

Carbon range: 4 in number with max of 0.5% for the carbon number above or below
the C10 – 14.

Aromatics, weight.% : 0.5max

Non-normal, weight.% : 2.0 max

Sulfur, ppm : 5 max

Chloride.ppm : 1 max

Peroxide no,
gram equivalent/1000L : 0.2 max

3.2. REACTION INVOLVED:

Olefin formation:

R - C - C -R’ R - C = C - R’ + H2

Di – Olefin formation:

R – C – C = C – R’ R = C – C = C – R’ + H2

Aromatic formation:

R = C – C = C – R’ R’’ – C6H5 – R’’’ + 2H2

Cracking:

R – C – C = C – R’ + 3H2 R – C – C – H3 + R’ – CH3

Iso – Paraffin to Olefin:

R – C – C – R’ R – C = C – R + H2

R R’’

Alkyl cyclo paraffin to alkyl cyclo olefins:

R – C5H8 R – C5H6 + H2

Alkyl cyclo hexane to alkyl aromatics:

R – C6H10 R – C6H8 + H2

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TYPES
OF
MANUFACTURING
PROCESS

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4. TYPES OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Olefins are the key surfactant intermediate produced by the thermal or catalytic
cracking of paraffin wax or alternatively from olegomerisation of ethylene.

4.1. Cracking Process:

Olefin produced by the cracking process include a- olefin, di- olefin, cyclic
olefin, aromatics and paraffin wax. The major problem with the cracking process is the
separation of the desired olefin from the other by-products.

4.2. Olegomerisation:
Olegomerisation of the ethylene can be performed in a no:- of different ways.
Reaction of ethylene with triethyl aluminium using Ziegler Process consists of three steps.
The first step is the reaction of ethylene with triethyl aluminium to give long chain trialkyl
aluminium. The second step is the transalkylation of the trialkyl aluminium with ethylene or
long chain olefins to give free olefins and give the trialkyl aluminium. The third step is the
separation of the olefin from the undesired by-products.

4.3. Shell Higher Olefin Process:

A slightly different olegomerisation method is based on the Shell Higher

Olefin Process (SHOP). The olegomerisation reaction is carried out on a nickel phosphine
complex that is separated and recycled by means of a solvent. The reaction product consists
of a- olefin, 1-olefins of different carbon chain lengths. The di- olefins are fed to the
purification, isomerization and disproportion stages to obtain a wide range of a- olefins.

4.4. Olegomerisation of propylene:

While olefins can be used directly to produce detergents, they are more
commonly used as intermediate raw materials. Alkyl benzene consists of phenyl substituted
n-alkanes of 9-14 carbon atoms prior to 1965, alkyl benzene was synthesized from propylene
tetramer obtained from olegomerisation of propylene, and reacted with an HF catalysts and
benzene. The resulting hard alkylate was a highly branched chain compound. However, the
slow bio- degradability of propylene tetramer based materials became apparent by 1965.
Most of the detergent industry had switched over to PACOL.

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SELECTION
OF
PROCESS

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5. SELECTION OF PROCESS

5.1. Paraffin Conversion to Olefins (PACOL):

Pacol process uses n- olefins produced from n-paraffin's by dehydrogenation

over heterogeneous platinum catalyst. The Pacol process produces smaller amount of di-
olefins which lowers the LAB yield by forming alkylate bottoms. The define process
developed to selectively hydrogenate di- olefins to mono- olefins.

5.2. Advantages:

Minimal loss of feedstock to byproducts makes the Pacol process the most
economical paraffin dehydrogenation technology available. During the process, normal
paraffin are dehydrogenated to their corresponding mono-olefins using UOP's highly active
and selective series of catalysts. The dehydrogenation is achieved under mild operating
conditions. The Pacol process was first commercialized in the 1960's and more than 40 units
have been licensed.

The Define process improves overall olefin yields by selectively

hydrogenating di- olefins produced in the Pacol process into their corresponding mono-olefin.
The Define process was first commercialized in the 1980's and more than over 35 units have
been licensed.

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PROCESS
FLOW
DESCRIPTION

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7. PROCESS FLOW DESCRIPTIONS

7.1. FEED SURGE BRUM AND PRETREATER:

The N-Paraffin feed to the Pacel unit is received in the Pacel feed murge
drum partly from the Molex unit and partly from Detergent Alkylate section as recycle
paraffin. The fresh Paraffin flow from Molex Unit to Pacol feed surge drum in controlled
either by extract column bottom level, level indicator or by the HNP splitter column side cut
flow. Flow rate controller is cascaded with temperature rate controller, the 34th tray's
temperature of the column. The recycle paraffin flow to Pacol is controlled by flow controller
which is cascaded with Level indicator, accumulator level of Paraffin column. The Recycle
Paraffin is first preheated in heat exchanger [Recycle Paraffin/Contact Condenser Pump
around Exchanger] to 158°C and further heated to around 200°C in heat exchanger [Stripper
Bottom/Recycle Paraffin Exchanger] and passed through hot oil exchanger. It is then passed
via two Alumina Treaters (packed with activated alumina supported on lime stone] from top
to the bottom in series [called lead and guard vessels] to remove any combined or free
fluorides present in the Recycle Paraffin.

7.2. COMBINED FEED EXCHANGER:

The feed surge drum floats on Pacol Stripper Overhead Receiver and is
provided with a level recorder. Two Reactor Charge Pumps takes suction from feed surge
drum and delivers the feed to Combined Feed/ Effluent Exchanger in the tube side through a
solenoid operated shutdown valve and flow rate controller. In exchanger, the total feed is
heated from 220°C to around 420°C. Before exchanging heat with effluent, the feed
combines with recycle hydrogen. Recycle gas flow is measured by flow indicators in the
recycle hydrogen line. CFE is a vertical plate heat exchanger which offers better heat transfer
and low pressure drop. Demineralized water is injected from the DM water tank by metering
pumps to maintain around 2000 wt. ppm of water in the combined charge at the outlet.

7.3. FURNACE OR CHARGE HEATER:

The combined feed [H2+hydrocarbon] is heated in the Pacol Charge Heater

to the reactor temperature [maximum of 516°C). The charge heater is basically a heat
exchanger equipment in which FO/LSHS/fuel gas is burnt and the heat generated by
combustion is used indirectly to heat up the process fluid flowing through the tube housed
inside the well- insulated furnace. The Pacol Charge Heater is an Arbor (Wicket) tube box
heater with radiant and convection sections. H/C feed is heated from a temperature of 430 °C
(416 °C design case) to 498 °C in radiant section of the heater.

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Hot oil is heated from a temperature of 271 °C to 327 °C in convection section of

the heater. The temperature of the stream coming out from radiant section is metered by
temperature controller which gives signal to heater firing control system. FO can be
controlled via flow mode or pressure mode. Flow mode or pressure mode can be selected by
selector switch. Similarly fuel gas can be controlled via flow mode and can be selected via
selector switch. Also, temperature indicator can be controlled either by FO or FG through a
selector switch. At the outlet of the heater, the entire charge is in the vapor state (far away
from its boiling point to prevent any condensation in the reactor bed). To preheat the
combustion air, air preheater if provided in the convection zone of the heater. Combustion air
required for the Pacol Charge Heater is fed by the two forced draft fans and is preheated in
Steam Air Preheater and then in top mounted Air preheater up to a maximum temperature of
184°C The air flow rate from fans is adjusted by varying the position of inlet box dampers
through pneumatic actuator. During heater start up, air has to be heated via steam preheater
and once heater is taken on line, steam can be cut to the steam pre heater. To conserve heat, a
hot oil stream also is heated in the convection zone which is located below the air heater. The
hot oil flow is controlled by flow valve, a new tapping of hot oil stream (new line) was also
established to increase the efficiency of heater which is indicated by flow. For better and
economical combustion of FO, an air fuel ratio controller is used which will adjust the air
flow in accordance with the FO burnt.

7.4. PACOL REACTOR:

The vaporized feed from the heater is sent to the top of one of the reactors.
The reactor is a radial flow type for low pressure drop operation. When one reactor is in
service, the spent catalyst from the other reactor is cooled, unloaded, reloaded with fresh
catalyst and kept as standby. Under the operating conditions of high temperature and low
pressure and excess of recycle hydrogen present in the reactor, 10-13% of the n-Paraffin's are
converted to normal olefins with 90% selectivity to N-mono- olefins. The balance 10% of the
n-paraffin converted forms olefins etc., [side reactions]. The reaction is endothermic favoured
by high temperature and low pressure.

7.5. SEPARATOR OR CONTACT CONDENSER :

The reactor effluent enters CFE on the shell side at the top, where it is cooled
to around 160 °C and routed to Contact Condenser. The contact condenser is provided to
cool the hydrogen, hydrocarbon vapour and separate the hydrogen gas from mixture for
recycle purposes with minimum pressure drop. The Contact Condenser has a bottom
accumulator, a packed mid-section and mist eliminators at the top. It is provided with pump
around pumps for circulating the hot liquid at around 190°C from the bottom accumulator
through Heat Exchanger [Recycle Paraffin / Pump Around Exchanger) for cooling around
140 °C and Fin Fan system (which has 8 fans) for final cooling around 50 °C. This cold
liquid is sprayed from the top of the contact condenser through the packed bed for
condensing the hot hydrocarbon vapour rising up. Only dry hydrogen gas from the top of the
contact condenser provides suction gas for the recycle gas compressors. The packed bed

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construction of Contact Condenser, the cooling with fin fan from the pump around side loop
makes the recovery of hydrogen gas operation with minimum pressure drop. Pump around
flow is controlled by flow rate controllers and they are cascaded with Contact Condenser top
temperature i.e. compressor suction gas temperature. The Pacol reactor system pressure is
controlled by: pressure rate controller located on the Contact Condenser Overhead vapor line
by venting the excess gas to flare using control valve. The Pacol Recycle Gas Compressors
compress the hydrogen gas from the contact condenser to around 2.5 kg/cm³g and delivers it
to CFE along the tube side. A tapping from the compressor discharge serves the suction for
the booster gas compressors for stepping up the hydrogen pressure and supplying to
Hydrobon unit.

Another tapping from discharge supplies the suction gas for makeup gas
compressor for Define unit. Flow controller is provided in the recycle gas H2 line to measure
the recycle gas flow to CFE. Flow rate controller records the net gas flow to booster gas
compressors from the Pacol unit.

7.6. DEFINE REACTOR:

The pumps takes suction from contact condenser bottom and delivers through
stripper feed hot oil heater to build up the temperature to around 200 °C to the define reactor
top. The feed temperature controller controls the hot oil flow to hot oil heater. Hydrogen
required for the define reaction [hydrogenation of di olefins] is supplied by makeup gas
compressor for define unit or from an second stage at a pressure of around 13-14 kg/cm². The
hydrogen and hydrocarbons are thoroughly mixed in a static mixture just before entering the
Define reactor, N-butyl mercaptan injection facility is provided using a drum unloading
platform with two metering pumps to continuously dose around 0.45 lit/hr for sulphiding the
catalyst to improve the selectivity towards mono-olefins. The Define reactor is operated
liquid full as indicated by its level indicator alarm. The reactor effluent then passes through
contact condenser bottom level controller where the pressure gets reduced and is sent to Pacol
stripper as feed. Process piping has been provided for bypassing the Define reactor during
emergencies and sending the contact condenser bottom to Pacol stripper. Flow indicator
measures the hydrocarbon flow and flow rate controller alarm controls the hydrogen gas flow
to static mixture. Temperature indicator indicates the temperature of the Define reactor outlet.

7.7. PACOL STRIPPER:

The Pacol stripper feed enters the column at the 15th tray. The Pacol stripper is necessary to
remove all the light ends formed by cracking in Pacol reactor. The column bottom
temperature is maintained around 230 °C by a stab in type hot oil re boiler. The hot oil flow
to the re boiler is controlled by flow rate controller on the hot oil return line. The column
bottoms are sent to the DA unit by stripper bottom pumps. Minimum spill back for these
pumps are maintained flow indicators. The pump discharge is routed to stripper
bottom/recycle paraffin exchanger where it is cooled to 160 °C and sent to DA unit through

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flow rate controller which is cascaded with the stripper bottom level controller level indicator
alarm. The following board mounted temperature indicators and recorders are provided.

TI 1456 top vapor temp.

TR 1459 24th tray temp.

TI 1460 bottom vapor temp.

TI 1461 bottom liquid outlet temp.

The Stripper Overhead vapours are cooled and condensed in Fin Fan Coolers and received in
Overhead Receiver. The Overhead Receiver is provided with boot to drain any water
collected. Stripper Overhead Pumps takes suction from the receiver and delivers one part as
reflux via flow valve which is cascaded with Overhead Receiver level controller and another
part to Light Ends Stripper at Hydrocarbon Unit through flow controller. The reflux flow is
indicated flow controller.

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CAPACITY
DESIGN
BASIS

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8. CAPACITY DESIGN BASES

Our Pacol Unit is designed to handle 27 m³/h of fresh paraffin feed from
Molex unit and around 62 m/h of recycle paraffin stream from Detergent Alkylate Unit and
11 m3/h of makeup Paraffin from tank farm to produce nearly 100 m/h of stripper bottom
material having 10-13 wt.% mono-olefins servicing the feed to the DA section.

The typical linear paraffin feed compositions are as follows:-

Carbon range -- 4 in number with maximum of 0.5 wt % for the carbon number above and

below the 4 carbon range.

Total normal paraffin (wt.%) 98 min

Non normal [wt.%] 2 max

8.1. DESIGN PERFORMANCE

Conversion of n-paraffin to
N-mono olefins, wt.% 10-13%

Selectivity to n-mono olefins,

wt % 90%

Guaranteed DEH-15 catalyst life 5MT of LAB/kg of catalyst

8.2. FOR DEFINE REACTIONS:

Conversion of di olefins to

N-mono olefins, wt % 90%

Selectivity to n-mono olefins, wt % 50%

Guaranteed H-14 catalyst life 75MT of defined feed/ kg of catalyst

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8.3. ALUMINA TREATER:

Activated Alumina for Alumina treaters

Specifications:

Size 6-8

AL203 min wt% 92%

Silica, max. wt% 0.1%

Density kg/m³ 881

Lime stone requirement for alumina treaters bed support

6mm stones 2.28 m3

20mm stones 5.3 m3
Define catalyst
H-14 16.1 m3 [ one catalyst requirement charges only ]

Ceramic / Alumina balls requirement for catalyst support

3mm diameter balls 0.22 m3

6mm diameter balls 0.22 m3
19mm diameter balls 0.66 m3

Specifications:

Al2O3 & SiO2 Content 90% min

SiO2 80% max

Fe2O3 1% max

Bulk density 2000 kg/m3

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PROCESS
VARIABLES
AND
PARAMETERS

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9. PROCESS VARIABLES

The plant performance is measured by the n-paraffin conversion to olefin, the

selectivity to n-mono olefin and catalyst life. There are five major process variables assuming
good feed quality which influences the Pacol process. The variables are not totally
independent of each other in the sense that an improvement in conversion and selectivity by
lowering the reactor outlet pressure will shorten the Pacol reactor catalyst life.

9.1. THE PACOL PERFORMANCE VARIABLES:

Pacol conversion is defined as

Wt. of normal paraffin [Cn – Cm] converted

Wt. of normal paraffin [ Cn – Cm ] charged

Selectivity:

Wt. of normal mono olefins [ Cn – Cm ] produced

Wt. of normal paraffin [Cn – Cm] converted

Where Cn – Cm represents the carbon number, range of feed paraffin's [eg. C10 – C13 or C11 –
C14.]

Catalyst life:

Metric tons of linear alkyl benzene

Kilogram of catalyst loaded

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9.2. DEFINE UNIT PERFORMANCE:

The Define unit performance is characterized in terms of di olefin conversion

and selectivity to mono olefins

Di olefin conversion, wt%

Feed wt % di olefins- effluent wt % di olefins

Feed wt.% mono olefins-effluent wt % mono-olefins

The wt % total di olefins & mono olefins can be determined by high

performance liquid chromatography [HPLC] or mass spectrometric [MS]. MS equipment is
so expensive and difficult to operate, HPLC equipment is much less expensive and much
easier to operate.

9.3. PACOL VARIABLES:

9.3.1. Temperature

Temperature is essentially the only variable which is used to control the

conversion rate in the reactor. The temperature is adjusted as necessary to maintain the
desired concentration of total olefins in the reactor separator liquid. Catalyst temperature at
beginning of the run will be in the range of 468-472 °C.
The end of run temperature ranges from 472 - 478 °C depending on feed stock,
conversion and plant operations. The end of run is determined when the rate of light
hydrocarbon formation increases, hydrogen purity decreases and the formation of aromatics
rises rapidly. Since the dehydrogenation of paraffin to olefins is a reversible, endothermic
reaction, equilibrium conversion of the linear paraffin's to mono olefins is favoured by higher
temperatures. Temperature must be increased over the course of the run to maintain constant
conversion. It can be further increased to raise the conversion. The advantages of increasing
conversion are less recycle paraffin per MT of LAB. The disadvantages are decreased
catalyst life and poor selectivity, selectivity being defined as the weight percent of linear
normal paraffin's converted to linear normal olefins. At the same reactor outlet temperature
and H/HC ratio a higher equilibrium conversion is obtained at the lower pressure level. A
reduction in the hydrogen partial pressure also raises the equilibrium conversion for given set
of reactor conditions. Hence, equilibrium conversion is favoured by both higher temperatures
and lower pressures. Pressure levels of 20 and 30 psig respectively are the basis for this and
all subsequent figures presented in this section. The current generation Pacol catalyst [DEH-
15] operates at 20 psig reactor outlet pressure and a 6 H/HC, while the older of DEH-5
systems operate at the higher 30 psig pressure level and H/HC of 8.0.
The typical Pacol catalyst life realized commercially is upwards of 6-7 MT
LAB/kg catalyst. This is based on a conversion of 10-13% at a LHSV of 20 to 23 h, a
pressure of 20 psig (1.4 kg/cm³) and a H2: HC mol ratio of 6:1.

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TPL has achieved normal catalyst life of 8-9 MT of LAB/kg catalyst. The
Pacol reactor temperature is increased periodically to maintain the design conversion at 10-
13%. This increment operation will be less frequent initially and more frequent during the
final stages of catalyst life. At a time during the final stages of temperature there is increased
catalyst deactivation resulting in low selectivity indicating that reactor changeover is due.
The double bond of the linear mono olefin is randomly distributed along the chain with less
than 5% in the alpha position.

9.3.2. Reactor outlet pressure:

The reactor outlet pressure is the main variable that has been used for
optimisation. The n-paraffin conversion to olefin is an equilibrium controlled reaction i.e by
lowering the reactor outlet pressure the selectivity can be increased for a fixed conversion or
more importantly the conversion can be increased at a fixed selectivity. Higher conversion
reduces catalyst life but results in lesser recirculation of recycle paraffin, saving lot of energy
costs. Thus the design pressure is chosen as a balance between the catalyst cost and energy
saving cost. Once fixed, the designed pressure is not varied during the operation. In our case,
the reactor outlet pressure is optimized at 1.4 kg/cm² [20 psig].

9.3.3. Liquid hourly space velocity:

Liquid Hourly Space Velocity [LHSV] indicates the volume of feed stock
charged to the reactor per volume of catalyst in the reactor in an hour. The conversion could
be controlled by varying the LHSV, but it is inconvenient to change the unit throughput.
Better selectivities can be obtained by varying reactor temperature at constant LHSV. For the
optimum conversion / selectivity combination, therefore, the combined feed to the catalyst
should be maintained at the design LHSV (26 h¹).

9.3.4. Hydrogen to hydrocarbon mole ratio:

The hydrogen to hydrocarbon mole ratio is defined as the ratio of the

moles of hydrogen in the recycle gas to the moles of hydro- carbon in the combined feed. The
decreased H/HC ratio at a constant pressure lowers the hydrogen partial pressure which
favours higher conversion at a constant temperature. Additionally, it decreases the
compressor load thus saving on utility costs. The disadvantage of a low ratio (lower hydrogen
partial pressure) is that the rate of catalyst coke formation increases, shortening the catalyst
life. The design ratio normally selected is 6:1 for DEH-15 and 8:3 for DEH-5 and it is
normally held constant over the course of the run. Optimization of the H/HC ratio is
frequently done by balancing the loss in catalyst life and the cost of compressor utilities.
During normal operations, it will be maintained at the designed value.

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9.3.5. Water Injection:

De-ionized water is added to the combined feed upstream of the reactor

in order to stabilize catalyst activity. The recommended injection rate is sent to maintain 4000
wt-ppm water in the combined feed [liquid plus gas). Non optimum water decreases the yield
of mono olefins and increases the yield of light ends. Below 4000 ppm H2O, the catalyst
platinum function is inhibited so that at operating conditions, cracking occurs and with it,
additional coke formation. Above 4000 ppm H20, the result is the same but the reason is
because the H2O competes with the n-paraffin's for active catalyst sites. To maintain the
same conversion with fewer active sites, the reactor temperature must be raised, thus
increasing the rate of coke formation and shortening the catalyst life. This is an important
operating variable. The amount of water injected is varied from 7 to 11 lit/h, during the
catalyst cycle time. The injection rate is adjusted periodically to maintain 0.4-0.5 mole % of
moisture in the recycle hydrogen gas.

9.3.6. Feed:

The Pacol feed is limited to a four carbon number range of paraffin's. Either C10 -C13
or C11 – 14 paraffin's would be acceptable whereas C10 -C14 would not, as C14 conversion
would be high and C10 conversion would be low.
Increasing the reactor temperature to give acceptable Cis conversion rates would
further increase the C14 conversion and might cause cracking of the heavier paraffin's. By
liming the carbon range cracking of the heaviest paraffin and conversion of the lightest
paraffin can be maintained without excess side reaction of the heaviest paraffin.
Additionally more than a four carbon number spread would make the Detergent
Alkylate unit's paraffin column split [between the heaviest paraffin and the lightest alkyl
benzene] more difficult, requiring a larger column and higher reflux.
Thus we see that of the various process variables, the reactor temperature and
water injection are the only operating parameters varied during the life of the catalyst to get a
good performance. All other process variables are maintained at the designed/optimized
variables.

9.4. PROCESS VARIABLES FOR DEFINE UNIT:

The process variables influencing the Define unit operation are as follows:

1. Pressure

2. LHSV

3. Temperature

4. Hydrogen to Di olefin ratio

5. Sulfide injection rate

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9.4.1. Pressure:

The define unit pressure is selected so as to ensure that the hydrocarbon remains
in the liquid phase and that the hydrogen remains in solution in the Define reactor. The
system pressure is controlled by the discharge pressure of Compressor.

9.4.2. LHSV:

The LHSV across the Define reactor is defined as the volumetric ratio of feed
rate charged per unit volume of the Define catalyst. The design LHSV to define reactor is
about 5.0. The Pacol unit is typically always operated at design or higher LHSV

9.4.3. Temperature:

The reaction temperature is selected so as to offer the optimum reaction rates

for di-olefin conversion. At design LHSV the reactor temperature is held constant at about
200°C.

9.4.4. H2 to Olefin Ratio:

Hydrogen is the limiting reactant in the Define reaction system. With all the
other conditions held constant selectivity to mono olefin decreases with increasing
conversion. The position along this conversion/selectivity curve is determined by the amount
of hydrogen that is charged to the reactor, expressed as the mole ratio of feed hydrogen to
diolefins.

Hydrogen/Di olefin molar ratio:

Feed hydrogen [moles]

Feed di olefins [moles]

Hydrogen /di olefin ratio of 1.35 will result in about 90% di olefin conversion
with 50% selectivity mono olefin. The liquid from the Pacol separator contains dissolved
hydrogen amounting to approximately 0.3 hydrogen/di olefin ratio. Thus, the Hydrogen/di
olefin ratio in the Define feed will be on the order of 0.3 units higher than calculated from the
hydrogen addition rate. The hydrogen addition rate should be fine-tuned to give the desired di
olefin conversion.

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9.4.5. Mercaptan:

If the freshly reduced define catalyst exhibits a sub-standard conversion of

less than 50% at di olefin conversion of 90% or lower, inject n-butyl mercaptan into the
Define feed at the rate of 5 wt% ppm of sulfur. Continue the NBM injection till selectivity to
mono olefins ceases to improve. The impact of Define on LAB production efficiency is
measured by the relative consumption of n-paraffin's and benzene across the Pacol-Detergent
Alkylate processing units per unit of LAB with and without Define.

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11. PLANT START UP AND SHUT DOWN PROCEDURE

11.1. NORMAL START UP:

This assumes the following conditions:

1. The unit is mechanically completed as checked with P&I diagram

2. The heat exchangers, columns, drums erected are pressure tested [ either in the shop or

that site]

3. The reactor circuit is air dried and sulphided

4. The reactors are loaded with catalysts

5. The alumina treaters loaded and kept ready

6. The Paraffin Drier is loaded and kept ready 7. The compressor system is ready for
operation

8. The fired heaters are ready and dried out

9. All the pipe lines have already been hydrotested, water flushed and air dried 10. 10.All the
instrument items and PSVs have been tested and 11. 11.The whole unit is leak tested with air
or nitrogen at

12. Design pressure and found intact.

13. Now check for the following:

14. Make sure that the utilities such as service water, steam, plant air, nitrogen, instrument air
and CW are available.

15. Fire water line checked and commissioned and extinguishers are in position.

16. OPWS and CW return sewers are in service. 17. ETP is ready to receive the liquid
effluent.

18. The flare header is in service and pilot [8" or 20"] flame is on ready to receive any

gaseous effluent.

19. Ensure that all vents and drain points of pumps and equipments are closed. The pump

suction strainers are provided with fine mesh screens.

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The actual start up is divided into three steps:

 Air freeing of the system.

 Establish start up circulation.

 Feed cutting into the Pacol reactor and lining the unit and under normal operation.

11.1.1 Air Freeing of the System:

The main purpose of evacuation and purging is to avoid the formation of

explosive mixtures inside the columns and equipments. It is very important that no air leaks
into the system during evacuation as purpose of evacuation and purging is nullified.

11.1.2. Establishing start up circulation:

In briefing it consists of first bypassing Pacol, alky reactors and alumina treaters
establishing a short circulation of paraffin through Feed drum, contact condenser, stripper,
paraffin column accumulator in that order. Then the alumina treaters are filled then stripper,
HF stripper, benzene and paraffin column are warmed up and the long circulation of paraffin
bypassing the Pacol, alky reactors through feed drum, condenser, stripper, columns in
alkylation unit is established.

11.2. SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES:

In brief:

 reduce the Pacol reactor temp to 400°C

 slowly reduce the fresh paraffin make up to zero
 wash off all the olefins from the Pacol reactor, contact condenser, Define reactor and
Pacol
 stripper to alkylation section
 bypass the Pacol reactor and Define reactor
 continue recycle gas flow at 370 °C for two hours to flush off all the hydrocarbons in
the
 reactor.
 reduce the Pacol reactor inlet temp at a rate of 50 °C/h and put off the charge heater
 completely until the reactor temp is 100°C
 continue the recycle gas flow circulation through reactor till the reactor outlet and
compressor discharge temperature are equal. -then stop P1402 A/B/C, P1404 A/B &
P1405 A/B

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MATERIAL
BALANCE

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12. MATERIAL BALANCE

12.1. BASIS:

Here the feed quantity have been taken as the basis,

It’s 100m -3/h. Therefore in Kg, 100*730 = 73000 kg/hr.

The basis in mole composition is 73000/ molecular weight, 73000/154 = 474.025 kmol/hr.

12.2. FEED SURGE DRUM:

Inlet for feed surge drum comes from three different units,

One from MOLEX unit,

Another one from Alumina treater,

Another one bought from outside.

Since the density varies from 730 – 750 kg/m3.

From the MOLEX unit we take 62m3, therefore the feed is 62*730 = 45260 kg/hr

It should be converted into kmol/hr, 45260/molecular weight = 45260/154

= 293.89 kmol/hr

From the alumina treater we take 27m3, therefore the feed is 27*730 = 19710 kg/hr
= 19710 / 154
= 127.98 kmol/hr

From outside feed is 11m3, therefore the feed is 11*730 = 8030 kg/hr
= 8030 / 154
= 52.14 kmol/hr
127.98 kmol/hr

293.89 kmol/hr FEED SURGE DRUM 474.023 kmol/hr

52.14 kmol/hr

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12.3. COMBINED FEED EXCHANGER

Inside the feed exchanger, along with the paraffin it’s necessary to give the hydrogen. The
hydrogen has to more than 6 times the paraffin feed.

In the industry the feed given is 67.25*103 m3

The feed of hydrogen in litre is 67.25*106 litres

At standard condition mole of gas occupies 22.4 litres

Therefore 67.25*106 litres occupies 67.25*106/ 22.4 = 3002232.143 moles.

Which is approximately = 3002 kmol.

Hence the feed is 3002 + 474.025

Since it’s a heat exchanger the total input = total output = ( 3002 + 474.025 )

Input Quantity:
Table 12.3.1.

COMPONENT QUANTITY (kmol/hr) QUANTITY (kg/hr)

PARAFFIN 474.025 72999.85

HYDROGEN 3002 6004

TOTAL 3476.025 79003.85

Output Quality:
Table 12.3.2.

COMPONENT QUANTITY (kmol/hr) QUANTITY (kg/hr)

PARAFFIN 474.025 72999.85

HYDROGEN 3002 6004

TOTAL 3476.025 79003.85

3476.025 kmol/hr
474.025 kmol/hr CFE
3002 kmol/hr

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12.4. REACTOR :
This is because the condition set is to produce or yield maximum desired product,
to increase the selectivity.
This 12% conversion takes place here in the paraffin by decreasing the partial
pressure of hydrogen, this cause the hydrogen molecules present in the paraffin to escape to
balance the pressure maintained. This occurs in presence of platinum catalysts.
By the conversion %, the total converted amount is 474.025*0.12 = 56.883 kmol/hr

Input Component :
Table 12.4.1.

COMPONENT QUANTITY (kmol/hr) QUANTITY (kg/hr)

PARAFFIN 474.025 72999.85

HYDROGEN 3002 6004

TOTAL 3476.025 79003.85

PRODUCTS:
Table 12.4.2.
CONVERTED CONVEERTED SELECTIVITY INDIVIDUAL
COMPONENT PERCENTAGE AMOUNT PERCENTAGE AMOUNT
kmol/hr kmol/hr
Mono-olefins 12 56.883 90 51.1947

Di-olefins 12 56.883 4 2.27532

Aromatics 12 56.883 0.5 0.284415

Cracked 12 56.883 0.4 0.227532

Hydrogen 12 56.883 5.1 2.901

Total 56.883

Therefore the total conversion is 56.883 kmol/hr

Then the unconverted is 474.025 – 56.883 = 417.142 kmol/hr

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The sample calculation is,

For mono – olefins, 90% selectivity: 56.883*0.9 = 51.1947 kmol/hr
Here the input hydrogen quantity remains constant and it is added up by the product
hydrogen (2.901)
Hence total output = [ 3002 (hydrogen in) + 2.901 ( pro hydrogen ) + 417.142 ( unconverted
paraffin ) + 51.1947 ( unconverted mono ) + 2.27532 ( DO ) + 0.284415 ( aromatics ) +
0.227532 ( cracked ) ] = 3476.025 kmol/hr.
i.e. Input = Output

REACTOR

Mono – olefin = 51.1947 kmol/hr

CATALYST Di – olefin = 2.27 kmol/hr
Paraffin = 417.142 kmol/hr
Hydrogen = 3002 kmol/hr
Input = 3476.025 kmol/hr

COMPONENT QUANTITY kmol/hr

Paraffin 417.142

Hydrogen 3002 + 2.901

Mono - Olefin 51.1947

Di - Olefin 2.27532

Aromatics 0.284415

Cracked 0.227532

Total 3476.025

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12.5. PRODUCT SEPARATOR:

Input from reactor = 3476.02 kmol/hr
( 3002 + 474.025 )
Twice the amount of hydrocarbon is fed as reflux into separator = 2*471.123967
The total amount is from reactor and reflux fed is the input = 3476.025 + 942.25
( 2*471.123967 )
The output is hydrogen and hydrocarbon
Hydrogen output = 3002 + 2.091 = 3004.901 kmol/hr
Hydrocarbon output is = 1413.174 kmol/hr
Since twice the product outlet is taken as the reflux, 942.23kmol/hr is routed to the separator
again,
Therefore the output taken outside is 1413.174 – 942.25 kmol/hr
The output hydrocarbon is 471.123967 kmol/hr.

Input Component:
Table 12.5.1.
COMPONENT QUANTITY (kmol/hr)

Paraffin 417.142

Hydrogen 3002 + 2.901

Mono - olefins 51.1947

Di - olefins 2.27532

Aromatics 0.284415

Cracked 0.227532

Reflux 9942.025

TOTAL 3476.025

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Hydrogen = 3004.901kmol/hr

Hydrocarbon = 471.13kmol/hr SEPARATOR

Hydrogen = 3004.901kmol/hr

Reflux = 942.25kmol/hr

Total paraffin = 1413.174kmol/hr

Output Component :
Table 12.5.2.

COMPONENT QUANTITY (kmol/hr)

Hydrocarbon 471.13

Hydrogen 3002 + 2.901

Total 3476.025

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12.6. DEFINE REACTOR:

Inside the define reactor, hydrogenation reaction takes place.
Input to the reactor is hydrogen and paraffin,
Hydrogen input is 3.1kmol/hr, 70m3
Hydrocarbon input is 471.123967kmol/hr
The output is 474.0223967kmol/hr
Conversion of Di – olefin is 90%
Selectivity is 50%
Di-olefin is fed into reactor at 2.3546kmol/hr = 2.3546*0.9 = 2.11914kmol/hr
90% conversion of Di-olefin is converted into 50% of mono-olefin and 50% of paraffin
Mono-olefin = 0.5*2.11914 = 1.05957kmol/hr
Paraffin = 0.5*2.11914 = 1.05957kmol/hr

Table 12.6.1.

COMPONENT INPUT (kmol/hr) OUTPUT (kmol/hr)

PARAFFIN 417.142 417.142

MONO - OLEFIN 51.1947 51.1947

AROMATICS 0.284415 0.284415

DI – OLEFIN 2.11914 0

CRACKED 0.227532 0.227532

HYDROGEN 3.1 3.1

CONVERTED
MONO-OLEFIN 0 Mono-olefin = 1.05957
& Paraffin = 1.05957
PARAFFIN
TOTAL 474.06 474.06

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Paraffin = 418.20157kmol/hr
Mono – olefin = 52.25427kmol/hr

DEFINE
REACTOR

Paraffin = 417.13kmol/hr
Mono – olefin = 51.1947kmol/hr
Di – olefin = 2.3546kmol/hr

12.7. STRIPPER:
Input to the stripper is 474.02kmol/hr
Due to high temperature the hydrogen, cracked, aromatics are removed from the top and
bottom contains paraffin and mono – olefins.

Aromatics = 0.204kmol/hr
Cracked = 0.227kmol/hr
Hydrogen = 2.7kmol/hr
STRIPPER

INPUT = 473.58kmol/hr Paraffin = 418.20157kmol/hr

Mono – olefin = 52.25427kmol/hr

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Table 12.7.1.

COMPONENT INPUT TOP BOTTOM

kmol/hr kmol/hr Kmol/hr

PARAFFIN 418.20157 0 418.2015

MONO – OLEFIN 52.2542 0 52.25427

AROMATICS 0.2047788 0.204 0

CRACKED 0.227532 0.227 0

HYDROGEN 2.7 2.7 0

473.58 3.131 470.449

TOTAL 473.58 473.58

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ENERGY
BALANCE

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13. ENERGY BALANCE

13.1. COMBINED FEED EXCHANGER

The Hot fluid is the product + H2.
Total fluid weight = 78543.864 kg
Mass flow rate of H2 = 5990.768 kg
Mass flow rate of product = 72553.096 kg
Mass fraction of H2 = 5990.768 / 78543.864 = 0.0761
Mass flow rate of product = 72553.096 / 78543.864 = 0.924
Cp value are same as the coolant,
Cp of the mixture = (0.076*14.5) + (0.924*2.66) = 3.56 kJ/kg K.
The heat transferred Qout = m* Cp* ∆T
= 78543.864* 3.56* ( 456 – 200 )
= 147916946.439 kJ/hr
= 41088.04 kW

INPUT ENERGY:

COMPONENT MASS FRACTION SPECIFIC HEAT ENERGY IN kW

kJ/kgK
Paraffin 72553.096 2.66
41088.04 kW
Hydrogen 5990.768 14.5

TOTAL 41088.04 kW

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The Coolant is the combined feed of H2 and paraffin.

The mass fraction of H2 = 5985 / (5985 + 73000) = 0.075 = m1
The mass fraction of paraffin = 73000 / (73000 + 5985) = 0.925 = m2
Here the total flow rate is 7895 kg/h
Mass flow rate of hydrogen = 5985 kg/h
Mass flow rate of paraffin = 73000 kg/h
Cp value of the mixer is obtained by the following formula = ( m1 * Cp1 ) + ( m2 * Cp2 )
= ( 0.075 * 14.5 ) + (0.925 * 2.66)
= 3.548 kJ / kgK
Cp value of hydrogen = 14.5 kJ / kgK
Cp value of paraffin = 2.66 kJ / kgK
Therefore the heat transferred Qin = 78985 * 3.548 * ( 420 – 200 )
= 137846201.7 kJ/h
= 38290.61 kW

OUTPUT ENERGY:

COMPONENT MASS FRACTION SPECIFIC HEAT ENERGY IN kW

kJ / kg.K

Paraffin 73000 2.66

38290.61 kW
Hydrogen 5985 14.5

TOTAL 38290.61 kW

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13.2. CHARGE HEATER:

HOTOIL:
Mass flow rate = 44355kg/h
Specific heat capacity Cp = 2.09 kJ/kg.K
Temperature difference,∆T = 550 – 420 = 130 ℃
= 403K
Heat transferred Q = m* Cp* ∆T
= 44355*2.09*403
= 37358885.85 = 10377.46kW

INPUT ENERGY:

COMPONENT QUNATITY kg/hr SPECIFIC HEAT TOTAL ENERGY

(kJ/kgK) kW
Fuel oil 44355 2.09 10377.46

OUTPUT:
Total mass flow rate = 78985 kg/h
Specific heat capacity Cp = 2.09 kJ/kg.K
Temperature difference,∆T = 480 – 403
= 77 ℃ = 350K
Heat transferred Q = m* Cp* ∆T + mλ
= (78985*3.54*350) + (78985*156.58)
= 97862415 + 12367471.3
= 110229886.3 kg/h
= 30619.4 kW
OUTPUT ENERGY:

COMPONENT MASS FRACTION SPECIFIC HEAT TOTAL ENERGY

kg/hr (kJ/kgK) kW
Paraffin
78985 3.54 30619.4
Hydrogen

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13.3. REACTOR:
Input energy for reactor = Qin
Reference temperature = 298 K = 25℃
Input temperature = 745K = 472℃

INPUT ENERGY:

COMPONENT MASS SPECIFIC TEMPERATURE HEAT

FLOW HEAT DIFFERENECE TRANSFERRED
RATE
(kg/hr) (kJ/kg K) (K) ( kW )

Paraffin 83742.9 3.49 745 217735727.145

H2

TOTAL HEAT INPUT Qin 60482.14

OUTPUT ENERGY:
Output temperature = 731K = 458℃, Reference temperature = 298 K = 25℃

Component Mass flow rate Specific heat Temperature Heat

( kg/hr ) capacity difference Transferred
kJ/kg K (K) ( kW )

Mono-olefin 8300.18 2.66 433 2655.55

Di-olefin 364.267 2.69 433 117.86

Aromatics 30.15 0.031 433 0.1124

Cracked 22.75 0.028 433 0.077

Paraffin 68458.38 2.66 433 21902.5

H2 5990.57 14.5 433 10227.72

HEAT OUTPUT, Qout 35215.49

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THE HEAT OF FORMATION OF REACTION:

Input Components:

COMPONENTS MASS FLOW HEAT OF ∆H REACTANT

RATE FORMATION ( kW )
( kg/h ) ( kJ/h )

Decane 11604.24 -1759.15 -5670.44

Undecane 2208.76 -1733.97 -10610.33

Dodecane 26707.1 -1712 -12700.71

Tridecane 15180.12 -1805.97 -7615.23

Tetradecane 2237.43 -1678.00 -1042.891

TOTAL -37639.62

OUTPUT COMPONENTS:

Components Mass flow rate Heat of formation ∆H product in kW

(kg/h) ( kJ/kg )
Decane 1236.2 -890.66 -305.84
Undecane 2348.5 -151819 -990.41
Dodecane 2850.96 -982.15 -777.8
Tridecane 1623.44 -1022.53 -461.12
Tetradecane 241.08 -1054.59 -70.63
Decadiene 54.096 -110.80 -1.665
Undecadiene 103.056 -585.53 -16.77
Dodecadiene 125.164 -1315.67 -45.74
Tridecadiene 71.28 -84.01 -1.66
Tetradecadiene 10.67 -419.74 -1.25
Cracking 22.75 -1879.514 -11.88
Aromatics 30.15 126.26 1.36
TOTAL -36005.99

The heat of reaction = heat of formation of reaction – heat of formation of product

= -36005.99 + 37639.62
= 1633.63 kW

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Qin + ∆H reaction = Qout + ∆Hreleased

36457.99 + 1633.63 = 352159.93 + ∆Hreleased
∆Hreleased = 2876.14 kW
The reaction is Endothermic reaction.

13.4. CONTACT CONDENSER:

DATA TABLE:

COMPONENT SPECIFIC HEAT MASS FLOW RATE

kJ/kg.K kg/hr
Mono-olefins 2.66 2348.2
Di-olefins 2.69 1623.4
Aromatics 0.031 1236.2
Cracked 0.028 241.08
Paraffins 2.66 2848.2

The condenser has a heat exchanger and fin fan cooler to separate the hydrogen from the
hydrocarbon by reducing the temperature and increasing the contact between the hot and cold
fluids.
Heat Exchanger:
Heat flow from hot fluid = m*Cp*∆T + mλ
= 771750.726*2.66*(165 – 142) + 237583.95
= 61002663.57 kJ/h
= 16945.184 kW
Considering, the balance is adiabatic conditions,
M = 37000 kg/h
Cp = 2.47 kJ/kgK
Qhot = Qcold
4721610.917 = 3700*2.47*∆T
∆T = 51.66℃. ( 324.66K )
Fin fan Cooler:
∆T = 140 – 50
= 90℃
= 363 K

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Q = m*Cp*∆T
= 77175.726*2.66*363
= 74518636.5 kJ/h
= 20699.62 kW
= 20.69 MW

13.5 STRIPPER:
FIN FAN CONDENSER:
Cracked products and hydrogen are removed from the distillation column at the top. That is
through the condenser present.
The power supplied to it is 50 kW
53.83 kg of hydrogen and 20.48kg of cracked products are removed.
Total flow rate = 74.31 kg/h
Q = m*Cp* ∆T
Q = [(20.48*2.24) + (53.83*14.5)]*(185 – 60 )
= 28.7 kW
Efficiency of Condenser = output / input
= 28.7/50
= 0.58
The efficiency of condenser is 58%

REBOILER:
Energy input:
Qout = m*Cp*∆T
M = 44335 kg/h
Cp = 2.09 kJ/kg.K
∆T = 50℃
Q = 44335*2.09*50
= 4633007.5 kJ/h
= 1286.95 kW

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ENERGY INPUT:

Component Mass flow Specific heat ∆T℃ Energy, kW

(kg/h) kJ/kg.K

Hot oil 44335 2.09 50 1286.95

Energy gained:
Qin = m*Cp*∆T
M = 72567.266 kJ/h (hydrocarbons)
Cp = 2.66 kJ/kg.
∆T = 280 – 256 = 24℃
Q = 72567.266*2.66*24
= 4632723.6 kJ/h
= 1286.87 kW

ENERGY GAINED:

Component Mass flow Specific heat ∆T℃ Energy, kW

(kg/h) kJ/kg.K

Hydrocarbon 72567.266 2.66 24 1286.87

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13.6. DEFINE REACTOR:

Reference temperature = 25℃
Input temperature = 210℃

INPUT COMPONENTS:

Component Flow rate ( kg/h ) Specific heat Temperature Difference Heat transferred
(kJ/kg.K) ∆T K (kW)
Mono-olefin 8300.18 2.66 1134.59
Di-olefin 364.27 2.69 50.36
Aromatics 30.15 2.24 0.05
Cracked 22.75 1.72 483 K 2.01
Paraffins 64239.868 2.66 8781.24
Hydrogen 6.23 14.5 4.65
TOTAL 9972.9

OUTPUT COMPONENT:

Component Flow rate (kg/h) Specific heat Heat transferred

(kJ/kg.K) (kW)
Mono-olefin 8246.59 2.66 1310.06
Aromatics 21.706 2.24 2.91
Cracked 22.75 1.72 2.34
Paraffin 64239.868 2.66 10205.22
Hydrogen 5.38 14.5 4.66
TOTAL 11525.18

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ENTHALPY OF INPUT COMPONENTS:

Component Flow rate in kg/hr ∆H formation in Heat transferred

kJ/kg kW
Decadiene 54.096 -110.7971 -1.67
Undecadiene 103.056 -585.53 -16.76
Dodecadiene 125.164 -1315.67 -45.74
Tridecadiene 71.28 -84.01 -1.66
Tetradecadiene 10.67 -419.74 -1.24
Aromatics 30.15 162.26 1.36
Hydrogen 6.23 0 0
TOTAL -65.72

ENTHALPY OF OUTPUT:

Component Flow rate in kg/hr ∆H formation in Heat transferred

kJ/kg kW
Decadiene 57.43 -890.66 -14.21
Undecadiene 108.1 -1518.19 -45.55
Dodecadiene 131.132 -982.14 -35.78
Tridecadiene 74.65 -1022.53 -21.2
Tetradecadiene 11.1 -1054.59 -3.244
Aromatics 21.71 162.26 0.99
Hydrogen 5.38 0 0
TOTAL -119.007

∆H reaction = ∆H products - ∆H reactant

= -119.007 + 65.72
= - 53.29 kW
Qin + ∆H reaction = Qout + ∆H released
9972.88 – 53.29 = 11525.18 + ∆H released
∆H released = -1605.59 kW
Hence the Reaction is EXOTHERMIC, Hydrogenation takes place.

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DESIGN
OF
EQUIPMENTS

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14. DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS

14.1. HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN

Heat Exchanger Design Data:

PROPERTIES UNITS HOT FLUID COLD FLUID

( Shell side ) ( Tube side )
Fluid ---
n-paraffin Recycle paraffin
Fluid flow rate kg/hr
85512 37388
Temperature ℃
(in/out) 165/142 102/158
Specific heat kJ/kg.K
capacity 2.66 2.47

Viscosity Centipoise 0.35 0.45

Pressure Drop
allowable Kpa 1.10*103 1.6*103
Thermal W/m℃
conductivity 0.1104 0.116

specific gravity of n-paraffin and recycle are specified temperature is 0.648 & 0.694.
14.1.1. : Heat Duty of the Heat Exchanger

Using the hot fluid, n-paraffin

Q = mh * Cp * ∆Th
∆Th = Tin – Tout
= 165 – 142 = 23℃

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Mh = 23.75 kg/s
Q = 23.75 * 2.66 * 23
= 1453.23 kW
14.1.2. Driving Force:

∆Tm = FT * LMTD
Log Mean Temperature Difference = (∆T1 - ∆T2)/ln(∆T1 /∆T2)
165 142

158 102

∆T1 = 7 ∆T2 = 40
LMTD = (7 – 40)/ ln (7/40)
= 18.93℃

14.1.3. LMTD Correction factor:

Since it’s a temperature cross, we have multiple no. of shell passes,

From temperature of hot and cold fluid, we got 3 no. of passes, it’s recommended if the pass
is more than 2, we increase the no. of exchanger.
For the better performance, we take 2 shell passes in a single exchanger.
Hence, for this type FT value is 0.64 (low value) and 0.875
We consider the value to be 0.875
FT = 0.875
No. of. Shell passes = 2
No. of. Tube passes = 6
Fluid allowable:
Hot fluid is in shell side (n-paraffin)
Cold fluid is in tube side (recycle paraffin)
14.1.4. Trial heat transfer area:

Assume
U0 = 350 W/m ℃
A0 = Q / (U0*∆Tm)

= 1453.23*103 / (350*0.875*18.93) = 250.67 m2.

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14.1.5. No. of. Tubes:

NT = Trial area / Surface area of single tube

Surface area of single tube = ∏*D0*Le
Tube specification is 20mm OD* 16mm ID* 6880mm Length and it’s 25mm square pitch
Equivalent length Le = L – 2(ts)
= 6880 – 2(0.025)
= 6.83 m
Surface area of single tube = 3.14*0.02*6.83
= 0.44m2
NT = 250.67 / 0.44
= 580
From the table:
The shell diameter is found to be 787.4mm
B = Ds

14.1.6. Film coefficient along the tube side (hi):

From the Nusselt number :
For non – viscous fluid,
(Di*hi/k) = 0.023*Re0.8 * Pr0.33 * (µ/µw)0.14
Since the fluid is non – viscous
(µ/µw)0.14 = 1
Re = Di * Gt / µ
Gt = mc / At
At = (∏ * ID2 * NT ) / (4*Np)
= (3.14 * 0.0162* 580 ) / (4*6)
= 0.019 m2
Mc = 1453.23 / (2.47*(158 – 102))
= 10.50 kg/s
Gt = 10.50 / 0.019
= 552.63 kg/m2 s
Re = 0.016*552.63/(0.45*10-3) = 19649.06

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Pr = Cp*µ/k
= 2.47*0.45/0.116
= 9.58
(0.016*hi / 0.116 ) = 0.023*(19649.06)0.8*(9.58)0.33
Film coefficient hi = 956.3 W/m2℃
Therefore hi0 = 956.3*16/20 W/ m2℃
= 765.04 W/ m2℃

14.1.7. Film coefficient transfer along the shell side (h0):

( De*h0/k ) = 0.36*Re0.55* Pr0.33*( µ/µw)0.14
De = 4(Pt2 – ( ∏/4) Do2)/( ∏*D0)
= 4(0.0252 – (0.785*0.022))/(3.14*0.02)
= 0.0197 m
Shell side, Re = De*Gs/µ
Gt = mh / As
As = DsB/Pt
= 0.78742*0.005/0.025
= 0.124m2
Since we have two shell pass, divide the area by 2, so the value is
As = 0.124/2
= 0.062m2
Gs = 23.75/0.062
= 383.0645 kg/m2s
Re = 0.0197*383.0645/(0.35*10-3)
= 21561.05
Pr = 0.35*2.66/0.1104
= 8.43
Hence, h0 = 0.36*21561.050.55*8.430.33*1*0.11/0.0197
= 982.3596

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14.1.8. Tube wall resistance:

Rw = (D0/2kw) ln(D0/ Di)

= (0.02/2*50) ln(20/16)
= 4.46*10-5 m2 ℃ / W
Since both the fluid are non-fouling, assume the overall fouling resistance as
Rd0 + Rdi = 1.76*10-4 m2 ℃ / W
The overall heat transfer coefficient is U0

U0 = { hi0-1 + h0-1 + Rw + Rdi }-1

= { 765.04-1 + 982.3596-1 + (4.46*10-5) + (1.76*10-4)}-1
= 392.8 W/m2℃
14.1.9. Heat transfer area required:

Ar = Q / (U0* ∆Tm)
= 1453.23*1000/(39208*0.875*18.93)
= 223.35 m2
Heat transfer area available:
Av = ∏*D0*Le*NT
= 3.14 * 0.02 * 580 * 6.83
= 250 m2
Excess of area = (250 – 223.35) / 223.35
= 11.9%
14.1.10. Pressure drop along tube side

∆PT = [ (f Gt2 Le Np)/(2*106*ID*S*Ø) + (2.5*Np*S*V2) ]

Ø = 1 for non-viscous fluid
F = 0.72 Re-0.33
= 0.72 (19649.06)-0.33
= 0.0275
V = Gt / ρ
= 552.63 / 694
= 0.796 m/s

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∆PT = [ ((0.0275*552.632*6.83*6)/(2*106*0.016*0.694*1)) + (2.5*6*0.7962*0.694)]

= 22.206 kpa
14.1.11. Pressure drop in shell side:

∆Ps = [ (f G 2s Ds(Nb + 1)) / (2*106*De*S*Øs)]

Øs = 1 for non – viscous fluid,
F = 1.87(21561.05)-0.2
= 0.254
Nb = Le / B
= 6.83 / 0.7874
= 8.7376
∆Ps = ( 0.254*383.06452*0.7874(8.7376+1)) / (2*1060.0197*0.648*1)
= 11.48 kpa
Both the pressure drop are within the allowable value, hence the Design is safe.

NOTE: However Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger is the most widely used Heat
Exchanger Equipment in process industries.
14.1.12. Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger are the most widely used in process industries reliable deign
methods are available for this exchanger. Unit can be designed to suit almost any application.
It is usually the type which can be considered for large surface areas having pressure greater
than 30 bar and temperature greater than 260℃. It is robust and its shape makes it well suited
to pressure operation.
ADVANTAGES:
 The configuration gives a large surface area in a small volume, easily cleaned, good
mechanical layout, a good shape for pressure operation.
 Uses well established fabrication techniques can be constructed from wide range of
material
Fixed Tube Heat Exchanger:
 Simplest form of shell and tube unit
 Both the tubes sheets are fixed to the shell
 Application limited to maximum temperature differential of 600℃ outside of tube
impossible to clean.
 Shell side fluid should be non-fouling.

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Advantages of fixed tube heat exchanger:

 Exchanger can handle fouling fluids on the tube side generally allow configuration
with odd or multiple tube passes.
 Exchanger has fewer joints.
 No internal joints thus eliminating a potential source of leakage of one fluid into the
other.
 Minimum capital expense is involved.
 Offers the maximum protection against leakage of the shell side fluid to the
environment.
 More tubes can be accommodated in a shell of given inside diameter. It results in
minimum shell diameter.
Disadvantages of fixed tube heat exchanger:
 Subject to thermal stresses if the temperature profile in the tubes and shell are not
matched.
 Expensive expansion joints may be required.
 The shell side is restricted to clean fluids.
 Tube bundle cannot be removed cutting the shell.

DESIGN SUMMARY:
Heat Duty of Heat exchanger 1453.23 kW

Area required for heat transfer 250.67m2

LMTD 18.93℃

Number of tubes 580

Number of passes on tube side 6

Number of passes on shell side 2

Heat transfer coefficient ( tube side ) 765.04 W/m2℃

Heat transfer coefficient ( shell side ) 982.35 W/m2℃

Pressure drop tube side, ∆PT 22.206 kpa

Pressure drop shell side, ∆Ps 11.48 kpa

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14.2. DISTILLATION COLUMN

The purpose of the distillation column is separate the binary mixture of Paraffin and Mono-
olefins, since the separation of this binary compound mixture requires a distillation column
with less than 25 trays, so we can use McCabe Thiele method.
To solve using McCabe Thiele method we need Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium data
(VLE).
Vapour Pressure of olefin = 0.015 mmHg
Vapour Pressure of Paraffin = 0.00343mmHg

Relative volatility (α) = Vapour Pressure of Less volatile liquid

Vapour Pressure of Less volatile liquid

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α = 0.015 / 0.00343
= 4.37

We know, y = α x / 1 + (α-1) x
where x is the mole fraction in liquid phase
y is the mole fraction in vapour phase

COMPONENT FEED OVERHEAD BOTTOM

(kmol/h) (kmol/h) (kmol/h)

nC4 0.44 3.37 2.4*10-11

nC5 0.53 6.42 1.7*10-8

nC6 0.60 10.11 3.7*10-6

nC7 0.98 19.73 0.0014

nC8 0.89 16.87 0.13

nC9 5.11 8.44 4.79

nC10 94.80 0.61 95.48

nC11 155.02 0.00042 156.17

nC12 111.21 1.5*10-5 112.03

nC13 35.54 2.4*10-5 35.80

nC14 2.03 8*10-12 2.05

Paraffin 11.90 11.2*10-5 3.95

Assume the values of x,

x 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

y 0.32 0.52 0.65 0.74 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.94 0.97 1

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Thus, the VLE Data

Feed flow rate (F) = 419.05 kmol/hr

Distillate flow rate (D) = 65.55 kmol/hr
Residue flow rate (W) = 410.40 kmol/hr
Since the final product that we obtain after distillation has a purity of 95%
Then

xD = 0.95
xW = 1- xD
= 1 – 0.95
xW = 0.05
xF = (D/F) * 100
= (419.05 / 65.55) * 100
xF = 1.5
Rmin = (xD - xF) / (xF – xw)
yF value can be found out from the VLE Graph,

Rmin = (0.95 – 0.15) / (0.15 – 0.05)

Rmin = 0.8
Reflux ratio (RAct) = 3* Rmin
= 3*0.8
= 2.4
Intercept Point = xD / (Ract+1)
= 0.95 / (2.4+1)
= 0.279
Therefore, from the VLE graph, we can find the number of plates.
From graph,

Theoretical Number of Trays (N)= 11

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Let us assume the tray efficiency to be 50% to find the actual number of trays

Actual number of trays (NAct) = N / Tray efficiency

= 11 / 0.55
= 22 Trays

Area of the column

Vapour flow rate at top(V) = D(R+1)
= 65.55 (2.4+1)
= 222.87 kmol/hr

Considering Ideal Gas Conditions to find volume of the vapour

We know PV = nRT
V = nRT / P
V = 222.87 * 0.0821 * 293 / 1 * 3600
= 1.48 m3/s

Let us assume vapour velocity as 0.5 m/s

Area of the Column

A = Volume of vapour / Vapour velocity
= 1.48 / 0.5
= 2.96 m2

Diameter of the Column

D = √A * 4 / π
= √2.96 * 4 /3.14
= 2.19 m

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Height of the Column

Usual tray spacing will be around 0.6m to 0.8m
Let us assume tray spacing as 0.6 m
H = (N-1) * Tray spacing + 2*Tray spacing
= (22-1) * 0.6 + (2*0.6)
= 13.8 m
≈ 14 m

Design Summary:

PARAMETER VALUE
Number of trays 22
Column diameter 2.19m
Column height 14 m
Feed flow rate 419.06 kmol/hr
Distillate flow rate 65.55 kmol/hr
Bottom Residue flow rate 410.40 kmol/hr
Reflux ratio 3
Feed tray 4
Tray spacing 0.6m

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SAFETY
ASPECTS

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16. EFFECTS ON HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENT

16.1. HUMAN EFFECT:

The alpha olefins have been tested and indicate low toxicity concerns for acute
oral, dermal and inhalation exposure. These materials are slightly irritating to the skin and
eyes of rabbits. In repeated dose studies 1-tetradecene have shown comparable levels of low
toxicity to female rats (alterations in body and organ weights and changes in certain
hematological values) at the higher doses tested (>1000 ppm inhalation) and male rat -
specific kidney damage that is likely associated with the alpha olefins. Based on screening
level testing, they appear not to be neurotoxic (for 1-tetradecene), produce no adverse effects
on reproduction or fetal development (1-tetradecene), and are not genotoxic (all of the alpha
olefins). As a result, all the above tested endpoints indicate a low hazard potential for human
health.

16.2 ENVIRONMENT:

The potential for exposure of aquatic organisms to C10 C14 alpha olefins will be influenced
by their physicochemical properties. The predicted or measured water solubilities of these
alpha olefins range from 50 mg/L at 20°C for 1-decene to 0.0004 mg/L at 25°C for 1 -
tetradecent, which suggests there is a lower potential for exposure to the higher alpha olefins
due to their low solubility. Their vapor pressures range from 140 mmHg at 20°C for 1-decene
to 0.015 mmHg at 25°C for 1-tetradecene, which suggests the lower alpha olefins will tend to
partition to the air at a significant rate and not remain in the other environmental
compartments for longer periods of time. Several acute aquatic toxicity studies show that 1-
decene has LC/EC50 values below their respective water solubility values. Chronic aquatic
toxicity may occur for all of the alpha olefins except 1-tetradecene (predicted 30 day fish
toxicity values range from 0.5 to 0.004 mg/L for 1-hexene and 1-dodecene, respectively). A
better understanding of whether these materials are released to water and at what quantities
will determine the need to perform chronic aquatic toxicity testing.

16.3. BIODEGRADABILITY:

Biodegradation data confirm that the C6-C14 alpha olefins degrades in soil and water.

They are also expected to degrade in the atmosphere at a rapid rate based on their
atmospheric oxidation potentials. Consideration of these degradation processes supports the
assessment that these substances will degrade relatively rapidly in the environment and not
persist.

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16.4 EXPOSURE:
C6-C14 Alpha-olefins are major industrial products, which are primarily used
as intermediates in the production of the other chemicals and polymers. Other emerging uses
are as components of some drilling fluids and as potential replacements for certain
hydrocarbon solvents. Occupational exposures are most likely by the inhalation and dermal
routes. Inhalation exposures from industrial manufacture and commercial use are generally
considered to be minimal (less than 1 ppm) under normal working conditions. The lower
alkenes are minor components of gasoline, or are produced incidentally in combustion of
gasoline and polymers, so their presence has been detected in urban air. Such levels were
reported to be in the ppb range with a maximum reported value of 0.1 ppm. These alkenes
also occur in natural products, although no quantitative values have been reported.

Non-occupational human exposure to alpha olefins is not expected since the

compounds are used as industrial intermediates. Atmospheric emissions of alpha olefins from
manufacturing are expected to be small and to result primarily from fugitive emission sources
originating from compromised hardware (i.e. faulty seals prior to repair) used in production
and storage. On-site waste treatment processes are expected to remove these compounds from
aqueous waste streams to the extent that they will not be detectable in effluent discharge.
Alpha Olefins will not persist in the environment because they can be rapidly degraded
through biotic and abiotic processes. Therefore, environmental exposure to the environment
is expected to be minimal.

16.5 Category Discussion:

Melting point, vapor pressure, and water solubility decrease with increasing
chain length while boiling point, octane no- and water partition coefficients increase with
increasing chain length. Measured and predicted acute aquatic toxicity data indicate that 1-
decene exhibit acute effects to aquatic organisms at levels at or below their water solubility,
whereas 1-dodecene and 1-tetradecene are not likely to be acutely toxic, probably because
they cannot achieve a high enough water concentration to produce acute effects below their
water solubility. Data presented relative the health effect endpoints of the C10-C14 alpha
olefins indicate no differences among the five category members for acute toxicity, repeat
dose toxicity, genotoxicity and reproductive/developmental toxicity.

HANDLING AND STORAGE:

The regulations relating to storage premises apply to workshop where the product is handled
Handle in accordance with good hygiene and safety procedures. Avoid contact
Handling: with eyes, skin, and clothing Wash thoroughly after handling Keep away from
source of ignition. Tank cars, Tank trucks
Storage: Store in original closed containers in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area. This product
is non-corrosive Carbon steel, Baked epoxy, Phenolic resin coatings or Aluminium Drums is
suitable. Store separately from all combustible, organic and oxidizable materials.
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Other information: Detergent intermediate.

EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION:
Ventilation: Local exhaust or mechanical ventilation; the recent method is necessary if the
workshop temperature is high.
Personal protective equipment:
Eye protection: Chemical goggles or face shield
Respiratory protection: Air-purifying or air-supplied equipment depending on
concentration.
Hand protection: Rubber gloves or other similar impervious material to prevent repeated
contact.
Skin and body protection: Dependent upon degree of potential exposure, additional
personal protective equipment may be required, for example chemical boots and full
protective clothing.
Flash point: 120-140 ℃.
Explosive properties: None
Boiling point/Boiling range: 278-314 ℃ at1013 KPa
Environmental exposure controls: Highly biodegradable (95% or greater)

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PLANT
LAYOUT

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17. PLANT LOCATION:

The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the overall profitability of a project,and
the scope for future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable
plant site.
The principles factors are:
1. Location, with respect to the marketing area
2. Raw material supply.
3. Transport facilities.
4. Availability of labor.
5. Availability of suitable land.
6. Environmental impact and effluent disposal.
7. Local community consideration.
8. Climate,
9. Political and strategic consideration.

17.1 PLANT LAYOUT:

The economic construction and operation of a process unit will depend on how
well the plant equipment specified on the process flow sheet and laid out. The principle
factors to be considered:
Economic consideration: construction and operation cost.
1. The process requirement.
2. Convenience of operation.
3. Safety
4. Future expansion.
5. Modular construction.

17.2 COST:
The cost of construction can be maintained by adopting a layout that gives shortest run of
connecting pipes between equipment, and adopting the least amount of structural steel work.
However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.

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17.3 PROCESS REQUIREMENT:

All the required equipment's have to be placed properly within process.
Even the installation of the auxiliaries should be done in such a way that it'll occupy the least
space. The plant has to be closely located to the raw material resources.

17.4 OPERATION:
As the plant handles toxic and inflammable materials the operation should
be carried out with full safety precautions Equipment that needs to have frequent operation
should be located convenient to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments
should be located at convenient position and height. Sufficient working space and headroom
must be provided to allow easy access to equipment.

17.5. MAINTENANCE:
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tubes bundles can be easily
withdrawn for deaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of
catalysts or packing should be located on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires
dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be under cover.

17.6. RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY:

The location of the raw materials of an industry contributes more towards
the choice of plant site than any other factor. This is especially noticeable in those industries
in which the raw materials is inexpensive and bulky and is made more compact and obtains a
high bulk value

17.7. MARKETS AND TRANSPORTATION:

The existence of transportation facilities has given rise to many of the
greatest trade centers of the world. A location should be chosen, if possible which has several
competition will help to maintain low rates and given better services.

17.8. POWER AND FUEL SUPPLY:

The fuel best plan is to locate near larger coal field if coal is the primary
fuel or to tie up by long term contracts sufficient gas/oil to ensure the continuity of operation
over a long term.

17.9. WATER SUPPLY:

Water for industrial purposes can be obtained from two general sources,
the plants own sources or principle supply if the demands for water are large. It is more

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economical for the industry to supply its own water such a supply may be obtained from
drilled rivers, lakes, damned streams before a company enters up on any project, it must
ensure itself of as sufficient supply of water for all industrial Sanitary and fire demands both
present and fire Water nature quality is as diverse as the sites and regions from which it is.
Water temperature and chemical characteristic such as organic and inorganic contaminants,
the relative prices are of greatest economic importance in determining the value of water to
the chemical industry. The relative importance of each of these depends upon the service for
which the water is wanted.

17.10. LABOR:
Before locating any particular location a careful study of the supply of
available labor must be made. Factors to be considered in labor studies are supply. Kind,
diversity, intelligence, wage scale, regulations, efficiency and costs.
The layout will bed one by the (unit areas) concept method which is particularly well
adopted to large plant layout. Unite areas are often delineated by means of distant process
phase and operational producers by reasons of contamination and by satisfy consideration
requirement. Thus the delineation of the shape and extent of a unite area and of interrelation
ships of each area in a master plot plan is one of the first take of layout planning.

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PLANT
ECONOMICS

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18. COST ESTIMATION

Economics plays an important role in any industry. The very purpose of an

investor is to put his capital into some venture so that he can earn a lot. Hence an economic
analysis play of any project is inevitable. In most consideration, in the selection of the
alternative between equipment or process or anything. final decision is made by making an
economics. The process that has no commercial feasibility has no significance and hence
chemical engineers should have a thorough knowledge of fundamental economics. Since the
cost of the equipment is not accurately known, it is usually estimated by various methods
from the available data like the use of the cost indicates and the Williamson 6/10th factor by
which the cost of equipment can be related to its size or capacity.
Since the exact determined of cost of equipment and various expenditures are difficult and
never perfect, we must use of the various pervious data available. In this project we have tried
to take care of various principles and steps involved in the economics analysis of a chemical
plant.

The land costs, electrical costs, instrumentation costs, building costs, piping costs, steel
structure, service, building, construction expense, contact fee contingency etc., were
calculated from the empirical relations given in terms of Purchased Equipment Cost (PEC),
given in Peter and Timmerhaus.

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18.1. EQUIPMENT COST AND ESTIMATION:

Equipment cost:

SI.NO NAME OF THE NO OF THE COST OF TOTAL COST

EQUIPMENT EQUIPMENT THE (Crores)
EQUIPMENT
(Crores)
1. Pre-treater 2 1 2
2. Storage drum 1 0.2 0.2
3. CFE 1 0.5 0.5
4. Furnace 1 2 2
5. Main reactor 2 5 10
6. Separator 1 0.4 0.4
7. Distillation 1 15 15
8. Reactor 1 2 2
9. Compressor house 1 2 2
10. Heat exchanger 6 0.1 0.6
11. Pump house 1 2 2
12. Re-boiler 1 0.15 0.15
13. Fin fan cooler 2 0.02 0.04

Most of the equipment costs are put taking in to considering pre-vailing our country and the
efforts are made to make an excellent theoretical economics cost analysis.

Total = 36.89Cr
Take 40% excess purchased Equipment Cost
(PEC) = 51.646 (36.89 + 14.756)
40% of 36.89Cr = 14.756Cr.

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18.2. DIRECT COSTS:

Material and labor involved in actual installation of complete facility
Equipment + installation + instrumentation + piping + electrical + insulation + painting (50%
- 60% of fixed capital investment).
Purchased equipment cost (PEC) = 51.646Cr
Installation, including insulation and painting (40% of PEC) = 14.756Cr
Instrumentation and controls, installed (20% of PEC) = 10.3292Cr
Piping , installed (50% of PEC) = 25.823Cr
Electrical, installed (30% of PEC) = 15.4938Cr
Buildings process and auxiliary (60% of PEC) = 30.9876Cr
Service facilities and yard improvements (70% of PEC) = 36.1522Cr
Land (8% of PEC) = 4.13168Cr
TOTAL DIRECT COSTS = 189.31948Cr

18.3. INDIRECT COSTS:

Expenses which are not directly involved with material and labor of actual
installation are called indirect costs.
Engineering and supervision (20% of PEC) = 10.3292Cr
Construction expense & contractor fee (15% PEC) = 7.7469Cr
Contingency (10% of PEC) = 5.1646Cr
Total indirect costs = 23.2407Cr
Fixed capital investment = Direct costs + Indirect costs = 212.56018Cr
Working capital (15% of fixed capital investment ) = 212.56018*0.15
= 31.884027Cr
Total Capital Investment = Fixed capital investment + working capital
= 244.44421Cr
18.4. MOBILIZATION OF FUNDS:
Share – 15% = 36.666315Cr
Loan bonds – 10% = 24.44421Cr
Bank and other borrowings – 20% = 48.888842Cr
Own – 55% = 134.4443155Cr

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18.5 FIXED CHARGES:

Depreciation (5% of Fixed Capital Investment) = 15.14 Cr.
Local Taxes (2.5 % of Fixed Capital Investment) = 7.57 Cr.
Insurance (0.6 % Fixed Capital Investment) = 1.817 Cr.
Plant overhead cost (0.8% Fixed Capital Investment) = 2.42 Cr.
(include cost for the general plant up keep and overhead pay roll, packing, medical services,
safety and protection, restaurant, recreations, salvage, laboratories and storage facilities)
Fixed charges = 26.947 Cr.

General Expenses:
Administrative costs (2% of Total Product Cost) = 90.99Cr.
(Include costs for executives' salaries, legal fees, office supplies and communications)
Distribution and selling costs (4% of Total Product Costs) = 181.98 Cr.
(Include costs of Salesman, shipping and advertising)
Research and Development Costs (2% of Total Product Costs) = 90.99 Cr.
Financial Interest (8% of borrowed Capital) = 14.667 Cr.
General Expenses = 378.63 Cr.

18.6 VARIABLE COSTS:

Catalyst costs = 0.5 Cr/yr.
Here the paraffin is obtained from molex unit & bought from outside and recycled.
Total amount of paraffin is 73000kg/hr. For one kg = Rs.74
Hence the total cost = 74 * 73000 * 24 * 335 = 4343.21 Cr.
Total raw material costs (4343.21 +0.5) = 4343.71 Cr.

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18.7 LABOUR:
Sl.no Post Number of persons Salary unit (Rs.) Salary (Rs.)
1 CEO 1 1,25,000 1,25,000
2 GM 1 1,00,000 1,00,000
3 Plant manager 1 60,000 60,000
4 Maintenance manager 1 50,000 50,000
5 OC&RD Manager 1 50,000 50,000
6 Personal manager 1 40,000 40,000
7 Account manager 1 40,000 40,000
8 Supply and distribution 1 40,000 40,000
manager
9 Plant assistance 2 30,000 60,000
manager
10 Maintenance engineer 5 25,000 1,25,000
11 chemist 12 8,000 96,000
12 Steno & typist 4 5,000 20,000
13 Shift incharge 5 20,000 1,00,000
14 Shift engineer 7 18,000 1,26,000
15 Plant operator 11 10,000 1,21,000
16 security 5 4,000 20,000

Total = Rs.11,73,000/month
Annual cost = Rs. 1.4076 Cr.
Take bonus as the one month salary = Rs 11,73,000
So total = Rs. 1.5249 Cr.

18.8 ELECTRICITY:
ELECTRICITY FOR ADMINISTRATIVE BLOCK:
It is calculated and it comes out to be 110kWhr
Take 1kWhr = Rs. 8
For a day = 110 * 24
= 2640kWhr.

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Annual cost = 2640*365*8

= Rs.0.771 Cr.
ELECTRICITY FOR PLANT:
It comes to 10053.62 HP = 7500kWh.
For a day = 7500*24
= 180000kWhr.
Annual Costs = 180000 * 8 * 335
= Rs. 48.24 Cr.
18.9 NET PROFIT:
Product @ Rs. 78/kg
Total income = 78 * 335 * 72548.06
= Rs. 4831.31 Cr.
Gross profit = total income – (variable cost + wages + electricity cost)
= 4831.31 – (4343.71 + 1.53 + 49.011) = 437.08 Cr.
Tax = 437.08 * 0.24 = 104.9 Cr.
Net profit = 437.08 – 104.9
= 332.18 Cr.

18.10 PAYBACK PERIOD:

Payback period = total investment / net profit
= 348.219 / 332.18
= 1.04 years (13 months)

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MATERIAL
SAFETY
AND
DATA
SHEET

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19. MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET

19.1 IDENTIFICATION OF THE SUBSTANCE/PREPARATION AND THE
COMPANY/UNDERTAKING:

Identification of the substance or preparation: Linear alkyl benzene

Country of origin: India, Tamil Nadu
CAS Number: 67774-74-7
Synonyms: Linear Alkyl Benzene/LAB
Company Name: Tamil Nadu Petro Products limited.
Use of the product: An intermediate that used as surfactant in producing of detergents

19.2. COMPOSITION/INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS:

Hazardous substances: It is dangerous for environment also high toxic for aquatic organisms.
Hazardous label(s): Very toxic to aquatic organisms.
Toxicological characteristics: It is dangerous for environment also high toxic for aquatic.

19.3 ACUTE TOXICITY:

Oral: LD50: ›5000 mg/kg (rats)

Dermal: LD50: ›2000 mg/kg rats)
Inhalation: LC50: ›1.82 mg/l (rats)

IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDS
Risk phrases: Very toxic to aquatic organisms.
Skin contact: Rabbits: Negligible to slight irritation
Eye contact: Negligible irritant properties
Inhalation LCSO: ›1.82 mg/l (rats)

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19.4 FIRST AID MEASURES:

As a general rule, in case of doubt or if symptoms persist, always call a
doctor NEVER induce swallowing in an unconscious person.
19.4.1 GENERAL ADVICE:
Immediate Medical Attention Is Required After Inhalation Or After Swallowing.
In case of health troubles or doubts, seek medical advice immediately and show this Material
Safety Data Sheet.
19.4.2 Inhalation:
Remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is Difficult, give
oxygen. Get medical attention immediately,
19.4.3 Skin contact:
Wash skin with water upon contact. Remove contaminated clothing. If irritation Persists, get
medical attention. Wash clothing before reuse.
19.4.4 Eye contact:
In case of contact, immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Get
medical attention.
19.4.5 Swallowing:
If swallowed, do NOT induce vomiting. Get medical attention. Never give anything by
Mouth to an unconscious person
19.5. FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES

Flammable class: Flammable.

Special exposure of hazards arising from the substance or preparation itself, combustion
products, resulting gases.
Special protective equipment for firefighting needed.
Toxic fumes of carbon oxides produced on combustion.
Fire extinguishing from maximum distance or use hose holder or monitor nozzle.
After fire is extinguished, use cooling water over the hot containers.
Suitable extinguishing media:
Foam, Dry chemical powder, CO₂
Cool containers with water spray.

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Extinguishing media to be avoided: Water.

Caution about specific danger in case of fire and fire-fighting
Procedures Do not empty into drains. When burning, it emits carbon monoxide,
Carbon-dioxide and irritant fumes. Containers with the substance exposed to excessive heat
may explode. Wear full protective fire-resistant clothing and self-contained breathing
apparatus.

19.6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES:

Personal precautions:
Respiration: air-purifying or air-supplied equipment depending on concentration.
Environmental precautions: Dike flow of spilled material using soil or sandbags to minimize
contamination of drains, surface and ground waters. If LAB has flowed into drains, ponds or
sewage systems, inform appropriate authority.
Cleaning up and disposal: Wastes must be incinerated under controlled conditions or
disposed under ground by the regulations.

19.7. HANDLING AND STORAGE:

The regulations relating to storage premises apply to workshop where the product is handled:
Handling: Handle in accordance with good hygiene and safety procedures. Avoid contact
with eyes, skin and clothing Wash thoroughly after handling. Keep away from source of
ignition, Tank cars, Tank trucks Store in original closed containers in a cool, dry, well-
ventilated area. This product is non-corrosive Carbon steel, Baked epoxy, Phenolic resin
coatings or Aluminum Drams is suitable.
Storage: Store separately from all combustible, organic and oxidizable materials.
Other information: Detergent intermediate.

19.8 EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION:

Ventilation: Local exhaut or mechanical ventilation; the recent method is necessary if
the workshop temperature is high.
Personal protective equipment
Eye protection: Chemical goggles or face shield
Respiratory protection: Air-purifying or air-supplied equipment depending on
concentration
Hand protection: Rubber gloves or other similar impervious material to prevent
repeated contact

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Skin and body protection: Dependent upon degree of potential exposure,

additional personal protective equipment may be required. for example chemical boots
and full protective clothing
Health measures: Boiling point/Boiling range: 278-314 Cat1013 Kpa.
Flash point: 120-140 ℃
Explosive properties: None
Environmental exposure controls: Highly biodegradable (95% or greater)

19.9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:

General information: Detergent intermediate
Appearance(at Oily liquid Colourless Odourless
20°C)
Colour Not instant
Boiling point/range(℃) 275°C-314°C
Flash point (℃) 120°C-140°C
Flammability Flammable.
Auto-ignition temperature: Not available
Explosive properties: None
Oxidising properties: Not available
Vapour pressure(at 20°C): 0.01 mmHg
Specific Gravity: 0.86

Solubility (at 20°C):

water solubility Insoluble
Solability in fats: Soluble
Viscosity (40°C). 5-10 cps at 20°C
Evaporation rate: Not available
Other information: None
19.10. STABILITY AND REACTIVITY:
Reactivity Highly reactive
Condition to Avoid Not Available
Material to Avoid Not Available
Hazardous product CO2 on Combustion.

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19.12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION:

Eco toxicity: It is dangerous for ecosystem and toxic to aquatic.

Bio accumulative potential: Lepomis macrochirus: BCF=35 (measured)
Persistence and degradability:
Aerobic biodegradation: LAB biodegrades readily:
OECD 301 F: biodegradation of 64% after 28 days
OECD 301 B: biodegradation of 67% (measured by CO2 evolution) after 28 days
Standard River Die-away Test: concentrations of 100-500 ppb - primary degradation >90%
and a half-life of 4-15 days: Trickling filter and activated sludge plants: Average %
removals→ 69% to >98% Anaerobic bio degradation: Biodegradation of >70%
Other adverse effects: LAB biodegrades readily. It is toxic to Daphnia, shows no adverse
effects in fish and Algae. LAB has low solubility in water (0.041 mg/l).
19.13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS:
Disposal of product: Disposal is to be performed in compliance with all government
regulations. Do not dispose of via sinks or into immediate environment
Disposal of packaging: Since empty contaminated containers contain product residue, follow
all hazards warnings and precautions even after container.

19.14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION:

Land transport:
Class/Packaging group: 9/111
Hazard ID No.: 90
UN No: 3082
Proper Shipping name: Environmentally hazardous substance, liquid, nos (Benzene,
C10-13Alkylderivatives)
Maritime transport:

Marine Pollutant: Yes

UN No. 3082
Class/Packaging group: 9/111
Proper shipping name: Environmentally hazardous substance, liquid, n.o.s (Benzene,
C10-13-Alkylderivatives)

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Air transport:
UN No. 3082
Class/Packaging group: 9/111
Proper shipping name: Environmentally hazardous substance, liquid, no's (Benzene, C10-
13-Alkylderivatives)

19.15. REGULATORY INFORMATION:

Hazardous label(s): Very toxic to aquatic organisms

Safety phrases: S57 - Use appropriate containment to avoid environmental contamination

S61 Avoid release to the environment. Refer to special instructions/Safety

datasheet.

Risk phrases: R.50 - Very toxic to aquatic organisms.

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CONCLUSION

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CONCLUSION

The Olefins are produced by catalytic dehydrogenation of n- Paraffins as

designed by Universal Oil Products. The process of production from normal paraffin's
discussed with detailed process description. The material balance and energy balance of the
PACOL unit is performed.

The Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger and a Centrifugal Pump in the PACOL unit,
is designed. The process layout and material safety data sheet were also explained. It is only
process that produces less by-products and that can also be easily recovered by define. The
applications of the olefins are analysed and their effects on human and environment are
analysed.

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REFERENCE
COMPANY:
TAMILNADU Petro Products Limited, Manali – Chennai.

BOOKS:
1. Perry’s “Chemical Engineering Handbook” 6th Edition by Robert H. Perry & Don
Green.
2. “Process Equipment Design” by M.V.Joshi, 2nd Edition.
3. “Plant Design & Economics for chemical engineers” 3rd edition by Max peters &
Timmerhaus.
4. “Heat transfer” by M.Necati Ozisik 3rd edition.
5. “Encyclopedia of chemical engineering technologies” by Krik – othmer ( Vol 3).
6. “Riegel” Handbook of industrial chemistry.
7. Coulson J.M. and Richardson, J.F., “Chemical engineering”, Volume – VI Pergamon
press, 1977.
8. Bhatt. B.I and Vohra, S.M., “Stoichiometry”, 4th edition. Tata McGraw Hill
Publishers Ltd., 2005.
9. Margarat wells, “Handbook or petrochemical and processes”, 2nd edition.
10. J.M Coulson and J.F. Richardson, “Chemical Engineering”, volume 6, butter worth
Heinemann, New Delhi, 2000.

WEBSITES:
1. www.cpchem.com
2. En.wikipedia.org/wiki/linear_alpha_olefins.com
3. www.infotherm.com
4. www.NIST.com
5. www.chemeo.com
6. www.uop.com

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